GS CAPSULE - II

Some Important examples of physics:

Some examples of Inertia or Newtons first law

When a car or train starts suddenly, the
passengers bends backward.
When a running horse stops suddenly, the rider
bends forward.
When a coat/blanket is beaten by a stick, the
dust particles are removed.

value of g decreases with height or depth

from earth's surface.
g is maximum at poles.
g is minimum at equator.
g decreases due to rotation of earth.
g d ecreases if angula r speed of earth
increases and increa ses if angular speed
of earth decreases.

Newtons second law examples

It is easier for a strong adult to push a full
shopping cart than it is for a baby to push the
same cart. Also, it is easier for a person to push
an empty shopping cart than a full one.
Train wreck. If a train hits another train of equal
force and speed, they will both go the same
distance and feel the same force. But if the first
train is hooked to a second, the single train will
go twice the distance of the double train and will
feel twice the force.
A bowling ball and a marble dropping at the
same time.
Newtons third law examples
When a bullet is fired from a gun with a certain
force (action), there is an equal and opposite
force exerted on the gun in the backward
direction (reaction).
When a man jumps from a boat to the shore,
the boat moves away from him. The force he
exerts on the boat (action) is responsible for its
motion and his motion to the shore is due to the
force of reaction exerted by the boat on him.
The swimmer pushes the water in the backward
direction with a certain force (action) and the
water pushes the swimmer in the forward
direction with an equal and opposite force
(reaction).
The value of G is 6.67 x 10-11 Nm 2 /kg 2 .
The acceleration produced in a body due to
force of gravity is called acceleration due to
gravity (denoted as g) and its value is 9.8
m/ s 2
Variation in g

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Weight of a body in a lift

If lift is stationary or moving with
uniform speed (either upwa rd or clown
ward), the apparent weight of a body is
equal to its true weight.
If lift is going up with acceleration, the
apparent weight of a body is more than
the true weight.
If lift is going down with acceleration,
the apparent weight of a body is less
than the true weight.
If the cord of the lift is bro ken, it falls
freely. In this situation the weight of a

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Page 1

body in the lift becomes zero. This is the

situation of weightlessness.
While going down, if the acceleration of
lift is more than acceleration due to
gravity, a body in the lift goes in contact
of the ceiling of lift.

Keplers laws of planetary motion:

All planets move around the sun in
elliptical orbits, with the sun being at rest
at one focus of the orbit
The position vector of the planet with sun
at the origin sweeps out equal area in
equal time i.e. The areal velocity of
planet around the sun always remains
constant.

Speed of a planet is maximum when it is

at perigee and minimum when it is at
apogee.
The orbital speed of a satellite revolving
near the surface of earth is 7.9 km / sec.
For earth, escape velocity = 11.2 km/s.
For moon, escape velocity = 2.4 km/s.

Atmospheric
pressure
decreases
with
altitude.
It is difficult to cook on the mountain
The fountain pen of a passenger leaks
in aeroplane at height

Atmospheric pressure is measured by

barometer.
Sudden fall in barometric reading is the
indication of storm.
Slow fall in barometric reading is the
indication of rain.
Slow rise in the barometric reading is
the indication of clear weather .

Uses of Concave mirror :

Shaving glass.
Reflector for the head lights of a vehicle,
search light.
In ophthalmoscope to examine eye, ear,
nose by doctors.
In solar cookers.
Uses of Convex mirror :
Rear view mirror in vehicle because it
provides the maximum rear field of view
and image formed is always ere ct.
In sodium reflector lamp.
Refraction of light: When a ray of light propagating in
amedium enters the other medium, it deviates from its

