Cardiol Clin 23 (2005) 285298

Coronary Artery Disease and Peripheral Vascular

Disease in Chronic Kidney Disease:
An Epidemiological Perspective
Austin G. Stack, MD, MSc, MRCPI, FASNa,b,*
a

Regional Kidney Centre, Department of Medicine, Floor D, Letterkenny General Hospital, County Donegal, Ireland
b
Internal Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center, 6431 Fanin Street, Houston, TX 77030, USA

Since Lindners sentinel observation in 1974

highlighting the substantial burden of cardiac
disease among patients receiving chronic dialysis,
it has become increasingly apparent that accelerated atherosclerosis is an inevitable consequence
of progressive loss in kidney function, resulting
in signicant morbidity and mortality [13]. Although there is consensus that chronic kidney
disease (CKD) represents a state of accelerated
atherosclerosis, and there is accumulating epidemiologic evidence linking worsening kidney function with increased cardiovascular event rates,
direct evidence demonstrating a causal relationship has been lacking [412]. The critical nature of
these relationships has resulted in the establishment of national task forces with support from
national agencies to assist in describing the extent
of the problem, to dene better the contribution
of known risk factors and potential novel risk
factors to disease occurrence, and nally to develop therapeutic strategies for prevention [3].
This article describes the epidemiology of coronary artery disease (CAD) and peripheral vascular
disease (PVD) among patients who have CKD.
Special emphasis is given to studies that have described the natural history of these vascular conditions at dierent stages of CKD in accordance with
current recommendations from the National Kidney
Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative [13].

* Regional Kidney Centre, Department of Medicine,

Letterkenny General Hospital, Ireland.
E-mail address: [email protected]

Assessing the burden of disease

Coronary artery disease
During the last decade, population-based and
center-specic studies have provided estimates of
the prevalence of CAD and PVD, but much of
these data is limited to patients who have advanced
kidney failure requiring renal replacement therapy
[1416]. In general, dening the prevalence of
a condition requires accurate, reliable, and validated methods of disease ascertainment. Moreover, for comparison of disease prevalence among
groups and throughout calendar periods, a standardized approach oers the best strategy for
recognizing changing trends. Unfortunately, denitions used to dene the presence of these conditions have varied widely, and the lack of a
standardized approach in CAD and PVD ascertainment may have resulted in some variation.
The prevalence of clinical CAD among patients with newly diagnosed end-stage renal disease (ESRD) is between 38% and 40% [16]. In an
analysis of 4025 patients from the Dialysis and
Mortality and Morbidity Study (DMMS) Wave 2,
Stack and colleagues [16] found that clinical CAD
was present in 38% of patients who have new
ESRD. In this study, CAD was dened as being
present if patients had a history of coronary
disease, myocardial infarction, or angina, prior
angiography for CAD, abnormal angiogram or
angioplasty, or coronary artery bypass grafting.
Myocardial infarction was present in 14% and
suspected in an additional 3%. Nineteen percent
patients had a history of angina pectoris, and an
additional 4% had suspected angina. Data from

