Mathematical Olympiad Math Olympiad Tutorials

Tutorials in Elementary Mathematics for Math Olympiad Students
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Tutorials in Algebra, Number Theory, Combinatorics and

Geometry
The aim of this section is, in the series of tutorials, to cover the material of the unwritten
syllabus of the IMO, more precisely that part of it which is not in the school curriculum of
most participating countries.
Algebra
Rearrangement Inequality This article by K. Wu, Andy Liu was first published in
"Mathematics Competitions" Vol. 8, No.1 (1995), pp. 53--60. This journal is
published by Australian Mathematics Trust. The article is reproduced here thanks
to the kind permission of the authors and the Editor of "Mathematics
Competitions" Warren Atkins.
Combinatorics
Interactive Graph Theory Tutorials By Chris K. Caldwell from the University of
Tenessee at Martin.
Permutations.
Friendship Theorem.
Numbers
Divisibility and primes
Euclidean algorithm
Euler's theorem
Representation of numbers
Bertrand's postulate.
Geometry
Ptolemy's inequality
Euler's theorem
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Tutorials in Elementary Mathematics for Math Olympiad Students
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Syllabus of the IMO
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Unwritten Syllabus of the IMO

These thoughts were written in 1997, when I was working on the Problem Selection
Committee of the 38th IMO in Argentina and when my impressions about the problems,
which were submitted, and the attitude of our Committee to these problems were still
fresh. I edited them very little since.
The syllabus of IMO is, of course, unwritten but there are several tendencies which can
be clearly observed. It is all ruled by tradition, there is no logic in all this whatsoever.
Some topics are included, alhtough they are not in the school curricula for most
countries, on the grounds that they are traditional and feature in the training
programmes of most countries.
What is not Included

Any questions where knowledge of Calculus may be an advantage, e.g. most of
the inequalities;
Complex numbers (although they were in the past, when less countries
participated);
Inversion in geometry (the Jury just sick and tired of it for some reason);
Solid geometry was also present in the past. There are coordinated attempts to
return it into the IMO but the resistance is strong;
After being a darling of the Jury for some time, Pell's equation seems to be
strongly out of favour.
What is included
Fundamental Theorems on Arithmetic and Algebra, factorization of a polynomial
into a product of irreducible polynomials;
Symmetric polynomials of several variables, Vieta's theorem;
Linear and quadratic Diophantine equations, including the Pell's equation (although
see the comment above);
Arithmetic of residues modulo n, Fermat's and Euler's theorems;
Properties of the orthocentre, Euler's line, nine-point-circle, Simson line, Ptolemy's
inequality, Ceva and Menelaus etc.;
Interesting situation is with the graph theory. It is sort of considered to be all
known and virtually disappeared from submissions to IMO. But watch this space!.
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Syllabus of the IMO
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THE REARRANGEMENT INEQUALITY

K. Wu
South China Normal University, China
Andy Liu
University of Alberta, Canada
We will introduce our subject via an example, taken from a Chinese competition in 1978.
Ten people queue up before a tap to fill their buckets. Each bucket requires a different time to
fill. In what order should the people queue up so as to minimize their combined waiting time?
Common sense suggests that they queue up in ascending order of bucket-filling time. Let us
see if our intuition leads us astray. We will denote by T1 < T2 < < T10 the times required to fill
the respective buckets.
If the people queue up in the order suggested, their combined waiting time will be given by
T = 10T1 + 9T2 + + T10 . For a different queueing order, the combined waiting time will be
S = 10S1 + 9S2 + + S10 , where (S1 , S2 , . . . , S10 ) is a permutation of (T1 , T2 , . . . , T10 ).
The two 10-tuples being different, there is a smallest index i for which Si 6= Ti . Then Sj = Ti < Si
0
for some j > i. Define Si0 = Sj , Sj0 = Si and Sk0 = Sk for k 6= i, j. Let S 0 = 10S10 + 9S20 + + S10
.
Then
S S 0 = (11 i)(Si Si0 ) + (11 j)(Sj Sj0 ) = (Si Sj )(j i) > 0.
Hence the switching results in a lower combined waiting time.
0
) 6= (T1 , T2 , . . . , T10 ), this switching process can be repeated again. We will
If (S10 , S20 , . . . , S10
reach (T1 , T2 , . . . , T10 ) in at most 9 steps. Since the combined waiting time is reduced in each step,
T is indeed the minimum combined waiting time.
We can generalize this example to the following result.

The Rearrangement Inequality.
Let a1 a2 an and b1 b2 bn be real numbers. For any permutation (a01 , a02 , . . . , a0n )
of (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ), we have
a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn a01 b1 + a02 b2 + + a0n bn
an b1 + an1 b2 + + a1 bn ,
with equality if and only if (a01 , a02 , . . . , a0n ) is equal to (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) or (an , an1 , . . . , a1 ) respectively.
This can be proved by the switching process used in the introductory example. See for instance
[1] or [2], which contain more general results. Note that unlike many inequalities, we do not require
the numbers involved to be positive.
Corollary 1.
Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be real numbers and (a01 , a02 , . . . , a0n ) be a permutation of (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ). Then
a21 + a22 + + a2n a1 a01 + a2 a02 + + an a0n .
Corollary 2.
Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be positive numbers and (a01 , a02 , . . . , a0n ) be a permutation of (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ). Then
a01 a02
a0
+
+ + n n.
a1 a2
an
A 1935 K
urschak problem in Hungary asked for the proof of Corollary 2, and a 1940 Moscow
Olympiad problem asked for the proof of the special case (a01 , a02 , . . . , a0n ) = (a2 , a3 , . . . , an , a1 ).
We now illustrate the power of the Rearrangement Inequality by giving simple solutions to a
number of competition problems.
Example 1. (International Mathematical Olympiad, 1975)
Let x1 x2 xn and y1 y2 yn be real numbers. Let (z1 , z2 , , zn ) be a
permutation of (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ). Prove that
(x1 y1 )2 + (x2 y2 )2 + + (xn yn )2 (x1 z1 )2 + (x2 z2 )2 + + (xn zn )2 .
Solution:
Note that we have y12 + y22 + + yn2 = z12 + z22 + + zn2 . After expansion and simplification, the
desired inequality is equivalent to
x1 y1 + x2 y2 + + xn yn x1 z1 + x2 z2 + + xn zn ,
which follows from the Rearrangement Inequality.
Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be distinct positive integers. Prove that
a1 a2
an
1 1
1
+ 2 ++ 2 + ++ .
2
1
2
n
1 2
n
Solution:
Let (a01 , a02 , . . . , a0n ) be the permutation of (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) such that a01 a02 a0n . Then a0i i
for 1 i n. By the Rearrangement Inequality,
a1 a2
an
a01 a02
a0n
+
+
+
+
+
12 22
n2
12 2 2
n2
1
2
n
2 + 2 ++ 2
1
2
n
1 1
1
+ ++ .
1 2
n
Let a, b and c be the sides of a triangle. Prove that
a2 (b + c a) + b2 (c + a b) + c2 (a + b c) 3abc.
Solution:
We may assume that a b c. We first prove that c(a + b c) b(c + a b) a(b + c a). Note
that c(a + b c) b(c + a b) = (b c)(b + c a) 0. The second inequality can be proved in the
same manner. By the Rearrangement Inequality, we have
a2 (b + c a) + b2 (c + a b) + c2 (a + b c) ba(b + c a) + cb(c + a b) + ac(a + b c),
a2 (b + c a) + b2 (c + a b) + c2 (a + b c) ca(b + c a) + ab(c + a b) + bc(a + b c).
Adding these two inequalities, the right side simplifies to 6abc. The desired inequality now follows.
Let a, b and c be the sides of a triangle. Prove that a2 b(a b) + b2 c(b c) + c2 a(c a) 0.
Solution:
We may assume that a b, c. If a b c, we have a(b + c a) b(c + a b) c(a + b c) as in
Example 3. By the Rearrangement Inequality,
1
a(b + c a) +
c
1
a(b + c a) +
a
= a + b + c.
1
b(c + a b) +
a
1
b(c + a b) +
b
1
c(a + b c)
b
1
c(a + b c)
c
This simplifies to 1c a(b a) + a1 b(c b) + 1b c(a c) 0, which is equivalent to the desired inequality.
If a c b, then a(b + c a) c(a + b c) b(c + a b). All we have to do is interchange the
second and the third terms of the displayed lines above.
Simple as it sounds, the Rearrangement Inequality is a result of fundamental importance. We
shall derive from it many familiar and useful inequalities.
Example 5. The Arithmetic Mean Geometric Mean Inequality.
Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be positive numbers. Then
x1 + x2 + + xn
n x1 x2 xn ,
n
with equality if and only if x1 = x2 = = xn .
Proof:
x1
x1 x2
x1 x2 xn
Let G = n x1 x2 xn , a1 = , a2 =
, . . . , an =
= 1. By Corollary 2,
2
G
G
Gn
a1 a2
an
x1 x2
xn
n
+
++
=
+
++ ,
an a1
an1
G
G
G
which is equivalent to
x1 = x2 = = xn .
x1 + x2 + + xn
G. Equality holds if and only if a1 = a2 = = an , or
n
Example 6. The Geometric mean Harmonic Mean Inequality.

Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be positive numbers. Then
x1 x2 xn
1
x1
1
x2
n
++
1
xn
Proof:
Let G, a1 , a2 , . . . , an be as in Example 5. By Corollary 2,
n
a1 a2
an
G
G
G
+
++
=
+
++ ,
a2 a3
a1
x1 x2
xn
which is equivalent to
G
1
x1
1
x2
n
++
1
xn
Equality holds if and only if x1 = x2 = = xn .