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path. This phenomenon of change in the direction of

propagation of light at the boundary when it passes
from one medium to other medium is called refraction of
light.
Some illustrations of Refraction
Bending of a linear object when it is
partially dipped in a liquid inclined to the
surface of the liquid.
Twinkling of stars.
Oval shape of sun in the morning and
evening.
An object in a denser medium when seen
from a rarer medium appears to be at a
smaller distance.
A fish in a pond when viewed from air
appears to be at a smaller depth them
actual depth. A coin at the base of a
vessel filled with water appears raised.
Total Internal Reflection : If light is propagating
from denser medium towards the rarer medium
and angle of incidence is more than critical angle,
then the light incident on the boundary is reflected
back in the denser medium, obeying the laws of
reflection. This phenomenon is called total internal
reflection as total light energy is reflected, no part is
absorbed or transmitted.
For total internal reflection:
Light must be propagating from denser
to rarer medium.
Angle of incidence must exceeds the critical
angle.
examples of total internal reflection
Sparkling of diamond .
Mirage and looming.
Shining of air bubble in water.
Increase in duration of sun's visibility-The
sun becomes visible even before sun rise
and remains visible even after sunset due to
total internal reflection of light.
Shining of a smoked ball or a metal ball on
which lamp soot is deposited when dipped
in water.
opticalfibre.
Differnce between concave and convex lens
When a lens is thicker at the middle than at the
edges, it is called a convex lens or a converging
lens.
When the lens is thicker at the edges than in the
middle, it is called as concave lens or diverging
lens.

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Power of a convex lens is positive and that of

a concave lens is negative.

Human Eye
Least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm.

Scattering of light : When light waves fall on small

bodies such as dust particles, water particles in
suspension, suspended particles in colloidal solution,
they are thrown out in all directions.
Scattering of light is maximum in case of violet
colour and minimum in case of red colour of light.
Blue colour of sky is due to scattering of
light.
The brilliant red colour of rising and setting sun is
due to scattering of light.

Defects of human eye and the remedies :

Interference of light : When two light waves

of exactly the same frequency and a constant
phase difference travel in same direction and
superimpose then the resultant intensity in the region
of superposition is different from the sum of
intensity of individual waves. This modification in
the intensity of light in the region of superposition is
called interference of light.

Hyperopia
or
hypermetropia
or
longsightedness : A person suffering from
hypermetropia can see the distant objects clearly
but not the near objects.
Causes:
Shortening of eye ball along the axis.
Increase in the focal length of eye lens.
Stiffening of ciliary muscles.
Remedy : A converging lens is used.

Myopia or short sightedness : A person

suffering from myopia can see the near objects
clearly while far objects are not clear.
Causes :
Elongation of eye ball along the axis.
Shortening of focal length of eye lens.
Over stretching of ciliary muscles beyond the
elastic limit.
Remedy : Diverging lens is used.

Presbyopia : This defect is generally found in

elderly person. Due to stiffening of ciliary muscles,
eye looses much of its accommodating power. As a
result distant as well as nearby objects can not be
seen.
Remedy:two separate lens or a bifocal lens is
used.

Diffraction of light : diffraction is the process by

which a beam of light or other systems of wave is
spread out as a result of passing through a narrow
opening or across an edge.
Polarisation of light :Polarisation is the only
phenomenon which proves that light is a
transverse wave. Light is an electromagnetic
wave in which electric and magnetic field vectors
vibrate perpendicular to each other and also
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. In
ordinary light, the vibrations of electric field vector
are in every plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of wave. Polarisation is the
phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of a light
in a particular direction in a plane perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of wave.

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Astigmatism : This defect arises due to

difference in the radius of curvature of cornea in
the different planes. As a result rays from an
object in one plane are brought to focus by eye in
another plane.
Remedy: cylindrical lens is used.
MAGNETISM
Magnetic Substance : On the basis of
magnetic behavior, substances can be divided
into three categories.

Diamagnetic
substance:
Diamagnetic
substances are such substances which when
placed in a magnetic field, acquire feeble
magnetism opposite to the direction of
magnetic field.
Examples : Bismuth, Zinc, Copper, Silver,
Gold, Diamond, Water, Mercury, Water etc.

P aramagnetic S ubstance : Pa ra magnetic

substa nces a re such substances which when

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placed in a magnetic field acquire a feeble

magnetism in the direction of the field.
Examples : Aluminum, Platinum, Manganese,
Sodium, Oxygen etc.

Ferromagnetic substance : Ferromagnetic

substances are those substance, which when
placed in a magnetic field, are strongly
magnetized in the direction of field.
Examples : Iron, Cobalt, Nickel etc.

