De Silva, Anil - The Art of Chinese Landscape Painting
De Silva, Anil - The Art of Chinese Landscape Painting
De Silva, Anil - The Art of Chinese Landscape Painting
THE
WORLD
LANDSCAP
PAINTIN
Ws
THE ART OF CHINESE
LANDSCAPE PAINTING
Anil de Silva
42
color plates,
line
56 monochrome
illustrations,
plates,
31
tables
silk
famous
Buddhist shrine,
its
wealth
beings
and divine
In
li.
"the breath of
the spirit that sings through the flaming lacquers and Wei reliefs with a
poignant immediacy" that belongs
only to Chinese art.
philosophic principle of order,
Tun-huang, we
find
CROWN PUBLISHERS,
NEW \fORK
INC.
3^
BOSTON
PUBLIC
LIBRARY
Pi
:%
ARTOFTH1 EWORLD
NON-EUROPEAN CULTURES
THE ART OF
ANIL DE SILVA
~ *
'
<**.*
^f5%v i^s^wk.
CROWN
PUBLISHERS,
INC.,
NEW YORK
Title-page: Fresco from Cave 323 at Tun-huang: detail. T'ang dynasty. The pagoda depicted resembles one of the earliest wooden pagodas at Hokiji near Nara, Japan, which is square in plan
and is built in the Chinese T'ang style. Cf. p. 146.
of the
Tun-huang
Tun-huang Caves
Institute.
Many
of
in this
Nosqr-n
tr
A/D/30C
f3
BRARS
REGIONAL
SYSTEM >
S
'.
GERMAN EDITION
1964
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments
monochrome
(7).
FOREWORD
INTRODUCTION
I.
II.
III.
PRE-HAN ART
V.
VI.
33
53
IV.
15
220-589)
75
(a.d.
589-618)
(a.d.
(a.d.
105
618-906)
960-1279)
133
181
CONCLUSIONS
202
APPENDIX
213
Map:
Road
Index (229).
LIST OF
COLOUR PLATES
Cave 323
Cave complex of Tun-huang
21
46
tile
49
64
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
257
77, 79, 81
428
82,85
285
98,99
296
108,
no
302
117, 118-9
299
20-1
303
126
423
128-9
132
Cave 103
Cave 321
137
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
323
'44, 145
209
'49
217
155,
45
205
166, 169
320
167
172
171
198
175
158
112
176, 177
196
178, 179
186
186
288
190
332
193
61
'95, 197
55
198
Tun-huang
MONOCHROME
PLATES
296
in
302
112
37
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
38
Cave 419
Apsara
5i
52
57
above
Ox-cart
17
below
River-bed at Tun-huang
18 above
Sand
18
cliff
below
Caves at Tun-huang:
detail
27
Caves at Tun-huang:
detail
28
Clay brick:
detail
60
74
87,88
relief
Cave 285
Cave 428
Cave 299
Tripod with
58-59
73
Cave 285
Cave 249
Cave 428
Panel in
57
139
LIST OF
City gate at
93 above
93 below
94-95
96
IOI
lid
102
301
113
420
114 above
419
114 below
419
123 above
420
123 below
124
Wang Wei:
painting
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
141
103
142
323
151
209
152
161
162-3, l6 4
45
369
173
1 1
174
32
183
184
Cave 61
205
Cave 55
Rubbing from stamped
206, 207
brick
208
LIST OF FIGURES
i
- Motifs: water,
wood
river,
- Stone rubbing
- Funerary urn
68-69
40
68
41
41
22 - Neolithic pot
70
42
86
90
(or tree),
forest
19
69
43
relief
43
25 - Dragon
44~45
26 - Painting ascribed to
47
48
27 - Painting ascribed to
28 - Painting ascribed to
48
14 - Stamped brick
15 - Stamped brick from tomb
16 - Stamped brick
55
62
30 - Lacquer
3 - Rubbing from stone sarcophagus
32-A-L - Various types of tree
65
66
relief
13
- Bronze basin
63
17
71
stone relief
33 - Rubbing from
Han
Tung Yuan
Hsu Tao-ning
103
Kuo
103
91
Hsi
104
relief
relief
106
09
301
160
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The
following
museums and
institutions kindly
pages:
Cleveland
Museum
Musee Guimet,
Museum
of Art
The map on
p.
46
51
Paris
Museum
57
British
Museum, London
who
102
132
141
from
FOREWORD
understand painting by
night
If I
presume
to begin
my
me
natural disposition as
his
way through
my
knows
Wang
Wei,
me
it is
the
on.
because
my
enthusiasm
.'
pictures; as
it
there
Dr
is
this
then
is
warms
the
my justification.
went
to
me in
When we
help
which
we could photograph. The time and the number of photographs we could take were limited, and the task of choosing seventy
scenes
landscapes from the incredible wealth that lay before us was ex-
tremely
difficult;
even though
week
to
and
line
was
was
in
each one
briefly.
examine
in colour
it.
to
if
I
I
slightly different.
first is
and numbers
the dates
The second
is
as given
by the Tun-huang
the matter
have followed
Institute.
selves.
Dr Waley
subject;
huang some of
has
drawn
the pictures
may
illustrate
Tun-
popular p'ien-wen or
He
folklore.
also
text.
difficult.
about the
Only
those
who have
impression
artists.
is
by
Tun-huang
way in which
rhythm
is
an almost
Un-
diminish the
of his greatness
by others;
artistic
if his
just as
value. It
is
work
little
in rendering space in
value of a painting?
is
An
artist loses
none
those produced
works produced
earlier.
as the yardstick
Do we appreciate Romanesque
because
plates pp. 77, 79,
8l 94> 95> 9 8 99
10
Two
it
To
prime necessity
to
is
have had
makes
it
In
many
more
be greatly reduced in
to
difficult to
size,
and
this
naturally
appreciate them.
artists
made no
general effect
the
is
and flowing
draughtsmanhip that
is
of importance:
it
no
is
>
IM "7>
IlB~9> I2 -1
the quality of
satisfaction.
when we
hitherto
It is
the
Io8
We certainly do
lines, so that
on a reduced
from looking
made
scale
is
at the original.
The
author has had the good fortune to be able to compare the colours
and
it
it
possesses. It
is
work
Most of
first
time in
issue of
Plaisirs de France.
who were
responsible for
to
whom
making
book
Among
am
the former
am
deeply indebted
and who
while
itself.
Madame Rajan
first for
helping
Nehru, Indian
this project
through,
and the second for her sympathy and assistance while we were in
China at all moments of stress and strain; to Dr Hsia Nai, Director of
the
gave
me
all
who
my return; to Dr Chang
Sinica, Peking,
hospitality, kindness
is
a source of inspiration
even of danger.
This study does not claim to be completely
error. It
is
Arthur Waley,
to
Dr Osvald
would
also like to
Siren and
Dr
them.
or entirely without
to
new
for sparing
me
the time
many
and
have
persons
continually.
helpful
grateful,
true of
Dr Cheng
it.'
This
is
and kind
is
deeply
particularly
some of the
Needham
fourth
let
inscriptions
me read
on the
Civilization in China,
still
me
other
generously.
John
12
unpublished
and gave
me most
Dr
and African
Studies,
in getting
me
when
me
to visit
how
to
the
illustrations.
deeply thankful
am
for
my earliest
Gobi
me
through the
Anil de Silva
*3
INTRODUCTION
Year by year
if it is
of exile.
Lu Chu Tung
(9th century a.d.)
The
Silk
to
man, used
in pre-
from
furs, stretched
by the
first
its
century
B.C.,
known
and
to the
silk to
it
reach
all
world.
Roman
kand and India crossed the Central Asian region, reaching the
silk markets of the Tarim basin by two desert routes which met at
the frontier town of Tun-huang. This territory was encompassed
by immense mountains - the massifs of Karakorum and K'un-lun
in the south
and the
Celestial
route by
religious
way
in the north.
desert.
Such famous
Silk
and
Road
travellers
15
as
Marco Polo
century have
left us
in the thirteenth
The hardships
of the journey over snow-clad passes and across burning sands were
relieved only
these romantic
oasis cities.
The
frescoes
in these
whom
like those
his
way
to India.
silk falling to
the knees and taken in at the waist with metal belts. Their tunics
of blue, grey, white and olive green were embroidered with pearls
fur.
splendid sight with their coloured and gilded banners and their
to
- cotton,
for,
human
speaking
life
is
here
hemp, grain, wine. The inhabitants cultivate farms and vineyards and have numerous gardens.
They also make a living by trade and manufacture.'
But moments of relaxation in these desert cities, with their refinement and luxury, did not overcome the fear of the desert that filled
the hearts of even such intrepid merchants as the Chinese. As late
Marco Polo
is
flax,
inhabited by
says,
'it is
spirits
who
a well-established
call the travellers
their
from India
Page
Page 17
many
16
for the
Roman
armies,
Ming Gate, one of the entrances to the walled oasis town of Tun-huang. Cf. p. 24
below: The two-wheeled ox-cart is still widely used today; its form has not changed for
above
centuries
and
on the Tun-huang
126
all
by Chinese
travellers describing
by the Arabs,
took place between East and West. Guillaume Bouchier, for exam-
ple,
this
century and was surely responsible for the fleur-de-lys motif painted
bones of millions of
old saying, and this
As
in
men
the
is
it
was designed
to protect.
folk-songs.
(206 b.c.-a.d.
220)
was
'The
built
Han Empire
poets, in particular the great Li Po, sang of the desolate cries of the
men who
lost
built the
Wall
Page
Page
the
8 below
the oasis of
Tun-huang
plain.
on the
On
is
the
a quiet valley,
left
its
river in
out the bright stupas raised over the monks' burial-places. Cf. p. 24
19
Better for a
How
man
to die fighting;
The
it
li
on the
the dreams of
shores of the
Wu-Ting
are
men who
still
appear in
To
Han
emperors constructed an
Wine)
wrote:
Bitter sorrow
it is
after
Tun-huang,
Another sent
to Lung-hai,
The
further West,
fifth still
Their
The
to
five
entire region
General
121 B.C.
Ho
in
The foundation
of
Tun-huang
105 B.C.
Huns
in
'Two thousand
to
soldiers together
officials
are
examine the
rampart
will
be constructed in order
20
let
to exercise control.
Let there
to.'
A wall of the cave complex at Tun-huang. One can clearly see how the caves are cut into the cliff-face.
On the walls of the caves one can make out paintings that have faded as a result of weathering. Cf.p. 24
21
The governor
western
of
Tun-huang was
fortification,
sectors
under
Many
of the
men were
for
border service.
deported convicts.
fire signals to
and
travellers,
Bonin the Frenchman, and Sir Aurel Stein the Englishman discovered traces of these
Han
garrisons
is
more
this past
and
its
books (Stein).
ment
(as in
most armies
be
The men,
simple soldiers torn from their loved ones, dreaded the icy wind
which
'goes whistling
slips
witness to their
efforts
to
to
improve
better
themselves
in
spite
of such
terrible conditions.
Even
so far
and such
classics as
22
number of primers
first
The
importance of Tun-huang
strategic
when he heard
is
Son of Heaven
men
to
The emperor immediately sent emisclose the Jade Gate and declared that any member of the
army who ventured to enter the city would at once be
defeated
remained
at
relented,
as
Tun-huang,' we are
told.
and
later
forces
would
cattle (Stein).
any
even today.
limits of the
Ho,
lie
Jade Gate,
the green oasis of Tunits
When
bare weathered
snow-capped
takes the
hills
Nan
new
and
in the
Shan. The
rest
of the journey
is
by
jeep,
which
same
of the caves) follow the old track taken by explorers and archaeologists
plate
below
Pelliot.
p.
Tall poplars seem to emerge from the blue waters of a lake shimmering in the heat, with curious rocks reflected in
this vision is like
it is
that
so often painted
its
milky surface;
reflecting a
we advance, and
it is
dream;
this vision
towards the
wend
their
hills.
The wheels
of the carts
may now
along what
and
slopes
hills
be called the
road, for
oil
upon the
arid
Passing the oasis town of Tun-huang after eleven hours on the road,
PLATE
P.
ABOVE
we
we
turn
left
and drive
P.
BELOW
PLATES PP. 27, 28
PLATE
P.
21
rise
honeycomb
cliff,
are the
first
tiers.
From
the
whole
PLATE
P. 17
ABOVE
The
bells of the
Ming gateway
is
sunset,
and the
we
outline of distant
desert
hills
all
stiipas
drive under
trees,
the vast
From
suffered repeatedly
763,
were
366 by the
caves
the Tibetans.
The monks
Wu
Chan were
given ecclesiastical
titles
documents walled up
'O Master
Hung
You
I
24
Sir
the
for the
is
pure
and
6
in
among
model of discipline
and you guard
in
by the Son
title
Marc Aurel
London,
may
be
resplendent
not know,
mer
among
Master,
if
you
their irascible
will well
men
of strange race,
The splendour of
do
At
plate
p.
uy
one time there were over a thousand grottoes, and today there
remain four hundred and sixty-nine chapels, their walls magnificently covered with frescoes.
The rock
is
friable
and unsuitable
coat of
mud
first
The
for
making
pottery.
bar, gold-leaf,
wall surface.
to
Many
techniques seem
effect
is
one of
incredible richness.
many
of
the caves the walls have three different layers of frescoes, super-
at the
The
to
It
is
something of a miracle.
fifteen
One
trembles
25
down from
wind which
among the
caves. Today the
groves of
plastered
under
their
swaying branches.
hundred
years, they
in Europe, brought
by Paul
and
Pelliot
Sir
brilliant
in Central Asia,
MSS
MSS
lived
on the
of popular Budeffect
Tun-huang,
would be considered a
for
library
of significance.
felt
intoxicated
when
the
monk
in charge
time.
From
Tun-huang grew
in
impor-
painting from
its
One thousand
five
hun-
26
hewn
which
is
friable
and unsuitable
for
Nw
Inscriptions
close to the
donated them,
tained by the
same family or
were
for generations
Emperor, by
is
Tun-huang).'
who
309, for
bears the Li
of the Great
celestial brevet
Cave
religious association.
main-
this offering
Kingdom
of
Yu
t'ien
Yen (governor of
full
and
will
and mother
will
all
later years.
remind
me
in
ninth
cation 'with a
full
at
Tun-huang made an
invo-
China and
and
be open and
free; that in
month
of the
As one
enters a cave at
Pelliot.
steps lead
one encounters
up
to the caves,
recluses that
24
29
its
mundane
course.
on rough
ships
cities for
Man
from strong
sail
fortified
girls
In
this
world of
down upon
man -
it all.
moun-
and plateaux, the trees, the lotus ponds, the wild mountain
gorges - they continue their evolution from the early vigorous
tains
landscapes of the
eleventh-century
fifth
Sung
century to the
monochrome world of
the
poets.
an
almost
is
all
its
Chinese.
The
is
telling brush-stroke
movement
all
seen in cloud-scrolls
before
it.
Never has
this
Chinese. In some caves of the Wei, Sui and T'ang periods the
movement
Wu
is
almost overwhelming.
One can
hardly contain
Tun-huang
is
'so lively
it.'
not, as
is
phenomenon,
all
An
Cave 32 1 informs
was
as
inscription in
set
art, as well as
tradition of
the frescoes
we
Wang
Wu
Wei,
Tao-tzu,
etc. It
Ku
Chang Seng-yu,
was from Tun-huang that Chinese
artists
K'ai-chih,
The
three
world.
