Advanced Mechanic Drawing PDF
Advanced Mechanic Drawing PDF
Advanced Mechanic Drawing PDF
I
SB 33 3DD
LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
Glass
iel
WORKS OF PROF.
A. P.
JAMISON
PUBLISHED BY
in
the text.
Cloth, $2.50.
ADVANCED
MECHANICAL DRAWING
A TEXT FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS
BY
of Mechanical Drawing
in
M.E.
Purdn
University
FIRST EDITION
FIRST
THOUSAND
Of THE
UNIVERSITY
OF
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS
LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED
1905
Copyright, 1905
BY
PREFACE.
ing such examples as will acquaint the student with the conventions of the art. The work is divided into two parts, Part I
being "A Course in Elementary Mechanical Drawing," administered in the Freshman year, and Part II a course in "Ad-
and
in
the
Sophomore
will
an engineer's "description"
In selecting a "Course
offered,
it
is
suggested that,
Drawing" from
the
examples
PREFACE.
iv
Problems be made
Problems delineat-
is
M.
E. Williams in the preparation of the manuscript and illustrations, and wishes to thank them for their many courtesies and
valued assistance.
A. P. JAMISON.
LA FAYETTE,
IND.,
May,
1905.
CONTENTS.
PART
I.
I.
SECTION
Definition
2.
Theory
3.
Explanation of Terms
Origin
Isometric Axes
Isometric Planes
Isometric Lines
4.
5.
6.
7.
Theory
6
8
8. Flexibility
9. Practical
Examples
8
8
Plane Figures
Square
A Circle
10
A Triangle
A Hexagon
An
Octagon.
12
...
13
A Star
14
An
Ellipse
14
Parabola
14
Any
Irregular Figure
Circular Arcs
14
14
CONTENTS.
vi
PAGE
SECTION
Curves
17
Helix
17
18
Solids
18
Sphere
Solids with
Curved Lines
18
Screw-threads.
Dimensioning
11.
Remarks
21
21
18
21
24
27
CAVALIER PROJECTION.
12.
Introductory
30
13.
Theory
30
Theory
30
15.
M*ethod of Procedure
33
16.
Flexibility
33
1 7.
Practical
Examples
34
34
Screw-threads
36
18. Distortion
37
CHAPTER
II.
SHADOWS.
19.
Intrqductory
20.
Theory
The Shadow
21.
22.
23.
24.
38
3$
of a Point
40
41
42
45
45
45
the Planes
Curved Surfaces
The Shadow
The Shadow
49
49
of
49
The Shadow on
Remarks.
47
of Straight
25.
43
44
Plane Surfaces
Single
42
the Surface
51
51
55
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
vii
III.
PERSPECTIVE.
SECTION
PAGE
26. Definition
56
56
27. Perspective
28.
29. Perspective as
^6
57
of Perspective
Perspective of a Point
Perspective of a Right Line
Theory
57
61
33.
The
The
The
Why
61
34.
The
The
64
66
30.
31.
32.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
Rule
Rule
59
61
66
68
68
Perspectives
70
73
The
7-
76
Elevation
76
Removed from
78
81
85
48.
49.
How
50.
The
to
85
Assume Conditions
Shadows
88
Perspective of
oo
Theory
9I
Application
pr
Examples
03
Remarks
O5
PART
II.
EXERCISES.
CHAPTER
51.
52.
Explanatorv
General Directions
54.
Problem
Problem
i.
2.
....
07
97
POINTS, LINES,
53.
IV.
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.
.......
AND PLANES.
09
the Assumption of
CONTENTS.
viii
SBCTION
55.
PAGE
Problem
The Revolution
3.
Plane, and
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
Problem
Problem
Problem
Problem
Problem
Problem
8.
9.
To draw
4.
5.
6.
7.
...
103
104
105
106
107
109
TANGENT PLANES.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
no
no
in
112
113
113
.
115
INTERSECTIONS.
69.
Problem
The
17.
Intersection of a
of a
Cone and
116
Cylinder
70.
71.
Problem
Problem
1 8.
19.
