American and Japanese Education

Comparative Analysis of Educational 99

Systems of American and Japanese
Schools: Views and Visions

by Craig C. Wieczorek

That free government rests, as does all progress, upon the broad-
est possible diffusion of knowledge, and that the Commonwealth
should avail itself of those talents which nature has sown so lib-
erally among its people by assuring the opportunity for their
fullest development by an effective system of education through-
out the Commonwealth.
—Thomas Jefferson, 1779
Erasmus once said, “The main hope of a nation lies in the proper edu-
cation of its youth.” Knowing the great impact education has on a nation,
I decided to investigate the education systems in America and Japan. In
May 2006, I was able to observe and work with Japanese students, teach-
ers, and administrators through the University of Toledo’s Study Abroad
Program. The aim of the study was to answer how educational systems or
practices in Japan and America differ, and how Japanese practices might
improve those of American educators and administrators.
Besides many similarities, there are striking contrasts between
American and Japanese views and visions of education, and they point
to quite different directions and paths of reform in the two nations.
While Americans are busy constructing common standards and bench-
marks, developing and using more standardized tests for all students, and
moving toward standards-based school reform, the Japanese seem to
desire just the opposite—deconstructing uniform standards, moving
away from the pressures of national exams, and focusing more on the
interests and potential of each student, a goal that has often been
ignored in Japanese culture and schools.
 educational HORIZONS Winter 2008

Education in the United States

Education in the United States is provided mainly by the govern-
ment, with control and funding coming from three levels: federal, state,
and local. At the primary and secondary school levels, curricula, funding,
teaching, and other policies are set through locally elected school boards
with jurisdiction over the school districts. School districts can be, but are
not always, associated with counties or municipalities. Educational stan-
100 dards and standardized-testing decisions are made by the states through
acts of their legislatures and governors, along with their state depart-
ments of education.1
Schooling is compulsory for all children in the United States. Most
children begin primary education with kindergarten at age five or six,
depending upon the eligibility requirements in their districts, and com-
plete their secondary education at age eighteen or when their senior
year of high school ends. Some states allow students to leave school at
age sixteen, before finishing high school, while other states require stu-
dents to stay in school until age eighteen.
Approximately 85 percent of U.S. students enter the public schools
largely because they are “free”—in other words, supported by taxes that
local school districts levy. According to government data, approximately
10.4 percent of all students enrolled in compulsory education attend pri-
vate schools. Most students attend school around eight hours per day,
usually 175 to 185 days per year. Most schools have a summer “break”
for about 2½ months from June to August.2
Parents may also choose to educate their children at home. In fact,
1.7 percent of children are home schooled.3 The rationales are many:
maintaining moral or religious systems; individualizing curricula, espe-
cially for those with learning disabilities; and avoiding negative social
pressures. Home-schooling parents often form groups to help one anoth-
er, and may even assign classes to different parents, similar to teaching
assignments in public and private schools.
Overall, the U.S. literacy rate, estimated at 97 percent by the United
Nations, shares the number-one ranking with twenty other nations.4
More than 76.6 million students are enrolled in nursery school through
undergraduate study. Of those, 72 percent ages twelve to seventeen
were judged academically “on track” for their age. Among the country’s
adult population, more than 85 percent have completed high school and
27 percent have received bachelor’s degrees or higher. (The latter
group’s average beginning salary is $42,712, compared to beginning
teachers’ average of just below $29,000.5 However, the nation’s reading
literacy rate, defined as students’ abilities to “understand complex texts,
evaluate information and build hypotheses, and draw on specialized
knowledge,” is low compared to other developed countries, at 86 to 98
 American and Japanese Schools: Views and Visions