We
mountains
as first seen in
half the
pre-Han
trees
along
the ridges.
and Tibet. 9
as at
et
J.
Tun-huang.
dans
le
le
paysage dans
la
pcinture de l'Orient
1935, vol.
9,
f.
31
I.
PRE-HAN ART
in
may
one
may
travel, land-
may
is
in
Kuo Hsi
(i
China
is
past. It
is
an uninterrupted
may
even be unique
in this respect.
a.d.
Tun-huang between
To understand Chinese
how
differs
it
is
Renaissance.
The
Han
mode
art
relegated to
the past -
and
to
new
air.
for 'the
It is
They observed
bestial
Han
dynasty
and expressed
lit
up
it
their
with a
new freedom,
remarks that in
all
A. Waley, An Introduction
to the
London, 1923,
p. 190.
33
making,
progressively
was
this
very sense of isolation that created the need for an intellectual and
spiritual identification, or re-identification, with the natural things
to identify himself
man
spirit, in
search
tried to recapture,
may
lost
by
by
his intellect
and
all
and
spirit,
life
is
may
be
whole universe.
and there
is
this feeling;
directly
on
this point.
He was
this
a vast
its
separate identity;
detail, like
man
is
at the
may
at first
is
distinct
moment, but
as a
Tagore
as
And
said.
an
that
treated neither as
is
own minds by
own feeling,'
mind
is
to
necessary, that
is
it is
extremely
important in Asia.
The
perspective.
The Chinese
aerial
is
is
and
person sees from one particular point, then of course the linear or
perspective developed in Europe during the Renaissance
'scientific'
is
the appropriate
of a landscape
is
if
is
natural.
who
common
The
all living
spirit
or inner tension of
the Chinese
Ho
laid
more important
down
his
that
this
was considered by
things
any formal
When
likeness.
Hsieh
in the fifth
century they were based on ideas and traditions which had existed
for
principles
was the
'life
first
movement' and
had
yet that
Wang
to
life
or vital
artist
rhythm -
spirit
is
it
and the
was these
has no form,
the
spirit',
said
known model
which
is
at the
same time
gives
form
to
knowledge and
the cause of
lies
beyond outward
35
appearance.
which
is
the cornerstone of
Chinese painting.
There
is
this principle
accepted
object,
it
whether
without
man
works of
for great
fingers
as self-evident that
insight, real
knowledge of the
art.
effort
moved
deep
the brush.
artist
was
- almost
to reach perfection
is
an
to the discipline
to
by conscious
forth
man
One
was
effort,
For the
'activities
of
man
are put
its
scapes of the
earliest times,
reaching
its
apogee in
Sung
artists.
Indian
texts,
Chinese literature
is
is
evident,
and
generated in
forest
all living
an
idyllic scene
matter,
we
all its
the northern countries continued to express this fear until quite late
Cf.p.43
36
brick,
fired.
Han
dynasty.
Mme.
mk
[u'JIJiii
^^^M^to "
*"""
mmmtrnm
<ajK^j
h t /Art', i fflffr
ffSwmf if
mKUMnumn
"
itfk
ffV^fi
^iifflfhhMU
hi IT
was surprisingly
the
Han
from
when
of life against
and
free
its
predominated.
common
to
most early
more
law, and
filial
piety
and loyalty
man
to the clan
were all-important.
and points
its
own
by a
Way
as to arrive
through
particular
way
to liberation
and
life
followed
living in such a
manner
this at self-knowledge. It
These two currents of thought, the Confucian and the Taoist, the
conformist and the speculative, fused. As in India where the abstract
metaphysical tendency ran side by side with the pagan and the
sensuous, so the two elements in Chinese
and the
fullness
life,
Confucian restraint
com-
principle, dark
and
light,
heart and
by means of
exhibit thought
Ancient
and
skilful
reflection, sensibility
and
intuition' (Waley).
relief
Museum.
Cf. p.
The Kuang
show
44
39
PLATE
P.
195
Ta says that
The Erh Ta
consists in
fields.
it
lines,
engraving, depicting.
says
it
hua
is
to trace, to lay
down
the appearance
of things with the use of colours. In our plate the Wu-t'ai Shan,
is
in fact painted in a
down
manner
it
is
Among
is
the mountain.
Shan-shui,
literally
'mountains and water', are the Chinese words for landscape painting.
And
since painting
it is
and
One
B.C.) tells
spirits
bird.
of a princely family
tells
mountains,
had
spirits,
sages
his
may
first
this in itself
is
fig.
40
- Motifs :
water, river,
wood
it
considered
vital.
fig. 2
The impact
titles
man was
42
an overwhelm-
and accorded
sacrifices,
first
five
Heaven
page 194).
Mountains were thought to be inhabited by Taoist immortals eating
to
(cf.
own
at court.
divinities
At
first
utensils;
title
fig. 3
'Kings of Heaven'.
- Funerary
41
Rivers and streams - 'the veins of the earth' - were the channels
Shang dynasty
(c.
the cloud
It is these clouds
earliest sources
landscape painting
is
humid
closely associated as
the
drawn on
pre-Han
for the
elements.
mountains,
mountain image in
The
from
cloud-scroll appears
silk,
century.
Before
we go on
to describe the
would be interesting to
study in greater detail Fig. 2, a rubbing from a recently excavated
Han tomb in I-nan (193 B.C.). Here we find various symbolic
mountain (already studied by
others),
among them.
it
we
mountain
The
motif.
see the
first
(c.
250
example
B.C.).
on pottery
Animals are seen around
(Fig. 3)
up
to
for ritual
is
shaman
tails, etc.).
This appears
figure. Figure 5
is
It is
dressed
human
The
up
into
an early
fig.
42
4 - Rubbing from a
stone relief.
Han
dynasty. Sian
Museum.
Cf. p.
43
fig. 5
Cf
- Bronze
and
silver.
pp. 42, 8g
summit with a leg on each peak; this motif is also found in the
detail from Cave 285 at Tun-huang. In Figure 5 two tigers close
in on a deer on one of the ridges and another animal is on the
summit
as
an
The fine
and the
plate
on
This
is
lines
p. 37.
The
last
on
In these
essential to early
We
trees
in the Late
fig. 6
see a further
- Rubbing from a
stone relief.
Han
dynasty,
43
movement
ing. It has
to the
mountain ranges
Han
(cf.
hunting scene
plates
on pp.
is
38,
and the theme itself may well have come from there; but Scy-
More
man
men and
an actual physical
is
shown
combat
is
The
horizontal composition of
men weaving
melody,
PLATE
P,
184
is
in
and
Han
hills
art
8.
masterpiece as the
scroll called
'The
Han Emperor
Museum,
entering his
fig. 7
44
- Rubbing from
a stone
relief.
Han
Among
earliest
cloud-mountains, and
it
is
seen
all
be in stone, lacquer,
silk,
bronze or paint -
the deer
is still
a symbol of everlasting
life
and
is
hills.
Indeed
we
see this in a
of
is
that of an animal
and frequently
in all periods
Tun-huang.
art as well as in
1050
B.C.)
As a
all
and
power with the passing of time and continual usage. The same
whirling, dissolving movement of the pre-Han lacquer and bronze
design
shown
is
in addition to buildings
trees.
Sian
Museum
45
Late
Chou
or Early
Han
The
period. Cleveland
and
in
also continued
and
reliefs.
The
abstract quality of
Sung dynasty
monochrome
in the tenth
and
eleventh centuries.
To realize
art
PLATE
P.
51
to
came
to China).
at the apsaras of
The Indian
apsara
is
is
part of Chinese
46
fully clothed, a
spirit,
The Chinese
fig.
and the
Buddha stand
celestial
its
44
while the
still,
nymphs
fly
headlong
painting. It
as the
life;
plate
p.
132
art
unifying factor of
The
pre-Han
to
is
it
the
T'ang
Architecture
( sheng-tung)
tree forms,
trees,
movement
Here we
see
its
development from
times.
at Lo-lang. Cf. p.
this
(cf.
majestically
of
Found
stillness
apsaras
gold.
Warring
Peking show us not only the house, but the auspicious birds on
the roof
- another recurrent
feature of
and
by wavy
lines, as
'rippling
on
;
Han
art.
is
FIG. 7
depicted
ja -
47
ff^
figs.
fig.
tops. fig.
9 2
fig.
13
painting, Tun-huang.
- Bronze
basin.
The
47
48
Cf
p.
'M-*
Polychrome painted
tile
clay.
Han
period.
Museum
49
P.
171
We
T'ang
period.
The composition
bronze
PLATES PP. 57, 60
vessels in early
The
Chinese
art.
These
vessels are
decorated
flat relief
vertical scroll
23
form, calligraphy.
p. 38.
Han
Rome. Cf. p. 44
50
.>
II.
The
Han
art
is
and
writers
poets.
a competent
civil
to their court
Through
service,
to feel a
need
for art
it
Han
endowed with
this class
and who
was
It
many
official class
also
leisure
vigour in
first
tional
to create,
which
this field.
Han
- the scholar
B.C.
emperors attracted
history.
to time to discuss
4,
set
up
in
24
B.C.
and iron
at the
industries.
same time
The growth
minds of men from
many
and invented new ones. The waterclock now measured time for
an entire day (Maspero). And in 52 B.C. the emperor was presented
by Shen Hsiu-ch'ang with an instrument which 'permitted him
to
Han
times, but
sky'
now
on
It
silk
and
this led in
in use
to verify the
made
in the
manufacture
and paper.
were
J3
strips
and on
silk,
for
astronomy,
written
still
paper was
With
these developments in
Road
route that
it
was by
Roman
p.
151
below
Ch'ien
in the
left
first
b.g.
New
plants
and jade
on decorated
advanced
and
tiles
bricks, together
economy (Needham).
The empire gradually spread to Central Asia and Korea. Trade
flourished and the superior techniques of the imperial armies were
disseminated among the more backward neighbours of the Middle
Kingdom.
Han
poetry reflects
this
expansion. It
is filled
home and
On
from
his
There
is
Do
Living
Dead
I shall
I shall
see
you again,
1
.
54
Han
less
;^r**
/,vvK
"**
* , "*
""^^k^
aV
i
%4ljli
fig.
4-
So/* WeZ/j
o/"
Tse-liu eking.
Stamped brick.
equated with light and dark, heaven and earth, hardness and
softness
and
Elements of wood,
fire,
earth, metal
and water. These ancient ideas and the theories connected with
them permeated the art as well as the thought of the Han people.
The
artist
Two
Forces
Han
in this
art, as in reality,
life
figured in
real
everyday
them were
very
real,
55
was perhaps a new problem and prompted the scholar poet and
painter Chang Heng (a.d. 78-139) to comment on the general
preference of artists for demons and monsters as their subjects.
It
'Real objects are difficult to represent, but the realm of the unreal
infinite.'
is
painting
Another author
demons and
horses? Is
it
asks:
'Why do
spiritual beings
and
artists
take delight in
dislike painting
dogs and
this stage
author goes on to
and an
artist
and
much
with too
silk
were
to
also
little
evidence of
pre-Han and Han painting, and they quite correctly assumed that
there was a close stylistic resemblance between the painting of the
period and the stamped bricks and low
of
Han
reliefs
No
other
The tomb
paintings found
in
a whole fresh
figs. 14, 15, 16
field
The
Spirit
of the Brush,
tr.
Han
landscapes are
Page 57: Typical example of a so-called 'hunting bronze'. These vessels are decorated with hunting
scenes in bas-relief, arranged in horizontal registers. Warring States period (4th~3rd centuries B.C.).
Pillsbury Collection, Minneapolis
56
Cf. p.
50
The stamped
(Medley). The first are
in a variety of forms.
plate
p.
52
the pure hunting scenes, with hardly any landscape elements; these
shown here:
Fig.
ching;
fig. 15
fig. 16
hills
with
trees
is
sailing,
while
popular feeling for nature, for the stamped bricks are genuine
expressions of popular art. Here, as
it
were,
is
the feeling for nature comes, not only from intellectuals writing
surroundings
Only a craftsman
who possessed a deep love of nature could do these landscape
scenes. In the scene of the Salt Wells the build-up of the Mountains
is in the same spirit as that which conceived the landscape of the
plates on pages 152 and 149 from the T'ang period at Tun-huang.
Below on the left is the shaft of the Salt Well with four figures
working in it; a bridge leads up from the mouth of the well over
the intervening space to the place where the salt is poured into pans
over a furnace, tended by a figure sitting beside it. Two men with
the craftsmen in the small towns and villages.
tile
shown on
p. 49. Peking
Cf. p. 66
and pheasant. Detail of a
The
fig. 14
Museum.
Partridge, rabbit
fresco in a
66
p. $j. Peking
Museum
61
u^^fl^t^V^W*:'^*^^**^!***^?*
fig.
- Duck-hunting and
baskets
The
on
rest
harvesting.
Cf. p.
their backs
Stamped
brick
dynasty.
61
move
of the composition
taken up by wooded
is
hills
with
animals and birds bounding over them, within the spatial units
created by the surface of each mountain.
different
scapes, but
and
fieri,
is
heaven,
is
is
not correlated to
trees
earth,
all
is all
the earth -
is
no
our land-
important,
in other words,
not present.
make a landscape
that
62
ti,
and the
perspective
encounter in nearly
will
The
down
is
the forerunner of
later periods
the water.
Can we
where a
all
those
solitary
Sung
C
dL o
<s>
i#"
i<p
fig.
<y>*
Stamped
lotus-blossoms.
brick.
Han
62, 64
The
is
noise
trees
among
is
no human sound
the trees. It
is
direction,
trees
any
in
page 171.
It is
in the bronze
first
T'ang landscape
in the plate
We
we
forest,
how
to
on
fig. 13
draw
get a willow-tree.
han-lin type
without leaves
and the
Warring
get both of
Han
period
plate
p.
64
63
Painted clay
tile.
The
fact
interesting.
Han
period.
and a
Museum
continuous; the
tree, is
way
in
which
than that of
relief.
and human
fig. 19
diagonal lines in the Salt Wells does give the effect of depth, while
foreshortening of the figure
It
is
seen in
many
engraving in Figure
19,
it is
man
is
remarkable.
The
64
it is
admi-
in his boat
trees
is
this exquisite
degree of assurance. In
flying in
The duck-hunting
scene,
fig.
A.D.
147-168
Rubbing from a
stone panel.
is
From
the
tomb of
Wu Liang-tz'u,
Shantung province.
reliefs
Han
art.
Wu
all
Han
stone
reliefs.
In
scenes at
The
Wu family
line
drawings in Figures
21,
is
is
The right-hand
area has
65
PLATE
P.
I55
P.
49
here
is
basically the
same
style in
Han
Han
as that in
in a
The
Abode
frieze
in the clouds.
the
tomb
in
T'ang dynasty,
as for
Museum. The
figures
Rubbing from a
66
It
fig. 18
be a watch-tower.
important
PLATE
may
The high
stone panel.
From
the rear
Wu Liang-tz'u,
The
together,
is
positive agent.
