The New England

Journal of Medicine
C o py r ig ht 2 0 0 2 by t he Ma s s ac h u s e t t s Me d ic a l S o c ie t y

F E B R U A R Y 7, 2002

V O L U ME 3 4 6

NUMBER 6

REDUCTION IN THE INCIDENCE OF TYPE 2 DIABETES WITH LIFESTYLE

INTERVENTION OR METFORMIN
DIABETES PREVENTION PROGRAM RESEARCH GROUP*

ABSTRACT
Background Type 2 diabetes affects approximately 8 percent of adults in the United States. Some risk
factors elevated plasma glucose concentrations in
the fasting state and after an oral glucose load, overweight, and a sedentary lifestyle are potentially
reversible. We hypothesized that modifying these
factors with a lifestyle-intervention program or the
administration of metformin would prevent or delay
the development of diabetes.
Methods We randomly assigned 3234 nondiabetic
persons with elevated fasting and post-load plasma
glucose concentrations to placebo, metformin (850
mg twice daily), or a lifestyle-modification program
with the goals of at least a 7 percent weight loss and
at least 150 minutes of physical activity per week.
The mean age of the participants was 51 years, and
the mean body-mass index (the weight in kilograms
divided by the square of the height in meters) was
34.0; 68 percent were women, and 45 percent were
members of minority groups.
Results The average follow-up was 2.8 years. The
incidence of diabetes was 11.0, 7.8, and 4.8 cases per
100 person-years in the placebo, metformin, and lifestyle groups, respectively. The lifestyle intervention
reduced the incidence by 58 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 48 to 66 percent) and metformin by
31 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 17 to 43
percent), as compared with placebo; the lifestyle intervention was significantly more effective than metformin. To prevent one case of diabetes during a
period of three years, 6.9 persons would have to participate in the lifestyle-intervention program, and 13.9
would have to receive metformin.
Conclusions Lifestyle changes and treatment with
metformin both reduced the incidence of diabetes in
persons at high risk. The lifestyle intervention was
more effective than metformin. (N Engl J Med 2002;
346:393-403.)
Copyright 2002 Massachusetts Medical Society.

YPE 2 diabetes mellitus, formerly called

non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, is
a serious, costly disease affecting approximately 8 percent of adults in the United
States.1 Treatment prevents some of its devastating
complications 2,3 but does not usually restore normoglycemia or eliminate all the adverse consequences.
The diagnosis is often delayed until complications are
present.4 Since current methods of treating diabetes
remain inadequate, prevention is preferable. The hypothesis that type 2 diabetes is preventable5,6 is supported by observational studies and two clinical trials of diet, exercise, or both in persons at high risk
for the disease7,8 but not by studies of drugs used to
treat diabetes.5
The validity of generalizing the results of previous
prevention studies is uncertain.9 Interventions that
work in some societies may not work in others, because social, economic, and cultural forces influence
diet and exercise. This is a special concern in the
United States, where there is great regional and ethnic
diversity in lifestyle patterns and where diabetes is especially frequent in certain racial and ethnic groups,
including American Indians, Hispanics, African Americans, Asians, and Pacific Islanders.10
The Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group
conducted a large, randomized clinical trial involving adults in the United States who were at high risk
for the development of type 2 diabetes. The study
was designed to answer the following primary questions: Does a lifestyle intervention or treatment with

The writing group (William C. Knowler, M.D., Dr.P.H., Elizabeth Barrett-Connor, M.D., Sarah E. Fowler, Ph.D., Richard F. Hamman, M.D.,
Dr.P.H., John M. Lachin, Sc.D., Elizabeth A. Walker, D.N.Sc., and David
M. Nathan, M.D.) takes responsibility for the content of this article.
Address reprint requests to the Diabetes Prevention Program Coordinating Center, Biostatistics Center, George Washington University, 6110 Executive Blvd., Suite 750, Rockville, MD 20852.
*The members of the Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group are
listed in the Appendix.

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The Ne w E n g l a nd Jo u r n a l o f Me d ic i ne

metformin, a biguanide antihyperglycemic agent, prevent or delay the onset of diabetes? Do these two
interventions differ in effectiveness? Does their effectiveness differ according to age, sex, or race or
ethnic group?
METHODS
We conducted a clinical trial involving persons at 27 centers
who were at high risk for diabetes. The methods have been described in detail elsewhere,6 and the protocol is available at http://
www.bsc.gwu.edu/dpp. The institutional review board at each
center approved the protocol, and all participants gave written informed consent.
Participants
Eligibility criteria included an age of at least 25 years, a bodymass index (the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the
height in meters) of 24 or higher (22 or higher in Asians), and a
plasma glucose concentration of 95 to 125 mg per deciliter (5.3
to 6.9 mmol per liter) in the fasting state (125 mg per deciliter
in the American Indian clinics) and 140 to 199 mg per deciliter
(7.8 to 11.0 mmol per liter) two hours after a 75-g oral glucose
load. These concentrations are elevated but are not diagnostic of
diabetes according to the 1997 criteria of the American Diabetes
Association.11 Before June 1997, the criterion for plasma glucose in
the fasting state was 100 to 139 mg per deciliter (5.6 to 7.7 mmol
per liter), or 139 mg per deciliter in the American Indian clinics.
Eligible persons were excluded if they were taking medicines known
to alter glucose tolerance or if they had illnesses that could seriously
reduce their life expectancy or their ability to participate in the trial.
Recruitment was designed to enroll approximately half the participants from racial or ethnic minority groups. A four-step screening and recruitment process was developed to identify eligible participants.6,12,13
Interventions
Eligible participants were randomly assigned to one of three interventions: standard lifestyle recommendations plus metformin
(Glucophage) at a dose of 850 mg twice daily, standard lifestyle
recommendations plus placebo twice daily, or an intensive program of lifestyle modification. The study initially included a fourth
intervention, troglitazone, which was discontinued in 1998 because of the drugs potential liver toxicity.6 The results in the troglitazone group are not reported here.
Treatment with metformin was initiated at a dose of 850 mg
taken orally once a day, with placebo tablets also given once a day
initially. At one month, the dose of metformin was increased to
850 mg twice daily, unless gastrointestinal symptoms warranted
a longer titration period. The initiation of treatment with half a
tablet was optional. Adherence to the treatment regimen was assessed quarterly on the basis of pill counts and structured interviews. The standard lifestyle recommendations for the medication
groups were provided in the form of written information and in
an annual 20-to-30-minute individual session that emphasized the
importance of a healthy lifestyle. Participants were encouraged to
follow the Food Guide Pyramid14 and the equivalent of a National
Cholesterol Education Program Step 1 diet,15 to reduce their
weight, and to increase their physical activity.
The goals for the participants assigned to the intensive lifestyle
intervention were to achieve and maintain a weight reduction of
at least 7 percent of initial body weight through a healthy lowcalorie, low-fat diet and to engage in physical activity of moderate
intensity, such as brisk walking, for at least 150 minutes per week.
A 16-lesson curriculum covering diet, exercise, and behavior modification was designed to help the participants achieve these goals.
The curriculum, taught by case managers on a one-to-one basis