Cylinders
117
DEVELOPMENTS
72. Problem
73 Problem
74. Problem
75. Problem
76. Problem
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
The
The
The
The
The
an Oblique Cone
Development
Development of an Oblique Cylinder
Development of a Right Cylinder
Development of a Convolute Surface
Development of a Sphere
118
of
CHAPTER
118
119
120
120
V.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
77.
78.
121
Explanatory
General Directions
121
Problem
i.
To Lay Out
ETC.
81
Problem
3.
122
stack
82.
Problem
4.
To
Cabinet Work.
Size,
and Bevels
for
an Example
in
128
CONTENTS.
ix
PAGB
SECTION
83-85. Problems,
6,
5,
and
To Lay Out
7.
boiler
86.
Problem
8.
To
Elbow
.138
89.
90.
Problem
87.
88.
of a Positive-feed
12.
To
Mechanism
.146
Corners of a Coal-hopper
148
SHADOWS.
150
91-93. Problems 13, 14, and 15. To Find some Elementary Shadows..
154
94. Problem 16. To Find the Shadow Cast by a Taboret
95-96. Problems 17 and 18. To Find the Shadow on a Double Curved Surface 154
PERSPECTIVE.
156
98.
158
160
163
164
167
1
72
SUPPLEMENTAL.
EXERCISES IN LETTERING.
174
104. Explanatory
A Sheet of Free-hand
A Shop Card
Cover Sheet
Letters
175
176
177
I.
CHAPTER
I.
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
Isometric drawing is that branch of mechanienables one to represent an object in such a
which
drawing
i.
cal
Definition.
fashion,
observer,
and because
one not
Isometric
"
and
drawing
is
practical perspective";
because
it
called "isometric
also
it
is
because of
its
greater simplicity as
perspective"
and
practical perspective
drawing.
a joint between ordinary mechanical drawing
and perspective drawing, since it contains features of each. For
It
is
really
example, lines which are drawn parallel in the mechanical drawing of an object are also
drawn
drawing
of the object,
faces
a pseudo perspective.
If a cube be held in a position such that one of
2. Theory.
diagonals is perpendicular to one of the planes of projection
it is
its
(since all
on that plane
projection
in the projection because
plane)
is
said to be an isometric
FIG.
parts."
i.
The
to
all
figure
eliminate
disregard the other projection entirely and thus
of
to
the
reference
projection.
planes
Now any object may be considered as inclosed within a cube
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
3.
In Fig.
Explanation of Terms.
drawing
of the
arrangement shown
2,
which
in Fig.
i,
is
a mechanical
point of the front elevation: this point is called the origin; the
three full lines radiating from it, the isometric axes; the planes
FIG. 2.
in these planes
drawn
The
isometric axes
2 are
about
all
.8 of
that
is,
the size of
If the projection
the projection is about .8 of the size of the cube.
drawn the same size as the cube, it will represent the projection
of a cube about 1.25 times the size of the original.
Since it would
is
size,
one-half
so constructed
is
size,
called
one-quarter
size,
etc.
an isometric drawing
The drawing
to distinguish
it
FIG. 3.
projection,
be
.8 of
of the
of 35
to
16';
one inch
scale, as
the
left
On
an isometric
In the figure
scale of B is projected onto the right side of scale A.
the other hand, if full-size divisions be projected from
scale.
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
the upright scale onto the inclined scale, as is shown in the figure
by the projections from the left side of scale A to the right
side of
larger
Such
scales as these
projections;
using scale
left
on the
or,
scale
right;
scale.
FIG. 4.
with the scale on the right and the projection constructed from
the scale on the
left.
As already
already
described
an isometric drawing.
Practical
ing of a number of lines in the execution of the isometric representation which would be longer than
necessary and require
In practice the
greater space for the drawing.
inclosing figure
is
length, breadth,
the application of the theory
and thickness
seen by taking
a side of the inclosing box and on it constructing a cube, then
arranging the cube with the correct reference to a plane of
of the object;
is
FIG.
5.
Method
of Procedure.
The above
is
numbered
as follows:
it be required to construct an isometric drawing of the
mechanical drawings for which are shown in A, Fig.
the
object,
The first step is to draw the isometric axes three lines 120
6.