The
negative element
is
is
painting.
on
this
The Tao
abides in emptiness,
should not
listen
said
- and
in the
Chuang-tzu
with one's ears but with the mind, and not with
the
is
it is
filled
is
with the
brush and ink, but also with that part from which brush and ink
are absent; whoever can understand
it
filled
this
his painting.
absence
Thus space
it
line
figures.
fluid stroke
first
was used
like
on bones with a
museum
is
used for
fine incised
in the decoration
is
stylus of
some
kind.
fig.
22
fig.
23
reminiscent of
is
and the
In the excellent
realized
human
is
For these
how
It is
is
an
about
and grooms stand by. The colours are green, scarlet and yellow
on a black ground. The composition is circular, following the shape
of the mirror
itself. It is
one of the
earliest
plate
p.
46
flight.
67
fig.
fig.
20 - Rubbing from a
register
68
shows
the
stone panel.
god of thunder
From
in his chariot,
the
tomb of
drawn by
Wu
six
9 - Rubbing from a
men
He figures
are out
of scale with
the mountains.
fig. 21
- Courtyard with
dynasty.
Cf
p.
Han
dynasty
Han
65
69
fig.
22 Neolithic
In
Han
pot.
it
Even in the
he was with
in visual media.
Han
tics
The
artist in
line
general
is
and movement
and bold
arising out of
open out
hymns
main
characteris-
still
like
a lotus bud
in all
to nature
The chain
its
glory.
were
still
The
who
great poets
it
could
come.
to
li,
The
The
trees
bend
river
winds
its
way,
walk along a
river
4
.
Ssu T'iao
(6th century a.d.)
to the
Han
spirit.
The group
of
nobles conversing under the tree in the lacquer landscape were quite
possibly enjoying the beauties of nature, but only, one feels, during
moment's
respite
from
70
cavaliers.
fig.
where he could 'brush the dust of the town from his clothes
and choose a place surrounded by tumbling hills' - that moment
world,'
was
still
far
away. Yet
it
be able
to
roam among
As
am
no more
I shall
to landscapes, they
in the fourth
stir
in dreams.
my
As
pictures
pluck
on
my
my songs...
also a spiritual
and spread
my
colours
Though
the Egyptians
lies
beyond
all
c<:
description in words.' 5
in their
the
wander
free
and alone
forest.'
71
Page 73
birds.
Ku
at the court of Nanking in the 4th century. This detail of a scroll ascribed to
wall-painting in
Cave 285
at
Tun-huang
72
Ku
K'ai-chih,
Museum.
now
Cf. p.
(a.d.
in the British
him
is
reminiscent of the
84
538-539)
Museum.
calls to
mind a
8g
scroll
*ir
'.':
-j^'
$**&$<
Btan
-(
They
were made
(the forms)
had
tion of
work
and
no percep-
whole thing
To
at
to feel
to exert oneself
and
how wonderful! 1
Wang Wei
(a.d.
was divided
the Three
(a.d. 220-265).
and
civil
699-759)
Kingdoms
into
which
The
partition of
the country
end of the
sixth century,
when
rulers.
from the attacks of Tibetans, Turco-Mongols, Huns and protoMongols. The lawful dynasty took refuge in the south, and Nanking
became
dynasties.
The
A
1
great
O.
from the
cities as
number of Buddhist
75
cave 257
(c.
reliefs
Han general Ho Ch'u-ping in the Wei river valley in Shensi. The illustrations show parts of the
Rum Jataka, the story of the golden deer king, who while crossing a river one day saved the life of a
drowning man by helping him ashore. The man knelt down and thanked the beautiful deer. The
queen of Benares dreamed of a deer with nine colours and implored the king
a dress and his horns for drinking-cups.
the
command, and
the
man whom
the deer
where he could be found. The deer was asleep but a swallow who
his friend
to the danger.
The
him
the story
of his betrayal.
The Ruru Jataka is rarely represented in art and this is perhaps the only time it was shown in the
Wei period. It has been suggested that the red ground and the plants scattered over the surface are
due to the influence of fourth-century Sassanian art. But we saw this tendency in the Han funerary
slab (Plate p. 52).
painting,
'Where
it is
is
As
the ground
is all
is
to
The
The
left
When
be found.'
is
clump of flowering
sal
It is also interesting to
in fact
man
an astonishing colour.
man, detached,
and wearing a
Cf. pp. 79,
76
itself.
in
Buddha
supreme awareness,
dhoti
We
leading
down from
spiritual
hills
The man
is
shown dark-skinned
CAVE 257
77
painting), arrived at
northern
be known as the
to
'sinicized'.
The Buddhist
important role
Wei became
the
first
and took an
and
in the
Their
first
hewing of caves.
capital
was
at
fifth
In the fourth century Tun-huang, which until then had been spared
fell
its
it
was with
these people
78
p. 77
his
engaged thousands of
cut
down
She
built the
said to
men
to
caves,
and
became
feet high.
Wu
so great that,
in 528, she
at
nunnery
discontent
Wu
even
after she
had
retired into a
rebels.
compound
365-427).
of these three
T'ao Yuan-ming
(a.d.
is
towards nature.
first
Yuan Chi
man
lost in the
immensity of
nature which later inspired T'ang and Sung poets and painters.
rays of
first
morning over
heights.
flowers,
spirit,
heralded the T'ang and Sung. At the same time epic poems, in the
tradition of heroic literature,
donning man's
The
attire
us of heroines such as
Mu-lan
80
tell
is
From
this
Han and
came
closer
turies,
and
CAVE 257
(A.D.
The Buddha
whose head
is
is
386-532)
majestic composition
is
one of the
him
kneels a
new
disciple
finest paintings at
Tun-huang.
mind
It is
a triumph of
harmony and
81
0gm&
**M *;WS:
$
-3*>
j^^ Mtk
'
J S3 T^
"L 3
cave 428
The
(c.
Mahasattva Jataka. Three brothers bid farewell to their father and engage in some target practice
bamboo
At the
pitiful
lies
He
hill
may
and, using
down
throat
The
narrative composition in horizontal registers follows the tradition of the 'hundng bronzes'.
The
same characters are repeated as the story unfolds and the action takes place within the clearly divided
'space cells' defined by the 'saw- toothed' hills and trees. Depth is here suggested by the overlapping
of elements by horsemen and figures appearing from behind a hill by foreshortening, as when a
horse and rider are seen from the front; and by oblique lines, to suggest recession. The stylized trees
of the Han period begin to change and take on the aspect of identifiable species. The general organi;
zation has
now
Mara.
82
Han
reliefs.
The
and where the brothers return show a distincdy new sense of perspecdve and
Buddha by
the
Demon
In
this
The
developed.
manner
and
life
The
(i.e.,
third
is,
to
is
bone-
conform
and position
by drawing.' 2
The
i.
human
2.
Jen-wu:
3.
Kung-shih: palaces
affairs
6.
Shan-shui: landscapes or
7.
Ch'in-shou: animals
8.
9.
and
fruit.
Tao-shih, should
category,
be devoted
ancient tradition
to religious subjects,
Incidentally
are
still
it is
some famous
occasion to see
pictures
like
rows of
lifted
trees
in a
03
83
Religious themes
i
fall
main divisions
of Buddha and all
into three
the
numerous
lesser
The Jataka
2.
tales
(stories
3.
fives
lives)
and
of the Buddha.
life
of saints, famous
monks and
teachers,
and
portraits of donors.
as landscape painting,
plate
p.
73
dominated
all
is
it
it
to give landscape
artist
fifth
century was
three
hundred
frescoes
He
is
Ku
an and Lo-yang, but few examples of his work have come down
us. It is said that
for,
figures
he
to
let several
can be beautiful or ugly. They are not very important beside the
mysterious parts by which the soul
is
expressed in a portrait.'
now
is
plate
p.
73
among
in the British
by
Museum. One
He
is
him which
detail
from Cave
Ibid., p. 12.
cave 428
Detail of the plate on p. 82 (Cave 428) containing the two scenes in which Mahasattva sacrifices
84
tigress.
85
cave 249
87-88
1
The Han world oiyin and yang is still
artist.
mounted on many-headed dragons and mythical figures, half bird and half man,
spreading their strong wings and soaring into the clouds, while below the earth is represented by
strange mountains. Into this imaginary and fabulous world are suddenly introduced realistic and
vividly rendered drawings - an ox, a sow and her litter - seemingly odd intruders; but for the
Chinese this combination of real and unreal is identical with heaven and earth, dark and light - the
male and female yin-yang concept of the universe. It has the spirit of Han art, one of whose essential
celestial beings
qualities
and the
is
real.
This
all
(Fig. 24)
from a
Han
lacquer
painting in Changsha belong to the same dual world as the frescoes in Cave 249; the bird-man
figure (Plate p. 87 above) has
fig.
86
24-^
spirit riding
p.
its
counterpart in a
on the clouds.
Han
dynasty
Han
many-
The
detail
Han
style,
Ku
while in the
very close in
is still
we
is
plate
p.
74
find the
elements
is
box
in the
Warring
States period
(Fig. 5).
maxim accompanies
On
exalted that
forth decline.
it
When
begins to sink
We
is
up
are raised
its
is
moon
the
is full, it is
similar
among
and earth
is
is
living things
its
on the way
theme
FIG. 5
correlate sky
K'ai-chih
as
one
nothing which
Ku
the
when
find
the landscape:
movement of
is
we
as
there
we
course,
to
wane.
fall
with
in the
Canterbury
Psalter.
of space.
filling-in
Kuo
may
COMPOSITION AND
PERSPECTIVE
develop the
step
horizon
was
line.'
t'ien-ti,
5
Some
have both
t'ien
is
and
others one
and
not the other, so that the relative importance of the blank spaces
at the top
solid
and cKiu
L. Binyon, Admonitions of
B.
March, Some
ho or spaciousness
chi
or 'guest
London,
191 2, p. 17.
p.
and
1935, paras.
86
89
fig.
has
it
or lacks
it
'a
relief.
Han dynasty.
in his heart,
and a
ch'iu ho just as
single
man may
88
the
fill
composition will
he
uses.' 6
The space
relation
and the
differentiation
life
itself.
Never an arbitrary
some
line
a group of
a river or lake - these are the only divisions which, while defining
the composition,
may
all
its
own
structure'.
90
'faithful
mentioned
in the
second
fig.
26 - An example of
tance'.
After
'kao-yiiari
a painting ascribed
to
or 'high dis-
Tung
Yuan
chapter,
- that
was
it
in the
to say,
is
form of what we
may
call
multiple perspective
when,
as
case, a
As the viewpoint
is
the result
movement and
is
participation.
One
is
through
it.
is
How
comes
it
that
we cannot know
is,
oh
friend,
it is
A. Waley, An
we
Mount of Lu. 7
that
Su Tung-p'o
London, 1923,
p. 177.
91
cave 428
(c.
Wei) Pages
82, 93
above and 96
Page 93 above: This plate is an enlargement of the coloured plate on p. 82 (Mahasattva panel). It
illustrates one of the best-known Jatakas, dealing with the early incarnations of Sakyamuni in this,
;
wisdom and boundless self-sacrifice, frequently in animal guise, Jsakyamuni gradually acquires
such a good karma that during his final incarnation he can become the Buddha. Here this Jataka
by
is
his
illustrated scene
by scene
We
setting out for the hunt; finding in a ravine a starving tiger with
Mahasattva
jumping
them
its
as a perfect
it is
archaic in
still
narrative of a theme significant in Buddhist ethics, and because the scenes are set in a landscape
links
Page 93 below.
Some examples of animals
'in
them.
is
Han
'in
14)
from
the flying
B.C. (Plate p.
this position,
it
which seems
to
have come
it
occurs
is
in a
The
only in jumping.
Dr Cheng Te-k'un
projecting peaks
92
meant
and other
to
this position
it,
in this position
obstacles.
Collection, Rietberg
Museum,
Cf
pp. 37, 74
U*
ftp** 0'
e
\M
*
7.
u
4fcL'i&
frUtt!Lfo\Lfau
ii.
.
';
cave 285
(a.d.
Pages 94, 95 - This large horizontal composition has been identified as one of the stories related in
Hsiian Tsang's 'Record of a Journey to the West', Hsi Tit Chi, and tells the story of five hundred
bandits
who ravaged
the countryside and, after their defeat by soldiers sent out to subdue them,
their eyes gouged out. Their cries of agony were heard by the Buddha who
was nearby, and overcome by compassion, he caused a cool breeze to blow which relieved their
The
figure of the
came
queen
to
him
to
in the pavilion
is
explained by Arthur
cave 428
Page 96: This shows the right-hand wall of the cave, opposite the Mahasattva panel.
It illustrates
the
VUvantara Jataka.
Prince Visvantara
is
day he even
gives
away
forest
with his
journey he gives away everything he possesses, including even his two children, to a Brahmin
from India
wife
his
is
given
away
who
very popular in
all
Bud-
and China.
97
cave 285
(a.d.
The upper
gy
538-539)
plate on p. 98
is
The lower
Cf. p.
trees,
a lotus
sit
in
deer.
and
plate
on
greens.
p.
As a whole
and T'ang
dynasties,
it is
Wei
period. It
is
in the
on early
in
Kansu. This
etc.,
Han
floral
Mai-chi Shan;
The
it is
Shan caves
style of
Wei
period for
lintels
at
Museum
Tun-huang and
is
at
is
so frequent that
it is
style,
and an
Wei
still
subordinate to the
human
figure.
only
depicted symbolically, but symbols were just as familiar to the Chinese of that period as they were
to
medieval Europeans.
99
Buddha transcends
mountains or
human
than
in size
all
and importance
trees, regardless
of the minds of
thought
in medieval
European
a painting as
own
is
a natural expression
'celestial beings,
other
all
which
Greco
from
afar that appear large even though they are actually small.'
The
The
only limitations on early landscapes are those of technique and compositional organization.
conception, as nature
ranges, lotus ponds
itself, is
filled
with mountain
and groves of willows, poplars and bamboos. Here we do not find anything similar
Nor is nature hostile: there are no dark
foreboding forests on the outskirts such as are found until very late in European painting. Saints and
sages seek nature
it.
Man
it
cave 299
The upper
plate on p. 10 1
is
Page 10
standing on either
side.
The
is
The
dhoti,
central personage
in this series.
necked dragons. These dragons are similar in form to those which decorate the cover of an incrusted
metal box from pre-Han times (Plate p. 1 02) Further to the left, riding through the clouds, are the same
.
dragons, accompanied by flying figures and another dragon; the latter also has his counterpart in a
Han
This
'celestial'
group
in detail. Light
double
The two
last registers
the
Han
effect of
relief.
famous
though
diagonals here,
the only
f,
the
means used
made by
IOO
all
left,
The
Yen
Li-pen's
the roofs of the pavilions, are used rather arbitrarily and are practically
to depict depth,
lacks individualization.
it
The
is
it
and
<'/"
*~*
E
tea-
V"
(I
^'
Mf
*!
<
\ t\
Pib;^ tC&^^
wis
tfXrOft
>*^
^*
*pi.
(3M
"^
(\
figs. 27,
(c.
The
it
action
is
Hsu Tao-ning
Kuo
'level
to
conception.
The
illusion of space
modern
is
To
'Art
problems through
scientific perspective.
of
lid.
From
Lo-yang
on the
Compare
lid.
1
(c.
300
B-C.
).
Bronze
inlaid with silver. Minneapolis Institute of Arts. Height (with lid closed) 15.3 cm. Cf. p. too
103
fig.