during the first 24 weeks after enrollment, was flexible, culturally

sensitive, and individualized. Subsequent individual sessions (usually monthly) and group sessions with the case managers were designed to reinforce the behavioral changes.
Outcome Measures
The primary outcome was diabetes, diagnosed on the basis of
an annual oral glucose-tolerance test or a semiannual fasting plasma
glucose test, according to the 1997 criteria of the American Diabetes Association: a value for plasma glucose of 126 mg per deciliter
(7.0 mmol per liter) or higher in the fasting state or 200 mg per
deciliter (11.1 mmol per liter) or higher two hours after a 75-g
oral glucose load.11 In addition to the semiannual measurements,
fasting plasma glucose was measured if symptoms suggestive of
diabetes developed. The diagnosis required confirmation by a second test, usually within six weeks, according to the same criteria.
If diabetes was diagnosed, the participants and their physicians
were informed and glucose-tolerance tests were discontinued, but
fasting plasma glucose was measured every six months, with glycosylated hemoglobin measured annually. As long as the fasting
plasma glucose concentration was less than 140 mg per deciliter,
participants were asked to monitor their blood glucose and to continue their assigned study treatment. If the fasting plasma glucose
concentration reached or exceeded 140 mg per deciliter, the study
medication was discontinued and the participant was referred to his
or her physician for treatment. Measurements of glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) were performed centrally. All tests
were performed without interrupting the assigned treatment, except that placebo or metformin was not taken on the morning of
the test. The investigators and the participants were unaware of the
results of these measurements and were informed only if the results
exceeded the specified threshold for a change in the treatment.
Self-reported levels of leisure physical activity were assessed annually with the Modifiable Activity Questionnaire.16 The physicalactivity level was calculated as the product of the duration and frequency of each activity (in hours per week), weighted by an estimate
of the metabolic equivalent of that activity (MET) and summed
for all activities performed, with the result expressed as the average MET-hours per week for the previous year. Usual daily caloric
intake during the previous year, including calories from fat, carbohydrate, protein, and other nutrients, was assessed at base line and
at one year with the use of a modified version of the Block foodfrequency questionnaire.17
Statistical Analysis and Early Closure
Random treatment assignments were stratified according to the
clinical center. Assignments to metformin and placebo were double-blinded. The study design and analysis followed the intention-to-treat principle. Nominal (unadjusted) P values and confidence intervals are reported.
The blinded treatment phase was terminated one year early, in
May 2001, on the advice of the data monitoring board, on the
basis of data obtained through March 31, 2001, the closing date
for this report. By then, we had obtained evidence of efficacy on
the basis of 65 percent of the planned person-years of observation.
To maintain a type I error level of 0.05 for significance in pairwise
comparisons of the risk of diabetes between groups, with adjustment for repeated interim analyses, the group-sequential log-rank
test18 required a P value of less than 0.0159. For pairwise comparisons of other outcomes, a Bonferroni-adjusted criterion of P<
0.0167 was used. The study design provided 90 percent power to
detect a 33 percent reduction from an incidence of 6.5 cases of
diabetes per 100 person-years, with a 10 percent rate of loss to
follow-up per year.
The time to the outcome was assessed with the use of life-table
methods.19 Modified product-limit curves for the cumulative incidence of diabetes were compared with the use of the log-rank
test. The estimated cumulative incidence at three years and the

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R E D UCING T HE INCIDE NCE OF T YP E 2 D IA B ETES WITH LIFEST Y LE INTERV ENTION OR METFOR MIN

Greenwood estimate of the standard error were used to calculate

the number of persons who would need to be treated in order to
prevent one case of confirmed diabetes during a period of three
years and the associated 95 percent confidence interval. Risk reduction, heterogeneity among strata, and interactions between
treatment assignments and covariates were assessed by proportional-hazards regression. Fixed-effects models with the assumption
of normally distributed errors 20 were used to assess differences
over time in body weight and plasma glucose and glycosylated
hemoglobin values among the three groups.