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286

the Choices for Healthy Outcomes in Caring for

ESRD (CHOICE) study found CAD present in
41.6% and myocardial infarction present in 18%
[17]. Despite the lack of a standardized denition
of CAD between these two separately administered studies, the similarity in prevalence rates
is remarkable. Moreover, these values are also
similar in magnitude to estimates derived from the
Canadian Organ Replacement Registry (CORR)
[18] and the Australian and New Zealand Organ
Replacement Registries (ANZDATA) [15]. In
general, rates are higher in older persons, diabetics, and those with coexisting cardiovascular
conditions. An increasing prevalence of CAD at
ESRD onset may be expected if current trends in
ESRD incidence and prevalence prevail, but
comprehensive analysis of longitudinal trends
has not been performed. A preliminary comparison of CAD prevalence in the subjects enrolled in
the Case Mix Severity Study (who had new ESRD
at the study inception in 1986 and 1987) and those
enrolled in DMMS Wave 2 found strikingly
similar CAD rates (40% versus 38%), suggesting
that burden of CAD has remained relatively
stable at dialysis inception despite an aging dialysis population.
Despite the high prevalence of clinical CAD,
the true estimate of CAD in this high-risk population, although undetermined, is probably substantially larger than estimates obtained from
registry data or chart review. The average patient
who reaches ESRD in the United States has a 42%
probability of having diabetes, a 30% probability
of having hypertension, and has an average age
of 61 years, characteristics that are associated
with silent coronary ischemia [19]. As a result,
underestimation rather than overestimation of
CAD prevalence using registry data is highly
likely, and the true prevalence of CAD is almost
certainly higher than estimates reported from
these data. Indeed, a recent retrospective cohort
by Gradaus and colleagues [20] found a strikingly
high prevalence of angiographic CAD among
26 patients receiving maintenance dialysis. Of the
entire cohort (n = 26), 65% had angiographic
CAD, and 34% had at least two-vessel involvement. Even more alarming, 50% of the cohort
demonstrated signicant progression in disease,
dened as the development of a hemodynamically
signicant stenosis of more than 50%. The availability of novel coronary screening methods such
as electron beam CT may push this estimate even
higher. Preliminary observations demonstrate a direct relationship between calcium scores and the

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prevalence of atherosclerotic vascular disease [21].

Whether these scores are related to angiographically signicant disease remains undetermined,
however.
Peripheral vascular disease
PVD is increasingly recognized as an important contributor to adverse outcomes in patients
who have advanced CKD [2224]. Unfortunately,
unlike CAD, epidemiologic studies describing the
natural history of PVD are limited. Precise
estimates of disease prevalence, again, are inuenced by the underlying denition of PVD, which
varies according to its clinical presentation. Dening patients who have PVD as those who had
a prior diagnosis of PVD, amputation, intermittent claudication, or absent peripheral pulses, we
have shown that 21% of newly diagnosed ESRD
patients in the United States have clinical significant PVD using data from the DMMS Wave 2
study [16]. Among established hemodialysis patients, OHare and colleagues [22] reported similar
prevalence (24%) using the same case-based
denition. As before, a concern with these clinical
denitions is the potential for the underestimation of true disease prevalence. Leskinen and
colleagues [23] recently demonstrated that the
prevalence of PVD might be as high as 30.6%
among patients receiving maintenance dialysis when
the ankle-brachial or toe brachial index measurements are included along with the standard
clinical denitions as PVD indicators [23]. These
estimates demonstrate the nontrivial magnitude
of clinical PVD among patients who have advanced CKD and highlight the need for greater
awareness, diagnostic strategies, and eective
interventions.

Risk factors for coronary artery disease in

patients who have chronic kidney disease receiving
dialysis
Traditional Framingham-type risk factors do
not explain the high prevalence of CAD among
new dialysis patients (Table 1) [2527]. These
traditional factors typically include age, male
gender, hypertension, diabetes, high total and
low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, tobacco use,
physical inactivity, and a family history of premature cardiovascular disease. Several studies
have demonstrated that risk prediction equations
derived from the Framingham study underestimate
the burden of CAD disease in patients who have

VASCULAR DISEASE IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE

Table 1
Traditional and nontraditional risk factors for coronary
artery disease in chronic kidney disease
Traditional
risk factors

Nontraditional (novel)
risk factors

Nonmodiable
Advancing age
Male gender
Modiable
Hypertension

Hyperhomocysteinemia
Elevated lipoprotein (a)
Elevated brinogen
Low apolipoprotein A
Elevated inammatory
mediators
C-reactive protein
Interleukin 6

Diabetes mellitus
Elevated total serum
cholesterol
Elevated low-density
lipoprotein
cholesterol
Low high-density
lipoprotein cholesterol
Tobacco use
Physical inactivity
Family history of
premature coronary
disease