percent of the population over age fifteen, and its science and mathe-
matics proficiency also ranks below average.6 This mediocre perform-
ance has pushed the private and public school systems toward
standards-based assessments through the federal No Child Left Behind
Act of 2001. In addition, the ratio of college-educated adults entering the
workforce compared to the general population (33 percent) is slightly
below the mean of the developed countries (35 percent), while the rate
of labor-force participation in continuing education is high.7
101
Education in Japan
Education in Japan is a national, prefectural (provincial), and munici-
pal responsibility. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and
Technology (known as Monbukagakusho, MEXT, since 2001) oversees
dozens of internal study groups that evaluate methods of education and
provide guidance, advice, and funding to the prefectural governments
based on research from the National Council on Education Reforms.8 In
the past, such “guidance” and “advice” have been followed closely, and
deviations from them resulted in budget cuts and other difficulties. In
short, the national government bears one-third to one-half the cost of edu-
cation in the form of teachers’ salaries, school construction, the school-
lunch program, and vocational education and equipment.9
Recent reforms have given more power to the prefectural govern-
ments. The MEXT also reviews textbooks to see that they are neutral in
their points of view and include correct information according to grade
levels. One of the important points of recent reforms is that in the past,
the MEXT decided what information to include in textbooks, whose min-
imal information often failed to provide students with deeper under-
standing. However, today the MEXT sets only minimum standards for
textbook content. In effect, schools can now use textbooks and supple-
mentary textbooks not directly approved by the MEXT.10
Every prefectural government has its own board of education that
offers guidance, advice, and funding for the prefecture’s public and pri-
vate schools. This board has a variety of responsibilities including, but
not limited to, choosing textbooks, hiring teachers, and, along with the
governor, drawing up the budget. Both the MEXT and the prefectural
government provide guidance to municipal governments, whose own
boards of education likewise guide local schools.11
Education is compulsory and free for all schoolchildren from the
first through the ninth grades. According to government data, well over
90 percent of students attend public schools from kindergarten through
the ninth grade, but more than 25 percent of students attend private
high schools. Between 75 and 80 percent of all Japanese students enroll
in university-preparation tracks.12
 educational HORIZONS Winter 2008

The Japanese school year begins on April 1 and ends on March 31

of the following year. Schools use a trimester system separated by vaca-
tion breaks. In the past, children attended school five full days and one
half-day on Saturday. However, since 2002, students have attended school
only five days a week, and Saturdays are “free days,” known as yutori
kyoiku (“unhurried education”), for pursuing optional academic or
extracurricular activities.13 Many teachers coach on weekends, and their
102 presence is required during summer vacation, usually the month of
August. The school year has a legal minimum of 210 days, but most local
school boards add about thirty more days for school festivals, athletic
meets, and ceremonies with nonacademic educational objectives, espe-
cially those encouraging cooperation and school spirit. With allowance
for the time devoted to such activities, the number of days devoted to
instruction is close to 195 per year.14
Japan’s greatest educational achievement is the high-quality basic
education most young people receive by the time they complete high
school. Recent statistics indicate that well over 95 percent of Japanese
are literate, which is particularly impressive since Japanese is one of the
most difficult languages to read and write. More than 95 percent of the
Japanese population graduates from high school. Some Japanese educa-
tion specialists estimate that the average Japanese high school graduate
has obtained about the same level of education as the average American
after two years of college.15 More than 2.5 million students advance to
universities and colleges.16
Japanese employees of large companies and government ministries
rank among the best-educated workers on earth.17 Teachers are accord-
ingly well compensated. According to the Organization for Economic
Co-operation (OECD), the average teacher salary for fifteen years’ expe-
rience in upper-secondary education is 4,977,782 yen per year ($42,820
USD). In addition, teachers are eligible for many types of special
allowances and bonuses (paid in three installments), which amount to
about five months’ salary, and periodic improvements are made in
salaries and compensation. Teachers also receive the standard health and
retirement benefits available to most salaried workers.18
At the same time, the academic achievement of Japanese students is
high by international standards. In successive international tests among
thirty-one developed nations, Japanese children have consistently
ranked first in mathematics literacy and second in science literacy. In
2000, the OECD’s Program for International Student Assessment (PISA)
for fifteen-year-olds determined that the number-one performers were
Finland, Japan, and Korea, respectively. Japan also ranked above average
in reading literacy.19
 American and Japanese Schools: Views and Visions