RESULTS
Study Cohort and Follow-up

From 1996 to 1999, we randomly assigned 3234

study participants to one of the three interventions
(1082 to placebo, 1073 to metformin, and 1079 to
the intensive lifestyle intervention). Base-line characteristics, including all measured risk factors for diabetes, were similar among the three study groups
(Table 1).12 The participants were followed for an av-

erage of 2.8 years (range, 1.8 to 4.6). At the close of

the study, 99.6 percent of the participants were alive,
of whom 92.5 percent had attended a scheduled visit within the previous five months.
Adherence to Interventions

Fifty percent of the participants in the lifestyleintervention group had achieved the goal of weight
loss of 7 percent or more by the end of the curriculum (at 24 weeks), and 38 percent had a weight loss
of at least 7 percent at the time of the most recent
visit; the proportion of participants who met the
goal of at least 150 minutes of physical activity per
week (assessed on the basis of logs kept by the participants) was 74 percent at 24 weeks and 58 percent
at the most recent visit. Dietary change was assessed
only at one year. Daily energy intake decreased by a
mean (SE) of 24927 kcal in the placebo group,
29623 kcal in the metformin group, and 45026

TABLE 1. BASE-LINE CHARACTERISTICS

CHARACTERISTIC

Sex no. (%)

Male
Female
Race or ethnic group no. (%)
White
African American
Hispanic
American Indian
Asian
Family history of diabetes
no. (%)
History of gestational diabetes
no. of women (%)
Age yr
Weight kg
Body-mass index
Waist circumference cm
Waist-to-hip ratio
Plasma glucose mg/dl
In the fasting state
Two hours after an oral glucose
load
Glycosylated hemoglobin %
Leisure physical activity MET-hr/wk

OF THE

STUDY PARTICIPANTS.*

OVERALL
(N=3234)

PLACEBO
(N=1082)

METFORMIN
(N=1073)

LIFESTYLE
(N=1079)

1043 (32.3)
2191 (67.7)

335 (31.0)
747 (69.0)

363 (33.8)
710 (66.2)

345 (32.0)
734 (68.0)

1768
645
508
171
142
2243

586
220
168
59
49
758

602
221
162
52
36
733

580
204
178
60
57
752

(54.7)
(19.9)
(15.7)
(5.3)
(4.4)
(69.4)

353 (16.1)

(54.2)
(20.3)
(15.5)
(5.5)
(4.5)
(70.1)

122 (16.3)

(56.1)
(20.6)
(15.1)
(4.8)
(3.4)
(68.3)

111 (15.7)

(53.8)
(18.9)
(16.5)
(5.6)
(5.3)
(69.8)

120 (16.3)

50.610.7 50.310.4
50.910.3
94.220.3 94.320.2
94.319.9
34.06.7
34.26.7
33.96.6
105.114.5 105.214.3 104.914.4
0.920.09 0.930.09
0.930.09

50.611.3
94.120.8
33.96.8
105.114.8
0.920.08

106.58.3 106.78.4
106.58.5
164.617.0 164.517.1 165.117.2

106.38.1
164.416.8

5.910.50
16.325.8

5.910.50
17.029.0

5.910.50
16.425.9

5.910.51
15.522.1

*Plusminus values are means SD.

Twenty Pacific Islanders were included in this category.
Information was not available for one participant.
To convert the values for glucose to millimoles per liter, multiply by 0.05551.
Data are based on responses to the Modifiable Activity Questionnaire.16 MET denotes metabolic
equivalent. MET-hours represent the average amount of time engaged in specified physical activities
multiplied by the MET value of each activity.

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The Ne w E n g l a nd Jo u r n a l o f Me d ic i ne

kcal in the lifestyle-intervention group (P<0.001).

Average fat intake, which was 34.1 percent of total
calories at base line, decreased by 0.80.2 percent in
the placebo and metformin groups and by 6.60.2
percent in the lifestyle-intervention group (P<
0.001). The proportion of participants who took at
least 80 percent of the prescribed dose of the study
medication was slightly higher in the placebo group
than in the metformin group (77 percent vs. 72 percent, P<0.001). Ninety-seven percent of the partic-

ipants taking placebo and 84 percent of those taking

metformin were given the full dose of one tablet
(850 mg in the case of metformin) twice a day; the
remainder were given one tablet a day to limit side
effects.
Changes in weight and leisure physical activity in all
three groups and adherence to the medication regimen in the metformin and placebo groups are shown
in Figure 1. Participants assigned to the lifestyle intervention had much greater weight loss and a great-

Change in Weight
(kg)

+4
+2

Placebo

0
2
Metformin

Lifestyle

6
8
0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

Change in Physical
Activity (MET-hr/wk)

B
8
Lifestyle

6
4
Metformin

Placebo

0
0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

Medication
Adherence (%)

85
80

Placebo

75
70

Metformin

65
60
0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

Year
Figure 1. Changes in Body Weight (Panel A) and Leisure Physical Activity (Panel B) and Adherence to
Medication Regimen (Panel C) According to Study Group.
Each data point represents the mean value for all participants examined at that time. The number of
participants decreased over time because of the variable length of time that persons were in the study.
For example, data on weight were available for 3085 persons at 0.5 year, 3064 at 1 year, 2887 at 2 years,
and 1510 at 3 years. Changes in weight and leisure physical activity over time differed significantly
among the treatment groups (P<0.001 for each comparison).

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R E D UCING T HE INCIDE NCE OF T YP E 2 D IA BETES WITH LIFEST Y LE INTERV ENTION OR METFOR MIN

Incidence of Diabetes

The cumulative incidence of diabetes was lower in

the metformin and lifestyle-intervention groups than
in the placebo group throughout the follow-up period (Fig. 2). The crude incidence was 11.0, 7.8, and
4.8 cases per 100 person-years for the placebo, metformin, and lifestyle-intervention groups, respectively (Table 2). The incidence of diabetes was 58 percent lower (95 percent confidence interval, 48 to 66
percent) in the lifestyle-intervention group and 31
percent lower (95 percent confidence interval, 17 to
43 percent) in the metformin group than in the placebo group. The incidence of diabetes was 39 percent lower (95 percent confidence interval, 24 to 51
percent) in the lifestyle-intervention group than in
the metformin group. The results of all three pairwise group comparisons were statistically significant
by the group-sequential log-rank test. None of these
results were materially affected by adjustment for
base-line characteristics. The estimated cumulative
incidence of diabetes at three years was 28.9 percent,
21.7 percent, and 14.4 percent in the placebo, metformin, and lifestyle-intervention groups, respectively. On the basis of these rates, the estimated number
of persons who would need to be treated for three
years to prevent one case of diabetes during this period is 6.9 (95 percent confidence interval, 5.4 to
9.5) for the lifestyle intervention and 13.9 (95 percent confidence interval, 8.7 to 33.9) for metformin.
Treatment Effects among Subgroups

