Elicig PDF
Elicig PDF
Elicig PDF
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The content of this document remains the copyright of ist owner, all rights reserved.
The content of this document remains the copyright of ist owner, all rights reserved.
I. Nouns
Nouns make up the largest class of words and are 'naming words'. They describe a thing, place,
living being or abstract idea. For example, a car, a city, a dog, fear.
1. Proper vs common, concrete vs abstract, countable vs uncountable vs group
Any noun is either common or proper. Proper nouns are names of people, places, ships, pets,
etc. For example: Mary, Paris, Titanic, Fido, etc. They all begin with a capital letter. The rest of
the nouns are common.
According to another classification, any noun is either concrete or abstract. Concrete nouns
refer to something that exists in the physical world, for example stone, air, John, tiger.
Abstract nouns refer to an idea, event or general quality, e.g. feeling, knowledge, strength,
meeting.
Finally, every noun is either countable of uncountable. Countable nouns can be preceded by a,
one, two, many or several, for example house, day, song. Uncountable nouns cannot
be preceded by those words, e.g. sugar, water, love.
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Some nouns are also called group nouns. They are countable nouns that refer to a group of
similar objects. For example, a team (of players), a flock (of birds), a class (of students).
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II. Adjectives
Adjectives are used to describe nouns, e.g. the red book, the big picture. Take a look at the
adjectives in the following paragraph:
I had a horrible experience yesterday. I was getting into a lovely, hot bath, when a huge, black,
ugly spider appeared near the tap. It had long, hairy legs and beady little eyes. Needless to say,
I ran a mile!
When comparing things we use the comparative form for two things and the superlative form
for three or more things.
For example:
A cat is bigger than a hamster, but a dog is the biggest domestic animal. A chair is more
comfortable than a stool, but a sofa is the most comfortable seating. In this example, bigger
and more comfortable are the comparative form, while the biggest and the most comfortable
are the superlative form.
III. Verbs
Verbs are sometimes thought of as 'doing' words. They denote action or being, and can also
refer to events, emotions or processes.
E.g. He walks to work. I am a student. He hated his job.
If we take the sentence, 'I lost my keys', we can see that 'lost' is the verb, 'I' is the subject of the
verb, i.e. the 'doer' of the action, and keys' is the object of the verb, i.e. the thing to which the
action of the verb is done.
IV. Adverbs
Adverbs add information or describe other words, usually verbs. Many adverbs end in -ly, for
example, 'he walked quietly into the room'.
Adverbs are a large and varied word class and can be:
Of manner (she steps carefully)
Of time (I want that ice cream now)
Of place (Jeremy lives here)
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Object
me
you
him
her
it
us
you
them
Reflexive Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
myself
yourself
himself
herself
itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
mine
yours
his
hers
its
ours
yours
theirs
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Determiners precede nouns and quantify them in some way. There are many types of
determiners, so take a look at a grammar book if you want to find out more. The most common
determiners are the definite article (the) and the indefinite article (a/an).
Take a look at this paragraph. The determiners are the words in bold.
John says: "An apple a day keeps the doctor away", and I think that statement is true, but your
best bet is not to eat sweets (not all children do). As for me, I don't like any kind of chocolate.
Certain words express feelings and are often exclamatory, such as "Oh!" or "ugh!". These are
called interjections.
When it comes to numbers, there are two kinds of number words (or numerals) in English..
These are cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers. Cardinal numbers are one, two, three, etc.
Ordinal numbers are first, second, third, etc.
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I. Verb types
Verbs, as a word class, are split into two groups. These are main verbs and auxiliary verbs.
Main Verbs
Auxiliary Verbs
primary
modal
The verbs be, have and do can be either main verbs or primary auxiliaries. If it is the only
verb in a verb phrase, it is a main verb. If it modifies another verb, it is an auxiliary verb. For
example, in the sentence I have a brother, have is the main verb. In the sentence I have met
her before, have is an auxiliary modifying the main verb met.
1. Main verb forms
Lets look at the main verbs first.
English verb phrases are made by combining different basic parts. This is different from some
other languages where verbs are conjugated uniquely for every subject and tense. Unike other
languages such as Spanish, English verbs are not highly inflected. That is, the verbs do not have
many different conjugated forms.
English verbs have (arguably) two real tenses (the present and the past), because it is only in
these two tenses that we can see the verb forms change slightly (I have/he has/I had). All the
other verb tenses are constructed by combining a few basic components.
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There are five verb forms that combine with each other and with auxiliary verbs to express
different tenses and meanings.
Infinitive Form
Present Participle
Form
to + verb
adds -ing
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We can use the auxiliary verb 'do' to form questions. For example:
Do you like ice cream?
Here 'do' indicates that this is a question in the present tense. 'Like' is the main verb and does
not change its form.
Did you go to the cinema yesterday?
Here 'did' indicates a question in the past tense. Note that 'go', the main verb, does not change
its form.
3. Tense formation
Auxiliary verbs, in conjunction with main verbs, are used to indicate different tenses.
Present Simple
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
Future Perfect etc.
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3. A table of tenses
To view a useful table which shows the indicative form of each English tense, visit:
(http://www.tefl-training.com/file.php/683/moddata/scorm/115/images/table.pdf)
Different aspects are highlighted in different colours, e.g. all simple tenses are yellow. Note
similarities between the tense forms, e.g. all continuous tenses use the present participle form
of the main verb.
Additionally, there is the form am/are/is + going to which is used to talk about the future and
is sometimes referred to as a tense (future with going to). For example, She is going to look
for a new job.
4. The perfect, continuous and perfect continuous aspects
Let us now look briefly at the meaning of the perfect, continuous and perfect continuous
aspects.
The Perfect
The perfect aspect expresses the following ideas:
1. The exact time of the verb is not important:
o She has gone out to lunch.
o We have been there before.
2. The action being discussed happened before another time and the two points of time
are related in the mind of the speaker.
o Jack had already rescued the survivors when the ambulance arrived. (This
happened before the ambulance arrived.)
o It will have taken me 10 years to get my degree when I finish. (Ten years will pass
before I finish.)
The Continuous
The continuous (or progressive) aspect expresses the following ideas:
1. An action/ activity in progress
o She is washing the dishes.
o I will be working then.
o He was riding his bike when the wheel came off.
2. Something temporary
o Im living in Washington.
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3. Something unfinished
o Im working on a novel at the moment.
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I was working on my assignment all night. A continuous action covering a definite time
period of time
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