29 - Rubbing from a
perspective
dynasty. Sian
Museum. Cf
gg
is
is
law of three
to
sections'.
The horizon
is
is
known
as
not decisive,
eye
to another.
of perspective as follows
We may
p.
calls forth
The
Han
divisions
and
is
applied
particularly to landscapes;
shen-yiian:
deep distance
as seen
from below;
from a height
(Fig. 26)
and
into space.
In the distance
men have no
eyes,
No
stones
104
M.J.
B.
Friedlander,
March, op.
cit.,
On
paras. 16 1-4.
66, 68.
IV.
I shall
my
play on
(a.d.
589-618)
forests.
Raising
my
cup
My
the
Moon
Wind
to join
always be
will
my
me.
friends.
companions. l
Li Po
(a.d.
701-752)
After two hundred and seventy-one years China was again united
under the Sui dynasty. Their empire extended from the southernmost point of Fukien province and
Annam
to the
north-west.
The
He was
'that those
He planned and
Classics.'
to
modern
to
For
this 'roads
reputed
his palace.
is
li
from Lo-yang
other.'
to
Three million
money
or
lives.
tr.
A. Watson-Gandy
p. 153.
105
With
which the
arts,
by the newly-found
all
periods of development,
full
of fascination.
Old
motifs
and new ones appear. It is this continual combination of the old and the new which makes the Sui frescoes at
Tun-huang among the most entrancing and the most difficult to
understand. They are finer and more elegant than those of the
Wei; personages become more realistic and their movement clearer.
There is a search for improved organization the use of architecture
predominates, and the roofs and walls take on the same importance
are transformed
saw-toothed
hills
and giving movement and depth. Light wooden structures with doors,
curtains and windows separate one scene from another, while halfopen windows and doors, diagonally placed
and
stairs are
These
light pavilions
in Chinese art.
We
saw
used in the bronze basin of the Warring States period (Fig. 13)
and Figure 30 is taken from a painting on lacquer ware of the
this
FIGS. 13,
30
same
era.
fig.
hills
still
present, but
States period
106
are
it is
know where
put them
and
trees.
uses
them merely
dark accents in
as
composition of
his
and
lines
feathery brush-strokes.
If animals
pen and
were popular
others, they
at the court
were no
we
superbly conceived;
less
them
see
so at
Some
Li-
Yen
Wei
legs as in the
stone
reliefs.
technique;
Dr Waley
and black
He
to the
formed the
lines
p.
08
outlines,
which were
filled
in with light
contours.
in his Introduction
PLATE
was used
and that
later
Wu
Tao-tzu excelled
used for animals bears witness to the early use of mo-ku or 'boneless
painting' - that
all.
is
is,
the
main
all
it
meant
is
to
factor here, as
calligraphic quality,
is
and
is
even extended
be seen as a facade
(J.
is
to the architecture,
is
which
and then
black or red brush-stroke. If we compare
fine
is
often
done
Hopei,
in red chalk
we
is
which
is
always
it
and
is
but
BELOW
many
and painters
to the brush.
This
is
to
work
PLATE
P.
HI
BELOW
In Sui art
it
appears as
if
for landscapes
107
cave 296
(c.
enclosure.
The
At the top
left
and the
fur
is
relief (Fig. 2)
108
horses entering
and
double
movement
Han
The camel caravan, richly embellished and colourful, is particularly impressive. Cf.p. 107
seems
the
to
first
built
literally: 'the
important tree or
trees are
Hua
is
of these plates the trees are a background screen for the action
taking place in the foreground.
enchantment
The treatment
page
- Rubbing from an
Cfp. 116
fig. 31
is
many
We
of trees
is
sheer
so tenderly observed
on
c.
A.D.
525 Nelson
Gallery of Art,
Kansas
City.
V^W
109
CAVE 296
The two
(c.
A.D. 600)
scenes on p.
1 1 1
are details taken from a horizontal panel which permit closer observation
of the effortless brushwork. In the lower plate on the right a group of nobles are standing under
trees,
is
while a cavalier accompanied by standard-bearers rides through a rocky landscape. His horse
drawn with a
soft
their bodies
The
line
is
in the
effect of light
impressionistically
and
air
is
produced with
is
fine sensitivity,
in.
They accentuate
soft
canopy
is
suggested by the zigzag lines of the roofs and the oblique placing of the balustrades and curtained doors.
IIO
<
sf
Plate on p. 113,
18-9
cave 301
this
as
if
The movement
now developed
on
demon,
on banks of clouds
The colonettes of the pagoda have curtains looped over their capitals; this
Wei shrine is often seen at Tun-huang and sometimes at Mai-chi Shan. In
113 we notice that the willow-tree is treated in a different manner from those in the
as light as thistledown.
characteristic of the
the plate
on
p.
previous plates.
Page
and
cave 420 (c. a.d. 600). Lotus ponds full of birds and encircled by saw- toothed hills
are seen above the flame-decorated nimbus of the central Buddha. Direcdy above is a scene
14 above:
trees
with the attendants Vimalakirti and ManjuSri and a great concourse of people. Here the pavilions
holding Vimalakirti and Manjusri are quite separate from the lotus ponds, but
it is
interesting to
note that the elaborate palace structures in later paradise scenes have supports rising direcdy out
of the lotus ponds. It
would be extremely
way
in
compositions within an architectural frame developed into the T'ang paradise scenes which dominate
on
at
Tun-huang. The
(a.d.
124.
589-618)
Caption on
p. 122
115
left
in a
trees
fig. 31
sarcophagus
to those
reliefs
and the
hills,
still
same characters
in successive scenes.
sarcophagus the forms of the mountains are often used to obtain the
same
if
effect, for
1 1
8-9
depth
is
not as developed as
perhaps ahead in
for there
to the
'the
is
it is
in the reliefs,
upper
is
register,
landscape as
;
Dr Soper
far', is
is
usually neglected. However, in this plate the figures are well inte-
As
trees
assume an importance
generally,
it is
in this period,
interesting that
among
and
also in landscape
them
ch'iao-chih,
with branches
suggested
curved,
upswept,
drooping,
sharply pointed;
their
use varied
116
cave 302
wearing a short
dhoti
sits
and a
on a
lotus throne
his
body bare;
fight
wooden
The
is
lively,
and the
and heads
117
cave 302
horseback through a
other.
The
figures of
the foreground.
the
left is
is
hilly landscape,
men and
left
move from
two groups of
is
The
left
men
sit
to right
on
facing each
integration of figures
The willow-trees to the right and left are treated in two distinct styles;
away than the other, and therefore different techniques are used.
in
the one on
further
The lower composition on the right shows a camel cart being drawn across a bridge, followed by a
horseman. The camel is galloping along and is executed in a light wash, mo-ku, without line. A river
flows down and across the picture carrying along two people sitting in a round boat like a coracle.
The artist shows great originality, a spirit of invention and a delight in his work. Further to the left
Il8
a horse
is
man
is
is
left is
large leaf-shaped
from the
(?)
light
draped curtain
is
nimbi behind the sculptured images of the Wei Buddhas were very probably derived
wooden
may
later
have taken the form of a pointed arch and have influenced both the pointed
art.
however, think they are derived from the entrance to the wooden or
and
The most
the curtained entrance to the pavilion, for this suggests that the
leaves
on
p.
98 (Cave 285).
117
"9
cave 299
This
is
(late
120
is
bowman on
is
the
left
holding a
differs
The treatment
is
It
is
most
interesting, for
the leaves.
121
cave 419
(a.d.
and white
although
the Prince
cave 420
The dark
this division
is
(c.
plate
on
p. 123
is
still
114
has three
may show
walls
of the
roofs of the
plate
Cave 420. This complex scene of temples and pagodas with zigzag
most curious compositions to be found at Tun-huang. The pale blue walls and
on pp. 128-9 are nere a dark intense blue which dominates the whole
rhythm. The
is
hills
are
picture, creating a
is
one
heavy
broken in the centre by a decorated chariot accompanied by nobles; the procession ends in the
lower foreground where two Buddhas are seated on lotus thrones, surrounded by an assembly of
persons.
the
The Buddha on
silk scrolls
the
extreme
122
left
left
from Tun-huang
in the British
of the foreground a
man
is
ISfiLsS
cave 419
(a.d.
585-617)
its
right
(p.
and
24) .
The upper
pine-trees
below
plate
its
is
first
time
we
see
an attempt
bamboo
at a massive
peak, which dominates the centre of the composition; the shading to indicate the contours
is
very
crudely executed. At the top on the right-hand side are two seated Buddhas, probably Sakyamuni
and Prabutaratna, under a canopy. Their two attendants are wearing the draped scarves common
to the Late Sui and Early T'ang Bodhisattvas. To the left, above a pond with mandarin ducks, fish
and
kneeling or standing.
two
figures
on
lotus pedestals
to
The right-hand
man
may
The
artist
was apparendy on
and
that
on the
by worshipping
above.
cave 303
noblewoman
They
drawn by an
ox.
The
charioteer
is
are journeying through a sandy desert landscape, the undulations being indicated by
faint brush-strokes.
126
inside,
is
The
light
carriage
is
very
wash of colour
is
much
like those
There were
the most
common
Heaven
phoenix
Tree
figs.
32 a-l
127
CAVE 423
581-617)
(A.D.
This
composition,
starts
as
although
it
move from
groups of people
right
temples on the
a diagonal
and
the
left.
the painting
which
to a waterfall,
tinues
down towards
right
of
the
This
right
left to
upward move-
right to
ring figures of
con-
the extreme
foreground.
ment from
itself
left
of recur-
Each pavilion
placed in a
is
range of rocky
hills is
The
lower
heavier and
absence of trees
those that
do
is
The
notable and
a zigzag
spatial unit.
and
gives
elegance.
128
an
impression
of
129
fig.
trees.
Cf
p.
127
x^^***^<
A. Bronze
mirror, pre-Han.
Freer
B. Bronze
Gallery
of Art, Washington
basin.
Archaeological
Warring
States
period.
Museum, Peking
Gc/o
C. Lacquer
painting
Changsha, pre-Han
from
D.
Tile,
pre-Han
Washington
130
Aift.ft
A
(i?
F. Wu-t'ung:
tree
with branches
G. Fu-sang:
tree
with sun-bird
I.
huang
H. Wu-t'ung:
tree
in
blossom
pointing upwards
from Tun-
K. After a
525 Nelson
25 Nelson
131
of wind-swept garments
cave at
is
left to
right against a
area),
containing Buddha's image. 8th-gth centuries a.d. Dept. of Indian Art, Ehem. Staatliche Museen,
Berlin.
132
58 X 50
cm. Cf. p. 47
V.
618-906)
(a.d.
And
view
few
last leaves
are falling,
The sun
How
sets
hills.
crane returns
forest.
TuFu
(a.d.
The T'ang
rulers held
China together
for three
712-770)
hundred
years,
continuing the unity brought about by the Sui emperors. Their rule
extended as far as the Pamirs and Kashmir in the west and from
the Yellow Sea to
Annam
Her
streets,
and
and eighth
Rome
was
in
Paris later.' 2
foreign traders
artists
from Central
tians
built their
same
in the south
China
ports.
It
was
was an
who we
cities
artist
were
set
monk from
Among
Buddha
in a
R. Grousset, op.
A. Waley, op.
cit.,
cit.,
p. 155.
p. 97.
133
its
silk, tea,
and
strolled
by the
lakes
many
Tu Fu.
and
graceful step
embroidered
distant
silk reflect
air,'
sang
and
lovely
canals.
women
with
'Their garments of
What
their
ears, sashes
silver unicorn.
closely
fit
their waists.'
Who
is
It is the flying
makes her
The
The
swallow
who
which
ended
virtually
this reign,
and was
killed
it
up.
Her
kingfisher pin
rebellions
by the emperor's
fell
to the
ground
jade; the sovereign covered his eyes but could not save her
life.
he longed eternally
and black
the
Yang
we
see at
Tun-huang.
This was China's great age of poetry
R. Grousset, op.
134
cit.,
p. 156.
'whoever was a
man was
poet.'
Wang
landscapist
to
have
his
Tu
Po,
poems
first
poet ever
was popular
in
historical
was accepted
We may use
as quite
the
normal both
example
which
is
inside
of literature in
its
our approach
to painting.
closely inspired
and perhaps,
in spite of
its
is
what
it
distinguishes
T'ang from the Sung. In the Yuan period, following the Sung,
the
new forms
Many
Chinese
critics
this
epoch into
However,
this
theory
is
no longer
considered tenable.
It
artist
we
Wang Wei
Wu
the fragrant
iris
Wang Wei
at his waist ;
work of
'carried
to
Around
these
names -
Tao-tzu -
cave 103
This
is
texts
on
its
therefore represent the return journey after Hsiian Tsang had received the
on the
and
mountain pass
the
and
clasps his
in the
middle foreground
hands in thanksgiving
after
by
trees.
The
gift.
travellers
proceed through a
monk dismounts
bamboo
by a pool
mountain
ridges;
creepers
and
Kou-le
used to outline the contours of the mountains and line for the elephant, the horse and the
is
figures.
136
Washes of colour
indicate volume.
grass
left
foreground.
137
cave 321
This
is
(a.d.
a detail of a landscape showing a mountainous stretch of country, treated with light washes
of graded colour
animals in the plate on p. 137. Washes of colour are the main element; white
and
also as high-lights
elephants.
lines are
used as outlines,
and on the
middle are standing two men, one with a lion mask. These figures must represent hour
each hour had
138
its
animal
spirit, after
which
it
was named
e.g.,
from the
left
in the
spirits, for
<<X\
all at
Li Ssu-hsiin
(c.
650-716) and
his
made
shan-shui, or outlined
mountain peaks
the
noticed
111
tectural elements
to
we
times. It
is
here brought
and
Wang Wei
Wang
name was
Mo-ch'i after his preceptor. During the rebellion Wang Wei was
forced to serve the rebel chief and was saved later because of a poem
he wrote, 'The Frozen Pearl', which moved the emperor to forgive
him. He retired and lived in seclusion in his country house WangWei-mo-ch'i the sage (Vimalakirti).
ch'iian;
one of
his
Wei's style
is
a horizontal scroll of
plate
p. 141
and
it
would be
interesting to
after
Museum and
still
work
The copy
and maturity
in the conception,
it is still
is
in a sense the
Page 141: Wang-ch'uan, the country house of the well-known T'ang poet Wang Wei (699-759).
is presumably by his own hand. Today only copies survive of this horizontal scroll;
This painting
the detail
140
shown here
is
from a copy
in the British
Museum.
Cf. above
made up
of
hills
themselves have changed but the idea of the spatial unit forming
still
remains.
And
in this connection
in a style
said
it is
when
is
also seen
B.C.,
one
first
and seventh
is
centuries,
until, in
it
reaches
is
much
One story,
life.
however,
Wu
we
Li
is
and Li
to
make
careful sketches
pictures of the
and
his
written
work or
The emperor,
Shu country.
Wu
his studies
they are
And when he
hundreds of miles of
rivers
(a.d.
sketches,
and mountains.
made no
of T'ang painting at
Tun-huang
is
H3
_-
cave 323
(a.d.
This cave
is
quality
and
3,
151
probably one of the most beautiful T'ang caves at Tun-huang. The painting has a superb
is
The upper
plate on p. 151 shows a boat with a typical Chinese hull and broad stern and bow, rowed
by two boatmen; two other monks and a lay figure surround two great statues of the standing Buddha.