Incidence rates and risk reductions within subgroups of participants and the results of tests of the
homogeneity of risk reduction among subgroups are
shown in Table 2; 95 percent confidence intervals for
the subgroup data indicate the precision of the riskreduction estimate for each stratum. The study had
inadequate power to assess the significance of effects
within the subgroups, nor were such tests planned.
Significant heterogeneity indicates that treatment effects differed according to the values of the covariates.
Treatment effects did not differ significantly according either to sex or to race or ethnic group (Table 2).
The lifestyle intervention was highly effective in all
subgroups. Its effect was significantly greater among
persons with lower base-line glucose concentrations
two hours after a glucose load than among those
with higher base-line glucose values. The effect of metformin was less with a lower body-mass index or a lower fasting glucose concentration than with higher

40

Cumulative Incidence
of Diabetes (%)

er increase in leisure physical activity than did participants assigned to receive metformin or placebo.
The average weight loss was 0.1, 2.1, and 5.6 kg in the
placebo, metformin, and lifestyle-intervention groups,
respectively (P<0.001).

Placebo

30
Metformin
Lifestyle

20

10

0
0

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Year
Figure 2. Cumulative Incidence of Diabetes According to Study
Group.
The diagnosis of diabetes was based on the criteria of the
American Diabetes Association.11 The incidence of diabetes differed significantly among the three groups (P<0.001 for each
comparison).

values for those variables. Neither interaction was

explained by the other variable or by age. The advantage of the lifestyle intervention over metformin
was greater in older persons and those with a lower
body-mass index than in younger persons and those
with a higher body-mass index.
Glycemic Changes

In the first year, there was a similar reduction in

the mean fasting plasma glucose values in the metformin and lifestyle-intervention groups, whereas the
values rose in the placebo group (Fig. 3). The values
rose in parallel in all three groups in subsequent
years. There was a similar temporal pattern in the
values for glycosylated hemoglobin, except that the
values in the metformin group were in between
those in the lifestyle-intervention and placebo groups.
Figure 4 shows the percentage of participants who
had normal glucose concentrations (fasting values,
post-load values, and both) at each annual examination. Metformin and the lifestyle intervention were
similarly effective in restoring normal fasting glucose
values, but the lifestyle intervention was more effective in restoring normal post-load glucose values.
Adverse Events

The rate of gastrointestinal symptoms was highest

in the metformin group, and the rate of musculoskeletal symptoms was highest in the lifestyle-intervention group (Table 3). Hospitalization and mortality rates were unrelated to treatment. No deaths
were attributed to the study intervention.

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TABLE 2. INCIDENCE
NO. OF
PARTICIPANTS (%)

VARIABLE

OF

DIABETES.

INCIDENCE
PLACEBO

METFORMIN

REDUCTION

IN INCIDENCE

METFORMIN VS.

LIFESTYLE VS.

PLACEBO

PLACEBO

METFORMIN

LIFESTYLE

cases/100 person-yr

Overall
Age
2544 yr
4559 yr
60 yr
Sex
Male
Female
Race or ethnic group
White
African American
Hispanic
American Indian
Asian
Body-mass index
22 to <30
30 to <35
35
Plasma glucose
In the fasting state
95109 mg/dl
110125 mg/dl**
Two hours after an oral load
140153 mg/dl
154172 mg/dl
173199 mg/dl

(95% CI)*

LIFESTYLE VS.

percent

3234 (100)

11.0

7.8

4.8

58 (48 to 66)

31 (17 to 43)

39 (24 to 51)

1000 (30.9)
1586 (49.0)
648 (20.0)

11.6
10.8
10.8

6.7
7.6
9.6

6.2
4.7
3.1

48 (27 to 63)
59 (44 to 70)
71 (51 to 83)

44 (21 to 60)
31 (10 to 46)
11 (33 to 41)

8 (36 to 37)
41 (18 to 57)
69 (47 to 82)

1043 (32.3)
2191 (67.7)

12.5
10.3

8.1
7.6

4.6
5.0

65 (49 to 76)
54 (40 to 64)

37 (14 to 54)
28 (10 to 43)

46 (20 to 63)
36 (16 to 51)

1768
645
508
171
142

(54.7)
(19.9)
(15.7)
(5.3)
(4.4)

10.3
12.4
11.7
12.9
12.1

7.8
7.1
8.4
9.7
7.5

5.2
5.1
4.2
4.7
3.8

51
61
66
65
71

24
44
31
25
38

36
29
51
52
52

1045 (32.3)
995 (30.8)
1194 (36.9)

9.0
8.9
14.3

8.8
7.6
7.0

3.3
3.7
7.3

65 (46 to 77)
61 (40 to 75)
51 (34 to 63)

3 (36 to 30) 63 (44 to 76)

16 (19 to 41) 53 (28 to 70)
53 (36 to 65)
4 (47 to 26)

2174 (67.2)
1060 (32.8)

6.4
22.3

5.5
12.3

2.9
8.8

55 (38 to 68)
63 (51 to 72)

15 (12 to 36)
48 (33 to 60)

1049 (32.4)
1103 (34.1)
1082 (33.5)

7.1
10.3
16.1

4.3
6.6
12.3

1.8
4.4
8.5

76 (58 to 86) 41 (11 to 61)

60 (41 to 72) 38 (13 to 56)
50 (33 to 63) 26 (3 to 43)

(35 to 63)
(37 to 76)
(41 to 80)
(7 to 87)
(24 to 89)

(3 to 41)
(16 to 63)
(9 to 56)
(72 to 68)
(55 to 75)

(14 to 52)
(18 to 58)
(13 to 72)
(35 to 83)
(46 to 84)

48 (27 to 63)
30 (6 to 48)
59 (27 to 77)
34 (2 to 56)
33 (9 to 51)

*CI denotes confidence interval.

