2.1 Introduction To Damage Concepts and Behavior
2.1 Introduction To Damage Concepts and Behavior
2.1 Introduction To Damage Concepts and Behavior
When the crack (a) reaches the critical length, the measure of loading (t or N)
reaches the structural life limit (tf or Nf). The structural life limit is a measure of
the maximum allowable service time (or number of accumulated service events)
associated with driving the crack from its initial length (ao) to the critical length
(acr). It is the objective of the Damage Tolerant Requirements to ensure that
cracks do not reach levels that could impair the safety of the aircraft during the
expected lifetime (ts or Ns) of the aircraft, i.e., tf (Nf) must be greater than ts
(Ns).
As can be noted from Figure 2.1.1, when the crack is small, it grows very slowly.
As the crack gets longer, the rate of growth increases until the crack reaches the
critical size acr, whereupon fracture of the structural element ensues. While the
subcritical crack growth process occurring for a < acr may take twenty to thirty
years of service, the fracture process is almost instantaneous. Studies of the
failure process indicate a very close relationship between the length of crack at
failure and the load or stress that induces the onset of rapid fracture.
Typically, this relationship between crack length and failure strength level is as
shown in Figure 2.1.2. The cracked element strength is referred to as the
residual strength (res) since this represents the remaining strength of a
damaged structure. By considering the basic elements of Figures 2.1.1 and 2.1.2
collectively, a residual strength diagram can be developed as a function of
elapsed time (or loading events).
Figure 2.1.2. Schematic of Relationship Between Failure Strength and Crack
Length for a Typical Single Element Type Structure
A residual strength diagram is presented in Figure 2.1.3; this diagram shows that
while the structure is young (t<< tf) the residual strength capacity is basically
unimpaired because the crack is both small and doesnt grow much with time.
As the structure starts to age, the residual strength capacity is shown to
decrease and just prior to failure, the rate of decrease in residual strength
capacity is accelerating because now the crack is rapidly becoming very large.
When
2.1.2
the residual strength capacity equals the level of the maximum stress in the
operational history, failure occurs.
Figure 2.1.3. Residual Strength Diagram Relationship Between Residual
Strength Capacity and Elapsed Time
As implied by the residual strength diagram, a ten to twenty percent change in
the maximum applied stress in the operational history would not normally affect
the allowable structural life significantly, assuming that the subcritical crack
growth process (Figure 2.1.1) was unaffected. Normally, when the loads in the
operational history change, the subcritical crack growth process changes its
pattern of growth and this in turn affects the residual strength diagram and the
allowable structural life.
2.1.2 Damage Growth Behavior/Effects
As discussed above, the crack length ao will grow to acr in some life tf, and as
the crack grows the residual strength capability decreases. Experiments have
shown that several parameters affect the crack growth life; the most important
of these being the initial crack size, ao, the load history, the material properties,
and the structural properties. The isolated effect of each parameter on the crack
growth behavior and the residual strength curves will be discussed in turn using
the baseline conditions identified in Figure 2.1.4. The interrelation of these
parameters will be developed in the discussion of life prediction methodology
(Section 2.4).
2.1.3
and residual strength capacity, respectively. While it was not shown, a change in
stress history will normally also change the applied stress level at which fracture
occurs.
The stress history experienced at each location on the aircraft will also differ due
to changes in bending moment, twisting moment, shear loading, etc., given a
particular crack configuration (e.g., a crack growing from a fastener hole on a
wing). The loading spectra for a lower surface location is typically more severe
than a corresponding upper surface location; and, therefore, the life for the
lower surface will be significantly shorter than that of the upper surface all other
conditions being equal.
Material Properties - A measure of Material Resistant to Cracking
Experimentally, it has been shown that for the same loading condition (i.e., the
same number and amplitude of stress cycles) cracks will grow faster in certain
alloys than in others. The crack growth rate (a/N) can be derived
experimentally for each material. Given the same load and geometric
conditions, the alloy having the slower growth rate characteristics (i.e. 2024-T3)
will have a longer life (tf) as shown in Figure 2.1.5e. This material also has some
inherent resistance to fracture. The higher this inherent resistance, the higher
the residual strength capacity for any crack length. This effect is described in
Figure 2.1.5f.
If the cracks are so small that the fracture process is controlled by gross
yielding, then the residual strength curve is controlled by a net section failure
criterion rather than a fracture criterion. In this case, the material with the
highest yield strength would have the highest residual strength in the region of
the curve controlled by the behavior of the small cracks.
Structural Properties - A Measure of Geometry
The most complex of the parameters affecting crack growth behavior are the
structural properties. The structural properties involve such things as crack
configuration, load transfer through fasteners, fastener hole size, part thickness,
etc. A substantial amount of experimental work has been performed to
characterize the geometrical effects on life. The effect of a change of hole radius
on the crack growth behavior and on the residual strength capacity is shown in
Figure 2.1.5g and h. The structure with the smaller hole, and thus the smaller
stress concentration is noted to have the longer life and higher residual
strength.
Summary of Effects
As discussed above, there are four major parameters that affect the crack
growth life and residual strength capacity of structures. These parameters are in
the realm of quality (initial crack size), usage (loading history), material
(material properties), and geometry (structural properties). Figure 2.1.6 has
been prepared to summarize the parameters effect on life and to illustrate
various presentation schemes that might be employed to compare effects.
2.1.6