Example 7. The Root Mean Square Arithmetic Mean Inequality.
Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be real numbers. Then
s
x21 + x22 + + x2n

x1 + x2 + + xn
,
n
n
Proof:
By Corollary 1, we have
x21 + x22 + + x2n
x21 + x22 + + x2n
2
2
x1 + x2 + + x2n
x1 x2 + x2 x3 + + xn x1 ,
x1 x3 + x2 x4 + + xn x2 ,
x1 xn + x2 x1 + + xn xn1 .
Adding these and x21 + x22 + + x2n = x21 + x22 + + x2n , we have
n(x21 + x22 + + x2n ) (x1 + x2 + + x2n )2 ,
which is equivalent to the desired result. Equality holds if and only if x1 = x2 = = xn .
Example 8. Cauchys Inequality.
Let a1 , a2 , . . . an , b1 , b2 , . . . , bn be real numbers. Then
(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn )2 (a21 + a22 + + a2n )(b21 + b22 + + b2n ),
with equality if and only if for some constant k, ai = kbi for 1 i n or bi = kai for 1 i n.
Proof:
If a1 q= a2 = = an = 0 or b1q= b2 = = bn = 0, the result is trivial. Otherwise, define
ai
S = a21 + a22 + + a2n and T = b21 + b22 + + b2n . Since both are non-zero, we may let xi =
S
bi
and xn+i =
for 1 i n. By Corollary 1,
T
a2 + a22 + + a2n b21 + b22 + + b2n
2 = 1
+
S2
T2
2
2
2
= x1 + x2 + + x2n
x1 xn+1 + x2 xn+2 + + xn x2n + xn+1 x1 + xn+2 x2 + + x2n xn
2(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn )
=
,
ST
which is equivalent to the desired result. Equality holds if and only if xi = xn+i for 1 i n, or
ai T = bi S for 1 i n.
We shall conclude this paper with two more examples whose solutions are left as exercises.
Example 9. (Chinese competition, 1984) Prove that
x21 x22
x2
+
+ + n x1 + x2 + + xn
x2 x3
x1
for all positive numbers x1 , x2 , . . . , xn .
Example 10. (Moscow Olympiad, 1963) Prove that
a
b
c
3
+
+
b+c c+a a+b

2
for all positive numbers a, b and c.
References:
1. G. Hardy, J. Littlewood and G. Polya, Inequalities, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
paperback edition, (1988) 260-299.
2. K. Wu, The Rearrangement Inequality, Chapter 8 in Lecture Notes in Mathematics Competitions and Enrichment for High Schools (in Chinese), ed. K. Wu et al., (1989) 8:1-8:25.
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Graph Theory Tutorials

Chris K. Caldwell (C) 1995
This is the home page for a series of short interactive tutorials introducing the
basic concepts of graph theory. There is not a great deal of theory here, we will
just teach you enough to wet your appetite for more!
Most of the pages of this tutorial require that you pass a quiz before continuing to the next page. So the
system can keep track of your progress you will need to register for each of these courses by pressing
the [REGISTER] button on the bottom of the first page of each tutorial. (You can use the same
username and password for each tutorial, but you will need to register separately for each course.)
Introduction to Graph Theory (6 pages)
Starting with three motivating problems, this tutorial introduces the definition of graph along
with the related terms: vertex (or node), edge (or arc), loop, degree, adjacent, path, circuit, planar,
connected and component. [Suggested prerequisites: none]
Euler Circuits and Paths
Beginning with the Knigsberg bridge problem we introduce the Euler paths. After presenting
Euler's theorem on when such paths and circuits exist, we then apply them to related problems
including pencil drawing and road inspection. [Suggested prerequisites: Introduction to Graph
Theory]
Coloring Problems (6 pages)
How many colors does it take to color a map so that no two countries that share a common border
have the same color? This question can be changed to "how many colors does it take to color a
planar graph?" In this tutorial we explain how to change the map to a graph and then how to
answer the question for a graph. [Suggested prerequisites: Introduction to Graph Theory]
Adjacency Matrices (Not yet available.)
How do we represent a graph on a computer? The most common solution to this question,
adjacency matrices, is presented along with several algorithms to find a shortest path...
[Suggested prerequisites: Introduction to Graph Theory]
Related Resources for these Tutorials:
Glossary of Graph Theory Terms

Partially Annotated Bibliography
Similar Systems
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Online Exercises
Other Graph Theory Resources on the Internet:
Graph drawing
J. Graph Algorithms & Applications
David Eppstein's graph theory publications
J. Spinrad research and problems on graph classes
Chris Caldwell [email protected]
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Combinatorics. Tutorial 1:
Permutations
As of late, permutations find their way into math olympiads more and
more often. The latest example is the Balkan Mathematics Olympiad 2001
where the following problem was suggested.
A cube of dimensions 333 is divided into 27 unit cells, each of
dimensions 1 1 1. One of the cells is empty, and all others are
filled with unit cubes which are, at random, labelled 1,2,...,26.
A legal move consists of a move of any of the unit cubes to its
neighbouring empty cell. Does there exist a finite sequence of
legal moves after which the unit cubes labelled k and 27 k
exchange their positions for all k = 1, 2, ..., 13? (Two cells are
said to be neighbours if they share a common face.)
This tutorial was written in responce to this event.
Definitions and Notation
We assume here that the reader is familiar with the concept of composition
of functions f and g, which is denoted here as f g. It is a well-known fact
that if f : A B is a function which is both one-to-one and onto then f
is invertible, i.e. there exists a function g : B A such that g f = idA
and f g = idB , where idA and idB are the identity mappings of A and B,
respectively. Note that we assume that in the composition f g the function
g acts first and f acts second: e.g., (f g)(b) = f (g(b)). There are, however,
many good books using the alternative convention, so it is always necessary
to check whether a particular author uses one or the other convention.
In what follows we will be concerned with invertible functions from a
finite set to itself. For convenience, we assume that the elements of the set
are the numbers 1, 2, . . . , n (the elements of any finite set can be labelled
with the first few integers, so this does not restrict generality).
Definition 1. Let n be a positive integer. A permutation of degree n is a
function f : {1, 2, . . . , n} {1, 2, . . . , n} which is one-to-one and onto.
Since a function is specified if we indicate what the image of each element

is, we can specify a permutation by listing each element together with its
image as follows:

1
2
3
n1
n
=
.
(1) (2) (3) (n 1) (n)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
is the permutation of degree 7
For example =
2 5 3 1 7 6 4
which maps 1 to 2, 2 to 5, 3 to 3, 4 to 1, 5 to 7, 6 to 6, and 7 to 4. It is clear
that in the second row of such an array all the numbers of the top row must
appear exactly once, i.e. the second row is just a rearrangement of the top
row.
It is also clear that there are exactly n! permutations of degree n (if you
want to fill the bottom row of such an array, there are n ways to fill the first
position, n 1 ways to fill the second position (since we must not repeat
the first entry), etc., leading to a total of n(n 1) . . . 2 1 = n! different
possibilities).
Calculations with Permutations
The composition of two permutations of degree n is again a permutation of

degree n (exercise: prove that if f : A A and g : A A are one-to-one
then f g is one-to-one; prove that if f : A A and g : A A are onto
then f g is onto).
First of all we practice the use of our symbolism for the calculation of the
composition of two permutations. This is best done with a few examples.
In the sequel, we omit the symbol for function composition (), and speak
of the product of two permutations and , meaning the composition
.
Example 1. Let

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
=
,
4 6 1 3 8 5 7 2
Then

=
1 2 3 4 5
4 6 1 3 8

1
=
6

=
6 7 8
5 7 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 4 5 6 1 8 3 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 4 5 6 1 8 3 7

2 3 4 5 6 7 8
,
3 8 5 4 2 1 7
2

.

=
1 2 3 4 5
2 4 5 6 1

1
=
6
6 7 8
8 3 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4 6 1 3 8 5 7 2

2 3 4 5 6 7 8
.
8 2 5 7 1 3 4
Explanation: the calculation of requires us to find
the image of 1 when we apply first , then , (1 7 2 7 6, so write

the 6 under the 1),
the 3 under the 2),
etc.
The calculation of requires us to find
the 6 under the 1)
the image of 1 when we apply first , then , (2 6 8, so write
the 8 under the 2)
etc.
..
.
All this is easily done at a glance and can be written down immediately;
BUT be careful to start with the right hand factor again!
Important note 1: the example shows clearly that 6= ; so we have

to be very careful about the order of the factors in a product of permutations.
Important note 2: But the good news is that the composition of
permutations is associative, i.e., () = ( ) for all permutations , , .
To prove this we have to compute:
[() ](i) = ()( (i)) = (( (i))),
[( )](i) = (( )(i)) = (( (i))).
We see that the right hand sides are the same in both cases, thus the
left hand sides are the same too.
We can also calculate the inverse of a permutation; for example, using
the same as above, we find

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
.
=
3 8 4 1 6 2 7 5
3
Explanation: just read the array for from the bottom up: since (1) = 4,
we must have 1 (4) = 1, hence write 1 under the 4 in the array for 1 ,
since (2) = 6, we must have 1 (6) = 2, hence write 2 under the 6 in the
array for 1 , etc.
Similarly, we calculate

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
=
.
5 1 7 2 3 4 8 6
Simple algebra shows that the inverse of a product can be calculated from
the product of the inverses (but note how the order is reversed!):
()1 = 1 1 .
(To justify this, we need only check if the product of and 1 1 equals
the identity, and this is pure algebra: it follows from the associative law that
()( 1 1 ) = (() 1 ) 1 = ( 1 ) 1 = 1 = id.)
Definition 2. The set of all permutations of degree n, with the composition as the multiplication, is called the symmetric group of degree n, and is
denoted by Sn .
Cycles
A permutation Sn which cyclically permutes some of the numbers

called a cycle.
1, . . . , n (and leaves all others fixed) is

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
For example, the permutation =
is a cycle,
1 5 3 7 4 6 2
because we have 5 4 7 2 5, and each of the other elements
of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} stays unchanged, namely 3 3, 6 6. To see that,

we must of course chase an element around, the nice cyclic structure is not
immediately evident from our notation. We write = (5 4 7 2), meaning
that all numbers not on the list are mapped to themselves, whilst the ones
in the bracket are mapped to the one listed to the right, the rightmost one
going back to the leftmost on the list.
Note: cycle notation is not unique, since there is no beginning or end
to a circle. We can write = (5 4 7 2) and = (2 5 4 7), as well as
= (4 7 2 5) and = (7 2 5 4)they all denote one and the same cycle.
We say that a cycle is of length k (or a k-cycle) if it involves k numbers.
For example, (3 6 4 9 2) is a 5-cycle, (3 6) is a 2-cycle, (1 3 2) is a 3cycle. We note also that the inverse of a cycle is again a cycle. For example
4
(1 2 3)1 = (1 3 2) (or (3 2 1) if you prefer this). Similarly, (1 2 3 4 5)1 =