Let
apart, as shown,
other two at 30
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
ing
select
for breadth,
second
(arbitrarily)
and one
/,
b,
and
A;
the
the third
the lines
is
it all
the fourth step is to simiso on, until all of the faces have
8. Flexibility.
first
all of
in
The assumption
they
may
be assumed in any
ISOMETRIC AXES
Note the several posi
tions,B,C,D,E,F.
1
or 60
with the
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
horizontal, etc.,
by the object
that
itself;
is,
is
with
at 120
determined, in a
it.
measure
As evidence
of the above,
in
is
to be
drawn
in Fig.
7;
also
examples in drawing.
Plane figures. A square.
tive
quired to represent
Now,
"
8, in
it
in isometric
Let
it
be required to represent
let it be re-
with
plane horizontal.
drawing a horizontal plane
its
is
determined
lines
point B,
the point
lel
to
draw a
line
A-B
to
lines
is
D-C
The
line
B-C
is,
clearly,
comprehended between
B-C
is
parallels;
also, for
the
same
The term
mined
"
is
10
and the
circle.
zontal plane.
Let
it
This
be
is
now
metric,
and proceeding as
follows:
within a square,
in iso-
its
it is
obvious that
middle point
it
will
therefore,
is,
two arcs drawn, draw the diagonal of the square and draw
the lines determining the above radii: the points where these
lines cut the diagonal will be new centers, and with new radii repthese
The
is
drawing.
same
as in ordinary mechanical
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
II
An
The
construction
is
clearly
shown by the
an
The above
the representation
is
resentation, but
an approximation, and
in isometric
its
is
because of
ellipse.
its
ease of execution.
same manner
is
it is
is
it
is
circle in
figure.
obvious that
The
figure
shows
FIG. 9.
A triangle.
drawing and B
Fig. 10
shows a
triangle,
is
at the
hence, to
draw
12
the isometric
rectangle.
FIG. io.
It will
is
the
same
for
is
drawn on a horizontal
any plane.
FIG. ii.
hexagon.
hexagon;
to
In Fig. n,
draw
it
is
a mechanical drawing of a
hexagon within a
as
shown
13
in
B\ now
if
the
diameter
in
the hexagon,
of
the
the hexagon
is
then drawn by
An
is
octagon.
shown by
Fig.
method
12.
The
for
drawing an octagon
inclosing rectangle
is
and
in isometric
drawn
as in
FIG. 12.
the other examples, and the four points of the figure which touch
the sides of the rectangle are found by drawing the center lines
as shown;
14
to
responds
method
of
locating
and
is
much used
construction;
by
points
it
lines
ordinate
cor-
and
in isometric
will
be referred
to as plotting.
The
star.
Fig. 13
is
i.
out a star.
FIG. 13.
An
Any
A
arcs.
Fig. 16.
irregular figure.
method
The
ellipse.
irregular figure.
special
trates a
Fig. 14
ellipse.
A parabola.
for use
inclosing
when
Circular
the figure
rectangle
is
arcs.
is
Fig.
made up
17
illus-
of circular
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
FIG. 14
FIG. 15
i6
usual manner;
The semicircle
corresponds to the plane 0-1-2-3 of E, Fig. 7.
end is found by laying out an inclosing rectangle
at the left
FIG.
i 6.
method given
for
semias in
FIG. 17.
side of
in a similar
manner, as
is
by the drawing.
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
From
the above
the
and
PLAN
ELEVATION
FIG. 18.
Curves.
plane curve
helix.
may be drawn
helix or
as follows
shown by
is
not a
of
draw
is
lines parallel
(two have been used to define the plane of the plan) through
i8
each point or dot, and on these lines lay off lengths to correspond to the plotting of the mechanical drawing. The points
thus denned will be the locus of the required curve.
Solids.
sphere.
is
drawn
is
sphere
in
isometric
great circles of
major
same diame-
ter,
as
for three
isometric
FIG. 19.
solid
all
of
its
When
the
b'nes
of an
object are all straight lines, the execution of the drawing is very
simple, and particularly so when most of the lines are parallel
boxes and
ner,
shown
in
Solids with
a small
is
To draw
Fig. 20.
collar.
curved
The
lines.
Fig.
inclosing box
Draw
in
21
is
it
as follows
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
"|oo
FIG. 20.
