1.

1 Introduction to Cells
Essential idea: The evolution of multicellular organisms
allowed cell specialization and cell replacement.
The background image shows totipotent stem cells. These unspecialised cell will be divide
and some will become the cells that form heart muscle, neurones in the brain and
lymphocytes in the blood. These three types of specialised human cells are structurally very
different and perform certain functions much more efficiently than an unspecialised cell, such
as the embryonic cells above, could.
Another advantage that multicellular organisms have over unicellular organisms is that
severe damage to a cell does not mean the end of an organism. Stem cell persist through the
life of a multi-cellular organism, this enables organisms to digest severely damaged cells and
replace them, i.e. wounds can be healed.

Unspecialised cells such as totipotent stem cells can divide into become specific
cells such as neurones in the brain etc. These are very useful in a sense that
they can grow into develop into cells that are damaged and replace them. (heal a wound)

Understandings
Statement
1.1.U
1

According to the cell theory, living organisms are

composed of cells.

1.1.U
2

Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out

all functions of life in that cell.

1.1.U
3

Surface area to volume ratio is important in the

limitation of cell size.

1.1.U
4

Multicellular organisms have properties that

emerge from the interaction of their cellular
components.

1.1.U
5

Specialized tissues can develop by cell

differentiation in multicellular organisms.

1.1.U
6

Differentiation involves the expression of some

genes and not others in a cells genome.

1.1.U
7

The capacity of stem cells to divide and

differentiate along different pathways is
necessary in embryonic development and also
makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.

Guidance

Students are expected to be able to name

and briefly explain these functions of life:
nutrition, metabolism, growth, response,
excretion, homeostasis and reproduction.

Applications and Skills

Statement
1.1.A1

Questioning the cell theory using atypical

examples, including striated muscle, giant algae
and aseptate fungal hyphae.

1.1.A2

Investigation of functions of life in Paramecium

and one named photosynthetic unicellular
organism.

1.1.A3

Use of stem cells to treat Stargardts disease and

one other named condition.

1.1.A4

Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from

specially created embryos, from the umbilical
cord blood of a new-born baby and from an
adults own tissues.

1.1.S1

Use of a light microscope to investigate the

structure of cells and tissues, with drawing of
cells. Calculation of the magnification of drawings
and the actual size of structures and
ultrastructures shown in drawings or
micrographs. (Practical 1)

Guidance

Chlorella or Scenedesmus are suitable

photosynthetic unicells, but Euglena should
be avoided as it can feed heterotrophically.

Scale bars are useful as a way of indicating

actual sizes in drawings and micrographs.

1.1.S1 Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells

and tissues, with drawing of cells. Calculation of the magnification
of drawings and the actual size of structures and ultrastructures
shown in drawings or micrographs. (Practical 1)
Microscopes are best learn through experience the
below links are primarily for those without access to
a microscope.

Source: https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Dinoflagellata

Virtual microscope: http://www.udel.edu/biology/ketcham/microscope/scope.html

Learn about Microscopes: http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=BIO905

1mm=1000um
75mm=75000um

75000/50=1500um
magnified 1500 times

1.1.U1 According to the cell theory, living

organisms are composed of cells.
Cell theory states that:
All living things are composed of cells (or cell products)
The cell is the smallest unit of life
Cells only arise from pre-existing cells

Source: http://www.engr.uconn.edu/alarm/research?id=63

1.1.U1 According to the cell theory, living

organisms are composed of cells.
All living things
are composed of
cells (or cell
products)

Longitudinal section of a root tip of Maize (Zea mays)

by Science and Plants for Schools on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/bNNM6M

1.1.U1 According to the cell theory, living

organisms are composed of cells.
The cell is the smallest unit
of life
Specialized structures within cells
(organelles) carry out different
functions. Organelles cannot
survive alone.
This micrograph of a Paramecium
shows the 2 contractile vacuoles,
the oral groove with the formation
of a new food vacuole at its end,
and the overall surrounding cilia. Organelles are composed of number

of specialized cells with unique

functions.

Source: http://www.dr-ralf-wagner.de/

1.1.U1 According to the cell theory, living

organisms are composed of cells.
Cells only arise from pre-existing
cells:
Cells multiply through division
All life evolved from simpler
ancestors
Mitosis results in genetically identical
diploid daughter cells
Meiosis generates haploid gametes
(sex cells)

Mitosis:
Cell division that results in
2 daughter cells with the same
number of chromosomes as
the parent nucleus.