Curie Temperature: As temperature increases,

the
magnetic
property
of
ferromagnetic
substance decreases and above a certain
temperature
the
substance
changes
into
paramagnetic substance.
Permanent magnets are made of steel, cobalt
steel, ticonal, alcomax and alnico.
Electromagnets, cores of transformers, telephone
diaphragms, armatures of dynamos and motors
are made of soft iron, mu-metal and stalloy.
SOURCES OF ACID:
Citric acid Lemons or oranges (Citrus fruits)
Lactic acid sour milk
Butyric acid Rancid butter
Tarteric acid Grapes
Acetic acid Vinegar
Maleic acid Apples
Carbonic acid Soda water aerated drinks
Stearic acid Fats
Oxalic and Tomato, wood sorrel.

Conc. H2SO4 and HNO3 is used to wash iron for its

galvanization.
Oxalic acid is used to remove rust spot.
Boric acid is a constituent of eye wash.
Formic acid is present in red ants.
Uric acid is present in urine of mammals

Acidic strength
(i) HF <HCl<HBr< HI
(ii) CH3COOH < H2SO4< HNO3<HCl
AQUAREGIA: Mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric
acid,in a volume ratio of 1:3.
Uses of HCL :
In gastric juices are responsible for the digestion.
Used as bathroom cleaner.
As a pickling agent before galvanization.
In the tanning of leather.
In the dying and textile industry.
In the manufacture of gelatin from bones.

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Uses of HNO3:
In the manufacture of fertilizers like ammonium
nitrate.
Nitric acid is used in the purification of gold & silver.
In the manufacture of explosives like TNT, TNB ,
Picric acid etc.
Nitro Glycerin (Dynamite)
Found in rain water (first shower)
It forms nitrates in the soil.
In the manufacture of rayon.
In the manufacture of dyes & drugs.
Uses of Sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4 )
In lead storage battery.
In the manufacture of HCl.
In the manufacture of Alum.
In the manufacture of fertilizers, drugs, detergents
& explosives.
Use of Boric acids :
As an antiseptic.

Uses of Phosphoric acid :

Its calcium salt makes our bones.
It forms phosphatic fertilizers.
Uses of Ascorbic acid : Source of Vitamin C
Uses of Citric acid : Flavoring agent & food
preservative.
U s e s o f A c e t i c a c i d : F l a v o r i n g agent & food
preservative.
Uses of Tartaric acid : Souringagent for
pickles, baking powder
PH value of some liquids:
Lemon juice
2.5
Apple juice
3.0
Vinegar
3.0
Urine
4.8
Saliva
6.5
Milk
6.5
Blood
7.4
Toothpaste
9.0
ACID PROPERTY:
Blue litmus paper turns red
Methyl orange -orange to pink
Phenolphthalein- colour less
BASE PROPERTY:
Red litmus paper turns blue
Methyl orange from orange to yellow

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Phenolphthalein from colourless to pink

Uses of some important salts :
Sodium Chloride :flavoring agent in food. In
saline water for a patient of dehydration (0.9%
NaCl), In the manufacture of HCL etc.
Sodium iodate :Iodized salt to prevent Goitre
disease.
Sodium
Carbonate
:
As
washing
soda,
manufacturing of glass etc.
Sodium Benzoate : As a food preservative for
pickles.
Potassium nitrate : As a fertilizer giving both K & N
to the solid, gun powder ,match sticks etc.
Calcium phosphate: fertilizer
Alum : purification of water, dyeing industry ,
antiseptic after shave.