This is thought to show the arrival in Canton of the famous sandalwood statue sent by an Indian
king to a Chinese emperor of the Liang dynasty in the sixth century. Various figures are shown
welcoming
it,
kneeling in worship.
144
Among
T'ang Lohans
faith exists
it
will not
be altered by
human
a familiar
to the left
affairs.
Those
CAVE 323
who
Buddha
worshipped for
The plate on
p.
consider
Thereby he
it
will
possible that
when
the
Buddha
arrives the
ever.'
144
is
itself is
done
in the mo-ku
The
method, the
same
pages 158, 162-3 and are vividly expressive: even the backs of the two monks
before the boat
wind and
tell
is
who
on
are kneeling
effect.
H5
The
bank runs diagonally from the middle of the background to the left, accentuated by
along the shore. The boat and the figures run in an oblique line to this. The right side of
line of the
the figures
the picture
is
two strong
hills,
151 portrays
Wu
Chang
Ch'ien, the
first
(see
chapter
1),
the desert riding on a piebald horse, with his retinue walking beside and behind him.
is
as he crosses
An
attendant
holding a decorated parasol over him. These are highly accentuated outlines, strongly reminiscent
of some
Han
figures.
The
Chun Tsung
in the
they obtained a golden figure but did not recognize the name, so the marquis of Po-Wang,
Ch'ien, was sent to the West. This shows the
moment when he
Han,
Chan
emperor.'
The plate on p.
145
is
The
in a sailing-boat
plate
pagoda
on
rising
in
done
wooden pagodas
at Hokiji near
Mi
Fei.
is
The
its
and dark
vertical figures,
146
it
Nara
in
light
by low
by the
and beauty.
It is distinguished
follows Chinese
Sung
entirely
being
p. 3
and
it is
men
line
by white brush
is
is
on the
left,
common
lines.
On
is
balanced
all
Chinese
art.
strength
its
and powerful
Tun-huang
the
vitality. It
frescoes with
those of the
same period
effect of the
like the
in
the
Horyuji frescoes
huang murals, where the brush-strokes seem charged with a dynamic life of their own.
The Tun-huang Institute authorities in their studies on this epoch
divide the 206 T'ang caves into four groups:
Early:
a.d.
618-712
Middle:
a.d.
766-820
Late:
a.d.
821-860
However,
by
this
for the
purpose of
this
book the
grouped
method.
never painted.
The
Wei and
They
at least two).
figures in
scapes in panels
Fa-hua Sutra,
and
portraits
far countries,
while princesses
of the walls.
In nearly
from the
all
of T'ang rationalism.
into registers
The conception
is
unrestricted
opposed
by
division
now changed
to painting
on
silk.
These
frescoes,
for
mural painting
although similar in
147
cave 209
52 and on p.
Unfortunately the mural in the plate on p. 152 was damaged by some vandal
drawing to the
The
plate
of
left
who made
a charcoal
it.
on p. 149 shows part of a high mountain range. The composition is built up in successive
Wei drawing, and is reminiscent of the stamped brick illustrated in Fig. 14. A pool
cones as in some
or
mountain lake
is
is
on the
left
in the foreground.
Buddha preaching
to a
Two
At the
is
The upper plate on p. 52 is a companion-piece done in the same technique and by the same artist.
The composition is slightly different at the top on the left the line of the mountain continues, leading
1
us further up, while the action takes place on one of the lower slopes. Here a Buddha, assisted by
two attendants,
is
The lower
plate
on
p.
52 gives a view of the rear wall of the cave with landscapes on either side of
The
wall-paintings
shown
in the
we can just
upper plate on
them
p. 152
in this photograph.
The
to
be
lateral walls;
nimbus
good idea of the exuberance of movement in some of the T'ang caves. The
gives us a very
48
we
see
149
Page
150
tf
SL
**&!
Sung
have
The
started.
first
painting,
when
frescoes.
our
plates.
where
style,
contour
fine
method.
The
alone,
to the
second academic
style called
it is
The
mo-ku or boneless
'line
PLATE
P.
169
those regions
In
effective,
it is
bathed in a
light
in
admirable.
truly revealed.
as a technique
this simplified
immense
and
which
is
be distinct but in
reality,
when one
tries to
dream of
liberation
like
it
man's
Man
through
it,
busy about
his
caption on p. 148
*53
cave 217
like that
We see
on
may
p. 137. It
p.
55
is
HsiianTsang (602-664)
to
the straw-hatted figure on a horse (top right) and then journeying through thousands
of miles of countryside with deep mountain gorges and plains, stopping on the
shelter in forts
and
cities.
Below
he
to the left
is
way
for rest
and
royal personage in a
The
fluid brush-strokes.
Though
it
is
that of the
now
no longer divided
is
into registers
and
we
cross the
mountain
is
we
pass,
and
dynamic view
The
perspective
region'.
We
are
we talk with the princely group in the palace on the left (cf. detail in the plate
on p. 161). The vision extends to the distant horizon where the mountain ranges recede among
the clouds. A river rising in the range furthest to the left meanders down diagonally, sometimes hidden
the right, and
by the
hill
When
it
crown
of the faces
their summits.
is
not
visible,
hills.
Man
chapter.
The
54
down from
and
fort in the
We saw
the
same
mood and
cliffs
in the plate
on
p.
may
on the buildings
style. Cf. p.
to the left
66
(cf.
p. 161
above)
CAVE 217
155
CAVE 217
The plate on p.
on
p. 155.
is
evidently by the
same
artist as
the plate
This was thought to be the Fight for the Relics of the Buddha outside the town of
it
portrays the
Buddha
as
Prince Siddhartha (before he attained Buddhahood) watching the martial exercises of his clan.
The rows of soldiers contrast with the lines of princely figures on horseback at right angles to them.
The solid walls of the town are counterposed to the trees rising vertically, treated with delicacy.
The undulating landscape surrounding the scene completes the picture and make this one of the
most
brilliant
The lower
monastery with
figures of
monks by
framed by decorated
56
is
the
lintels.
willow-tree on the
as
was used
in the
left
Han
33
*+*>? ak.fiP
157
cave
on
p. 163
cave 45
(a.d. 713-762).
In these plates
we
see a
The
is
hilly slopes;
less rigid,
lines
The
reinforced
is
by the intensive
light
large plate
discussed
cells'
The uppermost
at sea.
zone shows figures kneeling before Buddhas or Bodhisattvas at the extreme right a
;
man
horizontal
in white
is
placing a large tray of offerings before a Bodhisattva. These persons are evidently putting themselves
under the protection of Kuan-yin. The seascape features a large boat with a black and white
bearing several people. (Cf. p. 158.) Lotus flowers float on the water while
Spirit figures are seen wrestling
standing before
on the shore
to the right;
on the
left
fish
shore
is
swim around
a
tall tree
sail,
the boat.
with a
man
it.
The
plate on p. 1 64 is likewise a detail of the cene in the middle on the right travellers emerging
from a mountain pass meet others with pack-horses going towards it. Low shrubs (perhaps the dwarf
'
The
common
in
clearly the
different
new
tall
and banks.
A delicate green,
we
see
from the
it
slopes.
kneeling figures taking refuge with Kuan-yin surely also depict the Fa-hua Sutra. Here
;
which
Sung era
is
at
Tun-huang
that
we may
almost
call
a Sung green brown, red and white are used for the robes of the figures. Fine lines and white are
employed
The
rest
is
done
in the
159
fig.
33 - Rubbing from a
is also
IM
Han
relief.
The
The same
technique
161
on
Caption on
160
companion piece
p. 155
p.
154
on
p. 157
Caption on
p. 156
to the plate
A
-
>
-t:
*#<.
>
.^n^
U^^-'^
-/^y^**-
iff
.%
HI
'J
,v
MS**
4
<*
^i
*v
,\
\C__'
^^L
--J&*
>#
Pages
caption on p. 159
on pp. 162-3.
cave 205
(a.d.
Two men
Cave 323
(pp. 144^)
The
brush-strokes
The
to the left
and back
a diagonal line
right a
distant mountains
young
tree gives
a soft vertical
line.
lines of clouds
emphasize the sense of distance and space. The whole has an enchanting freshness.
The
plate
The
entire composition
left
on p. 169 is a detail from the same cave (Cave 205), showing 'Meditation by the Setting
Sun'. Here the technique of the boneless (mo-ku) method is applied in an accomplished manner.
plain.
The
colours are
is
soft
is
almost
monochrome.
in the plate
colouring
is
in
on
p. 167
is
is
is
a theme familiar
(cf.
p. 192).
itself is
is
The
executed
taken to
setting.
165
We
the whole.
moving
as
his reception in
thankful
and
a strange city,
mountain
pass, silent
filled
The new
perilous
with him,
vision of
mountains that
filled
What
it is
difficult to say.
Ch'an Buddhism;
intensification of
Shan and
others; the
Wu
Tao-tzii.
mountains
was
artists
lines
(more about
apply a wash or
was used
ts'un later)
jan
of ink or colour in
tint
appear;
to
hsi ian
light to
objects.
The
outline of peaks in a
luan.
Mo
was the
le
men and
first
outline
it,
the nearest
all
first.
last outline
We
with
shall deal
chapter, as
it
ts'un,
is
were used
for
tien
(dots)
to indicate
t'ai,
moss
the process of
68
same time,
as
indeed they do in
life.
at
is
is
to
CAVE 205.
Cf. p.
165
l69
on what we
see with
limits,
but not the whole thing.' Everything 'moves as time moves, but
mind
it
it
is
stirred
like
a symphony:
with indefinable
longing' (Waley).
cave 172
(8th century)
we
to
This landscape
is
perhaps one of the most coherent and the most developed in technique and execution.
down
down
is
is
diagonally to the lower right, opening out to the figure of the queen.
left
The movement
and
of the
by dark shading, first on the left bank and then lower down
shown flowing swiftly through a valley and pouring over boulders,
giving the appearance of rapids, in almost the same manner as the water in our bronze basin (Fig. 13).
The han-lin' or leafless cold forest trees, provide an undulating movement across the picture from
the left towards the middle. It is sunrise in early spring and this painting has all the charm that such
stream
on the
is
emphasized and
right bank.
intensified
The water
is
'
170
'
>.
^xT-
*
M
>*v
1*1
hi"'!
..IV*
S>Mfcft-
cave 369
(c.
a.d. 900).
Page 173
These two landscapes are painted above the central paradise scene. The
scenes look grotesque due to oxidization of the blue
and
as a slip,
which discoloured
distorted lines.
However, we are mainly concerned with the landscape. The immensity of the mountain ranges
certainly seems to have been inspired
The
representation
employed
is akin to an
same manner
as far as
as in the plate
on p.
Kansu
75.
is
is
evident in the precipitous mountain walls and arid peaks; the light and dark washes of colour serve
to bring this out extremely well.
The whole
effect of
172
space
is
fc
**
fl
^B*-*
^^
J^
N*
v^. v*
cave 198
(a.d.
group, set in a wide horizontal mountainous composition. Here the wash technique
is
lower contours but the peaks themselves are outlined by a dark brush-line; the black clouds serve
effect of space,
is
produced by very
Page
74
on
p.
76 (cave
i i
2)
*75
CAVE
I I
monks
On
is
ascetic.
The
is
176
the natural
composition
On either side
made by
is
rises
i^>i^-3-d
CAVE 112
is
it
left,
man
in white
kneehng before
it.
A waterfall
width as well
as depth.
flat
and
mountain
The
plate
on
p.
74
is
a detail from
the left-hand side showing the horse drinking from the pool in front of the grotto.
177
CAVE I96
892-894)
(A.D.
and
is
actually
(one depicting
a detail of a very
is
is
families attending.
like structure
latter to the
it.
Langdon Warner
while Joseph
calls it
Needham
Be that
victory tower.
it
may,
this
They
(just visible
resembles a
pagoda, elab-
and flounces of
it
is
still
found in
many
town
them. There
is
is
a similar float on a
I-nan dated
at
193 B.C.;
acrobat on
its
summit,
it is
preceded by knife-throwers,
In our plate on
p.
179
we
see
two
figures, possibly
it.
left)
contains
it.
just behind.
In a smaller
like all
are
shown
sitting
down
is
laid
and guests
179
of the space
left
is
vertical lines of the stripes on the tent, the tablets and the tower; the
and screens form oblique lines. The mixture of detail and simplification which is a
feature of most Tun-huang frescoes is seen here as well. The trees are rather curiously rendered:
those in the background have a soft wash shading with tien indicating flowers the carpets, the designs
of the screens and the acrobats' clothing as well as other details are all carefully observed.
strokes
carpet, tables
80
VI.
The
(a.d.
960-1279)
moon
the
and began her lingering journey among the constellations. Her light fell like dew upon the sparkling
river,
which seemed
our boat
let
to
drift as it
expanse, and
felt
that
we were
who
one
space
We
sky.
sailing in
We
were
empty space
light as if
we
Su Tung-p'o
(a.d.
1036-1 101)
civil
it still
further?', sang
Tu
Fu,
why
who expressed
Perhaps
this is the
reason
why
the
Sung dynasty
is
recalled with
such affection by the Chinese people, for they did not attempt to
to
gave China
had occupied
To do
tribe
this
Sung
stability for a
tried to recapture
it
hundred
years, until
and
Emperor Hui-tsung
who
for a century
he foolishly
R. Grousset, op.
cit., p.
198.
181
This scene
is
practically painted in
whole width of
this horizontal
composition
is
horses. Strong
is
in shades of
monochrome.
composition
hills,
awaiting
lines are
produced by the
is
tablets,
a long
way from
the stylized
Han mountain
range
but the basic idea of figures weaving in and out of the range of horizontally
p. 37,
placed mountains
in
dark vertical
on
in the foreground
Page 183
is
exactly the
same
as that
the
left fluttering
figures
is
just
hills
is
by a very great
182
artist.
same technique as
pre-Han and Han art
are in the
It is
a masterly work
Vf
tffe
>l
\
ll
fl&i
W bJt
w&Sto, B
to
\
\
the Liao they advanced along the Yellow River, eventually driving
the
Sung
to the south,
Hangthe Huai
their capital in
as far as
and
filled
1215.
The
The Sung
leadership of
Wang
An-shih,
who
much-needed
fiscal
reforms
water.'
fixed
However,
like
remained in
everything
became
force, 'rice
else,
as
cheap as
from 403
to
brilliant students
pay the
fees.
Tzu-chih t'ung-chien,
China
was produced
abundance
of books.
for block-printing,
Page 184:
Compare
this
first
44
185
I-*
-*
cave
This
is
86
(a.d.
960-1278)
we have
vast
186
panorama
of mountains
Dhyani Buddha,
in
On
the left-hand
is
dark
and commerce were beautifully illustratthe three hundred years of the T'ang brought
seemed
to fruition
as if
During the Late T'ang and Sung periods the gradual unification
of painting with poetry was completed 'poetry is form and form
:
is
poetry.'
landscape painting;
it is
is it
by others on the
the
Sung
similarities
landscapists. It
is
it
it
precisely
it
Sung painting
sensibilities, for, as
us.'
'sweet', that
is
Malraux
Perhaps one
may
disagree
it.