(1 5 4 3 2). Finding the inverse of a cycle one has to reverse the arrows.
Not all permutations are cycles; for example, the permutation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
=
4 3 2 11 8 9 5 6 7 10 1 12
is not a cycle (we have 1 7 4 7 11 7 1, but the other elements are not
all fixed (2 goes to 3, for example). However, this permutation and any
other permutation can be written as a product of disjoint cycles, simply
by chasing each of the elements. The obvious approach is to visualise what
the permutation does: (draw your picture here!)
From this it is evident that every permutation can be written as a product of disjoint cycles. Moreover, any such representation is unique up to the
order of the factors. We also note that disjoint cycles commute; e.g.
(1 2 3 4)(5 6 7) = (5 6 7)(1 2 3 4).
But we recall that in general multiplication of permutations is not commutative; in particular, if we multiply cycles which are not disjoint, we
have to watch their order; for example: (1 2)(1 3) = (1 3 2), whilst
(1 3)(1 2) = (1 2 3), and (1 3 2) 6= (1 2 3).
It is clear that if is a cycle of length k, then k = id, i.e. if this
permutation is repeated k times, we have the identity permutation. More
generally, we will now define the order of a permutation, and the decomposition into a product of disjoint cycles will allow us to calculate the order of
any permutation.
Definition 3. Let be a permutation. The smallest positive integer i such
that i = id is called the order of .
Example 2. The order of the cycle (3 2 6 4 1) is 5, as we noted before.
Example 3. The order of the permutation = (1 2)(3 4 5) is 2 3 = 6.
Indeed,
= (1 2)(3 4 5),
2 = (1 2)2 (3 4 5)2 = (3 5 4),
3 = (1 2)3 (3 4 5)3 = (1 2),
4 = (1 2)4 (3 4 5)4 = (3 4 5),
5 = (1 2)5 (3 4 5)5 = (1 2)(3 5 4),
6 = id.
Example 4. The order of the cycle (3 2 6 4 1) is 5, as we noted before.
Example 5. The order of the permutation = (1 2)(3 4 5 6) is 4. Indeed,
= (1 2)(3 4 5 6),
2 = (1 2)2 (3 4 5 6)2 = (3 5)(4 6),
3 = (1 2)3 (3 4 5 6)3 = (1 2)(3 6 5 4),
4 = id.
This suggests that the order of a product of disjoint cycles equals the
lcm of the lengths of these cycles. This can be formalised in the following
Theorem 1. Let be a permutation and = 1 2 r be the decomposition of into a product of disjoint cycles. Let k be the order of and
k1 , k2 , . . . , kr be the orders (lengths) of 1 , 2 , . . . , r , respectively. Then
k = lcm (k1 , k2 , . . . , kr ).
Proof. We first notice that im = id iff m is a multiple of ki . Then, since the
cycles i are disjoint, we know that they commute and hence
m = 1m 2m . . . rm .
The powers 1m , 2m , . . . , rm act on disjoint sets of indices and, if m = id,
it must be 1m = 2m = . . . = rm = id. Indeed, if say sm (i) = j with
i 6= j, then the product 1m 2m . . . rm cannot be equal to id because all
m
m
permutations 1m , . . . , s1
, s+1
, . . . , rm leave i and j invariant. Thus the
order of is a multiple of each of the k1 , k2 , . . . , kr and hence the multiple
of the least common multiple of them. On the other hand, it is clear that
lcm (k1 ,k2 ,...,kr ) = id, which proves the theorem.
Example 6. The order of = (1 2 3 4)(5 6 7)(8 9)(10 11 12)(13 14 15 16 17)
is 60.
6
Example 7. To determine the order of an arbitrary permutation, first write

it as product of disjoint cycles. For example,

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
=
= (1 4 11)(2 3)(5 8 6 9 7)
4 3 2 11 8 9 5 6 7 10 1 12
and therefore the order of is 30.
Transpositions. Even and Odd
Cycles of length 2 are the simplest permutations, as they involve only 2

objects. We define
Definition 4. A cycle of length 2 is called a transposition.
It is intuitively plausible that any permutation is a product of transpositions (every arrangement of n objects can be obtained from a given
starting position by making a sequence of swaps). Once we observe how a
cycle of arbitrary length can be expressed as a product of transpositions, we
can express any permutation as product of transpositions. Here are some
examples:
Example 8. (1 2 3 4 5) = (1 5)(1 4)(1 3)(1 2) (just check that the left hand
side equals the right hand side!).
Exactly in the same way we can express an arbitrary cycle as a product
of transpositions:
(i1 i2 . . . ir ) = (i1 ir ) . . . (i1 i3 )(i1 i2 ).
(1)
Example 9. To express any permutation as product of transpositions,

first decompose into a product of disjoint cycles, then write each cycle as
product of transpositions as shown above. For example,

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
= (1 4 11)(2 3)(5 8 6 9 7) =
4 3 2 11 8 9 5 6 7 10 1
(1 11)(1 4)(2 3)(5 7)(5 9)(5 6)(5 8).
Example 10. Note that there are many different ways to write a permutation
as product of transpositions; for example
(1 2 3 4 5) = (1 5)(1 4)(1 3)(1 2) = (3 2)(3 1)(3 5)(3 4) =
(3 2)(3 1)(2 1)(2 3)(1 3)(2 3)(3 5)(3 4).
7
(Dont ask how these products were found! The point is to check that all
these products are equal, and to note that there is nothing unique about
how one can write a permutation as product of transpositions.)
Definition 5. A permutation is called even if it can be written as a product
of an even number of transpositions. A permutation is called odd if it can
be written as a product of an odd number of transpositions.
An important point is that there is no permutation that is at the same
time even and oddthis justifies the use of the terminology.1 We will establish that by looking at the polynomial
Y
f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) =
(xi xj ).
(2)
i<j
Example 11. For n = 3, the polynomial (2) will look like

f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 x2 )(x1 x3 )(x2 x3 ).
If = (1 3), we may compute
f (x(1) , x(2) , x(3) ) = (x3 x2 )(x3 x1 )(x2 x1 ) = f (x1 , x2 , x3 ).
This leads us to
Proposition 2. For any permutation from Sn
f (x(1) , x(2) , . . . , x(n) ) = f (x1, x2 , . . . , xn ).
(3)
Proof. In the left-hand-side of (3), for any pair of indices i and j, we have
either xi xj or xj xi (but not both) wil be a factor. Thus the left-hand-side
can differ from the right-hand-side by its sign only. This proves (3).
We will write sign() = 1, if we have + in (3) and sign() = 1 otherwise. We notice that
sign( ) = sign()sign( ).
Indeed,
f (x (1) , x (2) , . . . , x (n) ) = sign()f (x (1) , x (2) , . . . , x (n) ) =
sign()sign( )f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ),
1
You may skip this proof for the first reading and go straight to Example 12.
(4)
which shows that sign( ) =sign()sign( ) holds.

It is clear that for = (i i+1) we have
f (x(1) , x(2) , . . . , x(n) ) = f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
(5)
(only one factor changes its sign), hence sign((i i+1)) = 1. Since
(i k+1) = (k k+1)(i k)(k k+1),
and due to (4), we see that sign((i k)) = 1 implies sign((i k+1)) = 1.
This means that by induction (5) can be extended to an arbitrary transposition . Hence (5) will be true for any odd permutation , i.e sign() = 1.
At the same time, it is clear that for every even permutation we will have
sign() = +1. This implies that there is no permutation which is both even
and odd.
Example 12. (1 2 3 4) is an odd permutation, because (1 2 3 4) = (1 4)(1 3)(1 2).
(1 2 3 4 5) is an even permutation, because (1 2 3 4 5) = (1 5)(1 4)(1 3)(1 2).
Example 13. Since id = (1 2)(1 2), the identity is even.
Theorem 3. A k-cycle is even if k is odd; a k-cycle is odd if k is even.
Proof. Immediately follows from (1).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Example 14. Let =
. Is even or odd?
4 3 2 5 1 6 9 8 7
First decompose into a product of cycles, then use the result above:
= (1 4 5)(2 3)(7 9) (= (1 5)(1 4)(2 3)(7 9)).
We have an even number (two) of odd cycles, it shows that is even.
Definition 6. We say that two permutations have the same parity, if they
are both odd or both even, and different parities, if one of them is odd and
another is even.
Theorem 4. In any symmetric grooup Sn
1. The product of two even permutations is even.
2. The product of two odd permutations is even.
3. The product of an even permutation and an odd one is odd.
4. A permutation and its inverse are of the same parities.
9
Proof. Only the statements 4 needs a comment. It follows from 1 and 2.

Indeed, since the identity permutation id is even, we cannot have a permutation and its inverse being of different parities.
Theorem 5. Exactly half of the elements of Sn are even and half of them
are odd.
Proof. Denote by E the set of even permutations in Sn , and by O the set
of odd permutations in Sn . If is any fixed transposition from Sn , we
can establish a one-to-one correspondence between E and O as follows: for
in E we know that belongs to O. Therefore we have a mapping
f : E O defined by f () = . f is one-to-one since = implies that
= ; f is onto, because if is an odd permutation then is even, and
f ( ) = = .
n!
Corollary 6. The number of even permutations in Sn is . The number
2
n!
of odd permutations in Sn is also .
2
Definition 7. The set of all even permutations of degree n is called the
alternating group of degree n. It is denoted by An .
Example 15. We can have a look at the elements of S4 , listing all of them,
and checking which of them are even, which of them are odd.
S4 = {id, (1 2 3), (1 3 2), (1 2 4), (1 4 2), (2 3 4), (2 4 3),
(1 3 4), (1 4 3), (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3),
(1 2), (1 3), (1 4), (2 3), (2 4), (3 4), (1 2 3 4), (1 4 3 2),
(1 3 2 4), (1 4 2 3), (1 2 4 3), (1 3 4 2)}
The elements in the first 2 lines are even permutations, and the remaining
elements are odd. We have
A4 = {id, (1 2 3), (1 3 2), (1 2 4), (1 4 2), (2 3 4), (2 4 3),
(1 3 4), (1 4 3), (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3)}.
The interlacing shuffle. Puzzle 15
In this section we consider two applications of permutations.
10
We have a deck of 2n cards (normally 52), we split it into 2 halves and

then interlace them as follows. Suppose that our cards were numbered from
1 to 2n and the original order of cards was
a1 a2 a3 . . . a2n1 a2n
Then the two halves will contain the cards a1 , a2 , . . . , an and an+1 an+2 , . . . , a2n ,
respectively. The interlacing shuffle will put the first card of the second pile
first, then the first card of the first pile, then the second card of the second
pile, then the second card of the first pile etc. After the shuffle the order of
cards will be:
an+1 a1 an+2 a2 . . . a2n an
We put the permutation

1 2 3 ...
=
2 4 6 ...
n n + 1 n + 2 ...
2n
1
3
...
2n
2n 1
in correspondence to this shuffle. We see that

(i) = 2i mod 2n + 1
where (i) is the position of the ith card after the shuffle.
Example 16. n = 5

=
=

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
=
2 4 6 8 10 1 3 5 7 9

1 2 4 8 5 10 9 7 3 6 .
What will happen after 2, 3, 4, . . . shuffles? The resulting change will be

characterised by the permutations 2 , 3 , 4 , . . . , respectively.
In the example above

=
=

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
=
4 8 1 5 9 2 6 10 3 7

1 4 5 9 3
2 8 10 7 6
Also 10 = id and 10 is the order of . Hence all cards will be back to

their initial positions after 10 shuffles but not before.
11
Example 17. n = 4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
=
=
2 4 6 8 1 3 5 7
1 2 4 8 7 5
3 6
The order of is 6.
We close this section with a few words about a game played with a
simple toy. This game seems to have been invented in the 1870s by the
famous puzzle-maker Sam Loyd. It caught on and became the rage in the
United States in the 1870s, and finally led to a discussion by W. Johnson in
the scholarly journal, the American Journal of Mathematics, in 1879. It is
often called the fifteen puzzle. Our discussion will be without full proofs.
Consider a toy made up of 16 squares, numbered from 1 to 15 inclusive
and with the lower right-hand corner blank.
1
10
11
12
13
14
15
The toy is constructed so that squares can be slid vertically and horizontally,
such moves being possible because of the presence of the blank square.
Start with the position shown and perform a sequence of slides in such
a way that, at the end, the lower right-hand square is again blank. Call
the new position realisable. Question: What are all possible realisable
positions?
What do we have here? After such a sequence of slides we have shuffled
about the numbers from 1 to 15; that is, we have effected a permutation of
the numbers from 1 to 15. To ask what positions are realisable is merely
to ask what permutations can be carried out. In other words, in S15 , the
symmetric group of degree 15, what elements can be reached via the toy?
For instance, can we get
13
12
15
14
10
11
12
To answer, we will characterise every position of this game by a permutation.