P<0.05 for the test of heterogeneity across strata. Age, body-mass index, and plasma glucose were analyzed as continuous variables.
This category includes 20 Pacific Islanders.
The eligibility criterion was a body-mass index of at least 22 for Asians and at least 24 for all other persons.
To convert the values for glucose to millimoles per liter, multiply by 0.05551.
This category includes American Indian participants who had a fasting glucose concentration that was less than 95 mg per deciliter, according to the eligibility criteria.6
**This category includes 54 participants with a fasting glucose concentration of 126 to 139 mg per deciliter who were enrolled before
June 1997,6 when the eligibility criteria were changed to conform to the diagnostic criteria of the American Diabetes Association, published
that year.11

DISCUSSION

Our results support the hypothesis that type 2 diabetes can be prevented or delayed in persons at
high risk for the disease. The incidence of diabetes
was reduced by 58 percent with the lifestyle intervention and by 31 percent with metformin, as compared with placebo. These effects were similar in
men and women and in all racial and ethnic groups.
The intensive lifestyle intervention was at least as effective in older participants as it was in younger participants. The results of our study extend previous
data showing that lifestyle interventions can reduce
the incidence of diabetes7,8 and demonstrate the applicability of this finding to the ethnically and cul-

turally diverse population of the United States. The

risk reduction associated with the lifestyle intervention in our study was the same as that in a study
conducted in Finland,8 and was higher than the reductions associated with diet (31 percent), exercise
(46 percent), and diet plus exercise (42 percent) in
a study in China.7
Our lifestyle intervention was systematic and intensive, with the study participants receiving detailed, individualized counseling. The study, however,
was not designed to test the relative contributions of
dietary changes, increased physical activity, and weight
loss to the reduction in the risk of diabetes, and the
effects of these components remain to be determined.

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R E D UCING T HE INCIDE NCE OF T YP E 2 D IA BETES WITH LIFEST Y LE INTERV ENTION OR METFOR MIN

Fasting Plasma Glucose (mg/dl)

115

Placebo

110

Metformin

105

Lifestyle

100
0

Glycosylated Hemoglobin (%)

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

6.2
Placebo

6.1
Metformin

6.0
Lifestyle

5.9

5.8

5.7
0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

Year
Figure 3. Fasting Plasma Glucose Concentrations (Panel A) and Glycosylated Hemoglobin Values (Panel B) According to Study Group.
The analysis included all participants, whether or not diabetes had been diagnosed. Changes in fasting
glucose values over time in the three groups differed significantly (P<0.001). Glycosylated hemoglobin
values in the three groups differed significantly from 0.5 to 3 years (P<0.001). To convert the values
for glucose to millimoles per liter, multiply by 0.05551.

The incidence of diabetes in our placebo group

(11.0 cases per 100 person-years) was higher than
we had anticipated6 and was higher than the incidence in observational studies,21 perhaps owing to
the greater frequency of glucose testing or to the selection of persons at higher risk in our study. The
incidence of diabetes in the placebo group was similar
among racial and ethnic groups despite differences in
these subgroups in observational, population-based
studies.10 Racial and ethnic-group differences in the
incidence of diabetes were presumably reduced in

our study by the selection of persons who were overweight and had elevated fasting and post-load glucose concentrations three of the strongest risk
factors for diabetes.
Previous studies have not demonstrated that drugs
used to treat diabetes are effective for its prevention,
perhaps because of small samples and the lack of data
on adherence to the prescribed regimens.5 In contrast, metformin was effective in our study, although
less so than the lifestyle intervention. Metformin was
less effective in persons with a lower base-line body-

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The Ne w E n g l a nd Jo u r n a l o f Me d ic i ne

Fasting Glucose

A
100

Placebo
Metformin
Lifestyle

80
60
40
20

Participants with Normal Plasma Glucose (%)

Post-Load Glucose

B
100
80
60
40
20
0

Fasting and Post-Load Glucose

C
100
80
60
40
20
0

Year
Figure 4. Participants with Normal Plasma Glucose Values, According to Study Group.
Panel A shows the proportions of participants with normal glucose values in the fasting state (<110 mg per deciliter
[6.1 mmol per liter]), Panel B the proportions with normal values two hours after an oral glucose load (<140 mg per
deciliter [7.8 mmol per liter]), and Panel C the proportions with normal values for both measurements. Persons in whom
a diagnosis of diabetes had been made were considered to have abnormal values, regardless of the actual values at the
time. By design, no participants had normal post-load glucose values at base line, but base-line fasting glucose values
were normal in 67 percent of persons in the placebo group, 67 percent of those in the metformin group, and 68 percent
of those in the lifestyle-intervention group. Metformin and lifestyle intervention were similarly effective in restoring
normal fasting glucose concentrations, but lifestyle intervention was more effective in restoring normal post-load glucose concentrations.

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R E D UCING T HE INCIDE NCE OF T YP E 2 D IA BETES WITH LIFEST Y LE INTERV ENTION OR METFOR MIN

TABLE 3. ADVERSE EVENTS.