It is true
we
of course that
But
says,
own
us,
are
needs.
own
we
we
are
mainly aware of the 'conventional' and shy away from the other,
limiting our vision to 'that
Perhaps
it
would be
This
is
art
vision
is
limited?
Sung
painters
between
sance,
its
see',
and European
history of Chinese
clouds drifting across the sky, behind the range of mountains in the middle distance.
is
p.
The
black
is
used
and the only colours employed are various shades of amber, black and white.
187
summer day
moment
on a
of poppies; eating wonderful French
in a field full
food; drinking
ing certain abstract forms, he sought 'by the subtle choice of the
fleeting
moment
man
gazes swallows
which he
all his
is,
consider things from the point of view of that which changes, then
away
in
an
but
instant,
if
we
consider
them
from the point of view of that which does not change, then
things,
and we
ourselves, are
immortal
is
.'
all
if
and sit
cross-legged'
disturbing elements, as
if
mind
is
Kuo
from
all
free
- that
in repose
creation.' 8
Forest
and Streams'
much more
had
its
'secret rules'
it
- how
be expressed?
188
Loc
O.
it
by concentrating on
its
essential nature,
cit.
or the soul
settled
is
not manifest.' 4
down
And
left.
He
window
to paint (he
and
took a fine brush and the most excellent ink, washed his
his father
work, says:
to
how
He
let
some important
as if to receive
One thousand
if
Kuo
Hsi the
artist
and Chuang-tzu the philosopher, but time did not change the
fundamental conception of the moral and
a painting and an
artist's
the tranquillity of
mind
spiritual significance of
Kuo
Hsi
on
insists
drama of
Chuang-tzu
emphasized
also
this
calm
which by
its
waters
le
miroir spirituel
men
'Water which
is
objects near to
is
not running
man's
all
spiritual mirror
those
who
must be
stop
bright.'
agitated
it,
'It is
(Demid-
and
tranquillity of spirit,
is
reflect
it
reflect the
image of
without alteration
all
to dive into
life
Ibid., p. 45.
Ibid., p. 46.
189
CAVE 288
this
is very-
has endured the desert sun and icy winds from the Gobi for
It
is still
190
fresh although
it
originally. It
moment
Let us digress a
it
to
is
for
and Ch'an Buddhism. The mirror image has been employed in all
cultures: Hindu, Greek, Chinese, Islamic and Christian (Demidville). It
was
first
Upanishad (500
used, as far as
we know,
The Atman,
B.C.).
is
in the
Hindu
text of the
Buddha
mirror.
a mirror which
'Just as
purified,
so
is
also
The
when
Atman
fire
ninth-century
any
effort
it is still
visible
on our
Atman) cannot be
part. If
it
changed by
altered or
own
ignorance
made
by cleaning the
mirror'.
The following verse and the answer to it made by the Sixth Patriarch
of Ch'an Buddhism when he was only the illiterate servant of the
Fifth Patriarch (638-713)
in
China that
it
represents a scene
is
so often
quoted by
artists
and
critics
Sutra, the
theme of which
is
by monstrous
fish
on a
it
The boat is
full
through waters
On
the
left
a figure in white
has a broad stern and a bow, a transverse bulkhead construction and no keel. In
these cases the sails are atypical, implying that the usual
'slat' sails
lines.
grain of the
wood
is
of
The
shown
sails safely
boat
The
all
movement. The technique of mo-ku, used in the shaded washes of the hills, is here
hsiian-jan, a method in which shading is obtained by almost stratified marked-off light
in arrested
modified to
and dark
zones.
191
Rub
it
incessantly so that
it
remains
clear
And
When
is
the mirror
is
a mirror or before
plate
p.
167
is
clear there
is
pure,
naturally no dust,
when
there
still
all
things perfectly,
and others
we
see figures
sitting in front
of pools of water, which will also reflect the setting sun, as indeed
reflects all things.
it
'the
Mirror
is full
contains nothing
spiritual
is
For
it
subject.
Kuo
is
Hsi's essay
on landscape
and people are happy. Summer mountains have shady trees, and
people are contented. Autumn mountains are clear and pure, with
falling leaves, and people are quiet. Winter mountains are covered
by dark clouds and swept by storms, and people are silent and
lonely.'
and
step.
aspects of several
single
and vapours of real landscapes are not the same at the four seasons.
'In spring they are light and diffused, in summer rich and dense,
.'
in autumn scattered and thin, in winter dark and solitary
The shapes too 'depend on sunlight and shadow. Mountains with.
192
R. Grousset, op.
Loc.
cit.
cit.,
p. 196.
W*\
*-V
vi,
(a.d.
A charge
and
on the
at the
~4
left,
between the dark wavy horizontal clouds on the right and the
is
The background
ground
is
clouds. In the foreground are the softly undulating sandhills of the desert
further contrast
cave 332
tains
drawn with
has long horizontal brush-lines which emphasize space and the texture of the
same
Han
reliefs
all
*93
cave 6 1
(a.d. 980-995).
is
by the
has donated
this
one of the
largest chapels at
Tun-huang, was
memory
cave in
of her father.
tells us,
in
.'
map, and
an inscription
built, as
'third
is
life
It
in feudal China.
is
one
The
plate
itself,
on p.
95,
which
from the
is
left
be a detailed picture of the ascent up the mountain showing the various smaller peaks, passes,
on page 205 is taken up with terraced fields on the slopes of a hill being ploughed and sown;
above it to the left is the mountain road coming out of a high-towered gateway; the inscription on
the tablet near the gate says that it is 'the south-eastern road through the mountain gateway to the
plate
The main
To
storey has a
is
lintel
it
decorated corbelled roofs are surmounted by the traditional parasol of a Buddhist stupa;
for pealing
tiled roof.
is
bells
hang
a monastery, a timber-
monk
sits,
probably
left of him a man is beating a gong and to the right two others stand in an act
The meandering zigzag road across the entire picture surface cleverly unites the various
composition. The technique used is of the mo-ku type the broad short horizontal brush-
and probably
on the
trees ;
dark
tien
lines.
Wu-t'ai Shan
is
c.
800
B.C.,
(cf.
largest.
the mountain divinities were treated on the same footing as the highest officials
of the court, the Three Dukes. In a.d. 725 the T'ang emperor Hsiian-tsung conferred the
title
of
King of Heaven on the god of T'ai Shan, and in 1008 the Sung dynasty added to this title that of 'The
good and saintly king equal to heaven'. It is with this growing cult in mind that we must look at the
painting of Wu-t'ai Shan, 'The Five Terraces'. The cult of the Bodhisattva Manjusri was started
there by Emperor Hsiao Wen (a.d. 471-499). In the year 840 Ennin, the Japanese monk, visited
its monasteries and saw a copy of the Lotus Sutra in Sanskrit (Saddharma Pundarika Sutra) He describes
.
images of the Five Buddhas, each one between two Bodhisattvas, apparently in the
the Buddhist university in Bengal, India. Pilgrims from
still
to Wu-t'ai
map
94
this
all
Nalanda,
Shan. In fact a
as this
style of
monk from
40
If
the
Tun-huang
he brought back
195
cave 61
(a.d. 980-995).
Page 197
In some of the Late T'ang and Early Sung caves vertical panels are painted along the lower part of
the walls in imitation of partitioning by screens. This vivid scene
particularly green. Five boats with two-pronged broad
with good
petals, seated
He
are placed.
is
upon a
Two
departure.
of a Buddha.
is
tablets
technique.
sit
on
either side.
The
196
hands
altar
on which
this
down
lotus
offerings
defined spatial units formed by the hilly terrain and the triangular form of the shore.
on the
their
a statue (?)
whole scene
is
The
inscriptions
in contrast; a
cave 55
(a.d.
198 and the plate on p. 206 from Cave 55 depict a vertical panel from a series of
p.
imitation screen sections covering the lower wall surface. Three horsemen are riding out of a palace
The figure on
upwards and
effect
is
from
to the
left
left,
to right
and the
which
is
make a very
A Han
similar
swift
movement
time.
The palace
behind
of the horses.
the
same cave
is
this
it
as Prince Siddhartha,
The
this
background
narrow format.
it
shows a very
again typical of Chinese naval architecture as regards the hull, but which has a
for shelter.
manner; but
The boat
static
is
is
p. 208) representing a
emphasized by the
large boat
first
line of hills
is
in
movement.
movement
is
the terrors of a sea voyage in the sea monstrous fish are avidly awaiting the travellers
dancing in expectation of
disaster.
The
large
number
of
199
Jen-wu (human
jects),
In the Jen-wu
affairs)
and
Shan-shui (landscapes).
Feng-su jen-wu
jen-wu -
Ku-shih jen-wu
illustrations of
Shih-ni
beautiful
We
legendary incidents;
women.
period. Ts'un
Ts'un as
it
is
is
to say,
as ts'un,
it
of
i.
ts'un
is
wavy
ts'un:
fibres,
They
3.
hsiao-fu-p'i ts'un:
was
in pairs.
held sideways
It
and done
stiff
known
hard
as ma-ya ts'un,
strokes,
which
is
In our plates
ts'un is
In Chapter iv
we went
into the
and plains
trees,
to
and
leaves. Tien
effect
of distant
show
winding
rivers
through a land-
scape; there are strokes for rippling waves on shallow water, deep
to a vertical plane; a
stream flowing
our
The
plates,
etc.
Many
all
Mi
Fei, for
broad leaves in
and
this
is
artists.
full
therefore
tien,
The well-known
landscapist
as
shading
201
CONCLUSION
It
huang came from the West, from Central Asia and India. It is true
that certain scenes were painted by foreign artists, and that specific
decorative motifs may often show foreign influence, but in the main
this influence is restricted to the
figures,
movement
is
A vivid
negligible.
is
elegant world
the characters
move
peculiarly Chinese.
times.
On
these walls
we
see
In
fact,
nothing
less
down
art,
the mixture of
vertical composition,
may
of the country -
an
essential
and
No one who
these
202
whatever
make
is
native,
in
factors,
it
is
it
are born early; they are the very soul of the culture
and
culture
and dominant
can be truly
itself.
Chinese
in character, absorbing
into their
own
characteristic
pattern.
by examining two
and
Han
this
Indian Hindu
paintings
my
divinities,
and
it is
artist
of these
figures in this
and
completely with the rest of the paintings in the cave, which are
is
difficult to credit.
artist
Hasegawa,
Again
it
painted by local
all
not great
caves
artists,
art,
from
feel?'
was a provincial
Many
Such
art.
Study
but
this
could be
Tun-huang
is
to
Chinese art in the capital must have reached a level never attained
elsewhere in the world.
The
truth
is
Tun203
Page 205:
cave 55
detail of wall-painting
(a.d.
The plate on
Cf. p.
194
960-1278)
p.
206 represents a procession of carts with decorated canopies entering a village; the
taken up by a paradise scene.
is
showing
(?)
his
supreme power
The
inscription
on the
are being tended in stables; the walled enclosure in which people are standing
village temple; at the top
on the
left is
204
says
'The Great
is
left
tablets
The whole
is
is
an
Page 207
cave
55.
The way
on a
in
Han stamped
brick.
mind the
Han
209
huang
of the size
many
as a centre of religion
aspects of painting
and sculpture
a lead
of the
Wei emperors
is
it
Tun-huang
in
to
Shan cave-temples,
also
from T'ien-
to the
true
also true of
Of
caves.
Cave
is
285, with
its
extra-
impact
is
equal
silk.
Can one
same
bold simplification.
as those
The problem
is
to
compare
on
these frescoes
silk?
essential quality of a
confronting an
artist
mural
when he
highest artistic merit. Apart from the caves from which these land-
210
scapes have been taken, there are dozens of others where the con-
stancy of the rhythm, often dynamic and inspired, and the balance
of composition between the vertical and horizontal panels, and the
them
Many
scholars
who
art.
artists.
when
it
Professor Soper
on the memory
artists
towards realism' by
art
homo-
a brilliant
Since
it is
all
European pre-
it
is
The conquest
from a
sance
static
has surely
artists,
lost
much
The
first
to
essential
be heirs of
form of
all
of
its
rigidity.
charm
Today,
for us because of
'in
respect of art,
this art, as
tifies
is
that of
is
represented.
the
for in
he
is
we
the earth.'
qualities
its
and iden-
who
comprehend
its totality',
Tao
will not
be able to
him for it is
and 'sharpens
will escape
lines
which
made
to
do
so.
The
though
profound meaning
less, fluid,
and
li
it
seeks to impart.
ciple)
are
essential, will
is
principle of order. It
and
ch'i.
The
li
of the
Tao
'From
li
(prin-
pertains to 'what
all
li
is
above shapes'
men and
CKi
is
the
it
follows
no
fathom
it is
so
it is
has no
so great that
you
it.'
we must
The nature
discover
it,
but by kuan, or
silent
contemplation, for
212
it,
it
is
precisely
'to
mind
li;
that
is
still
APPENDIX
213
CENTRAL ASIA AN
The
Silk Road, the most important trade-route of the Orient, leads from China
through Central Asia to Antioch on the Mediterranean; an offshoot follows the
Indus to the plains of India. The chief articles obtained by the East from the
trade along the Silk Road are glass, precious metals and cultivated plants (clover,
peaches, almonds), while the West obtains silk and gold. The production of silk
was very important already in pre-Han times, probably from the Shang period
onwards. It was not only a desirable article of import for the West, but in China
itself served as currency: taxes, for instance, were partly paid in the form of
bales of silk. The quality of the fabrics was standardized, as were their breadth
2I 4
FHE SILK
and
ROAD
length.
The dissemination
of Buddhist doctrine
It
was
and culture
first
Buddhist communities in Central Asia appeared. Thus the oasis towns along the
trade-route were not only centres for the distribudon of goods but also the sites of
Buddhist monasteries which transmitted to the peoples of Central Asia and the
Far East the religious teaching and above all the wealth of artistic symbolism
that had been developed in India. In these monasteries artists combined Buddhist
215
CHINA: HISTORY
HAN DYNASTY
TUN-HUANG
B.C.
200
Western
Han
(206 b.c-
Buildings in
a.d. 9)
Edicts against literature
wood and
brick.
Barrel-vaulting, cupolas
false cupolas,
and
wall-painting
Flourishing of
silk
silk
industry;
and India
IOO
way
to theocratic cen-
by
Tun-huang founded on
in
Architectural models
gentry
Bronze-casting
Wang Mang
Rebellion of
life
Silk
Road
the
(105 B.C.) as a
Great Wall
Manufacture of paper
from silk waste
A.D.
Eastern
Han
(25
b.cLo-yang
(a.d. 65)
Universities
and provincial
Turbans' (168)
200
Disintegration of
Han
Empire
Decline of traditional ways
of life
216
Buddhism
Penetration of
KOREA - JAPAN
EUROPE
Greece: Hellenism
INDIA
B.C.
Sunga dynasty
in north India
(185-72 B.C.)
Greek conquests in border
Rome: Republican
Satavahana dynasty
(c.
period
(510-31 B.C.)
in
Venus of Milo
Deccan
150 b.c.)
(c.
Romans conquer
Andhra
200
Italy
art
Han
Julius Caesar
( 1
00-44 B c -)
100
Paekche
(18)
Roman Empire
(75 b.c.-
a.d. 480)
a.d. 14)
Kalinga art
Emperor Augustus
(27 b.c.A.D.