Similarities and Differences

Worldwide, illiteracy has greatly declined in the past several
decades. In fact, the percentage of the population without any schooling
decreased from 36 percent in 1960 to 25 percent in 2000. Among devel-
oping countries, illiteracy and percentages without schooling in 2000
stood at about half the 1970 figures.20 However, the OECD’s 2000 PISA
report revealed some glaring distinctions in student performance. Most
notably, the study found a larger variation in achievement among stu- 103
dents from different schools and socioeconomic groups in the United
States than in most countries. U.S. scores also registered performance
gaps along racial and ethnic lines. The PISA study found that white and
“other” fifteen-year-olds (including Asians, American Indians/Alaska
Natives, Native Hawaiians or Pacific Islanders, and multiracial students)
outperformed black and Hispanic students in reading, mathematics, and
science literacy.21 However, the study did not ascertain differences
between American and Japanese classrooms.
Even though the Japanese adopted the American 6-3-3 model (six
years elementary; three years middle; three years secondary) during the
U.S. occupation following World War II, there are marked similarities as
well as differences among both education systems.

Similarities
Focus on Education. Both the United States and Japan remain
strongly committed to educational pursuits. Correlating education with
socioeconomic and political viability, both countries fund academic
achievement liberally and provide additional resources. Thus, national
success is associated with individual success.
Structure of Education. Organizationally, both the United States and
Japan address education as a joint responsibility of the nation, the states
or prefectures, and localities. Both countries have federal agencies for
oversight, i.e., the U.S. Department of Education and the MEXT (the
Japanese ministry of education). Both countries retain state or prefec-
tural responsibility in state departments of education and prefectural
boards of education, which provide guidance to individual school dis-
tricts (United States) and municipal boards of education (Japan).
Compulsory Education. In both the Japanese and American sys-
tems, schooling, either public or private, is mandatory, and it varies in
both countries. In the United States, most children begin primary edu-
cation with kindergarten (age five or six) and, depending on the district
requirements, complete their education in the senior year of high school
(age eighteen). Some states allow students to leave school at age sixteen,
before finishing high school. In Japan, most children’s primary education
begins in the first grade, although parents typically send their children to
 educational HORIZONS Winter 2008

kindergarten as well.22 Students are required to attend classes until the

ninth grade in lower-secondary school (age fifteen).
Student Attendance. Since 2002, Japanese students have attended
school five full weekdays like their counterparts in the United States;
they have the weekends for personal activities. Both countries provide
summer vacations and breaks from academic pursuits. Calendars vary
depending on the local school boards.
Curricular Requirements. Both countries provide students with a
104
specific plan of study, and students are required to complete a core of
subjects. Literacy is measured in reading, mathematics, and science con-
tent. Since 1995, both countries have participated in the Trends in
International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS) assessment to
measure student achievement in mathematics and science. This interna-
tional assessment has produced a vehicle that measured both fourth- and
eighth-grade performances in thirty-seven developed countries in 1995,
1998, and 2003.23 The results show trends in which countries can adjust
their educational focus.
Extracurricular Activities. Students in both Japan and the United
States participate in activities outside academic responsibilities. Students
enjoy sports, band, clubs, academic groups (juku), and pop culture such
as video games, cell phones, and Internet communication.
Teacher Requirements. Both Japanese and American schools are com-
mitted to employing highly qualified professional staff. Teachers in both
countries are required to pass prefectural- or state-level examinations to
receive licensing by prefectural or state boards of education. Teachers in
both countries are required to participate in professional development
activities.
In 1989, Japan’s teachers union (Nihon Kyoshokuin Kumiai—
Nikkyoso) adopted a new system of teacher training. The new system
required new teachers to work under the direct supervision of master
teachers and increased the number of both in-school and out-of-school
training days and the time for new teachers’ probationary status.24
Teachers must seek certification renewal. In May 2006, the NHK
(Nippon Ho-so- Kyo-kai—Japanese Broadcasting Corporation) reported
that new teachers would have to renew their licenses every ten years.25
This is a notable departure from previous licensing policies, which
allowed licensed teachers to teach throughout their careers without
license renewal.26 (In Ohio, by contrast, new teachers must renew their
licenses every five years.) However, both countries require teachers to
complete their training at four-year postsecondary institutions and to
attend prescribed professional development throughout their careers.
Student Attitudes. There are important similarities between
Japanese and American student attitudes. Although most students
 American and Japanese Schools: Views and Visions

enrolled in education are actively engaged in their education, there is

evidence, as in many countries, of growing concern with discipline.
(According to the OECD in 2000, “More than one in four students in
twenty of the twenty-eight OECD member countries surveyed consider
school a place where they do not want to go.”27 Even though student
attitude is not an automatic performance determinant, there is still a
strong relationship between student attitude and results. In recent years,
studies have shown that while Japanese students are highly motivated, 105
there are common problems: loss of interest in school; school-refusal syn-
drome; and school violence.28 In several Japanese junior high class-
rooms, the writer witnessed both boys and girls with their heads on
their desks, most noticeably during English and social studies classes—
not unlike scenes that can be witnessed in the schools of Toledo, Ohio.