EVENT

PLACEBO METFORMIN LIFESTYLE

Gastrointestinal symptoms (no. of events/

100 person-yr)*
Musculoskeletal symptoms (no. of events/
100 person-yr)
Hospitalization
One or more admissions (% of
participants)
Rate (no. of admissions/100 person-yr)
Median stay (days)
Deaths (no./100 person-yr)

30.7

77.8

12.9

21.1

20.0

24.1

16.1

15.9

15.6

7.9
3
0.16

8.4
3
0.20

8.0
3
0.10

*Gastrointestinal symptoms included diarrhea, flatulence, nausea, and

vomiting.
P<0.0167 for the comparison with placebo.
Most participants with musculoskeletal symptoms had myalgia, arthritis, or arthralgia.

mass index or a lower fasting plasma glucose concentration than in those with higher values for these
variables. The reduction in the average fasting plasma glucose concentration was similar in the lifestyleintervention and metformin groups, but the lifestyle
intervention had a greater effect than metformin on
glycosylated hemoglobin, and a larger proportion of
participants in the lifestyle-intervention group had
normal post-load glucose values at follow-up. These
findings are consistent with the observation that metformin suppresses endogenous glucose production,
the main determinant of fasting plasma glucose concentrations.22
Rates of adverse events, hospitalization, and mortality were similar in the three groups, except that
the rate of gastrointestinal symptoms was highest in
the metformin group and the rate of musculoskeletal symptoms was highest in the lifestyle-intervention group. Thus, the interventions were safe in addition to being effective.
An estimated 10 million persons in the United
States resemble the participants in the Diabetes Prevention Program in terms of age, body-mass index,
and glucose concentrations, according to data from
the third National Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey.23 If the studys interventions were implemented among these people, there would be a substantial
reduction in the incidence of diabetes. Ultimately, the
benefits would depend on whether glucose concentrations could be maintained at levels below those
that are diagnostic of diabetes and whether the maintenance of these lower levels improved the long-term
outcome. These questions should be addressed by
continued follow-up of the study participants and by

analysis of the main secondary outcomes reductions in risk factors for cardiovascular disease, in the
proportion of participants with atherosclerosis, and
in the proportion with cardiovascular disease, which
is the leading cause of death among patients with
type 2 diabetes.24,25
Optimal approaches to identifying candidates for
preventive measures remain to be determined. Although elevation of either the fasting or the post-load
glucose concentration strongly predicts diabetes,26,27
both were required for eligibility in this study.
Whether the results would be similar in persons with
an isolated elevation of the fasting or post-load glucose concentration or other risk factors for diabetes
is likely but unknown.
In summary, our study showed that treatment
with metformin and modification of lifestyle were
two highly effective means of delaying or preventing
type 2 diabetes. The lifestyle intervention was particularly effective, with one case of diabetes prevented per seven persons treated for three years. Thus, it
should also be possible to delay or prevent the development of complications, substantially reducing
the individual and public health burden of diabetes.
Supported by the National Institutes of Health through the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, the Office of Research on Minority Health, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, and the National Institute on Aging; the Indian Health
Service; the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; the General Clinical Research Center Program, National Center for Research Resources;
the American Diabetes Association; Bristol-Myers Squibb; and ParkeDavis.
Dr. Hamman owns stock in Bristol-Myers Squibb, which sells metformin
in the United States.

We are indebted to the participants in the study for their dedication to the goal of preventing diabetes; to Lipha Pharmaceuticals for
the metformin and placebo; to LifeScan, Health-O-Meter, Hoechst
Marion Roussel, Merck-Medco Managed Care, Merck, Nike, SlimFast Foods, and Quaker Oats for materials, equipment, and medicines for concomitant conditions; and to McKesson BioServices, Mathews
Media Group, and the Henry M. Jackson Foundation for support
services provided under subcontract with the Coordinating Center.

APPENDIX
The following investigators were members of the Diabetes Prevention
Program Research Group (asterisks indicate principal investigators, and
daggers program coordinators): Pennington Biomedical Research Center
G.A. Bray,* I.W. Culbert, C.M. Champagne, M.D. Crow, L. Dawson,
B. Eberhardt, F.L. Greenway, F.G. Guillory, A.A. Hebert, M.L. Jeffirs, K.
Joyce, B.M. Kennedy, J.C. Lovejoy, S. Mancuso, L.E. Melancon, L.H.
Morris, L. Reed, J. Perault, K. Rau, D.H. Ryan, D.A. Sanford, K.G. Smith,
L.L. Smith, S.R. Smith, J.A. St. Amant, M. Terry, E. Tucker, R.T. Tulley,
P.C. Vicknair, D. Williamson, and J.J. Zachwieja; University of Chicago
D.A. Ehrmann,* M.J. Matulik, B. Clarke, D.A. Collins, K.B. Czech, C.
DeSandre, G. Geiger, S. Grief, B. Harding-Clay, R.M. Hilbrich, D. le
Grange, M.R. McCormick, W.L. McNabb, K.S. Polonsky, N.P. Sauter,
A.R. Semenske, K.A. Stepp, and J.A. Tobian; Jefferson Medical College
P.G. Watson,* J.T. Mendoza, K.A. Smith, J. Caro, B. Goldstein, C. Lark,
L. Menefee, L. Murphy, C. Pepe, and J.M. Spandorfer; University of Miami R.B. Goldberg,* P. Rowe, J. Calles, P. Casanova, R.P. Donahue,
H.J. Florez, A. Giannella, G. Larreal, V. McLymont, J. Mendez, P. OHara,
J. Ojito, R. Prineas, and P.G. Saab; The University of Texas Health Science
Center S.M. Haffner,* M.G. Montez, C. Lorenzo, H. Miettinen,

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The Ne w E n g l a nd Jo u r n a l o f Me d ic i ne