We will denote the empty square by the number 16. The position
a1
a2
a3
a4
a5
a6
a7
a8
a9
a10
a11
a12
a13
a14
a15
a16
will be characterised by the transposition

1 2 . . . 16
.
a1 a2 . . . a16
Example 18. The position
1
11
13
15
10
6
12
14
will correspond to the permutation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
=
.
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 2 4 16 6 8 10 12 14
If we make a move pulling down the square 13, then the new position will
be
1
11
13
10
12
14
15
and the new permutation is

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
=
1 3 5 7 9 11 16 15 2 4 13 6 8 10 12 14
13
13 16
Theorem 7. If a position characterised by the permutation can be transformed by legal moves to the initial position, then there exist permutations
1 , 2 , . . . , m such that
id = 1 2 . . . m .
(6)
If the empty square was in the right bottom corner, then m is even and is
even.
Proof. As we have seen every legal move is equivalent to multiplying the
permutation corresponding to the existing position by a transposition (i 16).
Then (6) follows. In this case:
= m m1 . . . 2 1
hence the parity of is the same as that of m.
Let us colour the board in the chessboard pattern
Every move changes the colour of the empty square. Thus, if at the
beginning and at the end the empty square was black, then there was an
even number of moves made. Therefore, if initially the right bottom corner
was empty and we could transform this position to the initial position, then
an even number of moves was made, m is even, and is also even.
It can be shown that every position, with an even permutation can be
transformed to the initial positon but no easy proof is known.
Copyright: MathOlymp.com Ltd 2001. All rights reserved.
14
Combinatorics. Tutorial 2:
Friendship Theorem
This wonderful theorem has a very simple commonsense formulation.
Namely, given a society in which any two people have exactly one friend in
common, there must be a host, who is everybodys friend. Of course, this
is a graph-theoretic theorem and in order to prove it we must express it in
graph-theoretic terms.
Theorem 1 (Friendship Theorem). Suppose that G is a graph such that,
if x and y are any two distinct vertices of G, then there is a unique vetex z
adjacent in G to both x and y. Then there is a vertex adjacent to all other
vertices.
From this, it immediately follows that the graph G is a windmill like
the one below:
We will prove this theorem in several steps.1 We will assume that a

counterexample G to the Friendship theorem does exist and will be working
with this counterexample until we get a contradiction. Then the theorem
will be established.
1
following largely J.Q. Longyear and T.D Parsons (1972)
Definition 1. A sequence of vertices x0 , x1 , . . . , xn will be called a path of

length n, if xi1 is adjacent to xi for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n. These vertices need
not be all different, i.e. going along this path we may visit a certain vertex
several times. Any path x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 , x0 is called a cycle of length n.
Lemma 1. G does not have any cycles of length 4.
Proof. If we had a cycle x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x0 of length 4, then x0 and x2
would have at least two neighbors in common, namely x1 and x3 , which is
not possible.
Definition 2. The degree of a vertex is the number of other vertices adjacent
to it. The graph is called regular, if all its vertices have the same degree.
Lemma 2. Any two nonadjacent vertices of G have the same degree.
Proof. Let x and y be two nonadjacent vertices and let z be their unique
common neighbor. Then x and z will have a unique common neighbor u
and y and z will have a unique common neighbor v.
Now let u1 , u2 , . . . , us be all other vertices adjacent to x. For each

i = 1, 2, . . . , s, let vi be the unique common neighbor of ui and y. By
inspection we check that vi is different from any of the x, z, y, u, v, ui (every
such assumption lead to the existence of a 4-cycle). Also, no two vertices vi
and vj can coincide for i 6= j, according to the same reason.
y
z
u1
v1
u2
v2
us
vs
2
Thus, we see that the degree of x is not greater than the degree of y. But
the situation is symmetric, i.e. we can also prove that the degree of y is not
greater than the degree of x. Hence, these two degrees coincide.
Lemma 3. G is regular.
Proof. Let d(x) denote the degree of the vertex x. Suppose that G is not
regular and that there exist two vertices a and b such that d(a) 6= d(b).
Then a and b must be adjacent by Lemma 2. There is a unique common
neighbor c of a and b. Since either d(c) 6= d(a) or d(c) 6= d(b), or both,
we may assume that the former is true and d(c) 6= d(a). Now let x be any
other vertex. Then x is adjacent to one of a or b, for otherwise by Lemma 2
d(a) = d(x) = d(b), contrary to the assumption that d(a) 6= d(b). Similarly,
x is adjacent to either a or c. But x cannot be adjacent to both b and c, as a
is their unique common neighbor, hence x must be adjacent to a. This now
shows that all vertices of G are adjacent to a and G is not a counterexample.
Hence G is regular.
Let m be the degree of G.
Lemma 4. m is an even number.
Proof. Let v1 , v2 , . . . , vm be the vertices adjacent to v. Let us consider v1 .
Together with v it must have a vertex which is adjacent to both. Since
v1 , v2 , . . . , vm are all vertices adjacent to v, this third vertex must be among
v1 , v2 , . . . , vm . Let it be v2 . No other vertex among v1 , v2 , . . . , vm can be
adjacent to v1 or to v2 . Thus v1 and v2 form a pair. This way we can pair
off the vertices adjacent to v which implies that m is even. We show that
the neighborhood of every vertex v looks like a windmill.
Lemma 5. Let N be the number of vertices of G. Then N = m(m 1) + 1.
Proof. Let v be any vertex and v1 , v2 , . . . , vm be the vertices adjacent to v.
We know that the neighborhood of v looks like a windmill. Without loss
of generality we assume that the vertices are paired off so that v1 is adjacent
to v2 , v3 is adjacent to v4 and finally vm1 is adjacent to vm . Every vertex
different from v and v1 , v2 , . . . , vm must be adjacent to one of the vi since
it must have a common neighbor with v. Each vi will have exactly m 2
neighbors of this kind. In total we then have N = 1 + m + m(m 2) =
m(m 1) + 1 vertices.
v1
m-2 vertices
v2
m-2 vertices
v3
m-2 vertices
v4
v5
v
v6
v m-1
m-2 vertices
m-2 vertices
vm
Let us now note that m > 2, or else G is just a triangle which is not
a counterexample. Let p be any prime which divides m 1. Since m 1
is odd, p is also odd. In the following two lemmas we will consider the set
S of all cycles v0 , v1 , . . . , vp1 , v0 of length p with the fixed initial point v0 .
This means that the same cycle with two different initial vertices will be
considered as two different elements of S. Let us agree that if the cycle is
written as v0 , v1 , . . . , vp1 , v0 , then v0 is chosen as its initial point. Note that
we again do not require that all vertices in the cycle are different.
We shall compute the cardinality |S| of S in two ways.
Lemma 6. |S| is a multiple of p.
Proof. Every cycle of length p with the fixed initial point
v0 , v1 , . . . , vp1
gives us p 1 other cycles by changing the initial point of it: v1 , v2 , . . . , v0 ,
and v2 , v3 , . . . , v1 , and so on. No two of such sequences are the same, assuming the opposite will contradict to the primeness of p (see the solution
to Exercise 9 of the assignment Many faces of mathematical Induction).
Since in every cycle of length p we can choose p initial points, and hence get
p different elements of S, it is clear that |S| is divisible by p.
Proof of the Friendship Theorem. Now we will prove that |S| is NOT divisible by p which will give us a contradiction and the proof will be therefore
complete.
First, we will count the number of vertex sequences v0 , v1 , . . . , vp2 , such
that vi is adjacent to vi+1 for all i = 0, 1, . . . , p 2. There are two types
4
of such sequences: 1) those for which v0 = vp2 and 2) those for which
v0 6= vp2 . Let K1 and K2 be the number of sequences of the first and the
second type, respectively. Then K1 + K2 = N mp2 . Indeed, we can choose
v0 in N different ways, and having chosen v0 , v1 , . . . , vi , we can choose vi+1 in
m different ways. Now we will return to cycles with fixed initial vertices from
S. Each of them can be obtained from a sequence of one of the above types
by adding a vertex vp1 which is adjacent to v0 and vp2 and considering
v0 as the initial vertex of this cycle. If v0 = vp2 , then we can choose vp1
in m different ways, while if v0 6= vp2 , then such vp1 will be unique. Thus
|S| = mK1 + K2 . But now
|S| = (m 1)K1 + (K1 + K2 ) = (m 1)K1 + N mp2 N mp2
(mod p)
But N 1 (mod p), and m = (m 1) + 1 1 (mod p), thus |S| 1

(mod p) which is a contradiction.
Therefore the Friendship theorem is proved.
Number Theory. Tutorial 1:

Divisibility and Primes
1
Introduction
The theory of numbers is devoted to studying the set N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .}

of positive integers, also called the natural numbers. The most important
property of N is the following axiom (which means that it cannot be proved):
Axiom 1 (The Least-integer Principle) A non-empty set S N of positive integers contains a smallest element.
The set of all integers
. . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
is denoted by Z. In this section we use letters of the roman alphabet
a, b, c, . . . , k, l, m, n, . . . , x, y, z
to designate integers unless otherwise specified.
Theorem 1 (The division algorithm) Given any integers a, b, with a >
0, there exist unique integers q, r such that
b = qa + r,
0 r < a.
The number q is called the quotient and the number r is called the remainder. The notation r = b (mod a) is often used.
Example 1 35 = 3 11 + 2, 51 = (8) 7 + 5; so that 2 = 35 (mod 11)
and 5 = 51 (mod 7).
Definition 1 An integer b is divisible by an integer a 6= 0, if there exists an

integer c such that b = ac or else it can be written as 0 = b (mod a). We
also say that a is a divisor of b and write a|b.
Let n be a positive integer. Let us denote by d(n) the number of divisors
of n. It is clear that 1 and n are always divisors of a number n which is
greater than 1. Thus we have d(1) = 1 and d(n) 2 for n > 1.
Definition 2 An integer n is called a prime if d(n) = 2. An integer n > 1,
which is not prime is called a composite number.
Example 2 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13 are primes; 1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 are not primes; 4, 6, 8, 9, 10
are composite numbers.
Theorem 2 (The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) Every positive integer n > 1 can be expressed as a product of primes (with perhaps only
one factor), that is
n = p1 1 p2 2 . . . pr r ,
where p1 , p2 , . . . , pn are distinct primes and 1 , 2 , . . . , n are positive integers. This factoring is unique apart from the order of the prime factors.
Proof: Let us prove first that any number n > 1 can be decomposed into
a product of primes. If n = 2, the decomposition is trivial and we have
only one factor, i.e., 2 itself. Let us assume that for all positive integers,
which are less than n, a decomposition exists. If n is a prime, then n = n
is the decomposition required. If n is composite, then n = n1 n2 , where
n > n1 > 1 and n > n2 > 1 and by the induction hypothesis there are prime
decompositions n1 = p1 . . . pr and n2 = q1 . . . qs for n1 and n2 . Then we may
combine them
n = n1 n2 = p1 . . . pr q1 . . . qs
and get the decomposition for n and prove the first statement.
To prove that the decomposition is unique, we shall assume the existence of an integer capable of two essentially different prime decompositions,
and from this assumption derive a contradiction. This will show that the
hypothesis that there exists an integer with two essentially different prime
decompositions is untenable, and hence the prime decomposition of every
integer is unique. We will use the Least-integer Principle.
2
Suppose that there exists an integer with two essentially different prime
decompositions, then there will be a smallest such integer
n = p1 p2 . . . pr = q1 q2 . . . qs ,
(1)
where pi and qj are primes. By rearranging the order of the ps and the qs,
if necessary, we may assume that
p1 p2 . . . pr ,
q1 q2 . . . qs .
It is impossible that p1 = q1 , for if it were we could cancel the first factor

from each side of equation (1) and to obtain two essentially different prime
decompositions for a number smaller than n, contradicting the choice of n.
Hence either p1 < q1 or q1 < p1 . Without loss of generality we suppose that
p1 < q1 .
We now form the integer
n0 = n p1 q2 q3 . . . qs .
(2)
Then two decompositions of n give the following two decompositions of n0 :

n0 = (p1 p2 . . . pr ) (p1 q2 . . . qs ) = p1 (p2 . . . pr q2 . . . qs ),
(3)
n0 = (q1 q2 . . . qs ) (p1 q2 . . . qs ) = (q1 p1 )(q2 . . . qs ).
(4)
Since p1 < q1 , it follows from (4) that n0 is a positive integer, which is smaller
than n. Hence the prime decomposition for n0 must be unique and, apart
from the order of the factors, (3) and (4) coincide. From (3) we learn that
p1 is a factor of n0 and must appear as a factor in decomposition (4). Since
p1 < q1 qi , we see that p1 6= qi , i = 2, 3, . . . , s. Hence, it is a factor of q1 p1 ,
i.e., q1 p1 = p1 m or q1 = p1 (m + 1), which is impossible as q1 is prime and
q1 6= p1 . This contradiction completes the proof of the Fundamental Theorem
of Arithmetic.
Let x be a real number. Then it can be written in a unique way as z + e,
where z Z and 0 e < 1. Then, the following notation is used: z = bxc,
z + 1 = dxe, e = {x}. We will use here only the first function bxc, which is
called the integral part of x. Examples: b2.5c = 3, bc = 3, b5c = 5.
Theorem 3The smallest prime divisor of a composite number n is less than
or equal to b nc.
3
Proof:
We prove first that n has a divisor which is greater than 1 but less
As n is composite, then n = d1 d2 , d1 > 1 and d2 > 1. If d1 > n
than n.
and d2 > n, then
n = d1 d2 > ( n)2 = n,
a contradiction. Suppose, d1 n. Then any of the prime divisors of d1

will be less than or equal to n. But every divisor of d1 is also a divisor
of
n, thus the smallest primedivisor p of n will satisfy the inequality p n.
Snce p is an integer, p b nc. The theorem is proved.
Theorem 4 (Euclid) The number of primes is infinite.
Proof: Suppose there were only finite number of primes p1 , p2 , . . . , pr . Then
form the integer
n = 1 + p 1 p2 . . . p r .
Since n > pi for all i, it must be composite. Let q be the smallest prime
factor of n. As p1 , p2 , . . . , pr represent all existing primes, then q is one of
them, say q = p1 and n = p1 m. Now we can write
1 = n p1 p2 . . . pr = p1 m p1 p2 . . . pr = p1 (m p2 . . . pr ).
We have got that p1 > 1 is a factor of 1, which is a contradiction.
The following three theorems are far from being elementary. Of course,
no one jury assumes that students are familiar with these theorems. Nevertheless, some students use them and sometimes a difficult math olympiad
problem can be trivialised by doing so. The attitude of the Jury of the International Mathematics Olympiad is to believe that students know what they
use. Therefore it pays to understand these results even without a proof.
Let (x) denote the number of primes which do not exceed x. Because
of the irregular occurence of the primes, we cannot expect a simple formula
for (x). However one of the most impressive results in advanced number
theory gives an asymptotic approximation for (x).
Theorem 5 (The Prime Number Theorem)
lim (x)
ln x
= 1,
x
where ln x is the natural logarithm, to base e.

4
Theorem 6 (Dirichlets Theorem) If a and b are relatively prime positive integers (which means that they dont have common prime factors in
their prime factorisations), then there are infinitely many primes of the form
an + b, where n = 1, 2, . . ..
Theorem 7 (Bertrands Postulate, proved by Chebyschef) For every
positive integer n > 1 there is a prime p such that n < p < 2n.

The Euclidean algorithm
1
The number of divisors of n
Let n be a positive integer with the prime factorisation

n = p1 1 p2 2 . . . pr r ,
(1)
where pi are distinct primes and i are positive integers. How can we find
all divisors of n? Let d be a divisor of n. Then n = dm, for some m, thus
n = dm = p1 1 p2 2 . . . pr r ,
Since the prime factorisation of n is unique, d cannot have in its prime
factorisation a prime which is not among the primes p1 , p2 , . . . , pr . Also, a
prime pi in the prime factorisation of d cannot have an exponent greater than
i . Therefore
d = p1 1 p2 2 . . . pr r ,
0 i i ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , r.
(2)
Theorem 1. The number of positive divisors of n is

d(n) = (1 + 1)(2 + 1) . . . (r + 1).
(3)
Proof. Indeed, we have exactly i + 1 possibilities to choose i in (2), namely

0, 1, 2, . . . , i . Thus the total number of divisors will be exactly the product
(1 + 1)(2 + 1) . . . (r + 1).
Definition 1. The numbers kn, where k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , are called multiples of n.
It is clear that any multiple of n given by (1) has the form
m = kp11 p22 . . . pr r ,
i i ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , r,
where k has no primes p1 , p2 , . . . , pr in its prime factorisation. The number

of multiples of n is infinite.
1
Greatest common divisor and least common multiple
Let a and b be two positive integers. If d is a divisor of a and also a divisor of

b, then we say that d is a common divisor of a and b. As there are only a finite
number of common divisors, there is a greatest common divisor, denoted by
gcd (a, b). The number m is said to be a common multiple of a and b if m is a
multiple of a and also a multiple of b. Among all common multiples there is a
minimal one (Least-integer principle!). It is called the least common multiple
and it is denoted by lcm (a, b).
In the decomposition (1) we had all exponents positive. However, sometimes it is convenient to allow some exponents to be 0. This is especially
convenient, when we consider prime factorisations of two numbers a and b,
looking for gcd (a, b) and lcm (a, b), since we may assume that both a and b
have the same set of primes in their prime factorisations.
Theorem 2. Let
b = p1 1 p2 2 . . . pr r ,
a = p1 1 p2 2 . . . pr r ,
where i 0 and i 0, be two arbitrary positive integers. Then

min(1 ,1 ) min(2 ,2 )
p2
gcd (a, b) = p1
r ,r )
. . . pmin(
,
r
(4)
and
max(1 ,1 ) max(2 ,2 )
p2
lcm (a, b) = p1
r ,r )
. . . pmax(
.
r
(5)
Moreover,
gcd (a, b) lcm (a, b) = a b.
(6)
Proof. Formulas (4) and (5) follow from our description of common divisors
and common multiples. To prove (6) we have to notice that min(i , i ) +
max(i , i ) = i + i .
We suspect (in fact it is an open question) that prime factorisation is
computationally difficult and we dont know easy algorithms for that but
fortunately the greatest common divisor gcd (a, b) of numbers a and b can be
found without knowing the prime factorisations for a and b. This algorithm
was known to Euclid and maybe even was discovered by him.
2
Theorem 3 (The Euclidean Algorithm). Let a and b be positive integers. We use the division algorithm several times to find:
a = q1 b + r1 ,
b = q2 r1 + r2 ,
r1 = q3 r2 + r3 ,
..
.
rs2 = qs rs1 + rs ,
rs1 = qs+1 rs .
0 < r1 < b,
0 < r2 < r1 ,
0 < r3 < r2 ,
0 < rs < rs1,
Then rs = gcd (a, b).
Proof. Is based on the observation that if a = qb + r, then gcd (a, b) =

gcd (b, r). Indeed, if d is a common divisor of a and b, then a = a0 d and
b = b0 d and then r = a qb = a0 d qb0 d = (a0 qb0 )d and d is also a common
divisor of b and r. Also if d is a common divisor of b and r, then b = b0 d,
r = r0 d and a = qb + r = qb0 d + r 0 d = (qb0 + r 0 )d, whence d is a common
divisor of a and b.
It is clear now that gcd (a, b) = gcd (b, r1 ) = gcd (r1 , r2 ) = . . . =
gcd (rs1 , rs ) = rs .
Theorem 4 (The Extended Euclidean Algorithm). Let us write the following table with two rows R1 , R2 , and three columns:

a 1 0
.
b 0 1
In accordance with the Euclidean Algorithm above, we perform the following
operations with rows of this table. First we will create the third row R3 by
subtracting from the first row the second row times q1 , we denote this as R3 :=
R1 q1 R2 . Then similarly we create the fourth row: R4 := R2 q2 R3 . We
will continue this process as follows: when creating Rk we will obtain it taking
Rk2 and subtracting Rk1 times qk2 , which can be written symbolically as
Rk := Rk2 qk2 Rk1 . Eventually we will obtain the table:
a
1
0
b
0
1
r1
1
q1
r2
.
q
1
+
q
q
2
1
2
..
.
rs
m
n
Then gcd (a, b) = rs = am + bn.
Proof. We will prove this by induction. Let the kth row of the table be
Rk = (uk , vk , wk ).
We assume that ui = avi +bwi for all i < k. This is certainly true for i = 1, 2.
Then by induction hypothesis
uk = uk2 qk uk1 = avk2 + bwk2 qk (avk1 + bwk1 ) =
a(vk2 qk vk1 ) + b(wk2 qk wk1 ) = avk + bwk .
Thus the statement ui = avi + bwi is true for all i. In particular, this is true
for the last row, which gives us rs = am + bn.
Example 1. Let a = 321, b = 843. Find the greatest common divisor
gcd (a, b), the least common multiple lcm (a, b), and a linear presentation
of the greatest common divisor in the form gcd (a, b) = ka + mb.
The Euclidean algorithm:
321
843
321
201
120
81
39
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0 843 + 321
2 321 + 201
1 201 + 120
1 120 + 81
1 81 + 39
2 39 + 3
13 3 + 0,
4
and therefore gcd (321, 843) = 3 and lcm (321, 843) =