Differences
Education Requirements. Although both Japan and the United
States mandate compulsory education, Japan’s entrance examination sys-
tem exerts strong influences throughout the entire system. Students are
required to pass a rigorous entrance examination to enter upper-sec-
ondary school (grades ten through twelve), which takes in nearly 94 per-
cent of those who complete lower-secondary school.29 High school
graduates must pass another, more-difficult entrance examination, from
which 33 percent advance to a four-year university, two-year junior col-
lege, or other postgraduate institution.30
Curricular Requirements. Although both Japan and the United States
attend to curricular requirements, Japan’s national curriculum exposes
students to a “balanced and basic education” known for its equal treat-
ment of students.31 The United States has no national curriculum; instead,
individual state boards of education set statewide curricula. Students do
not specialize in a narrow field of study until the second year of college at
the earliest. However, some schools encourage students to take electives
in areas of career interest. Generally, U.S. high school students take a broad
variety of classes without special emphasis. If academic content in
Japanese schools is “narrow and deep” in understanding, its U.S. counter-
part is “wide and shallow” in content dissemination. That in turn has
instructional ramifications. The curriculum varies in quality and rigidity.
Some states consider 70 (on a 100-point scale) passing, while in others a
passing grade can be as low as 60 or as high as 75.
An ongoing issue is student creativity, flexibility, or individual
expression. Critical thinking is not a concept that has been highly valued
in Japan. Japanese students are regimented and geared toward perse-
verance and self-discipline. A saying that sums up this one-for-all belief is
“the nail that sticks out gets hammered.”32 Thus, students are generally
 educational HORIZONS Winter 2008

instructed to memorize the text on which they will be tested, resulting

in high test scores that do not test students’ ability to use the data. For
instance, since 1987 the MEXT has required three years of English-lan-
guage training.33 However, Japanese schools offer no remedial or “hon-
ors” classes; students must enroll in jukus (“cram schools”), specialized
academic groups that meet after regular school hours. Half of all com-
pulsory school-age children attend academic jukus, which offer instruc-
106 tion in mathematics, Japanese language, science, English, and social
studies.34 Last, curricular requirements affect the academic calendar.
Students in the United States spend about eight hours per day on aca-
demic pursuits an average of 180 days per year; Japanese students spend
on average four to six hours more per day in 210 days each year, even
though they are assigned less homework than their U.S. counterparts.35
Education Administration. There are important differences
between Japanese and American teachers and administrators. Japanese
schools employ a more collegial system of “high-quality” instruction and
learning.36 Students are required to wear school uniforms from elemen-
tary to high school. Japanese students are never “referred” to the princi-
pal for bad behavior; rather, teachers communicate with the parents.37
Japanese schools employ one principal and one assistant principal or
“headmaster” teacher, who is active in the classroom as well. Both are
appointed by the prefectural board of education.38
In 1987, the government introduced the Japan Exchange and
Teaching (JET) Programme in an effort to improve foreign-language teach-
ing. Nearly half of the approximately six thousand Assistant Language
Teachers (ALTs) and Co-ordinators of International Relations (CIRs) teach-
ing English in 1999 were American teachers working with Japanese teach-
ers and students in their English-language training. They are employed by
prefectural boards.39 Japanese students are now required to study English
in lower-secondary school (grades seven through nine).
Japanese schools employ very little nonteaching staff and provide no
public transportation for students. Students often walk or ride bicycles to
and from schools or activities. Rather than operate cafeterias, schools
maintain kitchens. Students take turns picking up the prepared meal for
the day and serving fellow students in their homeroom classes. They
wear protective masks and arm protectors to prevent passage of germs
or bacteria, then return the used bowls and remaining food to the
kitchen. Every school maintains a strong recycling program: all recy-
clables are separated before they are returned to the kitchen. (Students
stay in the same homeroom throughout the academic year, a practice that
fosters teamwork and pride in their school.40) Schools employ one nurse
and one janitor. Students are responsible for the cleanliness of the school
 American and Japanese Schools: Views and Visions