Water gas: mixture of carbon monoxide and

hydrogen, high calorific value
Producer gas : mixture of CO and N 2
Coal gas :mixture of H 2, CH 4 , CO and other gases
like N 2 , C 2 H 4 , 0 2 etc
Oil gas :mixture of H 2, CH4, C2 H4 , CO and other
gases like CO 2
Gobargas:contains CH 4 , CO and, H 2
Natural gas :mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons methane 85% , ethane, propane butane etc.
LPG:
Liquefied petroleum gas - butane and
isobutane.
COALS:
Bituminous : Black, hard, smoky, flame, domestic fuel
Lignite : High moisture content burns easily, low
calorific value.
Peat : Low grade coal produces less heat & more smoke
& ash
Anthracite : Superior quality, hardest form, high
calorific value
Compounds of metal and non-metal and
their uses :

Vulcanization of rubber :
Vulcanization is a process of treating the natural rubber
with sulphur or some compound of sulphur (SF6) under
heat.
Vulcanized rubber is used for manufacturing rubber
bands, gloves, car, tyres etc.
FIBERS:Fibres have quite strong intermolecular
forces such as hydrogen bonding.
Nylon-66, dacron, orlon.
RAYON:Synthetic fibre obtained from cellulose
FUEL GAS

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Ferrous ox ide (FeO ) :In green glass, Ferrous

salt.
Ferric oxide (Fe 3 0 4 ) : In electroplating of
ornaments and formation of ferric slat
Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4. 7H20) : In dye industry,
and Mohr's salt
Ferric hydroxide [(Fe(OH)3)] : In laboratory
reagent and in making medicines.
Iodine (I 2 ):Antiseptic, In making tincture of iodine.
Bromine (Br 2 ):In dye industry, laboratory reagent
Chlorine (Cl 2 ) :Mustard gas, Bleaching powder.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) : In the formation of
aquaregiaand dyes
Sulphuric acid (H 2SO4) :
As a reagent ,In
purification of petroleum,In lead storage battery.
Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) : As oxidants & reductants
, bleaching agent
Hydrogen Sulphides (H 2 S) : In qualitative
analysis of basic radical (group separation)
Sulphur (S) : Antiseptics, vulcanization of
rubber, gun powder, medicine.
Ammonia (NH 3 ) : As reagent in ice factory.
Nitrous oxide (N 2 0) : Laughing gas, Surgery.
Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) :Soda water, Fire
extinguisher.
Carbon monoxide (CO) : In phosgene gas
Graphite : As electrodes.
Diamond : Ornaments, Glass cutting, Rock drilling.
Alum [K2SO4 Al2 (SO4)3. 24 H2O] : (i) Purification of
water (ii) Leather industry.

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Aluminum sulphate [Al2(SO4)3 . 18H20] : In paper

industry/fire extinguisher.
Anhydrous aluminium chloride (AlCl3) : Cracking of
petroleum.
Mercuric
Chloride
(HgC l 2 )
:
Calomel,
Inse cticides (Corrosive sublimate)
Mercuric oxide (HgO) :Ointment, poison.
Mercury
(Hg)
:
Thermometer
vermillion,
amalgam.
Zinc Sulphide (ZnS) : White pigment.
Zinc Sulphate (White vitriol) (ZnSO4 . 7H20) :
Lithopone, Eye ointment.
Zinc Chloride (ZnCl 2 ) : Textile industry.
Zinc oxide (ZnO) : Ointment.
Zinc (Zn) : In battery.
Calcium carbide (CaC 2 ) : Calcium cyanide &
acetylene gas.
Bleaching powder [Ca(OCI)Cl] : Insecticides,
Bleaching actions.
Plaster of paris : Statue, Surgery.
Calcium sulphate (CaSO 4 2H 2 0) : Cement
industry.
Calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) :Lime & toothpaste
Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) :Soda water, Fire
extinguisher.
Carbon monoxide (CO) : In phosgene gas (COCl 2).
Graphite :As electrodes.
Copper sulphate (CuSO 4 -5H 2 0) : Insecticides,
Electric cells.
Cupric oxide (CuO) : Blue & green glass,
purification of petroleum
Cuprous Oxide (Cu2O) : Red glass, pe sticides.
Copper (Cu) : E le ct ri ca l w ir e .
Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) : Fe rtilize r.
Sodium Sulphate (Glauber salt): Medicine, glass
Sodium bicarbonate (Baking soda) : Fire extinguish
bakery, reagent.
Sodium Carbonate (Washing soda) :
Glass
industry,Paper
industries,
Removal
of
permanenthardness of water
Hydrogen peroxide : Oxidants & reductants,
Insecticides.
Liquid hydrogen : Rocket fuel.