Mahayana Buddhism
Mathura school
Early
Begram ivories
Kushan and Mathura
Emperor Trajan
100
(98 -117)
art
flourish
Gandhara stupas
Emperor Hadrian
(11 7-138)
Roman
Decline of Kushans
(from
c.
a.d. 250)
Development of Germanic
and culture
art
200
217
CHINA: HISTORY
200
TUN-HUANG
THREE KINGDOMS
PERIOD (220-265)
SIX DYNASTIES PERIOD
in the south (265-589)
China partitioned
Peasant revolts,
civil
wars,
by Tibetans, Turkic
Mongols, Huns and protoMongols
Nanking becomes capital
raids
(c.
Chin Ming-ti
240),
(299-335)
of the south
Earliest
(265-3! 6)
China (338)
Painters:
(317-420)
16 illegitimate barbarian states
Caves founded by
in north (304-439)
Lo Tsun
Buddha
Tun-huang grows
figure in
in impor-
Wang
Hsi-chih
(from 350)
monk
(366)
Yiin-kang cave-temples
founded
(420-588)
Embassy
to
Ceylon (428)
Painters:
Ku
Lu T'an-wei
Chun-chi
(c.
(c.
460)
440-500)
Wei (446-452)
Wei expand to
and temple-building
Painters
Chang Seng-yu
Zen Buddhism founded
SUI
DYNASTY
(589-618)
218
500-550)
(c.
liter-
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
428 (520-530)
285 (538-539)
249
259
419 (589-618)
423 (581-617)
299 (end of 6th or
INDIA
KOREA - JAPAN
EUROPE
Vakatakas in Deccan
Christianity:
(c.
period
280-520)
Guptas
India
at
(c.
Magadha
(c.
Catacomb Church
200
a.d. 250)
in north
280-530)
kingdom
Rule of Koguryo (3 3-668)
Fall of Lo-lang
300
Constantine the Great (324-337)
Edict of Milan
Acceptance of Christianity
Christianity becomes state
religion (381)
Partition of
Roman Empire
(395)
400
Taruma kingdom
(c.
in west
Java
400)
High Gupta
art
Kumaragupta
Hun
under
invasions (Attila)
II (415-455)
(450
Bagh: rock-cut monasteries
Ajanta, Deccan:
rock-cut monasteries 16-17
(c.
by Clovis (466-5 1 1
Theodoric the Great (471-526)
Apogee of Gothic power
Rise of Carolingians
in
500-530)
Official introduction of
Buddhism at
Korea (524)
550-757)
Silla
court in
Harshavardhana (606-647)
Japan
(552)
500
219
CHINA: HISTORY
6oo
Hierarchy of
officials
TANG DYNASTY
(618-906)
Buddha statues:
movement in lieu
Classical
elegant
Conquest of Korea
(627-649)
700
of
earlier stiffness.
Tarim
DYNASTY
rule of
CHOU
(c.
600)
(c.
600)
198 (581-617)
301
302
303
321 (618-712)
323 (618-712)
2 1 7 (late 7th cent.)
Tibetans (763)
(690-705) in Lo-
296
420
763-820)
Architecture: pagoda occurs
basin
Temporary
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
TUN-HUANG
1)
and
curved roofs
China
Tun-huang reconquered
by Chinese (848)
Wu-tsung (844-845)
Buddhist monks, scholars and
patriarchs
Han Shan
(577-654), Tao-
(665-713)
Buddhist worthies:
Wang Wei
(to 788),
(699-759), Ma-tsu
Hui-kuo (746-805)
763), (Kanshin)
220
INDIA
KOREA - JAPAN
(from 630)
or
EUROPE
600
Hakuho
period (645)
Pippin
Sutton
Hoo
Pippin
II
dies (640)
in north
burial (655)
(680-714)
Korea:
Silla destroys
Paekche
Silla destroys
mid-
7th cent.)
(663)
Koguryo
Yasovarman of Kanauj
(c.
730)
Rastrakutas in Deccan
(757-973)
Palace of Bengal
700
Charles Martel becomes mayor
of the palace (714-741)
Battle between Tours and
Poitiers (732)
(c.
765- 1162)
Vatsaraja (775-800)
Founder of Gurjara-Pratihara
Empire
Cholas in south India repeatedly
raid
Ceylon (gth-i3th
cents.)
800
Carolingian Empire (from 800)
Carolingian art
the
Indochina emergence of
Khmer Empire, capital: Angkor
:
Empire
Louis the
German
(843-876)
221
CHINA: HISTORY
TUN-HUANG
Cave 369 (c. 900)
Cave 321 (907-959)
Cave 332 (907-1368)
goo
End
Rule of
SUNG DYNASTY
in north
China (960-1279).
philosophy (Neo-Confucianism)
agrarian reforms
Sculpture: life-sized painted
1000
Lohan
figures
100
127-1279)
222
(1
15-1237)
in
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
323 (960-1278)
198 (960-1278)
186 (960-1278)
61 (960-995)
55 (960-1278)
KOREA - JAPAN
INDIA
EUROPE
900
(ioth-i2th cents.)
(935)
Koryo
End
Ottoman
(918)
Henry
(973-"9o)
Henry
Indochina:
Khmer
(919-936)
Otto I (936-973)
Otto II (973-983)
Otto III (983-1002)
Capetians in France (987-1328)
Chandellas in central
Chola
art
II
(1002- 1024)
Norman Conquest
art develops
1000
(1066)
under Ramapala
Kashmir: last renaissance
Mahmud of Ghazni conquers
the Punjab (1005)
St.
Bernard of Clairvaux
(1091-1153)
Disintegration of Gurjara-
Kamakura
period
(1
185)
cent.)
1100
223
LIST OF CAVES
Cave No.
Date
257
c.
285
538-539
428
520-530
249
299
296
c.
302
301
299
420
4i9
c.
303
423
581-617
128-9
103
713-762
i37> 142
321
i39> '83
323
209
763-820
and 386-532
77, 79. 81
73, 94-95, 98, 99
82, 85,
589-618
above,
96
87-88
101,
600
600
93
108,
20-1
no, ///
112, 117,
18-9
"3
101, 120-1
cent.
123 below
114. above,
above,
124
126
'5'
149, 152
217
45
320
713-762
8th cent.
205
172
8th cent.
171
900
i73
162-3
167
166, 169
369
c.
198
112
undated
i74, 176-7
196
892-894
178-9
186
960-1278
186
190
175
288
332
61
98o-995
!95>
55
960-1278
198, 206, 20
224
a.d. 500
in
Roman
193
!
97,
205
monochrome reproductions
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China and Japan. Rutland, Vt. - Tokyo, 1955.
vol. 5, no. 1,
Priest,
York, 1954.
Colin,
The Unique
Rowland, B.:
The
Central
and
I938-
1952, pp. 45
Rowley,
V.:
Contag,
of
ff.
A New
Approach
Dubosc, J.-P.
Painting, in
Oriental Art,
ff.
:
Ming
Ch'ing
and
new
to Chinese
series, vol.
m,
New
Exhibition Catalogue.
Wildenstein
York, 1949.
Chinesische Landschaftsmalerei.
0.:
Munich, 192 1.
0.: Die chinesische Malerei der Han-
Fischer,
G.
A.:
Principles
Boston,
of Chinese
Mass.,
Painting.
Princeton, 1947.
Sakanishi, S.
(tr.) :
The
of the Brush,
Spirit
to
the Five
Siren,
m,
tiques, vol.
0.
Siren,
1956, pp. 3
The Chinese on
Alt-Kutscha.
Archaologische
Siren,
if.
A History of Early
0.:
Soper, A. C.
in:
Berlin, 1920.
2 vols.
Chinese Painting.
London, 1933.
:
Art Bulletin,
M.: On
Sullivan,
M.:
Ceylon.
of India,
Peking, 1936.
Asia
Wall-Paintingr.
1950, pp. 50
Dubosc, J.-P.
Fischer,
Characteristics
New
the Origin
of Landscape
Hallade,
in:
Le Jardin des
Harlel,
H.
Wandmalerei.
An
Kuo Hsi:
E.
Sh.
und
vii,
zentralasiatische
New
Sullivan,
York, 1953.
M.:
London, 1935.
Chinese Landscape Painting.
S. Sakanishi.
don, 1963.
London, 1947.
Waley, A.:
of Chinese
March,
B.
Linear
Perspective
Medley,
M.:
'Certain
m,
in
Chinese
Technical Aspects of
Art
The
An
1931.
in:
London, 1962.
in China.
Swann, P. C.
Cleveland, 1954.
March, B.
Pictorial Art
Berlin, 1959.
Translated by
Lee,
Indische
W. C:
Chinese
Temple
Frescoes.
Toronto, 1940.
Tii
Chien-hua:
Geschichte
der
chinesischen
227
MONOGRAPHS ON TUN-HUANG
Stein,
M.
Sir
A.:
Houang.
La
Paris, 1962.
1912.
Cave Paintings
at
Tun-
Shanghai, 1955.
Matsumolo, E.: Tonko-ga no kenkyu (Studies
vols.
Kyoto,
M.
Sir
A.
Tun-huang Pi-hua-chi
(Collection
of Wall-
and date
Ballads
London, i960.
Waley, A.
from Tun-huang by
Sir
I93I-
I952-Pelliot,
Stein,
Chih-liu:
(Descriptive
vols. Paris, 19
14-1924.
Warner, L.
Buddhist Wall-Paintings
228
a Study
INDEX
The numerals
abstract motifs
Academia
Sinica
12
academies, private
185
acrobat
aesthetic theory
83
Ajanta
34. 143
Alexandria
16,
Assurbanipal
astronomers
technique
191
Auboyer, J.
54
Bactria
25
balustrade
134
bamboo
137
amber
Amitabha Buddha
19
171
46;
cf.
under
Annam
105, 133
apsaras
Arabs
bridge,
bell
178-9, 205
gallery,
roof,
202;
cf.
house,
shrine,
77
Bengal
195, 205
96
arch,
hut,
temple,
178-9, 181,
Bodhi
26, 192
Bodhidharma
210
22
61, 78, 210
133, 211
r 78-9,
195,
196, 205
boneless painting:
Boston
Museum
box
mo-ku
19
22, 89, 101
Brahmi language
Brahmin
Braisted, P.
66,
cf.
22
Bouchier, G.
brick,
210
78
Bonin
Asia, Central 15, 19, 26, 3of., 54, 96, 133, 151,
Assisi
775, 207
133
window
65, i93
18-9
artists
battle scene
bee-hive hut
artisans
16
19,
10,
archer, archery
arrow-heads
banner
birds 40, 42, 44-5, 47, 62, 64, 67, 73, 77, 80,
archaism
Arezzo
Biographies of Eminent
archaeologists
terrace, wall,
I,
113
arch
pavilion,
54, 82
no, 118-9
132
46f., 51,
arabesque
pagoda,
106,
Benares
individual species
balustrade,
124
15
197
183; mythical
34. '43
Avalokitesvara
altar
116,
53
Atman
aloe
108,
38
38,52
Assyria
134
alfalfa
al fresco
and figures.
stamped 37,
69, 208
26
g6, 178-9
13
54, 55, 56, 61, 62, 63, 6$ff.,
229
bridge
British
208
140,
Museum
301".,
33, 40,
42,
702,
45,
185;
cf.
!33>
H9,
151-2,
Chang Seng-yu
cf.
31
87-8,
charcoal drawing
152
98;
19, 26;
cf.
Ch'an
43,
46,
12
68,
126;
123,
charioteer,
Chavannes, E.
68
Cheng Te-k'un
12,
12,
burial-place
bush
107
ch'iao-chih
18
Ch'ien-fo
195, 205
Byzantium
45
75
116
Tung:
Buddhas
Chin dynasty 82;
cf.
cf.
Caves of a Thousand
Jurchen
ch'in
calendar
22
calligraphy
camel
134
75; influence
123, 124,
206
230
if.;
travellers 19
26
140
140
ch'in-shou
Chin-ts'un
12, 18, 23
127
Ch'an Buddhism
Ch'ing-pi shan-shui
cf.
181,
Ch'ing-ping Hsien
cedar
Ceylon
43*"->
Ch'ing dynasty
ceremony
39.
i35
206
Tun-huang, Yiin-kang
Mountains:
35*"->
53> 56,
178-9
Celestial
39*"->
Ch'ing-lu shan-shui
23. 118-9,
India, Kinnari,
189; approach to
carpet
cf.
187,
134
89
cart
iosf.,
Canterbury Psalter
caravan
canal
Canton
105
camphor
canopy
67
93
35, 212
ch'i
Chiao-chih
Buhot, J.
106
Ami-
56
68
83, 143
Chang Heng
chariot
Buddhism, Buddhist
54, 151
composition
162-3,
tabha, Dhyani
i9 2
cf.
Chang Shu-hung
Chang Yen-yuan
831"-,
chang-fa:
Changsha
'hunting bronzes'
Buddha
Chang Ch'ien
chang kai
bronzes
Ch'ang-an
Chiu-ch'uan
ch'iu ho
Chou
T'ien Shan
42, 42, 65, 178-9
133
39, 78, 135, 167, 168, 191
Christians
Ch'iian-chou
Chuang-tzii
93
83
102
20, 23
89
41, 42, 43, 46, 47, 202
19, 189, 191
133
67, i88f.
documents
Chu-chiieh
22
Chun Tsung
Ch'u Yuan
40
donor
53
door
dog
civil service
Clark, Sir K.
39,89
clay
106,
dragon
178-9, 190
po-hua
dhoti
42f., 46, 55, 66, 70, 80, 86-8,
no, 117
clothing 16, 19, 40, 126, 132, 134, 151, 164, 175,
cf.
126
26,
drawing
93
42, 56,
178-9
cloth
178-g;
22
64^
25, 47,
87-8, 93,
107,
152;
cf.
61 , 62, 64f.
eagle
89
earth
42f., 44-5, 61
comb
commerce
I5f., 26,
elephant
25
El Greco
compass
composition
8gf,
98,
Egypt
140,
143,
149,
166,
98
26, 105
80
Coomaraswamy, A. K.
35
Englishmen
coral
16
engraving
cotton
16
Ennin
40
185
22
47, 65, 109
195, 205
'Entry of the
Emperor
137, 155
crystal
19
Cubists
35
z 78-9, 200
customs
dance, dancers
30, 178-9
Darbois, D.
9, 12
Demieville, P.
desert 3,
93
cf.
T'ai
Europe
40
185, 192
15, 22, 35ff.,3,9<9;
dice
103,
i87f, 211;
cf.
Greece, Italy
Fa-hua Sutra
fan-tsu
22f.
186, 200
Fenelon, F. de
189
feng
193
fengsujen
178-9
200
22
Ferghana
ferns
festivals
34
83
feng-su jen-wu
193
Dhyani Buddha
European approach
explorers
77
dhoti
Ch'ang-an'
133, 151
essay
falcon
Erh Ya
Shan
189, 191
demons
77
Degas, H. G. E.
Delhi
envoys
into
44, 183
creeper
deities
147
elm
encyclopedia
134
embroidery
Confucianism
deer
23, 134
cf.
ceremonies
231
filigree
83
127
grapes
grass
Five Classics
39
'Five Terraces'
flame motif
195, 205
flax
16
fleur-de-lys motif
19
cf.
poppy
42f-,
folklore
folk-songs
footwear
16,
Great Wall
Greece
halo
Han:
188
cf.
nimbus
93
10
19
184; empire
22
19, 75;
fortification
54
168
55> 6 5> 70, 80, 82, 87-8, 183, 202; brick 37,
foreshortening
forest
16
208
fir- tree
fish
grain
39
63,
56,
39.