Meiosis:
Cell division that results in
4 daughter cells with the half
the number of chromosomes of
the parent cell, used in the
production of gametes.
4-cell stage of a sea biscuit by Bruno Vellutini on Flickr
(CC) http://flic.kr/p/daWnnS

1.1.A1 Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples,

including striated muscle, giant algae and aseptate fungal hyphae.

striated muscle
challenges the idea
that a cell has one
nucleus
Muscle cells have
more than one
nucleus per cell
Muscle Cells called
fibres can be very
long (300mm)
They are surrounded
by a single plasma
membrane but they
are multi-nucleated Multi nucleated

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Skeletal_striated_muscle.jpg

1.1.A1 Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples,

including striated muscle, giant algae and aseptate fungal hyphae.

aseptate fungal
hyphae
challenges the idea that
a cell is a single unit.
Fungal hyphae are
again very large with
many nuclei and a
continuous cytoplasm
The tubular system of
hyphae form dense
networks called
mycelium
Like muscle cells they
are multi-nucleated

Source: http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/pathogengroups/pages/introfungi.aspx

1.1.A1 Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples,

including striated muscle, giant algae and aseptate fungal hyphae.

giant algae
(Acetabularia)
Acetabularia is a
single-celled
organism that
challenges both
the idea that cells
must be simple in
structure and small
in size
Gigantic in size (5
100mm)

Source: http://deptsec.ku.edu/~ifaaku/jpg/Inouye/Inouye_01.html

1.1.U2 Organisms consisting of only one cell

carry out all functions of life in that cell.
You probably know:
Movement
Reproduction
Sensitivity
Homeostasis
Growth
Respiration
Excretion
Nutrition

In this course the functions are refined:

Metabolism - the web of all the enzymecatalysed reactions in a cell or organism,
e.g. respiration
Response - Living things can respond to and
interact with the environment
Homeostasis - The maintenance and
regulation of internal cell conditions, e.g.
water and pH
Growth - Living things can grow or change
size / shape
Excretion the removal of metabolic waste
Reproduction - Living things produce
offspring, either sexually or asexually
Nutrition feeding by either the synthesis
of organic molecules (e.g. photosynthesis)

1.1.U2 Organisms consisting of only one cell

carry out all functions of life in that cell.
Remembering the functions of life
An easy way to remember Metabolism, Response, Homeostasis, Growth,
Reproduction, Excretion and Nutrition is:
MR H GREN
(each letter is a function of life)

Source: http://www.dr-ralf-wagner.de/

1.1.A2 Investigation of functions of life in

Paramecium and one named photosynthetic
unicellular
organism.
How does this paramecium show the functions of life?

Source: http://umanitoba.ca/Biology/BIOL1030/Lab1/biolab1_3.html#Ciliophora

1.1.A2 Investigation of functions of life in

Paramecium and one named photosynthetic
unicellular
organism.
Excretion the plasma
Homeostasis contractile vacuole fill up
Response the
membrane control the entry
and exit of substances
including expulsion of
metabolic waste

with water and expel I through the plasma

membrane to manage the water content

Metabolism
most
metabolic
pathways
happen in the
cytoplasm

wave action of
the cilia moves
the
paramecium in
response to
changes in the
environment,
e.g. towards
food.

Source: http://umanitoba.ca/Biology/BIOL1030/Lab1/biolab1_3.html#Ciliophora

Nutrition food
vacuoles contain
organisms the parameium
has consumed

Growth after consuming

and assimilating biomass
from food the paramecium
will get larger until it
divides.

Reproduction The
nucleus can divide to
support cell division by
mitosis, reproduction is
often asexual

1.1.A2 Investigation of functions of life in

Paramecium and one named photosynthetic
unicellular organism.
How does this algae show the functions of life?

Source: http://www.algae.info/Algaecomplete.aspx

1.1.A2 Investigation of functions of life in

Paramecium and one named photosynthetic
unicellular
organism.Reproduction The nucleus can divide Response the
Excretion the plasma
membrane control the
entry and exit of
substances including the
difussion out of waste
oxygen

to support cell division, by mitosis (these

cells are undergoing cytokinesis)

Metabolism
most
metabolic
pathways
happen in the
cytoplasm
Nutrition
photosynthesi
s happens
inside the
chloroplasts
to provide the
algae with
food

Source: http://www.algae.info/Algaecomplete.aspx

Growth after consuming and assimilating

biomass from food the algae will get larger until
it divides.

wave action of
the cilia moves
the algae in
response to
changes in the
environment,
e.g. towards
light.