Oxidative stress

Abnormal calcium/
phosphate homeostasis
Elevated calcium
phosphate product
Hyperphosphatemia
Malnutrition
Albuminuria
Dialysis modality

CKD [2527]. These revelations have led to the

development of several theories that may explain
the large burden of CAD in these patients. First,
traditional risk factors may not exert the same
impact on coronary risk in the setting of CKD
as they do in persons who have normal kidney
function. Second, the presence of CKD may
contribute additional atherogenic toxins or mediators that augment CAD risk above that imposed
by traditional risk factors. These hypotheses currently are being explored by several investigators
using data from large, community-based cohorts
and from secondary analysis of large, randomized
clinical trials [4,6,8,10].
Although many would agree that most of the
Framingham risk factors increase the risk of CAD
in the setting of CKD, conclusive evidence demonstrating these relationships is lacking. Crosssectional analysis of data from the DMMS Wave
2 found strong associations between age, diabetes,
and tobacco use with clinical CAD at ESRD
initiation but failed to nd any relationship
between hypertension and serum cholesterol [16].
Similar ndings were reported by the hemodialysis study group, raising the possibility that the
patterns of association of known coronary disease
risk factors with CAD may not be the same in
CKD as in the general population [25]. At present,
there is no conclusive explanation for these

287

ndings, but confounding and eect modication

of these relationships by other concurrent comorbid conditions present in advanced kidney failure
is a strong possibility. More denitive studies
using prospectively assembled cohorts to explain
these associations are lacking. One particular
study that has extended our understanding of
these complex relationships in patients receiving
dialysis is that by Parfrey and colleagues [28]. In
addition to advancing age, diabetes, and diastolic
blood pressure, these investigators found that
echocardiographic abnormalities were strong independent predictors of de nova ischemic heart
disease in a longitudinal cohort of 432 hemodialysis patients.
Of potential concern in many of the published
studies is the lack of a signicant association
between serum cholesterol and hypertension and
the clinical coronary disease outcomes [16,28].
More surprisingly, several published studies have
demonstrated a reverse association between these
well-established factors and coronary disease
events, prompting a reassessment of the clinical
importance of these factors in the setting of CKD
[29,30]. An excellent illustration of these associations is that of serum cholesterol and mortality.
Lowrie and colleagues [30] found that serum
cholesterol levels varied inversely with mortality
risk in a cohort of 12,000 hemodialysis patients.
A step-wise increase in relative risk of death was
seen for serum cholesterol levels lower than
200 mg/dL. These ndings have prompted the
search for alternative explanations, such as competitive risk from malnutrition, confounding, and
eect modication by coexisting medical conditions, that might help explain these so-called
paradoxical relationships.
Risk factors for coronary artery disease in the
nondialysis chronic kidney disease population
Teasing out the independent contributions of
established coronary risk factors and CAD in
patients who reach ESRD is a dicult task.
Unlike the general population that has normal
kidney function, patients with ESRD represent
highly selected populations, experience high rates
of comorbid events, and undergo dialysis therapies that vary in technique and survival [14,31,32].
This constellation of factors makes it dicult, if
not impossible, to elucidate the true association of
known traditional risk factors with clinical CAD
using standard epidemiologic approaches. More
recently, studies have focused on patient groups