90201. The Extended Euclidean algorithm:
321
843
321
201
120
81
39
3
1
0
1
2
3
5
8
21
321 843
= 107 843 =
3
0
1
0
1
1
2
3
8
obtaining the linear presentation gcd (321, 843) = 3 = (21) 321 + 8 843.
Relatively prime numbers
Definition 2. If gcd (a, b) = 1, the numbers a and b are said to be relatively

prime (or coprime).
The following properties of relatively prime numbers are often used.
Lemma 1. Let gcd (a, b) = 1, i.e., a and b are relatively prime. Then
1. a and b do not have common primes in their prime factorisations;
2. If c is a multiple of a and also a multiple of b, then c is a multiple of
ab;
3. If ac is a multiple of b, then c is a multiple of b;
4. There exist integers m, n such that ma + nb = 1.
Proof. Part 1 follows from equation (4), parts 2 and 3 follow from part 1,
and part 4 follows from Theorem 4.
Theorem 5 (The Chinese remainder theorem). Let a and b be two relatively prime numbers, 0 r < a and 0 s < b. Then there exists a unique
number N such that 0 N < ab and
r = N (mod a)
and
s = N (mod b),
(7)
i.e., N has remainder r on dividing by a and remainder s on dividing by b.

5
Proof. Let us prove first, that there exists at most one integer N with the
conditions required. Assume, on the contrary, that for two integers N1 and
N2 we have 0 N1 < ab, 0 N2 < ab and
r = N1 (mod a) = N2 (mod a) and s = N1 (mod b) = N2 (mod b).
Let us assume that N1 > N2 . Then the number M = N1 N2 satisfies
0 M < ab and
0 = M (mod a) and 0 = M (mod b).
(8)
By Lemma 1 part 3, condition (8) implies that M is divisible by ab, whence

M = 0 and N1 = N2 .
Now we will find an integer N, such that r = N (mod a) and s =
N (mod b), ignoring the condition 0 N < ab. By Theorem 4 there are
integers m, n such that gcd (a, b) = 1 = ma + nb. Multiplying this equation
by r s we get the equation
r s = (r s)ma + (r s)nb = m0 a + n0 b.
Now it is clear that the number
N = r m0 a = s + n0 b
satisfies the condition (7). If N does not satisfy 0 N < ab, we divide N by
ab with remainder N = q ab + N1 . Now 0 N1 < ab and N1 satisfies (7).
Theorem is proved.
This is a constructive proof of the Chinese remainder theorem, which
gives also an algorithm of calculating such N with property (7). A shorter
but nonconsructive proof, which uses Pigeonhole principle can be found in the
training material Pigeonhole Principle. It is used there to prove Fermats
theorem that any prime of the type 4n + 1 can be represented as a sum of
two squares.

Eulers function and Eulers Theorem
1
Eulers -function
Definition 1. Let n be a positive integer. The number of positive integers

less than or equal to n that are relatively prime to n, is denoted by (n).
This function is called Eulers -function or Eulers totient function.
Let us denote Zn = {0, 1, 2, . . . , n1} and by Zn the set of those nonzero
numbers from Zn that are relatively prime to n. Then (n) is the number of
elements of Zn , i.e., (n) = |Zn |.
Example 1. Let n = 20. Then Z20 = {1, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19} and (20) = 8.

1
k
k1
k
k
Lemma 1. If n = p , where p is prime, then (n) = p p
=p 1
.
p
Proof. It is easy to list all integers that are less than or equal to pk and
not relatively prime to pk . They are p, 2p, 3p, . . . , pk1 p. We have exactly
pk1 of them. Therefore pk pk1 nonzero integers from Zn will be relatively
prime to n. Hence (n) = pk pk1 .
An important consequence of the Chinese remainder theorem is that the
function (n) is multiplicative in the following sense:
Theorem 1. Let m and n be any two relatively prime positive integers. Then
(mn) = (m)(n).
Proof. Let Zm = {r1 , r2 , . . . , r(m) } and Zn = {s1 , s2 , . . . , s(n) }. By the
Chinese remainder theorem there exists a unique positive integer Nij such
that 0 Nij < mn and
ri = Nij (mod m),
sj = Nij (mod n),

1
that is Nij has remainder ri on dividing by m, and remainder sj on dividing

by n, in particular for some integers a and b
Nij = am + ri ,
Nij = bn + sj .
(1)
As in Tutorial 2, in the proof of the Euclidean algorithm, we notice that

gcd (Nij , m) = gcd (m, ri ) = 1 and gcd (Nij , n) = gcd (n, sj ) = 1, that is Nij
is relatively prime to m and also relatively prime to n. Since m and n are
relatively prime, Nij is relatively prime to mn, hence Nij Zmn . Clearly,
different pairs (i, j) 6= (k, l) yield different numbers, that is Nij 6= Nkl for
(i, j) 6= (k, l).
Suppose now that a number N 6= Nij for all i and j. Then
r = N (mod m),
s = N (mod n),
where either r does not belong to Zm or s does not belong to Zn . Assuming

the former, we get gcd (r, m) > 1. But then gcd (N, m) = gcd (m, r) > 1 and
N does not belong to Zmn . It shows that the numbers Nij and only they
form Zmn . But there are exactly (m)(n) of the numbers Nij , exactly as
many as the pairs (ri , sj ). Therefore (mn) = (m)(n).
Theorem 2. Let n be a positive integer with the prime factorisation
n = p1 1 p2 2 . . . pr r ,
where pi are distinct primes and i are positive integers. Then

1
1
1
1
... 1
.
(n) = n 1
p1
p2
pr
Proof. We use Lemma 1 and Theorem 1 to compute (n):
(n) = (p1 1 ) (p2 2 ) . . . (pr r )

1
1
1
1
2
r
= p1 1
p2 1
. . . pr 1
p1
p2
pr

1
1
1
=n 1
1
... 1
.
p1
p2
pr
Example 2. (264) = (23 3 11) = 264
2
1
2
2
3
10
11
= 80.
Congruences. Eulers Theorem
If a and b are intgers we write a b (mod m) and say that a is congruent

to b if a and b have the same remainder on dividing by m. For example,
41 80 (mod 1)3, 41 37 (mod 1)3, 41 6 7 (mod 1)3.
Lemma 2. Let a and b be two integers and m is a positive integer. Then
(a) a b (mod m) if and only if a b is divisible by m;
(b) If a b (mod m) and c d (mod m), then a + c b + d (mod m);
(c) If a b (mod m) and c d (mod m), then ac bd (mod m);
(d) If a b (mod m) and n is a positive integer, then an bn (mod m);
(e) If ac bc (mod m) and c is relatively prime to m, then a b (mod m).
Proof. (a) By the division algorithm
a = q1 m + r1 ,
0 r1 < m, and b = q2 m + r2 ,
0 r2 < m.
Thus a b = (q1 q2 )m + (r1 r2 ), where m < r1 r2 < m. We see that

a b is divisible by m if and only if r1 r2 is divisible by m but this can
happen if and only if r1 r2 = 0, i.e., r1 = r2 .
(b) is an exercise.
(c) If a b (mod m) and c d (mod m), then m|(a b) and m|(c d),
i.e., a b = im and c d = jm for some integers i, j. Then
ac bd = (ac bc) + (bc bd) = (a b)c + b(c d) = icm + jbm = (ic + jb)m,
whence ac bd (mod m);
(d) Follows immediately from (c)
(e) Suppose that ac bc (mod m) and gcd (c, m) = 1. Then there exist
integers u, v such that cu + mv = 1 or cu 1 (mod m). Then by (c)
a acu bcu b (mod m).
and a b (mod m) as required.
The property in Lemma 2 (e) is called the cancellation property.
Theorem 3 (Fermats Little Theorem). Let p be a prime. If an integer
a is not divisible by p, then ap1 1 (mod p). Also ap a (mod p) for all a.
3
Proof. Let a, be relatively prime to p. Consider the numbers a, 2a, ...,

(p 1)a. All of them have different remainders on dividing by p. Indeed,
suppose that for some 1 i < j p1 we have ia ja (mod p). Then
by the cancellation property a can be cancelled and i j (mod p), which is
impossible. Therefore these remainders are 1, 2, ..., p 1 and
a 2a (p 1)a (p 1)! (mod p),
which is
(p 1)! ap1 (p 1)! (mod p).
Since (p 1)! is relatively prime to p, by the cancellation property ap1
1 (mod p). When a is relatively prime to p, the last statement follows from
the first one. If a is a multiple of p the last statement is also clear.
Theorem 4 (Eulers Theorem). ) Let n be a positive integer. Then
a(n) 1 (mod n)
for all a relatively prime to n.
Proof. Let Zn = {z1 , z2 , . . . , z(n) }. Consider the numbers z1 a, z2 a, ..., z(n) a.
Both zi and a are relatively prime to n, therefore zi a is also relatively prime
to n. Suppose that ri = zi a (mod n), i.e., ri is the remainder on dividing
zi a by n. Since gcd (zi a, n) = gcd (ri , n), yielding ri Zn . These remainders
are all different. Indeed, suppose that ri = rj for some 1 i < j n.
Then zi a zj a (mod n). By the cancellation property a can be cancelled
and we get zi zj (mod n), which is impossible. Therefore the remainders
r1 , r2 , ..., r(n) coincide with z1 , z2 , . . . , z(n) , apart from the order in which
they are listed. Thus
z1 a z2 a . . . z(n) a r1 r2 . . . r(n) z1 z2 . . . z(n) (mod n),
which is
Z a(n) Z (mod n),
where Z = z1 z2 . . .z(n) . Since Z is relatively prime to n it can be cancelled
and we get a(n) 1 (mod n).

4

Representation of Numbers
1
Classical Decimal Positional System
There is an important distinction between numbers and their representations.