C.M. Mobley, L.A. Mykkanen, and M.M. Rozek; University of Colorado

R.F. Hamman,* P.V. Nash, L. Testaverde, D.R. Anderson, L.B. Ballonoff, A. Bouffard, B.N. Calonge, M. Farago, W.J. Georgitis, J.O. Hill,
S.R. Hoyer, B.T. Jortberg, J.A. Merenich, M. Miller, J.G. Regensteiner,
H.M. Seagle, C.M. Smith, S.C. Steinke, and B. VanDorsten; Joslin Diabetes Center E.S. Horton,* K.E. Lawton, R.A. Arky, M. Bryant, J.P.
Burke, E. Caballero, K.M. Callaghan, D. Devlin, T. Franklin, O.P. Ganda,
A.E. Goebel-Fabbri, M. Harris, S.D. Jackson, A.M. Jacobsen, L.M. Kula,
M. Kocal, S. Ledbury, M.A. Malloy, C. Mullooly, M. Nicosia, C.F. Oldmixon, J. Pan, C. Pomposelli, M. Quitongan, S. Rubtchinsky, D. Schweizer, E.W. Seely, D. Simonson, F. Smith, C.G. Solomon, J. Tyson, and J.
Warram; University of Washington and Veterans Affairs Puget Sound
Health Care System S.E. Kahn,* B.K. Montgomery, M. Alger, E.
Allen, T. Barrett, D. Bhanji, J. Cowan, J. Cullen, W.Y. Fujimoto, B. Katz,
R.H. Knopp, E.W. Lipkin, M. Marr, B.S. McCann, J.P. Palmer, R.S.
Schwartz, and D. Uyema; University of Tennessee A.E. Kitabchi,* M.E.
Murphy, W.B. Applegate, M. Bryer-Ash, J.H. Coble, A. Crisler, G. Cunningham, A.W. Franklin, S.L. Frieson, D.L. Green, R. Imseis, C.L.
Kennedy, H.C. Lambeth, K.A. Latif, L.C. Lichtermann, M.D. McIntyre,
J.D. Nault, H. Oktaei, M.L. OToole, H. Ricks, L.M.K. Rutledge, S.C.
Schussler, A.R. Sherman, C.M. Smith, J.E. Soberman, K.J. Stewart, D.L.
VanBrunt, and B.J. Williams-Cleaves; Northwestern University Medical
School B.E. Metzger,* M.K. Johnson, C. Behrends, M.L. Cook, M.
Fitzgibbon, M.M. Giles, D. Heard, C. Johnson, D. Larsen, A. Lowe, M.
Lyman, D. McPherson, M.E. Molitch, T. Pitts, R. Reinhart, S. Roston, and
P.A. Schinleber; Massachusetts General Hospital D.M. Nathan,* C.
McKitrick, K. Abbott, E. Anderson, L. Bissett, E. Cagliero, S. Crowell,
L. Delahanty, S. Fritz, K. Hayward, E. Levina, T. Michel, D. Norman, J.
OKeefe, A. Poulos, L. Ronan, M. Rosal, M. Salerno, M. Schneider, C.
Shagensky, B. Steiner, H. Turgeon, and A. Young; University of California, San Diego J.M. Olefsky,* M.L. Carrion-Petersen, E. Barrett-Connor, M. Beltran, K. Caenepeel-Mills, S.V. Edelman, R.O. Ford, J. Garcia,
M. Hagerty, R.R. Henry, M. Hill, J. Horne, D. Leos, J. Matney, S. Mudaliar, G. Petersen, A. Pollard, W. Polonsky, S. Szerdi, J. Torio-Hurley, and
K. Vejvoda; St. LukesRoosevelt Hospital F.X. Pi-Sunyer,* J.E. Lee,
D.B. Allison, N. Agharanya, N.J. Aronoff, M. Baldo, S.T. Foo, S. Hagamen,
C. Pal, K. Parkes, M. Pena, and G.E.H. Van Wye; Indiana University
D.G. Marrero,* M.S. Kukman-Kelly, Y.F. Dotson, S.E. Fineberg, J.C.
Guare, A. Hadden, B. Hills, J.M. Ignaut, M.A. Jackson, M.S. Kirkman, K.
Mather, G. McAtee, B.D. Porter, M.J. Prince, and M.L. Wheeler; Medstar
Research Institute R.E. Ratner,* G. Youssef, S. Shapiro, A. Bonar,
M. Bronsord, E. Brown, W.W. Cheatham, S. Cola, A. Comfort, G. Boggs,
C. Eagle, C. Evans, E. Gorman, R. Johnson, C. Levetan, T. Kellum, M.
Lagarda, A.K. Nair, M.D. Passaro, and W. Phillips; UCLA Medical School
M.F. Saad,* M. Budgett, S. Fahmi, S.D. Jinagouda, B. Bernaba, S.L.
Bodkin, V. Ciobanu, R. Commisso, C. Cosenza, T. Dinh, M. Gonzalez,
A. Khan, D. Kumar, G. Lui, V. Mehta, A. Sharma, S. Soukiazian, K. Szamos, A. Tramanian, A. Vargas, and N. Zambrana; Washington University,
St. Louis N.H. White,* A.S. Santiago, S. Das, A.L. Brown, S. Dagogo-Jack, E.B. Fisher, E. Hurt, T. Jones, M. Kerr, L. Ryder, J.V. Santiago
(deceased), and C. Wernimont; Johns Hopkins School of Medicine C.D.
Saudek,* V.L. Bradley, T. Fowlkes, H. Joseph, F.L. Brancati, J.B.
Charleston, J.M. Clark, K. Horak, D. Jiggetts, H. Mosley, R.R. Rubin, A.
Samuels, K.J. Stewart, L. Thomas, and P. Williamson; University of New
Mexico School of Medicine D.S. Schade,* K.S. Adams, L.F. Atler, A.
Bland, D.A. Bowling, P.J. Boyle, M.R. Burge, L. Butler, J.L. Canady, L.
Chai, K.M. Colleran, M. Guillen, Y. Gonzales, M. Gutierrez, D. Hornbeck, C. Johannes, P. Katz, C. King, E.N. Libby III, R. McCalman, D.A.
Montoya, A. Rassam, S. Rubinchik, and W. Senter; Albert Einstein College of Medicine H. Shamoon,* J.O. Brown, J. Adames, E. Blanco, L.
Cox, J.P. Crandall, H. Duffy, S. Engel, A. Friedler, T. Harroun, C.J.
Howard-Century, S. Kloiber, N. Longchamp, D. Pompi, E. Violino, E.A.
Walker, J. Wylie-Rosett, E. Zimmerman, and J. Zonszein; University of
Pittsburgh R.R. Wing,* M.K. Kramer, S. Barr, M.A. Boraz, L. Clifford, R. Culyba, M. Frazier, R. Gilligan, L. Harris, S. Harrier, W. Henderson, S. Jeffries, G. Koenning, A.M. Kriska, K. Maholic, Q. Manjoo, M.
Mullen, A. Noel, T.J. Orchard, A. Otto, L.N. Semler, C. Smith, M. Smith,
V. Stapinski, J. Viteri, T. Wilson, K.V. Williams, and J. Zgibor; University
of Hawaii R.F. Arakaki,* R.W. Latimer, N.K. Baker-Ladao, R.M.
Beddow, R. Braginsky, M. Calizar, L.M. Dias, N. Durham, D.A. Dupont,
L.L. Fukuhara, J. Inouye, M.K. Mau, K. Mikami, P. Mohideen, S.K.
Odom, B. Sinkule-Kam, J.S. Tokunaga, R.U. Twiggs, C.Y. Wang, and J. Vita; Southwest American Indian Center for Diabetes Prevention W.C.
Knowler,* N.J. Cooeyate, M.A. Hoskin, C.A. Percy, K.J. Acton, V.L.
Andre, S. Antone, N.M. Baptisto, R. Barber, S. Begay, P.H. Bennett, M.B.
Benson, S. Beyale, E.C. Bird, B.A. Broussard, M. Chavez, T.S. Dacawyma,
M.S. Doughty, R. Duncan, C. Edgerton, J.M. Ghahate, M. Glass, D. Goh-