Homeostasis
contractile
vacuole fill up
with water and
expel I through
the plasma
membrane to
manage the water
content

1.1.U3 Surface area to volume ratio is

important in the limitation of cell size.

1.1.U3 Surface area to volume ratio is

important in the limitation of cell size.

1.1.U3 Surface area to volume ratio is

important in the limitation of cell size.

1.1.U3 Surface area to volume ratio is

important in the limitation of cell size.
Cells and tissues specialised
for gas or material exchange
will increase their surface
area to optimise the transfer
of materials, e.g. microvilli
(below) in the small intestine

The cell must consequently divide

in order to restore a viable SA:Vol
ratio and survive.
A represents a small single
celled organism
B a large single
celled
B
A
C
organism
C multicellular organism

1.1.U3 Surface area to volume ratio is

important in the limitation of cell size.
In summary:
The rate of metabolism of a cell is a function of its mass / volume
The rate of material exchange in and out of a cell is a function of its
surface area
As the cell grows, volume increases faster than surface area (leading
to a decreased SA:Vol ratio)
If the metabolic rate is greater than the rate of exchange of vital
materials and wastes, the cell will eventually die
Hence the cell must consequently divide in order to restore a viable
SA:Vol ratio and survive
Cells and tissues specialised for gas or material exchange (e.g.
alveoli) will increase their surface area to optimise the transfer of
materials

Extension: Can you think of any exceptions? See if you can find

1.1.U4 Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge

from the interaction of their cellular components.
Emergent properties arise from the interaction of component
parts. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Multicellular
organisms are capable of completing functions that individual
cells could not undertake - this is due to the interaction between
cells producing new functions.

1.1.U4 Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge

from the interaction of their cellular components.
Science traditionally has been taken a reductionist approach to
solving problems and developing theories. Systems Biology uses
inductive thinking as it is realised the importance of emergent
properties, whether it be the interaction of genes, enzymes
working together in a metabolic pathway, or cells forming
tissues, different tissues forming organs, in turn forming organ
systems and then the organism itself. At each level emergent
properties arise.

1.1.U4 Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge

from the interaction of their cellular components.
As a model consider the electric light bulb. The bulb is the system and is
composed of a filament made of tungsten, a metal cup, and a glass container.
We can study the parts individually how they function and the properties they
posses. These would be the properties of :
Tungsten
Metal cup
Glass container

When studied individually they do not allow

the prediction of the properties of the light
bulb. Only when we combine them to form the
bulb can these properties be determined. There
is nothing supernatural about the emergent
properties rather it is simply the combination
of the parts that results in new properties
emerging.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gluehlampe_01_KMJ.jpg

1.1.U6 Differentiation involves the expression of some

genes and not others in a cells genome.
All (diploid) cells of an individual
organisms share an identical genome
- each cell contains the entire set of
genetic instructions for that organism
BUT not all genes are expressed
(activated) in all cells
In (totipotent) embryonic stem cells
the entire genome is active
Newly formed cells receive signals
which deactivate (or more rarely
activate) genes, e.g. a skin cell does
not need to be able to produce
haemoglobin (the pigment in red
blood cells that carries oxygen)
Screenshot from this excellent tutorial: http://www.ns.umich.edu/stemcells/022706_Intro.html

1.1.U6 Differentiation involves the expression of some

genes and not others in a cells genome.
Extension: Active genes are usually
packaged in an expanded and
accessible form (euchromatin), while
inactive genes are mainly packaged
in a condensed form
(heterochromatin)
The fewer active genes a cell
possesses the more specialised it will
become
As a result of gene expression cell
differentiation begins: the cells
metabolism and shape changes to
carry out a specialised function.
Screenshot from this excellent tutorial: http://www.ns.umich.edu/stemcells/022706_Intro.html

1.1.U5 Specialized tissues can develop by cell

differentiation in multicellular organisms.
In humans 220 distinct
highly specialised cell
types have been
recognised
All specialised cells and
the organs constructed
from them have developed
as a result of
differentiation

Source: http://images.wisegeek.com/types-of-human-cells.jpg

1.1.U7 The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along

different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also
makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.

Stem cells are

unspecialised cells
that can:
Can continuously
divide and
replicate
Have the capacity
to differentiate
into specialised
cell types
Totipotent

Image from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_cell

1.1.U7 The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along

different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also
makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.