In the decimal system the zero and the first nine positive integers are denoted
by symbols 0, 1, 2, . . . , 9, respectively. These symbols are called digits. The
same symbols are used to represent all the integers. The tenth integer is
denoted as 10 and an arbitrary integer N can now be represented in the
form
N = an 10n + an1 10n1 + . . . + a1 10 + a0 ,
(1)
where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are integers that can be represented by a single digit
0, 1, 2, . . . , 9. For example, the year, when I started to think about setting
up this website, can be written as
1 103 + 9 102 + 9 10 + 8.
We shorten this expression to (1998)(10) or simply 1998, having the decimal
system in mind. In this notation the meaning of a digit depends on its position. Thus two digit symbols 9 are situated in the tens and the hundreds
places and their meaning is different. In general for the number N given by
(1) we write
N = (an an1 . . . a1 a0 )(10)
to emphasise the exceptional role of 10. This notation is called positional.
Its invention, attributed to Sumerians or Babylonians and its further development by Hindus, was of enormous significance for civilisation. In Roman
symbolism, for example, one wrote
MCMXCVIII = (thousand) + (nine hundreds) + (ninety)+
(five) + (one) + (one) + (one),
1
It is clear that more and more new symbols such as I, V, X, C, M are

needed as numbers get larger while with the Hindu positional system now in
use we need only ten Arabic numerals 0, 1, 2, . . . , 9, no matter how large is
the number. The positional system was introduced into medieval Europe by
merchants, who learned it from the Arabs. It is exactly this system which
is to blame that the ancient art of computation, once confined to a few
adepts, became a routine algorithmic skill that can be done automatically
by a machine, and is now taught in elementary school.
Other Positional Systems
Mathematically, there is nothing special in the decimal system. The use of

ten, as the base, goes back to the dawn of civilisation, and is attributed to the
fact that we have ten fingers on which to count. Other number could be used
as the base, and undoubtedly some of them were used. The number words
in many languages show remnants of other bases, mainly twelve, fifteen and
twenty. For example, in English the words for 11 and 12 and in Spanish
the words for 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15, are not constructed on the decimal
principle. In French a special role of the word for 20 is clearly observed. The
Babylonian astronomers had a system of notation with the base 60. This
is believed to be the reason for the customary division of the hour and the
angular degree into 60 minutes. In the theorem that follows we show that an
arbitrary positive integer b > 1 can be used as the base.
Theorem 1. Let b > 1 be a positive integer. Then every positive integer N
can be uniquely represented in the form
N = d0 + d1 b + d2 b2 + + dn bn ,
(2)
where the digits d0 , d1 , . . . , dn lie in the range 0 di b1, for all i.

Proof. The proof is by induction on N, the number being represented. Clearly,
the representation 1 = 1 for 1 is unique. Suppose, inductively, that every
integer 1, 2, . . . , N1 is uniquely representable. Now consider the integer N.
Let d0 = N (mod b). Then N d0 is divisible by b and let N1 = (N d0 )/b.
Since N1 < N, by the induction hypothesis N1 is uniquely representable in
the form
N d0
N1 =
= d1 + d2 b + d3 b2 + + dn bn1 ,
b
2
Then clearly,
N = d0 + N1 b = d0 + d1 b + d2 b2 + + dn bn ,
is the representation required.
Finally, suppose that N has some other representation in this form also,
i.e.,
N = d0 + d1 b + d2 b2 + + dn bn = e0 + e1 b + e2 b2 + + en bn .
Then d0 = e0 = r as they are equal to the remainder of N on dividing by b.
Now the number
N1 =
N r
= d1 + d2 b + d3 b2 + + dn bn1 = e1 + e2 b + e3 b2 + + en bn1
b
has two different representations which contradicts the inductive assumption,

since we have assumed the truth of the result for all N1 < N.
Corollary 1. We use the notation
N = (dn dn1 . . . d1 d0 )(b)
(3)
to express (2). The digits di can be found by the repeated application of the
division algorithm as follows:
N = q1 b + d0 ,
q1 = q2 b + d1 ,
..
.
qn = 0 b + dn
(0 d0 < b)
(0 d1 < b)
(0 dn < b)
For example, the positional system with base 5 employ the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
and we can write
1998(10) = 3 54 + 0 53 + 4 52 + 4 5 + 3 = 30443(5) .
But in the computers era it is the binary (or dyadic) system (base 2) that
emerged as the most important one. We have only two digits here 0 and
1 and a very simple multiplication table for them. But under the binary
system, the representations of numbers get longer. For example,
86(10) = 1 26 + 0 25 + 1 24 + 0 23 + 1 22 + 1 2 + 0 = 1010110(2). (4)
3
Leibniz (16461716) was one of the proponents of the binary system. According to Laplace: Leibniz saw in his binary arithmetic the image of creation. He imagined that Unity represented God, and zero the void; that the
Supreme Being drew all beings from the void, just as unity and zero express
all numbers in his system of numeration.
Let us look at the binary representation of a number from the information
point of view. Information is measured in bits. One bit is a unit of information expressed as a choice between two possibilities 0 and 1. The number
of binary digits in the binary representation of a number N is therefore the
number of bits we need to transmit N through an information channel (or
input into a computer). For example, the equation (4) shows that we need 7
bits to transmit or input the number 86.
Theorem 2. To input a number N by converting it into its binary representation we need blog2 Nc + 1 bits of information, where bxc denotes the
integer part of x.
Proof. Suppose that N has n binary digits in its binary representation. That
is
N = 2n1 + an2 2n2 + + a1 21 + a0 20 ,
ai {0, 1}.
Then 2n > N 2n1 or n > log2 N n 1, i.e., blog2 Nc = n 1 and thus
n = blog2 Nc + 1.
Representations for real numbers
The negative powers of 10 are used to express those real numbers which are
not integers. The other bases can be also used. For example,
1
1
2
5
0
0
1
= 0.125(10) =
+ 2 + 3 = + 2 + 3 = 0.001(2)
8
10 10
10
2 2
2
1
= 0.142857142857 . . .(10) = 0.(142857)(10) = 0.001001 . . .(2) = 0.(001)(2)
7
The binary expansions of irrational numbers, such as
5 = 10.001111000110111 . . .(2) ,
are used sometimes in cryptography for simulating a random sequence
of
bits. But this method is considered to be insecure. The number, 5 in the

example above, can be guessed after knowing the initial segment which will
reveal the whole sequence.
4

Bertrands Postulate
1
Introduction
In this tutorial we are going to prove:

Theorem 1 (Bertrands Postulate). For each positive integer n > 1 there
is a prime p such that n < p < 2n.
This theorem was veried for all numbers less than three million for
Joseph Bertrand (1822-1900) and was proved by Pafnutii Chebyshev (18211894).
The oor function
Denition 1. Let x be a real number such that n x < n + 1. Then we

dene x = n. This is called the oor function. x is also called the integer
part of x with x x being called the fractional part of x. If m 1 < x m,
we dene x = m. This is called the ceiling function.
In this tutorial we will make use of the oor function. Two useful properties are listed in the following propositions.
Proposition 1. 2x 2x 2x + 1.
Proof. Proving such inequalities is easy (and it resembles problems with the
absolute value function). You have to represent x in the form x = x + a,
where 0 a < 1 is the fractional part of x. Then 2x = 2x + 2a and we get
two cases: a < 1/2 and a 1/2. In the rst case we have
2x = 2x < 2x + 1
and in the second
2x < 2x = 2x + 1.
Proposition 2. let a, b be positive integers and let us divide a by b with

remainder
0 r < b.
a = qb + r
Then q = a/b and r = a ba/b.
Proof. We simply write
r
a
=q+
b
b
and since q is an integer and 0 r/b < 1 we see that q is the integer part of
a/b and r/b is the fractional part.
Exercise 1. x + x + 1/2 = 2x.
Prime divisors of factorials and binomial

coecients
We start with the following

Lemma 1. Let n and b be positive integers. Then the number of integers in
the set {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} that are multiples of b is equal to n/b.
Proof. Indeed, by Proposition 2 the integers that are divisible by b will be
b, 2b, . . . , m/b b.
Theorem 2. Let n and p be positive integers and p be prime. Then the
largest exponent s such that ps | n! is
n
.
(1)
s=
j
p
j1
Proof. Let mi be the number of multiples of pi in the set {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}. Let
t = m1 + m 2 + . . . + mk + . . .
(2)
(the sum is nite of course). Suppose that a belongs to {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}, and
such that pj | a but pj+1 a. Then in the sum (2) a will be counted j times
and will contribute i towards t. This shows that t = s. Now (1) follows from
Lemma 1 since mj = n/pj .
2
Theorem 3. Let n and p be positive

2n integers and p be prime. Then the
s
largest exponent s such that p | n is

2n
n
s=
2 j
.
(3)
j
p
p
j1
Proof. Follows from Theorem 2.
Note that, due to Proposition 1, in (3) every summand is either 0 or 1.
Corollary 1. Let n 3 and p be positive
integers and p be prime. Let s be

.
Then
the largest exponent such that ps | 2n
n
(a) ps 2n.
(b) If 2n < p, then s 1.

(c) If 2n/3 < p n, then s = 0.
Proof.
(a) Let t be the largest integer such that pt 2n. Then for j > t

2n
n
2 j
= 0.
j
p
p
Hence
s=

t

2n
j=1
pj
n
2 j
p

t.
since each summand does not exceed 1 by Proposition 1. Hence ps

2n.
(b) If 2n < p, then p2 > 2n and from (a) we know that s 1.

(c) If 2n/3 < p n, then p2 > 2n and

2n
n
s=
2
p
p
As 1 n/p < 3/2, we se that s = 2 2 1 = 0.
Two inequalities involving binomial coecients
We all know the Binomial Theorem:

n
(a + b) =
n

n
k=0
ank bk .
(4)
Let us derive some consequences from it. Substituting a = b = 1 we get:

n

n
n
.
(5)
2 =
k
k=0
Lemma 2.
(a) If n is odd, then

n
2n1 .
(n + 1)/2
(b) If n is even, then

Proof.

2n
n
.
n/2
n
(a) From (5), deleting all terms except the two middle ones, we get

n
n
+
2n .
(n 1)/2
(n + 1)/2
The two binomial coecients on the left are equal and we get (a).
(b) If n is even, then it is pretty easy to prove that the middle binomial
coecient is the largest one. In (5) we have n + 1 summand but we
group the two ones together and we get n summands among which the
middle binomial coecient is the largest. Hence

n
n
n
n
= 2n ,
n/2
k
k=0
which proves (b).
Proof of Bertrands Postulate
Finally we can pay attention to primes.