288

who have CKD but are not yet receiving dialysis,

(potentially more homogeneous populations) to
explore these relationships further.
Association of renal impairment with
cardiovascular outcomes: a quantitative measure
of traditional risk factor burden?
On of the most robust and consistent observations from several of the recently published studies
is the strong, graded, independent association of
elevated serum creatinine level or lower glomerular
ltration rate with increased cardiovascular mortality [412]. These associations are arguably most
evident in populations at high risk for cardiovascular events and are least evident in populations
who have the least risk. In several of these studies,
the associations of elevated serum creatinine levels
with cardiovascular outcomes are independent of
established traditional risk factors, suggesting that
the observed relationships may be mediated entirely by novel or nontraditional factors. This
conceptual framework may be awed, however.
Although worsening kidney function no doubt
involves potential nontraditional risk factors, it
may also involve components of traditional risk
factors (severity or duration) that are not completely accounted for in the current denitions.
For example, an elevated serum creatinine level
may be more likely to indicate cumulative exposures of traditional risk factors such as hypertension and tobacco use and as a result provide
a more quantitative measurement of these exposures than do single measurements. Accordingly,
the strong association of elevated serum creatinine
level and cardiovascular outcome may represent
an indirect estimate of the cumulative eect
of these traditional exposures on cardiovascular
outcomes.
Contribution of traditional Framingham risk
factors
Studies to date have not evaluated the simultaneous relative contributions of the so-called
traditional Framingham risk factors and the
nontraditional risk factors associated with clinical
CAD in the setting of CKD. Dening and
quantifying the contribution of each individual
risk factor with vascular disease outcomes is
a prerequisite for developing targeted interventional strategies and guiding public policy. For
example, the claim that traditional risk factors
impart the greatest risk in the CKD setting would
be strengthened if it were shown (1) that the

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prevalence of these factors increases with progressive decline in kidney function, (2) that each
factor contributes independently to increased
cardiovascular risk, and (3) that the magnitude
of cardiovascular risk is greatest for those with the
worst kidney function. Analysis of cross-sectional
data at the population level has revealed that
hypertension, impaired glucose tolerance, and
tobacco use increase with declining kidney function, supporting the notion that these factors may
contribute to the excess burden of CAD [3335].
For example, Ejerblad and colleagues [33] have
recently demonstrated a strong association between tobacco use and the likelihood of CKD in
a population-based, case-control study involving
1924 subjects. The odds of CKD, dened as
a serum creatinine level higher than 3.4 mg/dL
on as least two consecutive occasions, was increased in subjects who had smoked more than 20
cigarettes/d for at least 40 years duration or who
had a 20 pack-year history, as compared with
controls. It is unclear, however, whether the same
association exists between other traditional risk
factors (such as hypercholesterolemia and its
associated conditions, physical inactivity and
obesity) and the likelihood of CKD. Second,
although an increasing prevalence of traditional
risk factors with declining kidney function suggests an augmentation of overall cardiovascular
risk, it is by no means conclusive. The evidence
would be stronger if independent associations
were demonstrated between each traditional risk
factor and coronary disease in patients who have
reduced kidney function. Finally, denitive evidence linking traditional risk factors with CAD
would require prospectively designed studies that
illustrate an independent association of each
factor with CAD and show that the associated
risks increase in magnitude with worsening kidney
function.
Contribution of nontraditional risk factors
The enormous burden of CAD among patients
who have CKD is a perplexing observation that
has led many to believe that nontraditional
factors, accumulating in the setting of declining
kidney function, exert a sizable impact [2,36].
Several inammatory, thrombotic, and metabolic
cardiovascular risk factors have been implicated
as important contributors to the excess CAD
burden in the CKD setting [3743]. To date,
however, no single study has demonstrated beyond doubt that any one or any combination of