Facts About Some Metals

Zinc phosphide is used for killing rats.
Wood furnitureare coated with zinc chloride to
prevent termites.
Excess of copper in human beings causes
disease called Wilson.
Galvanised iron is coated with zinc.
Rusting of iron is a chemical change which
increases the weight of iron.
Calcium hydride is called hydrolith.
Calcium hydride is used to prepare fire proof
and waterproof clothes.

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In flash-blub, magnesium wire is kept in

atmosphere of nitrogen gas
Titanium is called strategic metal because it
is lighter than iron.
Babbitt metal contains 89% Sn (Tin),Sb (Antimony)
and 2% Cu (Copper).
Chromium trioxide is known as chromic acid.
Nichrome wire is used in electrical heater
Potassium carbonate (K 2 CO 3 ) is known as pearl
ash.
Generally transition metals and their compounds
are coloured.
Zeolite is used to remove hardness of water.
In cytochrome iron (Fe) is present.
Selenium metal is used in photo electric cell.
Gallium metal is liquid at room temperature.
Palladium metal is used in aeroplane.
Radium is extracted from pitchblende.
World famous Eiffel Tower has steel and
cement base.
Actinides are radio-active elements.
Cadmium rod is used in nuclear reactor to
slow down the speed of neutron.
Sodium peroxide is used in submarine and also to
purify closed air in hospital.
Co( COBALT) is used in cancer treatment.
Onion and garlic odour due to potassium.
Oxides of metals are alkaline.
Silver and copper are the best conductor of
electricity.
Gold and Silver are the most malleable metal.
Mercury and iron produces more resistance in
comparison to the other during the flow of
electricity.
Lithium is the lightest and the most reductant
element.
In fireworks, crimson red colour is due to
presence of strontium (Sr). Green colour is due
to the presence of Barium in fireworks.
Barium sulphate is used in X-ray of abdomen
as barium meal.
Barium hydroxide is known as Baryta wat er.
Osmium is the heaviest metal and the
Platinum is the hardest.
Zinc oxide is known as flower of zinc. It is also
known as Chinese white and used as white
paint.
Silver chloride is used in photo chromatic glass.
Silver iodide is used in artificial rain.
Silver nitrate is used as marker during election.
It is kept in coloured bottle to avoid
decomposition.
Silver spoon is not used in egg food because it
forms black silver sulphide.

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To harden the gold, copper is mixed. Pure gold

is 24 carat. Iron Pyrites (FeS2) is known as
fool's gold.
Mercury is kept in iron pot ,because it doesn't
form amalgum with iron.
In tube light there is the vapour of mercury and
argon.
Tetra-Ethyl lead is used as anti knocking
compound.
Lead-pipe is not used for drinking water because
it forms poisonous lead hydroxide.
Fuse wire is made up of lead and tin.
Chlorofluoro carbon is known as Freon used as
refrigerant
Non-stick utensil is made up of Teflon.
Chlorine is used to prepare PVC, insecticides
herbicides etc. Bromine is used in ethylene
bromide synthesis which is mixed with added
petrol.
In the preparation of AgBr which is used in
photography.

INERT GASES:
He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
Rn gas are absent in atmosphere.
Argon is used in Arc. welding& electric bulb.
Helium and nitrogen mixture used in balloon
and , weather indicator etc.
Neon is used in discharge tube glow light.
CA TAL YS TS A ND I T S US E S :
F e + M o - Synthesis of NH3 by Haber's process.
Ni - Synthesis of vanaspati Ghee (hydrogenation)
Pt-Synthesis of H2SO4 by Contact process.
NO-Manufacture of H2SO4 by the Lead chamber
process.
Hot Al 2 0-preparation of Ether from Alcohol.
CuCl 2 - Preparation of chlorine gas by Deacon
process.
Some Important Explosive

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Dynamite : It was discovered Alfred Nobel in

1863. It is prepared by absorption of raw dust with
Nitro-glycerin. In modern dynamite Sodium Nitrate is
used in place of Nitro-glycerin.
T N T : Tri Nitro Toluene
TNB : Tri Nitro Benzene
TNP: Tri Nitro Phenol or picric acid.
R.D.X is highly explosive known as plastisizer in
which Aluminumpowder is mixed to increase
the temperature and the speed of fire.