and the grounds after classes have concluded. In such ways, Japanese
schools foster a strong moral education and character development.
The average class size in Japan ranges between thirty-five and forty-five
students, while the average American class size is twenty-five to thirty. Most
classrooms in Japan lack computers and overhead projectors, although
some have televisions with video equipment attached. Teachers do have
access to the Internet, but it is not utilized for student instruction.41
At the time of this writing, it was observed that homeroom teach- 107
ers are required to visit homes after school to meet with parents, build
good relations, and communicate students’ strengths and weaknesses to
parents. Parental involvement is strongly associated with the students’
success. Thus, whole-class instruction and a comprehensive approach
seem to play a large role in the Japanese students’ academic success. In
contrast, American schools are highly fragmented in their approach to
student success. An authoritarian structure with a large staff of special-
ists fosters student isolation and a negative climate through standard-
ized testing. American schools lack a comprehensive and nurturing
approach to education; instead, American administrators focus on sup-
porting initiatives that accommodate learning disabilities and special
needs for students.42
Student Attitude. There are important differences between Japanese
and American student attitudes. Japanese students are highly motivated;
they continually strive to reach the top in any activity they choose—aca-
demics, sports, or band. Often the difference is in the teachers. In Japan,
teaching remains an honored profession, and teachers’ high social status
stems from the Japanese culture and public recognition of their impor-
tant social responsibilities. Formal classroom moral instruction, informal
instruction, and even academic classes are all viewed as legitimate ven-
ues for this kind of teaching.
Whole-class instruction seems to offer greater motivational support
than tracking or drilling. Students work together on the same material at
the same pace; no one is left out. Teachers emphasize effort over ability
(perseverance); engage students (thinking of as many ways to solve the
problem as possible); build strong classroom relationships (correct
social interaction); and unify the classroom (class goals). Teachers com-
mitted to student success work to develop a curriculum that cultivates
a culture of learning. It is well documented that Japanese teachers are
better educated and prepared to teach mathematics than are their U.S.
counterparts. Japanese mathematics teachers’ lesson plans are more
complex and engage the student in developing cognitive structure in
mathematics.43
 educational HORIZONS Winter 2008

Conclusion
Numerous comparative studies have attempted to determine how
Japanese educational systems or practices differ from American systems
or practices, and how the education system or practices of Japan can
improve those of American educators and administrators. In the final
analysis, however, the one compelling characteristic of Japanese educa-
tion is student achievement. Therefore, the last question to answer is:
108 What aspect of the Japanese education system is most conducive to
molding student success?
This study suggests that Japan’s education system enables teachers
to motivate student learning through a well-rounded national curricu-
lum, closely integrated through all subjects, that engages students and
builds strong classroom relationships. In addition, a narrower curricular
focus fosters a deeper understanding for students. Whole-class instruc-
tion helps Japanese schools motivate their students by emphasizing
effort over ability, engaging students, building strong classroom relation-
ships, and unifying students under a common goal.44 Parental involve-
ment is crucial. In fact, parents usually start their children in pre-school
activities leading to formal instruction on piano or other musical instru-
ments, swimming or soccer, abacus, or a combination of activities that
develop motor skills during the elementary years. Children are also
encouraged to start English-language training as early as five or six years
old in private schools, even though they are not required to begin formal
training until the lower-secondary schools (grades 7–9).45
Because Japanese adolescents participate in school-related activities
such as school clubs or supplemental juku classes after school, they
develop an attachment to school values and build support through strong
school-based friendships in these activities. Collegial management of stu-
dent and teacher interactions in Japanese schools helps to create a posi-
tive environment that builds motivation. Thus, it is apparent that Japanese
educators have “sought to create a ‘new’ model of education that will not
only meet their needs for the twenty-first century, but will serve as a
model from which the rest of the world might learn.”46 Although some
Japanese students have motivation problems, the Japanese recognize that
the remedy lies in expanding motivation-building principles.
In the end, average will not be good enough for American children.