66f.,
mythology 202
107,
183;
painting
panel
68-9;
reliefs 42-5,
Fountain of Wine
20
65. 77, 82, 87-8, 90, 93, 98, 101, 104, 108,
45
French
frieze
22, i87f.
'Frozen Pearl'
fruit
140
54>83
Fukien province
funerary slabs
105
77; urn 41
tile
Ho
Ch'ti-ping,
tomb 41,
Chang Ch'ien,
49, 64;
cf.
Wu Ti
Hang-chow
hare
93
Harsha of Kanauj
137
61, 62
harvest scene
fur
fu-sang
Fu Tu
134
185
iosf., 133,
han-lin
Hasegawa
203
head-dress
149, 155
heaven
Hedin,
gardens
16
galleries
140
hemp
Garuda
203
hills 3, 6if.,
22
S.
16
64, 76, 82, 106, 114,
16, 118-9,
t23>
gazelle
23
Genoese
22
genre painting
178-9, 200
glassware
Gobi
16
13, 23,
190
Hindus
cf.
mountains
19, 191,
56
historical scene
Ho
Ch'u-ping
147
20,
Hokiji
gong
goose
gorge
Gothic art
232
205
Honan
77
3
province
64
Hopei province
30
horn
211
203
historians
22
58-9, 66, 107, 205
83
m,
/%
horseman
206
198,
sionaries 75;
versity 195,
ink
house
"7
inlay
Hsia Nai
12
200
Wen
195, 205
Hsieh
ifa
47
Ho
35.83
hsien
34
Islam
168
133, 191
16
39
hsiu shih
89
jade
96
Jade Gate
Hsiian-tsung,
i3
Emperor
Hsu Tao-ning
103
hua
39f-
Huai River
185
hua-niao
83
Hui-tsung, Emperor
83, 181
Hung Jen
Huns
19,
Jain
Japan, Japanese
Jatakas 84, 147;
205
hanta, Visvantara
31, 118-9
Java
Jenghis
Khan
jin-wu
24
Jerusalem
75
Jiva, Princess
hunting scene 38, 44, 50, 52, 65, 82, 93, 107,
Jurchen
cf.
3'
168
jan
jugglers
15, 22f.
MSS
duck
'hunting bronzes'
28
22, 24,
hsin
Hsiian Tsang
(Waley)
107
hsi ian
190
Java
206
Iran
ivory
Chi
cf.
Italy
Yii
31;
205,
7 8f.
hsuan-jan
39;
Hsien-wen Ti
Hsi
philosophy
205
Indonesia
'47
hsiao-fu-p'i ts'un
133;
Horyuji
Hsiao
monks
185
83, 200
1
34
19
19,
178-9
181, 185
120-1
huo-yen chih
1 1
K'ai-pao
29
K'ai-yun
Impressionists
1871.
29
Kansas City
116
Kansu
171
kaolin
25
incrustation
101
kao-yuan
9'
I-nan
India
13,
151".,
31,
137,
Indians 19, 77
Indian, apsara 5/; art 96, 118-9,
43>
210
Karakorum
Kashgar
9, 98, '73,
15
'37
'5.
Kashmir
'33
Khotan
Kiangsu
54
22
MSS
Kinnari
132
'5f-. 29,
233
knife-throwers
178-9
Korea
kou
168
137, 153, 200
kou-le
kou-le-t'ien-ts'ai
153
Kropotkin, P.A.
22
kuan
Kuang Ya
Kuan-yin
53, 56,
cf.
Liu Hsiang
22
Liu Pang
212
Liu-tse,
53
King
195, 205
Lo-lang
47
15, 19,
132
Lo Tsun
24
206
3'
89
19
132
kung-shih
K'un-lun
Kusinagara
Kyzyl
1 5>
151
-pond
cf.
Lo-yang
80 84, 102,
iosf.
168
83
luan
15
Lu Chu Yung
15
Lung-hai
20
ku-shih jen-wu
lacquer
391". >
Lohans
Kumtura
Hsi
208
Kumarajiva
Kuo
Chinese
39*"-
Kuei
K'ai-chih
literature:
200
135, 140,
Kucha
Ku
Li Ssu-hsiin
200
Lung-men
157
lung-yu
83
'32
lun k'us
168
Lust, J.
I2f.
78 80, 210
caves
lute
71
130
lake
lance
149
Mahasattva
193
mahout
82, 85,
96; Jataka
82,
93
i37
leather
22
Mai-chi Shan
legends
41
Maitreya
lemons
54
Mallika
Leonardo da Vinci
93
Malraux, A.
leopard
42
Manchuria
9, 12,
178-9
96
i87f.
Li
206
Manicheans
Liang dynasty
151
Manjusri
Liang Wu-ti
78
Liao
manuscripts
mao-lin
63
Mara
Marco
82
210
Polo
135, 140
marriage
Li Hsin-tien
'95, 205
masks
Li Kuang-li
23
Maspero, H.
45
Maya
ling-chih
LiPo
234
101, 139
igf.,
26, 31
56
library
lion
133
114, 195, 205
181, 185
Liao-yang
Li Chao-tao
56, 181
105,
1341".
ma-ya
feasts
16
178-9
139
53
189
ts'un
medallion
200
'43
11
meditation
Nalanda
61
Nanking
68
Nan Shan
13, 19
Nara
Needham,
Medley, M.
mei
kit
memoirs
merchants
cf.
commerce
cf.
bronze,
168
Middle East
15,
134;
cf.
Ming dynasty
J.
Nehru Rajan
185; Gate
15
Ning, Prince
mirror
missionaries
75, 78
201
lien ts'un
Mo-ch'i
mo-chu
83
Eternal Peace
133, 137,
40, 56
168, 201
3, 3of., 34, 36, 4off., 47, 48, 62, 69,
70, 80, 83f., 87-8, 8gf., 98, 107, 137, 139, 140,
'45,
'49,
'52,
162-4,
158,
195, 205;
Old Persian
cf.
cloud-mountain,
>35, 181
54
87-8, 126, 144; -cart 17
pagoda
'Mount Lu'
Mu-lan
205
under
cf.
tomb and
under
dynasties
palace 38, 56, 83^, 105, 114, 140, 155, 198, 206
Pamirs
15,
80
parasol
93
Paris
12
partridge
Patriarchs
133
1
paper
Myngoo Wong
legends
cf.
individual painters
Mycenaean
cf.
188;
91
171,
Panikkar, Sardar K.
26
opera
ox
ing 53
H3.
47
moss
mountains
nymphs
orange
135
nobles
168
80
No
206
19, 75
monsters
moon
38
143
205; Monastery of
Mongols
monks
'33
h a '
40
monasteries
33. 67, 70
Miran
mo
116
Nestorians
Nineveh
17,
189
1
Neolithic
24
mi
nimbus
Fei 3, 201
84
23
Nelson Gallery
gold, silver
miao
Mi
'95, 205
73, 75.
22, 53f.
147,
206
120-1, 151, 205
19,
133
58-9, 66
191
235
patronage
105
pavilion
pearls
140
16, 134,
12, 47,
printing
135
prison
Psalter:
Peking
171
Canterbury, Utrecht
cf.
punishments
22
23, 26
Pelliot, P.
prince, princess
rabbit
58-9, 66
Rama
36
Petrarch
26, 71
Rdmayana
36
pheasant
66
rebellions
127
169, 186
p'iao-maio
pi chi
89
10
p'ien-wen
81
1 1 ,
200
p'i-ma ts'un
pine-tree
P'ing-Ch'eng
78
p'ing-yuan
103, 171
plants
54, 77 ;
cf.
play
plum-tree
Po
Chii-i
poplar
cf.
cf.
Taoism
Renaissance
rice
ceremonies
river 34, 40, 40, 42, 70, 90, 118-9, 128-9, !33>
Roman Empire
love
98
22f., 26,
poppy
Romanesque
i5f., 20,
roof
54
35
94-5
35
mirror
priest
236
128-9, 205
77
22
Russians
lacquer 45,
no,
88
124
133
Ruru Jataka
excavations 56;
Rome
1 33
rubbings 41, 42, 42, 43, 44-5, 65, 66, 68, 69,
pottery
pre-Han
54;
rook
sacrifice
pratyaksha
10
106, 108,
Prasenajit
art
portraiture
pramana
211
185
rites: cf.
127
lake, lotus
Prabutaratna
Buddhism, poetry,
pond
po-hua
181
poets 19X, 30, 33, 36, 53, 62, 67, 70, 80, 135,
;
185
reliefs 31,
ferns
i34f.
reforms
sages
saints
Sakyamuni
salt
industry
19
195, 205
g8
84,
93, 124
Samarkand
15
sandalwood
151
sandhills
Sankara
130
Sankha, King
183, 193
1
178-9
Sanskrit
195, 205
104
san-tieh-fa
sarcophagus
Sassanians
31, 77
scarf
124
scholar
school
53, 185
and
Science
Civilization in China
screen
(Needham)
scroll 44, 50, 73, 74, 84, 89, 123, 140, 141, 183,
184
78; sculpture
sculptor
reliefs,
16,
30,
78,
210;
cf.
statue
Scythians
shaman
Shang bronzes
Shang dynasty 42
cf.
Sinkiang:
Siren,
cf.
Sui-chien
O.
Shang- Yin
75-104; art of 80
Six Dynasties
Six Principles of Painting
35, 83
slavery
30
soldiers
22, 30
44, 116, 211
Soper, A. C.
spices
16
spirits
spoon
22
spring
T'iao
42
standard
33
70
stencil
25
20$
66, 68-9; relief 65, 77, 87-8, 90, 93, 98, 104,
65, 66,
93
46
sheng-tung
47
students
53
stupa
Shen Hsiu-ch'ang
43, 67, 77
103
shen-yiian
Ming
shih-nii
40
Shuo
Wen
40
Sian:
cf.
Ch'ang-an
42, 43, 67
157, 198,
206
210
Siena
178-9; books on 54; clothing
134; documents
on
on
16,
53,
Road
silver inlay
82
Tun-huang
195, 205
Sukhavati
29
su-kuo
83
Su-lo
Ho
23
Sung: calligraphy 46; caves 200; dynasty 181201, 195, 205; emperor 83; history 181, 185;
painters 80, 187^; painting 3, 144-5,
Suddhanta Jataka
40
205
143
Siddhartha, Prince
stylization
"8-9
Shun, Emperor
Museum
Shu
Sian
river
200
jen-wu
shrine
cf.
200
jen-wu
shih-shih
26
shell
Shih
183
16,
statue
40, 83
22, 195,
Shensi province
140
12, 33,
Stein, Sir A.
shan-shui
Shantung province
178-9
singers
44
pre-Han
Shansi province
silverware
Ssti
42, 45
;
1;
15, 19
43, 102
'53>
Sung
?37
sutra:
cf.
Su Tung-p'o
tien
swallow
77, 134
Swedes
22
symbolism
i8o.f.
Syria
19, 54, 61
Szechwan
22, 65,
69
t'ien: cf.
T'ien Shan
178-9
tablet 3,
210
168
tien t'ai
tiger
139
130
tile
206
35
201
ta-hun tien
Shan 41 god of
;
26, 134
tile
49;
cf.
Wu Liang-tz'u
T'o-pa
Tagore, R.
T'ai
tomb: panel 2,
197, 205,
23
15,
T'ien-shui
Tokharian, Tokharians
table
205
heaven
195, 205
78
200
tou-pan ts'un
towns
187;
Hsiian
cf.
Tree of Heaven
127
trees 26, 3of., 36, 40, 40, 43, 45, 44-5, 47, 48,
63, 65, 80, 98, 114, 132, 134, H3f., 147, 149,
6if.,
141 ;
reliefs
T'ang
84,
187,
190,
201;
197,
191; neo-
T'ao Yuan-ming
Tarim basin
15,
Tarsus
Tartars
Z2>,
16, 54,
Three Kingdoms
ti: cf.
earth
Tibet
238
168, 200
34
ts'un-fa
200
29
Tsung Ping
Tu Fu
7of.
47>
Thapar, R.
55, 61, 63
i34f, 181
Tung-hsuan-ssu
Tung-p'o:
Tun-huang:
151
Su Tung-p'o
cf.
affinities
scription of 23f.
history of 24, 78
tent
textiles
29
212
tsi
23
29
Yen
ts'un
134
Te Hang-chia
168
ts'ajan
Tse-liu ching
80
taxation
102
80
Ferghana
tea
42
tripod
Ts'ao
cf.
species
triangle motif
83, 200
cf.
cf.
188, 200;
tao-shih
Ta-Wan:
107, 108,
influence
upon
31,
178-9
178-9
75-104
24, 26;
Cave 45
Cave 55
cf.
9, 15,
158, 162-4
198, 206, 207
Gave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
6
;
2
7
103
'74, '76-7
1 1
Queen
18, 24, 31
60
vase
Vedantist
186
186
vegetables
196
'78-9
198
'75
205
209
2
",77,
285
iof.,
Vimalakirti
114, 140
vineyard
299
190
108,
96
no, III
no, 178-9
wall
Wang
An-shih
1 20-1
"3
Wang Wei
118-9
Warner, L.
I,
126
309
29
320
167
321
'39, '83
323
332
193
369
'73
419
420
"4, '23
423
128-9
82, 85, 93,
Tung Yuan
Turco-Mongols
Waley, A.
101,
303
428
206
301
302
Vishnu
'57,
1,
206
'49, '52
166, 169
288
296
83
vessels
195,
n, 87-8
257
'9'
villages
249
'7'
valley
171
172
203f.
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Cave
Vaidehi,
96
9'
75.78
Turfan
15
Turks
133
185
Wang-ch'iian
Warring
wars
140, 141
9, 31, 35, 75, 135, 140,
143
'78-9
States
cf.
batde scene
Washington, D.C.
45
watch-tower
201
i88f., 192,
water-
Watts,
A.W.
187
140;
caves
30;
drawings
149;
Wei
82,93
Wei-mo-ch'i
140
well
West, the
66, 118-9
19, 31, 151, 202f.
cf.
Europe, Middle
East
Uighur, Uighurs
universities
Upanishad
26, 134
53, 195,
205
191
wind
urn
4'
window
utensil
4i
wolf
Utrecht Psalter
89
106 117,
123
239
Emperor
Yang-ti,
Yangtze-kiang
iosf.
19,
105^
writing-slips
22
Yarkand
Wu, Emperor
Wu, dowager Empress
Wu Chan
78
80
Yellow Sea
133
24
Yen Li-pen
101, 107
55
yin
68
wu-hsing
Wu Liang-tz'u
Wu-t'ai Shan
Wu Tao-tzu
Wu Ti, Emperor
Wu-Ting
wu-t'ung
15
168
Yuan
Yuan Chi
Yu-Men cf. Jade Gate
19,
151
Yiin-kang cave-temples
20
Yang
240
80
Yu
t'ien
78,
210
29
127, 131
Kuei-fei
135
Zoroastrians
yang
78, 185
134, 164.
Zen Buddhism:
133
cf.
Ch'an
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