Some Important Facts

Age of fossils and archeological excavation is
determined by radioactive carbon (C-14).
Chloroform in sunlight forms poisonous gas
'Phosgene' (COCl2).
To decrease the basicity of soil gypsum is used.
In the preparation of Talcom powder theophestal
mineral is used.
Potassium chloride is most suitable for the removal
of permanent hardness of water.
To avoid melting of ice gelatin is used.
Saccharine is prepared from toluene.
Cream is a type of milk in which amount of fat is
increased while -amount of water decrease.
From one kilogram of honeybee 3500 calorie energy
is produces.
Nitrous oxide is known as laughing gas.
Bones contain about 58% calcium phosphate.
Phosphine gas is used in voyage as Holmes signal.
Chlorine gas bleaches the colour of flower.
Red phosphorus is used in match industry.
Urea contains 46% nitrogen.
In the electroplating of vessel NH4Cl is used.
Power alcohol is prepared from mixing pure alcohol
in benzene which is used as rocket fuel.
Artificial perfumes are prepared from Ethyl acetate.
Urea was the first organic compound synthesised in
Laboratory.
Vinegar contains 10% acetic acid.
Acetylene is used for light production and riping of
fruits.
Ferric chloride is used to stop bleeding.
Barium is responsible for green colour in fireworks.
Cesium is used in solar cells.
Yellow phosphorus is kept in water.
Sea weeds contains iodine.
During cooking maximum vitamin is lost.
For the preparation of silver mirror, glucose is used.
When cream is separated from milk, it's density
increases.
For artificial respiration mixture of oxygen and
helium gas cylinder is used.
In cold places, to decrease the freezing point
ethylene glycol is used.
Hydrogen peroxide is used for oil paintings.

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Page 7

Sodium is kept in kerosene oil.

The heaviest element is Osmium (Os).
The lightest element and least dense is lithium (Li).
Fluorine is the most oxidising agent.
Silver is the best conductor of electricity.
Radon is the heaviest gas.

LAYERS OF BIOSPHERE AND ITS APPLICATION:

affect a thermometer. Temperatures in this region may

be as high as thousands of degrees.
Exosphere: The exosphere is the region beyond the
thermosphere.
Ionosphere: The ionosphere overlaps the other
atmospheric layers, from above the Earth. The air is
ionized by the Suns ultraviolet light. These ionized
layers affect the transmittance and reflectance of radio
waves.
RANGE OF WAVES SPECTRUM:

Radio: Your radio captures radio waves emitted by

radio stations, bringing your favorite tunes. Radio waves
are also emitted by stars and gases in space

Troposphere: This is the lowest atmospheric layer and

is about seven miles (11 km) thick. Most clouds and
weather are found in the troposphere. The troposphere
is thinner at the poles (averaging about 8km thick) and
thicker at the equator (averaging about 16km thick).
The temperature decreases with altitude.
Stratosphere: The stratosphere is found from about 7
to 30 miles (11-48 kilometers) above the Earths surface.
In this region of the atmosphere is the ozone layer,
which absorbs most of the harmful ultraviolet radiation
from the Sun. The temperature increases slightly with
altitude in the stratosphere. The highest temperature in
this region is about 32 degrees Fahrenheit or 0 degrees
Celsius.
Mesosphere: The mesosphere is above the
stratosphere. Here the atmosphere is very rarefied, that
is, thin, and the temperature is decreasing with altitude,
about 130 Fahrenheit (-90 Celsius) at the top.
Thermosphere: The thermosphere starts at about 55
kilometers. The temperature is quite hot; here
temperature is not measured using a thermometer, but
by looking at the motion and speed of the rarefied gases
in this region, which are very energetic but would not