Learn about stem cells using the tutorials

http://ns.umich.edu/stemcells/022706_Intro.html

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/stemcells/scintro/

A Stem Cell
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2-3J6JGN-_Y
Story

1.1.U7 Use of stem cells to treat Stargardts disease and one other
named condition.

Stargardt's macular dystrophy

The
problem

Affects around one in 10,000 children

Recessive genetic (inherited) condition
The mutation causes an active transport protein on photoreceptor cells
to malfunction

The photoreceptor cells degenerate

the production of a dysfunctional protein that cannot perform energy

transport

that causes progressive, and eventually total, loss of central vision

The
treatment

The future

Embryonic stem cells are treated to divide and differntiate to become

retinal cells

The retinal cells are injected into the retina

The retinal cells attach to the retina and become functional

Central vision improves as a result of more functional retinal cells

This treatment is still in at the stage of limited clinical trials, but will
likely be in usage in the future

1.1.U7 Use of stem cells to treat Stargardts disease and one other
named condition.

Learn about stem cell therapies using the

tutorials

http://media.hhmi.org/biointeractive/click/Stem_Cell_Therapies/01.html

1.1.U7 Use of stem cells to treat Stargardts disease and one other
named condition.

Leukemia
The
problem

Cancer of the blood or bone marrow, resulting in abnormally high

levels of poorly-functioning white blood cells.

The
treatment

Hematopoetic Stem Cells (HSCs) are harvested from bone marrow,

peripheral blood or umbilical cord blood
Chemotherapy and radiotherapy used to destroy the diseased white
blood cells
New white blood cells need to be replaced with healthy cells.
HSCs are transplanted back into the bone marrow
HSCs differentiate to form new healthy white blood cells

The
benefit

The use of a patients own HSCs means there is far less risk of
immune rejection than with a traditional bone marrow transplant.

1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially

created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born baby
and from an adults own tissues.
Comparison of stem cell sources
Embryo

Cord blood

Adult

Ease of extraction

Can be obtained
from excess embryos
generated by IVF
programs.

Easily obtained and

stored. Though
limited quantities
available

Difficult to obtain as
there are very few
and are buried deep
in tissues

Ethics of the
extraction

Can only be
obtained by
destruction of an
embryo

Umbilical cord is
removed at birth and
discarded whether or
not stem cells are
harvested

Adult patient can

give permission for
cells to be extracted

Growth potential

Almost unlimited

Reduced potential (compared to embryonic

cells)

Tumor risk

Higher risk of
development

Lower risk of development

1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially

created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born baby
and from an adults own tissues.
Comparison of stem cell sources
Embryo

Cord blood

Differentiation

Can differentiate into Limited capacity to

any cell type
differentiate (without
inducement only
naturally divide into
blood cells)

Genetic damage

Less chance of genetic damage than adult

cells

Compatibility

Stem cells are not

genetically identical
to the patient

Adult
Limited capacity to
differentiate
(dependent on the
source tissue)

Due to accumulation
of mutations through
the life of the adult
genetic damage can
occur

Fully compatible with the patient as the stem

cells are genetically identical

1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially

created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born baby
and from an adults own tissues.

Arguments for Therapeutic Cloning

Stem cell research may pave the way for future discoveries
and beneficial technologies that would not have occurred if
their use had been banned
May be used to cure serious diseases or disabilities with cell
therapy (replacing bad cells with good ones)
Transplants are less likely to be rejected as they are cells
which are genetically identical to the parent
Transplants do not require the death of another human
Stem cells can be taken from embryos that have stopped
developing and would have died anyway (e.g. abortions)
Cells are taken at a stage when the embryo has no nervous
system and can arguably feel no pain
Stem cells can be created without the need for fertilisation and

1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially

created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born baby
and from an adults own tissues.

Arguments Against Therapeutic Cloning

Involves the creation and destruction of human
embryos (at what point do we afford the right to
life?)
Embryonic stem cells are capable of continued
division and may develop into cancerous cells and
cause tumors
More embryos are generally produced than are
needed, so excess embryos are killed
With additional cost and effort, alternative
technologies may fulfill similar roles (e.g. nuclear
reprogramming of differentiated cell lines)

1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially

created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born baby
and from an adults own tissues.

1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially

created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born baby
and from an adults own tissues.

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Bibliography / Acknowledgments

Jason de Nys