Theorem 4. Let n 2 be an integer, then

p < 4n ,
pn
where the product on the left has one factor for each prime p n.
Proof. The proof is by induction over n. For n = 2 we have 2 < 42 , which
is true. This provides a basis for the induction. Let us assume that the
statement is proved for all integers smaller than n. If n is even, then it is not
prime, hence by induction hypothesis

p=
p < 4n1 < 4n ,
pn
pn1
so the induction step

is trivial in this case. Suppose
n n = 2s + 1 is odd, i.e
s = (n 1)/2. Since s+1<pn p is a divisor of s+1 , we obtain

pn
p=

ps+1
s+1
p<4
s+1<pn

n
< 4s+1 2n1

s+1
using the induction hypothesis for n = s + 1 and Lemma 2(a). Now the
right-hand-side can be presented as
4s+1 2n1 = 22s+2 2n1 = 24s+2 = 42s+1 = 4n .
This proves the induction step and, hence, the theorem.
Proof of Bertrands Postulate. We will assume that there are no primes between n and 2n and obtain a contradiction.
We will obtain that, under this

assumption, the binomial coecient 2n
is
smaller
than it should be. Indeed,
n
in this case we have the following prime factorisation for it:

2n
=
p sp ,
n
pn
where sp is the exponent of the prime p in this factorisation. No primes

greater than n can be found in this prime factorisation. In fact, due to
Corollary 1(c) we can even write

2n
=
p sp .
n
p2n/3
Let
us recap now that due to Corollary 1 psp 2n and that sp = 1 for
p > 2n. Hence

2n
p sp
p.
p 2n
p2n/3
We will estimate now these product using the inequality psp 2n for
the rst
product and Theorem 4 for the second one. We have no more that 2n/21
factors in the rst product (as 1 and even numbers are not primes), hence

2n
< (2n) 2n/21 42n/3 .
(6)
n
On the other hand, by Lemma 2(b)

4n
2n
22n
=
.
2n
2n
n
(7)
Combining (6) and (7) we get

n/3
< (2n) n/2 .
Applying logs on both sides, we get

2n
ln 2 <
3
n
ln(2n)
2
or
8n ln 2 3 ln(2n) < 0.
(8)
Let us substitute n = 22k3 for some k. Then we get 2k ln 23(2k2) ln 2 < 0

or 2k < 3(2k 2) which is true only for k 4 (you can prove that by
6
7
inducton). Hence
(8) is not true for n = 2 = 128. Let us consider the
function f (x) = 8x ln 2 3 ln(2x) dened for x > 0. Its derivative is
2x ln 2 3
.
f (x) =
x
let us note that for x 8 this derivative is positive. Thus (8) is not true for
all n 128. We proved Bertrands postulate for n 128. For smaller n it
can be proved by inspection. I leave this to the reader.
Copyright: MathOlymp.com Ltd 2001-2002. All rights reserved.
Geometry Tutorial 1.
Ptolemys inequality
One of the most important tools in proving geometric inequalities is

Theorem 1 (Ptolemys Inequality) Let ABCD be an arbitrary quadrilateral in the plane. Then
AB CD + BC AD AC BD.
This inequality becomes equality if and only if the quadrilateral is cyclic.
Proof: Firstly, we will consider the case, when the quadrilateral ABCD
is convex. Let us rotate the plane about B and then dilate, choosing the
coefficient of the dilation k so that the image of D coincides with A. Let us
0
denote the image of C as C .
B
C
C'
D
0
Since the triangles ABC and DBC are similar we get

0
AC =
AB CD
.
BD
1
AB
BD
and hence
0 =
AC
CD
The triangles C BC and ABD are also similar because 6 C BC = 6 ABD

and
0
CB
AB
=
= k.
BC
BD
BC
BD
, whence
This similarity yields 0 =
CC
AD
BC AD
0
CC=
.
BD
By the Triangle inequality
AB CD BC AD
+
AC,
BD
BD
and therefore AB CD + BC AD AC BD. This inequality is an equality
0
if and only if C is on the segment AC in which case we have
0
AC + C C =
BAC = 6 BAC = 6 BDC
and the points A, B, C, D are concyclic.

Let us assume now that the quadrilateral is not convex. Then one of
its diagonals, say BD does not have common points with the interior of the
quadrilateral.
B
C'
A
Reflecting C about BD we will get a convex quadrilateral ABC 0 D whose side

are of the same lengths as that of ABCD but the product of the diagonals
for ABCD is smaller than for ABC 0 D as AC < AC 0 and BD is the same
in both cases. Therefore Ptolemys inequality holds in this case too, and
inequality never becomes equality.
Another proof of Ptolemys inequality can be obtained using inversion.
We will prove even more general statement.
2
Theorem 2 (Generalised Ptolemys inequality) Let A, B, C, D be arbitrary points in the plane, but not on a line. Then
AB CD + BC AD AC BD.
This inequality becomes equality if and only if the points A, B, C, D are concyclic and each of the two arcs determined by the points A, C contains one
of the two remaining points.
Proof: Consider an inversion i with pole D and any coefficient r > 0. Let
A0 , B 0 , C 0 be the images of A, B, C under this inversion respectively. Applying
the Triangle inequality for the points A0 , B 0 , C 0 , we get
A0 B 0 + B 0 C 0 A0 C 0 .
(1)
It is well-known (or easy to prove) how distances between points change

under inversion. In our case, if X, Y are any two points different from D,
and if X 0 , Y 0 are their images under i then
r 2 XY
.
DX DY
This formula can be applied to any pair of points A, B, C because they are
all different from D. So we rewrite (1) in the form
X 0Y 0 =
r2 AB
r2 BC
r2 AC
+
.
DA DB DB DC
DA DC
After multiplying both sides by DA DB DC, the latter becomes
AB CD + BC AD AC BD,
(2)
as desired. It is clear that (2) becomes equality, only when (1) becomes equality. This happens, when A0 , B 0 , C 0 are on the line with B 0 beeing between A0
and C 0 . Since the points are not on the same line, this means that before the
inversion they were on a circle with B and D on different arcs determined
by A and C.
Comment 1: Theorem 2 is clearly independent of whether or not the given
points lie in the same plane. It does not change in the slightest if they are
in three-dimensional space.
Comment 2: Theorem 2 is also true in some cases, when the given points
lie on the same line. This case can easily be sorted out but it is not of interest
to us.
3
Geometry Tutorial 2.
Eulers theorem
We shall prove in this section Eulers theorem that was offered in 1962 to
the participants of IMO and therefore introduced to the IMO sillabus forever.
We will prove the following lemma first and then derive Eulers theorem
and several other corollaries.
Lemma 1 A circle of radus r with center I is inside of a circle of radius R
with center O. Suppose A is an arbitrary point on the larger circle, AB and
AC are two chords of the larger circle which are tangent to thepsmaller one.
Then BC is tangent to the smaller circle if and only if IO = R(R 2r).
Proof. Let S be a point on the larger circle such that AS is the bisector of
BAC. Let us draw CI and CS.
6
B
A
BC is tangent to the smaller circle if and only if 6 BCI = 6 ICA. This, in

turn, happens if and only if 6 SCI = 6 CIS, since 6 CIS = 6 ICA + 6 IAC =
6 ICA + 6 SCB. Furthermore, 6 SCI = 6 CIS if and only if SC = SI.
Let MN be the diameter of the large circle passing through I and O.
r
Then SC = SI if and only if SI IA = SC IA = 2R sin
= 2rR,
sin
where = 6 CAS.
1
As is well-known, SI IA = MI IN = (R d)(R + d), where d = IO.

Hence we have SI IA = 2rR if and only if (R d)(R + d) = 2rR, which is
the same as d2 = R2 2rR, and the lemma is proved.
From this lemma Eulers theorem follows:
Theorem 2 (Eulers theorem) Thepdistance between the incenter and the
circumcenter of a triangle is equal to R(R 2r).
Two more remarkable corollaries from the same lemma:
Corollary 3 Two positive real numbers r and R are the inradius and circumradius of some triangle ABC if and only if R 2r. Moreover,
R = 2r if and only if the triangle ABC is equilateral.
If R > 2r there exist infinitely many nonsimilar triangles having R and
r as the circumradius and inradius, respectively.
Corollary 4 Consider the incircle and the circumcircle of triangle ABC.
Let us take an arbitrary point A1 on the circumcircle and draw the chords
A1 B1 and B1 C1 both of which are tangent to the incircle. Then the chord
C1 A1 is also tangent to the incircle.
C
C1
B1
B
A
A1
This is a partial case of the deep Poncelets theorem.

Theorem 5 (Poncelet) Suppose that one circle is placed inside another
circle. Let A1 , . . . , An be the points on a larger circle such that each link
of the closed broken line A1 A2 . . . An A1 touches the smaller circle. Then if
B1 , . . . , Bn be any points on the larger circle such that each link of the broken
line B1 B2 . . . Bn touches the smaller circle, then Bn B1 also touches it.
2

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What topics are covered in the tutorials?

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What is included in the unwritten syllabus of the IMO?

What is included in the unwritten syllabus of the IMO?

Tutorials in Elementary Mathematics for Math Olympiad Students

Tutorials in Algebra, Number Theory, Combinatorics and

http://matholymp.com/TUTORIALS/tutorials.html (1 of 2)5/7/2005 12:18:22 PM

Tutorials in Elementary Mathematics for Math Olympiad Students

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Syllabus of the IMO

Unwritten Syllabus of the IMO

What is not Included

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Syllabus of the IMO

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THE REARRANGEMENT INEQUALITY

We can generalize this example to the following result.

Example 6. The Geometric mean Harmonic Mean Inequality.

with equality if and only if x1 = x2 = = xn .

Equality holds if and only if x1 = x2 = = xn .

x21 + x22 + + x2n

b+c c+a a+b

Australian Mathematics Trust

What's New . Events . Information for Parents . AMT Publishing . People

Graph Theory Tutorials

Graph Theory Tutorials

Glossary of Graph Theory Terms

http://www.utm.edu/departments/math/graph/ (1 of 2)5/7/2005 12:19:20 PM

Graph Theory Tutorials

Other Graph Theory Resources on the Internet:

Chris Caldwell [email protected]

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Definitions and Notation

Since a function is specified if we indicate what the image of each element

Calculations with Permutations

The composition of two permutations of degree n is again a permutation of

Explanation: the calculation of requires us to find

the image of 1 when we apply first , then , (1 7 2 7 6, so write

Important note 1: the example shows clearly that 6= ; so we have

A permutation Sn which cyclically permutes some of the numbers

because we have 5 4 7 2 5, and each of the other elements

of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} stays unchanged, namely 3 3, 6 6. To see that,

(1 2 3)1 = (1 3 2) (or (3 2 1) if you prefer this). Similarly, (1 2 3 4 5)1 =

Example 7. To determine the order of an arbitrary permutation, first write

Transpositions. Even and Odd

Cycles of length 2 are the simplest permutations, as they involve only 2

Example 9. To express any permutation as product of transpositions,

Example 11. For n = 3, the polynomial (2) will look like

which shows that sign( ) =sign()sign( ) holds.

Proof. Only the statements 4 needs a comment. It follows from 1 and 2.

The interlacing shuffle. Puzzle 15

In this section we consider two applications of permutations.

We have a deck of 2n cards (normally 52), we split it into 2 halves and

in correspondence to this shuffle. We see that

What will happen after 2, 3, 4, . . . shuffles? The resulting change will be

Also 10 = id and 10 is the order of . Hence all cards will be back to

To answer, we will characterise every position of this game by a permutation.

will be characterised by the transposition

will correspond to the permutation

and the new permutation is