20
the inclosing
rectangles of the
drawn
are then
the drawing.
as described
The
circles as shown;
the ellipses
on page 10 and as indicated by
may
FIG. 21.
sary arcs.
figure is
tangent
figure
clearly, also
completed by drawing
shows the construction
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
21
rectangles,
ellipses
are
drawn
substantially
as already de-
and as shown
scribed,
An
and
object
in the drawing.
both straight and curved
with
lines.
Fig.
23
FIG. 22.
from the
figure.
The drawing
is
5,
and
extra lines
for the
necessary, of course,
above purpose.
The representation
of screw-threads
is
of screw-threads.
The
is
true representation
rarely done;
the
22
pitch thread
and drawing a
For example,
series of parallel
if
FIG. 23.
on the
line of centers which are A" apart; the points thus obtained
be the necessary center points. It is obvious that the distance
between centers will be one-half of the distance between the
will
The
drawn
in a similar
manner.
a true representation of a thread, the curve
helix) of both top and bottom of the "V" having been plotted.
is
Fig. 25 illustrates
(a
It is well to
the construction
a typical one.
The
inclosing solid
is
drawn
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
AS usual,
page
line
12;
done,
perpendicular to
23
on
hexagon erect a
the plane of the base and on it lay off a
at
each
corner of the
FIG. 24.
length equal to an edge of the nut; next, bisect each side of the
hexagon and at the points of bisection erect other perpendiculars
and on them
nut at this point; this will give three points of the curved edge
24
of each face, and through these ,a curve may be drawn with the
the layout in the top plane is obvious.
irregular curve
;
FIG. 26.
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
vertically;
in isometric
in three directions
FIG. 27.
An
well
is difficult
26
to scale;
if
it
is
be done in
The planning of
moment,
upon
it.
FIG. 28.
Where
possible
and
figures
should be so
arranged as to
FIG. 29.
28
not always possible or convenient, however, to place the dimenand Figs. 27 and 28 are given as ex-
amples
to
Fig.
is
29
given as an
is
as to produce
marked
The examples
its
use,
is
of such character
distortion.
its
The
less
actual
work
of executing
an isometric drawing
is
much
little
practice,
many
short cuts
Cavalier Projection.
12. Introductory.
There
is
and isometric
projection, which
reis
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
FIG. 30.
FIG. 3I .
29
30
flexible
it
view,
easily and readily constructed, and, altogether, is well
adapted to the representation of small machine parts, rectangular
is
etc.
objects,
13.
In
Theory.
Fig.
plane of
X-Y
which the
of the
line
own
plane.
all
sight
to
be at
infinity, as in
become
lines perpendicular to
ordinary
parallel,
and
E-F-G-H and
its
making an angle
of 45
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
X,
B
FIG. 32.
31
FIG. 33.
own
base
projection,
the resulting
is
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
33
Method of Procedure. The above reduced to the conventional method of representation is shown by Fig. 34, and is
drawn as follows: First draw the face which is its own projection
15.
to
nary
projection,
then,
draw those
lines
orthographic
direction
of
sight,
exactly as in ordi-
FIG. 34.
16. Flexibility
of a
FIG. 35.
of
the
Art.
Fig.
35
The
angle of inclination
may
be any angle,
is
As
in isometric drawing,
location of points
and
lines obtained
by means of
offsets
plotting.
34
of the object;
circles other
ellipses.
Fig. 36
is
direction of sight.
Note the
dimensioning of the figure, which is similar to that used in isometric drawing, then the construction of the drawing, which
is
as follows:
In cases such as
certain center lines,
them
this,
it is
well to
as the basis of construction, as in ordinary mechanical drawdraw the center lines A' -A' and A-X for the front
ing; therefore,
face,
and the 60
center line
A-F
these lines
ISOMETRIC DRAWING.
drawn, draw the two
line)
in
used
the
in
A- A and A'-A'
on the
line of centers
drawing
that
A-F
35
other
The method
circles of
the figure.
the
projection
is
and
is
shown
lines
of
isometric drawing,
clearly
similar
in
to
the
figure.
FIG. 37.