des, W. Grant, R.L. Hanson, E. Horse, G. Hughte, L.E. Ingraham, M.C.

Jackson, P.A. Jay, R.S. Kaskalla, D. Kessler, K.M. Kobus, J. Krakoff, C.
Manus, T. Morgan, Y. Nashboo (deceased), J. Nelson, G.L. Pauk, S. Poirier, E. Polczynski, M. Reidy, J. Roumain, D.H. Rowse, R.J. Roy, S. Sangster, J. Sewemaenewa, D. Tonemah, C. Wilson, and M. Yazzie; George
Washington University Biostatistics Center S. Fowler,* T. Brenneman, S. Abebe, R. Bain, J. Bamdad, J. Callaghan, S.L. Edelstein, Y. Gao,
K.L. Grimes, N. Grover, K. Hirst, S. Jones, T.L. Jones, R.J. Katz, J.M.
Lachin, R. Orlosky, C.E. Stimpson, C. Suiter, M.G. Temprosa, and F.E.M.
Walker-Murray; National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney
Diseases Program Office S. Garfield, R. Eastman, and J. Fradkin; National Institute on Aging R. Andres; Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention M.M. Engelgau, K.M. Venkat Narayan, and D.F. Williamson; University of Michigan W.H. Herman; Central Biochemistry Laboratory (University of Washington) S.M. Marcovina,* A. Aldrich, and
W.L. Chandler; Central ECG Reading Center (Wake Forest University)
P.M. Rautaharju,* N.T. Pemberton, R. Prineas, F.S.R. Rautaharju, and
Z. Zhang; Nutrition Coding Center (University of South Carolina)
E.J. Mayer-Davis,* T. Costacou, M. Martin, and K.L. Sparks; Central Carotid Ultrasound Unit (New England Medical Center) D.H.
OLeary,* L.R.C. Funk, K.A. OLeary, and J.F. Polak; CT-Scan Reading
Unit (University of Colorado) E.R. Stamm* and A.L. Scherzinger;
Lifestyle Resource Core (University of Pittsburgh) R.R. Wing,* B.P.
Gillis, C. Huffmyer, A.M. Kriska, and E.M. Venditti; Medication Resource
Workgroup (Albert Einstein College of Medicine) E.A. Walker* and T.
Harroun; Quality of Well Being Reading Unit (University of California,
San Diego) T.G. Ganiats,* E.J. Groessl, P.R. Beerman, K.M. David,
R.M. Kaplan, and W.J. Sieber; Data Monitoring Board S.M. Genuth
(chair), G.F. Cahill, F.L. Ferris III, J.R. Gavin III, J.B. Halter, and J. Wittes;
Ancillary Studies Subcommittee R.R. Henry and S.M. Haffner
(chairs); Behavioral Scientists R.R. Rubin (chair); Clinic Operations
B.K. Montgomery (chair); Concomitant Conditions R.E. Ratner
(chair); Economic Evaluation W.H. Herman (chair); Interventions
S.E. Kahn, J.V. Santiago (deceased), and J. Olefsky (chairs); Lifestyle Advisory
Group R.R. Wing (chair); Outcomes C. Saudek (chair); Outcomes Classification R.E. Ratner (chair); Program Coordinators Subcommittee
M. Montez and K. Kramer (chairs); Protocol Oversight R.F. Hamman
(chair); Publications and Presentations W.C. Knowler (chair); Quality
Control R.B. Goldberg (chair); Recruitment W.Y. Fujimoto (chair);
Recruitment Coordinators Subcommittee J. Charleston (chair); Retention R.R. Rubin (chair); Screening and Eligibility R.F. Hamman
(chair); Study Chair and Vice Chair D.M. Nathan and R.F. Hamman.

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