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 educational HORIZONS Winter 2008

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Notes
1. Black’s Law Dictionary, 5th ed. (St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing, 2000), s.v.
“School”; K. Alexander and M. D. Alexander, American Public School Law, 6th ed.
(Belmont, Calif.: Thomson West, 2005), 36–37.
2. “Education,” available at <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_America>.
Accessed August 10, 2006. Private school enrollment: “Elementary and Secondary
110 Education—Teacher Induction, Professional Development, and Working Conditions,”
available at <http://www.Nsf.gov/statistics/seind04/c1/c1s6.htm>. Accessed August
12, 2006.
3. United States Census 2000, “Education,” available at <http://factfinder.census.gov/
jsp/saff/SAFFInfo.jsp_pageId=tp5_education>. Accessed August 10, 2006.
4. Ibid.
5. “Elementary and Secondary Education—Teacher Induction, Professional
Development, and Working Conditions,” available at <http://www.Nsf.gov/statistics/
seind04/c1/c1s6.htm>. Accessed August 12, 2006.
6. U.S. Department of Education, “A First Look at the Literacy of America’s Adults in
the 21st Century,” available at <http://nces.ed.gov/NAAL/PDF/2006470.PDF>. Accessed
August 12, 2006; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD),
Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), “Reading Literacy, Science
Literacy, and Mathematics Literacy All Rank Near the Bottom of OECD-Countries,” avail-
able at <http://nces.ed.gov/survey/pisa/index.asp>. Accessed August 12, 2006.
7. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Current terti-
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dataoecd/41/12/35341224.pdf>. Accessed December 6, 2007.
8. K. W. Masalski, “Examining the Japanese History Textbook Controversies,” Japan
Digest (November 2001); “Education in Japan,” available at <http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Education_in_Japan). Accessed August 11, 2006.
9. “Education in Japan.”
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. L. Ellington, Japanese Education in Grades K–12. Bloomington, Ind. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED458185), 2–3.
13. Peter Payne, personal communication, June 7, 2006; Ellington, Japanese
Education, 3.
14. “Education in Japan.”
15. Ellington, Japanese Education.
16. “Education in Japan.”
17. Ellington, Japanese Education, 2.
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19. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Program
for International Student Assessment (PISA), “Outcomes of Learning: Results from
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Mathematics, and Science,” available at <http://www.siteselection.com/ssinsider/
snapshort/sf011210htm>. Accessed August 11, 2006.
 American and Japanese Schools: Views and Visions

20. “Education.”
21. OECD, PISA, “Outcomes of Learning.”
22. Yamazaki Misako, personal communication, May 23, 2006.
23. TIMSS, available at <http://nces.ed.gov/timss/>. Accessed August 12, 2006.
24. “Education in Japan.”
25. NHK (Nippon Ho-so- Kyo-kai), available at
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHK>. Accessed August 12, 2006.
26. Craig C. Wieczorek, personal communication, May 25, 2006.
27. OECD, PISA, “Outcomes of Learning.”
28. “The Japanese Education System: A Case Study Summary and Analysis,” avail- 111
able at <http://www.ed.gov/puns/ResearchToday/98-3038.html>. Accessed July 15,
2006.
29. “Education in Japan.”
30. Kasumi Yamazaki, personal communication, July 15, 2006.
31. “Education in Japan.”
32. Ibid.
33. Hood, Japanese Education Reform, 60.
34. “Juku,” available at <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juku>. Accessed August 13,
2006.
35. “Japanese Education System.”
36. Ibid.
37. Yamada Sensei, personal communication, May 24, 2006.
38. Takai Tetsunobu, personal communication, May 23, 2006.
39. Hood, Japanese Education Reform, 60; Jim Fenin, personal communication,
May 25, 2006.
40. “Education Around the World: The Students,” available at
<http://sitemaker.umich.edu/lin.356/the_students>. Accessed August 13, 2006.
41. Sensei, personal communication.
42. “Education Around the World.”
43. “Japanese Education System.”
44. Ibid.
45. Misako, personal communication.
46. Beauchamp, quoted in Hood, Japanese Education Reform, 39.

Craig C. Wieczorek is a graduate student in the Department of Foreign

Languages, University of Toledo.