VASCULAR DISEASE IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE

these risk factors is causally involved in the

acceleration of coronary disease in the CKD
setting. Nonetheless, emerging data from several
cross-sectional and prospective cohorts, regional
or national in scope, have provided supportive
evidence linking nontraditional factors with vascular disease in CKD.
Muntner and colleagues [37] have recently
reported on the relationship of several inammatory and novel cardiovascular risk factors with
CKD (dened as a glomerular ltration rate of less
than 60 mL/min/1.73m2 based on the modied
Modication of Diet in Renal Disease Study
Formula equation) using data from the third
National Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey. As renal function decreased, levels of
homocysteine, lipoprotein (a), brinogen, and
C-reactive protein increased, while levels of apolipoprotein (a) decreased. Their ndings are in
agreement with several other smaller-center cohorts that have shown abnormally increased levels
of these nontraditional factors in persons with
CKD [3840]. Similarly, Shlipak and colleagues
[41] found strong independent correlations between several inammatory and procoagulant
markers and decline in renal function using baseline data from the Cardiovascular Health Study.
In this study, higher levels of C-reactive protein,
brinogen, interleukin-6, factor VII-c, factor VIII-c,
plasminantiplasmin complex, and D-dimer were
signicantly associated with worsening kidney
disease among individuals aged 65 years and
older. These ndings have been reproduced by
other investigators and add to a growing body of
literature demonstrating the presence of increased
inammation, oxidant stress, and impaired hemostatic function in persons who have CKD [42,43].
Although the cross-sectional data are interesting and suggestive, they are no substitute for
prospectively designed epidemiologic studies. In
fact, few published studies have investigated
associations of nontraditional factors with coronary events in longitudinal cohorts. By far the
most widely studied nontraditional factor is homocysteine, a sulfur-containing amino acid with
putative thrombotic properties [4451]. The increased thrombotic risk conferred by increased
homocysteine levels in persons with homozygous
genetic traits is undisputed, and pooled analysis of
observational cohorts in the general population
has suggested elevated homocysteine levels also
confer increased cardiovascular risk [4547].
Despite these observations, a reduction in coronary events with homocysteine lowering has not

289

been conrmed in clinical trials, although the

results from several large-scale, randomized clinical trials are awaited [48]. Homocysteine levels
increase in a dose-dependent fashion with declining kidney function, however. Furthermore,
prospective studies of persons with CKD of
varying degrees have identied an elevated homocysteine level as an independent risk factor for
future coronary events [4952]. Some have interpreted these ndings as suggesting a more pathogenetic role for homocysteine among persons who
have reduced kidney function as compared with
those who have normal kidney function. Whether
this hypothesis can be conrmed in randomized
clinical trials remains to be seen. The currently
funded NIH FAVORIT trial in transplant recipients is a rst step in answering this question
(www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00064753).
Risk factors for peripheral vascular disease
in the general population
The epidemiology of PVD in CKD patients
has received far less attention than that of CAD,
and consequently the ability to develop risk factor
proles is reduced. Nevertheless, given the pathophysiologic similarities between PVD and CAD,
it is likely that factors operating in one disease
process are also important in the other. Risk
factor proles generated from longitudinal cohorts in the general population suggest that many,
if not all, of the traditional coronary risk factor
are also risk factors for development of PVD
[5356]. A recent review by Belch and colleagues
[53] acknowledges the importance of several of
these factors including advancing age, male gender, diabetes, hypertension, smoking, and hyperlipidemia. The relative importance of several
novel risk factors such as lipoprotein (a), von
Willebrands factor, tissue plasminogen activator,
and brin D-dimer has been demonstrated by
investigators from the Edinburgh Artery Study
[54,55]. Ridker and colleagues [56,57] demonstrated the independent predictive values of C-reactive
protein and apolipoprotein-B 100 in the Physicians Health Study, a prospective, randomized
trial of aspirin and beta-carotene in the primary
prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer.
Risk factors for peripheral vascular disease in the
chronic kidney disease population
Whether factors that predict PVD development in the general population are also predictive

290

in patients who have CKD is not fully understood. OHare and colleagues [58] found that
advancing age, diabetes, and elevated systolic
blood pressure were signicantly associated with
the risk for future amputations, as was a prior
history of PVD in an analysis of 8633 patients
receiving maintenance dialysis. Moreover, she
demonstrated a gradient of risk with increasing
serum phosphorus concentration, suggesting a
further role for abnormal mineral metabolism
in vascular disease development or progression.
Taken together, population studies of CAD and
PVD in patients receiving dialysis suggest that
these vascular conditions have a similar natural
history, with contributions from both traditional
and nontraditional coronary risk factors.
To our knowledge, the contribution of novel
cardiovascular risk factors to PVD development
has not been evaluated in patients who have CKD
but are not undergoing dialysis; however, a further
study from the OHare group has provided useful
insights [59]. Using data from the Heart and
Estrogen\Progestin Replacement Study, they
demonstrated a strong, graded, independent association of reduced kidney function with the risk of
lower extremity vascular disease among postmenopausal women who have established CAD. The
similarities between this study and those that have
evaluated associations of reduced kidney function
with other cardiovascular disease outcomes highlight the tremendous impact of reduced kidney

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function on vascular outcomes, irrespective of

location.