It will
isometric;
fillets
are
drawn
convenience of the 60
exactly as in
direction of
sight, and does not occur when the direction of sight is other
than this; where the direction is 15, 30, 45, etc., circles and
may
be
drawn by drawing the major and minor axes of the ellipse, the
directions for which are known, as is also their extent (equal to
36
the diameter of the circle, or double the radius of the arc), then
however, with the axes of
common
known,
it
is
ments.
Screw-threads.
Since
the
real
of circles, it
jection over isometric drawing is in the delineation
follows that the representation of screw-threads is greatly sim-
FIG. 38.
A-B) and
The
all
on the center
all parallel.
is
a laborious
ing, as
shown by
ISOMETRIC
18. Distortion.
an unpleasant
reference
DRAWMG.
to
some
37
of
draw-
FIG. 39.
CHAPTER
II.
SHADOWS.
Without
19. Introductory.
light
is
merely a flat outline. A simple outline drawing, shade- or backlined, answers for usual shop purposes; for catalogue and show
purposes
the light
it
is
and shade.
itself;
convex surfaces,
of shadows.
It is the
etc.),
he
may enhance
his
ordinary commercial
some
the
unobstructed,
jection
first
the shadow
would pierce the plane.
evident that to find the shadow of a
if
unobstructed
From
the above
it
is
38
SHADOWS.
39
point one has but to pass a ray of light through it and find the
For the
point in which the ray pierces the planes of projection.
are
of
the
cast
shadows
of
planes
projection
finding
purpose
assumed
to
light;
from
this
it
FIG. 40.
is
is
cast
on that plane
first
pierced by the
light.
To
find the
find the
shadow
only one in which the rays will cast shadows on both planes;
since
The Shadow
21.
first
visible
here,
it
is
quadrant.
As already
of a Point.
shadow of a point, pass a ray of light through the point and find
the point in which it pierces the planes of projection the shadow
being the point of piercing the plane first reached.
It
the
will
is
a practical application of
Descriptive
Geometry, "Find
-^5fC\!
>tol-
ST^TP'
-/
^
\N
Horizontal Plane.
FIG. 41.
and
the
by the ray
is
the shadow-point.
of pro-
SHADOWS.
To
jections
light
first,
is
p and p
passed;
of a point
this
in
FIG. 42.
The Shadow
shadow
falls
of a Right Line.
Since a line
is
made up
of points,
42
The shadow
falling
of
shadow (M'-N')
FIG. 43
It
will
be
noted that both of the rays used pierce the vertical plane
first,
is
V and H,
being
sufficient, as is
Here
is
depicted the projections of a line M-N, through
extremes of which the projections of rays of light are
drawn; it is seen that the ray through the point
pierces the
the
and
the letter
SHADOWS.
43
shadow
is
point
The
first,
on and pierce the horizontal plane in the second quadrant. Joining the two shadow-points on the horizontal plane gives the shadow
of the line
on
H,
first
of the
\m'
B
FIG. 44.
the
in
The shadow
projection.
which
with
its
is
its
of a line
when
line
M-N
shadow,
shadow
M-N, on
falls entirely
on H).
Now,
assumed that
is
parallel
44
to
H, and
assumed to be parallel, it
m-M and n-N are equal and
the line
is
perpen-
An
the line.
FIG. 45-
equal
The shadow
of
is parallel
and
to the line.
(2)
The shadow
o)
a line on a plane
to
which
it is
perpen-
23.
The
projections
Shadow
of a
of
45 shows the
together with its shadow
a Curved Line.
curved line
M-N,
Fig.
SHADOWS.
The
M'-i'-2-3~N.
shadow
the
with a curved
line.
into a
number
of
points,
Therefore,
To
of
line is divided
45
find the
object are
H.
shadows of the
same lines on the
the shadow-lines joining the shadow bases lie
object,
and
that
and equal
to the
of the
i.e.,
shadow.
finding the
shadow
of
shadow
of all of
its
line of
an
is,
object,
many
To
of
find the
which
fall
46
To
to
The Object
FIG. 46.
surface as
mind
is
carefully study
will cast
it
if
it
and
B, Fig. 46.