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Microwave: Microwave radiation will cook your popcorn

in just a few minutes, but is also used byastronomers to
learn about the structure of nearby galaxies.
Infrared: Night vision goggles pick up the infrared light
emitted by our skin and objects with heat. In space,
infrared light helps us map the dust between stars.
Visible: Our eyes detect visible light. Fireflies, light
bulbs, and stars all emit visible light.
Ultraviolet: Ultraviolet radiation is emitted by the Sun
and are the reason skin tans and burns. "Hot" objects in
space emit UV radiation as well.
X-ray: A dentist uses X-rays to image your teeth, and
airport security uses them to see through your bag. Hot
gases in the Universe also emit X-rays.
Gamma ray: Doctors use gamma-ray imaging to see
inside your body. The biggest gamma-ray generator of
all is the Universe.
Plant Tissues
Cluster of cells is called a tissue is arranged and
designed so as to give the highest possible efficiency of
function.
Plants are stationary or fixed they dont move, most of
the tissues they have are supportive which provides
them with structural strength. Most of these tissues are
dead, since dead cells can provide mechanical
strength as easily as live ones and need less
maintenance.

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Plant tissue is of two types:

1. Meristematic Tissue (They can divide)
Depending on the region where they are present
meristematic tissues are classified as apical, lateral
and intercalary.
Apical meristems are present at growing tips of
stems and roots and increase the length of the stem
and the root.
The girth of the stem or root (Circumference
increment) increases due to lateral meristem
(cambium). It helps in growth of stem eaten by
animal.
Intercalary meristem is the meristem at the base of
the leaves or internodes.
2. Permanent tissue (They lose the ability to divide)
They are derived from meristematic tissue once they
lose the ability to divide.

Permanent tissue is of two types:

a. Simple permanent tissue (Made up of 1 type
of cells)
i.
Parenchyma :
Made up of living cells
Loosely packed
Provides support stores food and water
Parenchyma consisting chlorophyll is called
Chlorenchyma
In aquatic plants large air cavities are present
in Parenchyma to give buoyancy such
Parenchyma is called Aerenchyma.
Present in stem and roots.
ii.
Collenchyma
Provides flexibility
Allows easy bending without breaking
Provides mechanical support
Living cells
Present in leaf and stem
iii.
Sclerenchyma
Makes plant hard and stiff
Husk of coconut
Dead cells
Walls thickened due to Lignin
Present in stems around vascular bundles, in veins of
leaves covering of seeds and nuts.
Epidermis is outermost layer of cell. Usually made of
single layer of cells. The entire surface of a plant has
this outer covering of epidermis. It secrete waxy water
resistant layer on their outer surface and aids in
protection against loss of water, mechanical injury and
invasion by parasitic fungi.
Small pores in epidermis of leaves (Stomata) are
enclosed by two kidney shaped cells called Guard
Cell.
Stomata exchange gas with the atmosphere.
Transpiration (loss of water in the form of water
vapor) also takes place through stomata.

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Epidermal cell of roots increases absorptive surface

area to absorb water.

Complex tissue (Made up of more than one type

of cells)
Xylem and phloem are examples Complex tissues.
They are conducting tissue.
Xylem
Made up of four elements :Tracheids, vessels,
xylem Parenchyma and xylem fibers.
The cells have thick walls, and many of them are
dead cells.
Tracheids and vessels are tubular structures which
allow them to transport water and minerals
vertically.
Parenchyma stores food and helps in the sideways
conduction of water.
Fibers are mainly supportive in function.
Phloem
Made up of four elements : Sieve tubes,
companion cells, phloem fibers and phloem
parenchyma
Sieve tubes are tubular cells with perforated walls.
Phloem is unlike xylem in that materials can move
in both directions in it.
It transports food from leaves to other parts
of plants.