Outcomes of coronary artery disease and

peripheral vascular disease in persons who have
chronic kidney disease
Peripheral vascular disease
The impact of PVD on morbidity and mortality has been well described in persons who have
ESRD and are receiving maintenance dialysis
and, to a lesser degree, in persons who have
varying levels of CLKD not requiring dialysis
[6063]. Multivariable analyses of incident dialysis
cohorts from the United States Renal Data
System (USRDS) have repeatedly demonstrated
the independent predictive value of PVD on allcause mortality [14,31,32]. Patients who present
for dialysis because of new ESRD and who have
a diagnosis of PVD from medical records experience a 66% higher crude mortality risk compared
with those without PVD [31]. Moreover, with
adjustment for established mortality predictors,
PVD still carries a 37% higher adjusted mortality
risk (Fig. 1). A more focused study by Eggers and
colleagues [60] based on Medicare data from the
USRDS database has permitted a quantitative
assessment of the outcomes after lower extremity
amputations in this high-risk population. In an
analysis of 24,886 patients who experienced

Fig. 1. Adjusted survival curves for new patients who had end-stage renal disease with and without peripheral vascular
disease (PVD) in the United States who began dialysis between 5/1995 and 12/2000 and were followed until 2001.
Relative risk (RR) is adjusted for age, gender, and race. (Adapted from Stack AG, Molony DA, Rahman SN, et al.
Impact of dialysis modality on survival of new ESRD patients with congestive heart failure in the United States. Kidney
Int 2003;64:10719.)

VASCULAR DISEASE IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE

291

Fig. 2. Cumulative mortality of patients who have peripheral vascular disease after undergoing initial surgical bypass or
percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (From Jaar BG, Astor BC, Berns JS, et al. Predictors of amputation and survival
following lower extremity revascularization in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2004;65:617; with permission.)

35,898 rst amputations between 1991 and 1994,

the overall survival at 2 years was 32.7%, compared with a survival of 63.2% for the entire
ESRD dialysis population. For patients who
experienced a toe-level amputation, the survival
rates at 30 days, 90 days, and 2 years were 95.2%,
85.4%, and 44.8% respectively. For those with
a below-knee amputation, survival rates were
89.6%, 75.2%, and 31.7%, respectively. For

patients who underwent an above-knee amputation, rates were lowest, at 76.3%, 52.7%, and
15.2%, respectively. The mortality risks were 37%
higher for patients who underwent a below-knee
procedure and more than twofold higher for those
who underwent an above-knee amputation compared with those who had a toe-level procedure.
Although the prognostic impact of peripheral
arterial disease (PAD) on mortality is well

Fig. 3. Adjusted survival curves for new patients who have end-stage renal disease with and without coronary artery
disease (CAD) in the United States who began dialysis between 5/1995 and 12/2000 and were followed until 2001.
Relative risk (RR) is adjusted for age, gender, and race. (Adapted from Stack AG, Molony DA, Rahman SN, et al.
Impact of dialysis modality on survival of new ESRD patients with congestive heart failure in the United States. Kidney
Int 2003;64:10719.)

292

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VASCULAR DISEASE IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE

and mortality, in this population, it is perplexing

that clinical trials are sparse.
Coronary artery disease
The optimal strategies for the management of
CAD in patients who have CKD are yet to be
dened. The clinical evidence favoring one or
more treatment strategies has been gleaned thus
far from analysis of observational cohorts with
additional supportive evidence coming from secondary analysis of existing clinical trials. It has
not been demonstrated that pharmacologic treatments or interventional cardiovascular procedures
with proven ecacy in the general population are
also eective in CKD cohorts, and such extrapolation must be viewed with caution. For many
established therapies with established ecacy in
the general population, it is unclear whether the
therapeutic eect on outcomes is modied by the
presence of renal impairment and, if so, to what
degree.
Most clinical trials to date evaluating treatments for acute coronary syndromes (ACS) have
excluded patients who have renal impairment at
study entry [6874]. Accordingly, it is unclear
whether treatment strategies used in the management of ST segment elevation myocardial infraction (STEMI) or non-STEMI ACS are equally
eective in CKD cohorts. Several major trials
have demonstrated the clinical ecacy of thrombolytic agents, such as streptokinase and altepase,
and of platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors,
including abciximab, eptibatide, and tiroban, in
the management of ACS in the general population. Unfortunately, in most studies subgroup
analyses to evaluate therapeutic potential in
persons with reduced renal function were not
performed. Recent post hoc analyses of two large,
randomized clinical trials, however, did not demonstrate any interaction between the level of renal
impairment and glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors
with respect to the primary end point, suggesting

established, the relative benets of dierent therapeutic interventions in these patients are less well
studied. For example, one key question might be
whether in patients who have severe lower extremity PAD outcomes after arterial bypass procedures are better than after angioplasty.
Unfortunately, clinical trial data comparing these
therapies in patients who have ESRD are not
available, even in the general non-ESRD population. The recent work of Jaar and colleagues [64],
however, has provided useful insights into the
outcomes of patients who have ESRD and who
have PAD requiring revascularization intervention. In a comparative analysis of 508 bypass
surgeries and 292 angioplasties from the USRDS
database, they found that the mortality risks of
patients who underwent a rst lower extremity
bypass were more than fourfold higher than those
of patients who underwent angioplasty, a dierence that persisted after adjusting for case mix
(Fig. 2). As the authors acknowledge, unmeasured
baseline dierences between the groups, such as
severity of angiographic disease or duration of
disease, could have accounted for these results
given the observational, nonrandomized study
design. The clinical benets of other pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic measures for PAD
management are yet to be tested in this population. The high prevalence of traditional cardiovascular risk factors in this population almost
certainly contributes to the development and
progression of PAD, suggesting that targeted
eorts should be directed to the optimal management of these factors in patients who have ESRD,
as in the general population. Furthermore, the
accumulating body of evidence linking hyperphosphatemia, elevated calciumphosphate product, and hyperparathyroidism with increased
vascular disease burden and vascular-related mortality cannot be ignored; the mortality benets of
specic therapies to control these derangements
need further evaluation [6567]. Given the high
prevalence of PAD, with its attendant morbidity

293

Fig. 4. (A) Hazard ratios for mortality for medical (MED) management versus percutaneous coronary artery
intervention (PCI) for cohorts of patients dened by severity of chronic kidney disease (CKD) (adjusted). (B) Hazard
ratios for mortality for medical management (MED) versus coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) for cohorts of
patients dened by severity of chronic kidney disease (CKD) (adjusted). (C) Hazard ratios for mortality for coronary
artery bypass grafting (CABG) versus percutaneous coronary artery intervention (PCI) for cohorts of patients dened by
severity of chronic kidney disease (CKD) (adjusted). (From Reddan DN, Szczech LA, Tuttle RH, et al. Chronic kidney
disease, mortality, and treatment strategies among patients who have clinically signicant coronary artery disease. J Am
Soc Nephrol 2003;14:2378; with permission.)