Animal Tissue
1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscular tissue
4. Nervous tissue
1. Epithelial Tissue
Covering or protective tissues
Forms barrier to keep different body system
separate
Tightly packed and form a continuous sheet having
cementing material between them

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Depending on shape and function epithelial tissue is

classified as squamous, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated
and glandular
In cells lining blood vessels or lung alveoli where
transportation of substances occurs through a
selectively permeable surface, there is a simple flat
kind of epithelium called simple squamous
epithelium.
Oesophagus and the lining of the moth are covered
with sqauamous epithelium.
Skin is also made of squamous epithelium.
Where absorption and secretion occur, as in the
inner lining of the intestine tall epithelial cells are
present.
Cuboidal epithelium forms the lining of kidney
tubules and ducts of salivary glands.
2. Connective Tissue
Loosely spaced and embedded in an intracellular
matrix, matrix may be jelly like, fluid, dense or rigid.
Different types of connective tissues in our body
include areolar tissue, adipose tissue, bone, tendon,
ligament, cartilage and blood.
Blood is a connective tissue.
Blood has a fluid matrix called plasma, in which RBC,
WBC & Platelets are suspended.
Plasma contains proteins, salts and hormones.
Blood flows and transport gases, digested food,
hormones and waste materials.
Bone is also a connective tissue, provides framework
that supports the body.
Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix that is
composed of calcium and phosphorous compounds.
Two bones connected to each other by another type
of connective tissue called the ligament. This tissue
is very elastic. Ligaments contains little matrix.
Tendons connect bones to muscles and are fibrous
tissue with great strength but limited flexibility.
Cartilage is another connective tissue. The solid
matrix is composed of proteins and sugars.
Cartilage smoothens bone surfaces at joints and is
also present in the nose, ear, trachea and larynx.
Areolar connective tissue is found between the skin
and muscles, around blood vessels and nerves and
in the bone marrow.
Fat storing adipose tissue is found below the skin
and between internal organs.
3. Muscular Tissue
Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells also
called muscle fibers.
Muscles contain special proteins called contractile
proteins.
Striated, unstriated and cardiac are three types of
muscle tissues.

Voluntary muscles

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Muscles which moves according to our will is called

voluntary muscle, they are mostly attached to bones
that is why called skeletal muscles.
These muscles show alternate light and dark bands
or striations when stained appropriately under
microscope they are also called striated muscles.
The cells of these tissue are long, cylindrical,
unbranched and multinucleate(having many nuclei)
Involuntary muscles
Muscles which do not move according to our will.
They are found in iris of the eye, in ureters and in
the bronchi of the lungs, alimentary canal.
They are uninucleate (Having a single nucleus)
They are also called unstriated muscles.
Muscles of the heart are involuntary called cardiac
muscles.
4. Nervous Tissue
All cells possess the ability to respond to stimuli.]
Brain, spinal cord & nerves are all composed of the
nervous tissue.
The cell of nervous tissue is called nerve cell or
Neuron.
Usually each neuron has a single long part called
axon.

SOME IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT BIOLOGY

Many short branched parts called dendrites.
Father of Biology and Zoology Aristotle
Father of Botany Theophrastus
Father of Taxonomy Carolus Linnaeus
Father of Medicine Hippocrates
Euglena is an organism which exhibits
characteristic of both plants and animals .

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The Cell was firstly invented by an English Scientist

Robert Hook in 1665.
Cell Theory- The cell theory was jointly propounded
by a botanist Schleden and a Zoologist Schwan in
1838-1839.
Lysosome destroys itself in such a process so it is
called suicide vesicle (bag) of the cell
Mitochondria is called Power House of the cell.
Ribosome is called the factory of protein.
Chloroplast is called Kitchen of cell.
The smallest cell is Mycoplasma Gallosepticum, while
the largest cell is Ostrichs egg .
Cell -wall is completely developed and which is
composed of cellulose.
The blue- green algae is a special type of bacteria
which are called cyanobacteria.
Lichen is a micro-organism which co-exist between
cyanobacteria and fungi.

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Lichens are the indicators of the air pollution and for

the maximum pollution there exist no lichens.
The algae which appear on the ice are called
Cryptophytes,while which appear on the rock are
called Lithophytes.
The Largest banyan tree of Indian Botanical Garden,
Shivpur (Howarah)
Pitcher plant leaves accommodate to trap the insects
and modified themselves in the form of bags.
The metal magnesium is found in the chlorophyll of
plant leave and in the nucleus of the chlorophyll the
atom of magnesium exists.

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