294

that the ecacy of these agents in patients who

have CKD is equivalent to that of the general
population [74,75]. An additional consideration in
the use of these agents in persons who have ACS
and renal impairment is whether the increased risk
of bleeding is oset by therapeutic benet in
reducing ACS complications. What is clear from
existing studies is that patients who present with
ACS and who have coexisting renal impairment at
baseline experience signicantly higher mortality
rates than those without renal impairment [76].
Whether the therapeutic benets of aspirin,
beta-adrenergic blockers, and statins in preventing
cardiovascular events in the general population
extend to patients who have CKD has not been
rmly established [7779]. Although results are
conicting, prospective cohorts and secondary
analyses of clinical trials suggest that the clinical
benet of these agents in reducing cardiovascular
events among patients who have ACS or prior
CAD may be similar to that seen in the general
population [7880]. The limited availability of
clinical trial data on secondary prevention of
coronary events in advanced CKD patients has
led to increased mining of large registries to assess
cardioprotective associations. From these eorts,
three points are worth noting. First, the use of
known cardioprotective medications among new
dialysis patients is abysmally low and warrants
investigation. Second, calcium-channel blockers
and 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl coenzyme-A inhibitors seem to oer cardioprotection in new
dialysis patients who have pre-existing cardiovascular disease [81,82]. Third, analysis of cohort
data to evaluate an association between the use of
cardioprotective medication and cardiovascular
outcomes may be awed, because the indication
for medication use is likely to confound observed
associations [83].
A diagnosis of CAD at dialysis initiation
predicts signicantly reduced patient survival
(Fig. 3). During the past decade, controversy has
existed as to the optimal revascularization strategy for patients who have CKD [8489]. A recent
study by Herzog and colleagues [90] in more than
15,784 dialysis patients found signicantly better
overall survival among those who were treated
with coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG)
as compared with percutaneous transluminal
angioplasty (PTCA) or stent placement. Overall
all-cause mortality was 20% lower, and cardiovascular mortality was 28% lower among patients
in the CABG group versus those treated with
PTCA. The mortality risks of stent placement

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were also better than for PTCA; however; this

benet was mainly conned to nondiabetics. These
ndings have conrmed and have extended the
observations of several other groups in demonstrating the benet of CABG over PTCA and stent
placement, at least in observational studies [8489].
The question of confounding by selection bias
will always remain, because patients who undergo
CABG are likely to have more severe disease and
to have higher overall cardiovascular risk than
those treated with PTCA.
An equally interesting question is whether the
advantage of CABG observed in ESRD cohorts
extends to those with less severe renal impairment.
The recent observations of Reddan and colleagues
[91] from the Duke Cardiovascular Database have
provided useful insights in this area. Comparisons
of CABG with percutaneous coronary intervention or medical therapy alone yielded signicant
benets in favor of CABG (Fig. 4). This benet
was observed in almost all stages of CKD, with
one exception. Patients who have angiographic
CAD who were classied as having normal kidney
function had similar survival with either CABG or
medical therapy. Furthermore, those who underwent percutaneous coronary intervention experienced signicantly better survival than those who
received medical therapy alone, except for those
who had severe CKD. Again, although the
potential for selection bias and indication bias
exists in mortality comparisons of this nature,
some messages are clear. First, the survival
advantage of CABG over PTCA is consistent
from several studies. Second, the impact of
percutaneous coronary interventions and medical
therapies on outcomes varies by level of renal
function and highlights the need for randomized
comparisons of these therapies.

Summary
The enormous burden of CAD and PVD in
patients who have CKD contributes substantially
to increased morbidity and mortality. The increased risk of vascular disease observed in CKD
patients is likely to be multifactorial, with contributions from traditional and nontraditional
cardiovascular factors. Given the overwhelming
evidence on the known benets of cardioprotective medications, their underuse remains puzzling
in a population at enormous risk. During the past
5 years, the research community and national
interest groups have made signicant progress in

VASCULAR DISEASE IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE

organizing a concerted approach to improve the

management of patients who have CKD and
vascular disease. Much work remains to be
done. The development of national guidelines in
the management of these patients at high risk for
future cardiovascular events will be a welcome
step. The evaluation of multitargeted interventions for reduction of cardiovascular risk through
randomized clinical trials is desperately needed.
Finally, the low use of known cardioprotective
strategies in this high-risk group is a serious issue
and warrants immediate attention at local and
national levels.

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