SHADOWS.
with reference to the
rays of light,
47
12
FIG. 47.
casts a
48
must be studied
then,
lines 5-4
and 4-10 are the only lines concerned in the shadow, and that
the shadow will fall on the plane 5-11-12-6; note, also, that this
and that the line 5-4 is perpendicular and the
plane is parallel to
line
Now
its
point 4
is
found:
how
the
how
that since the line 4-10 is parallel to the plane 5-11-12-6, its shadow
thereon will be parallel and equal to the line itself, the shadowof this line may be found by drawing a line through the shadow-
is
disregarded.
The method
of finding the
of
SHADOWS.
is
the
shadow
2-6
of the lines
49
This shadow
and
is
seen to be
1-2-3-4.
edges
being perpendicular and parallel respectively to the
plane, the shadow is found as in the preceding example, and
These
as
is
lines
The Object
FIG. 48.
elevation
on
itself
and on the planes of projection also, that the limits of the shadow
on the planes is cast by elements C-C, A- A, and B-B, and
the curve B-A of the top base of the cylinder, and the shadow on
itself by the element C-C, and the lines C-E and E-D of the upper
;
base.
The shadows
The shadow on
way, and
A
is
cast
the
is
show
will
shadow on
in
evident that
when viewing
FIG. 49.
one-half of the figure, this half being that half in front of a vertical
plane parallel with V passing through the center of the object.
The
point a, then, in the line 1-8 is the first point on the left to
cast a visible shadow.
To find the shadow cast by the. line 0-8,
divide
points,
it
number of points, as
join them with a curved
into a
and
b,
find the
shadows of these
line, as shown;
the
shadow
SHADOWS.
through the point d of the line or edge 7-6 is tangent to the singlecurved surface the base of the figure at the point k, and is the
last point on the right to cast a shadow on the object, the remainder
of the line 7-6, d-6, casting
its
plane.
FIG. 50.
(It is interesting to
is
parallel
and equal
to
Now,
k, is in
the shadow,
and
is
so
shown
in
Double-curved surfaces.
Fig. 51 represents the projections
of a block so hollowed out as to present a surface part of which
52
is
of single curvature
is
found as follows:
The shadow on
the
single-curved
is
FIG. 51.
i'-i3', 2 -i2
/
,
etc.,
projection as
in semicircles
the curves
which are
SHADOWS.
plane,
53
planes to the
of intersection of the
traces of the
above auxiliary
trace
of the plane of rays on the surface this trace is the curve 6'-F'.
Now it is evident that the shadow of the point 6 will lie in the
;
the line
6'-F'
6'-F'
the
number
The
and
is
shadow.
of points
to be
is
shadow
cast
by a sphere.
The shadow
it,
a horizontal section of
line
M-N]
may
54
N
FIG. 52.
the points, and then to revolve the circle back to the original
position of the points; the projections of the circle will then
represent the projections of the great circle of contact of the
cylinder of light. The circle of contact defined, the shadow
on the object is obvious, and the shadow on the planes found by
finding the shadows cast by a number of points in the circle of
contact, then joining these shadow-points with a curved line.
SHADOWS.
25.
so
little
55
Remarks.
is
the examples
show that there
sufficient
is
CHAPTER
III.
PERSPECTIVE.
Perspective drawing, or Linear Perspective,
called "Perspective," is the art of representing an
26. Definition.
commonly
a definite viewpoint.
27. Perspective
differs
spective
object in detail
and not as it appears to, the eye in that it presents the object
as a whole, showing several faces or sides in a single drawing, and
is,
it
28.
By
which
free-hand perspective
is
drawn
directly
perspective."
56
PERSPECTIVE.
The
perspective
it
is
as Applied by the
drawing
is
of
57
is
primarily concerned
which
The
Engineer.
minor importance
the
to
art
is
of
engineer,
proposed work.
While
it is
tural engineer,
find
it
it
is
is
to
it
is
well
art.
The
to
Theory of Perspective.
If
an object
is
may become
viewed from a
in
which the
as
it
it
The
(Fig. 53.)
in practice
is
the vertical
assumed because of
to place objects to
its
be pictured with
a large number of their principal lines either parallel or perpendicular to the plane, thus expediting the work of
constructing
the perspective;
it is called the
"plane of the picture or picture
while
the orthographic projection of the point of sight
plane,"
on
this
plane
is
PERSPECTIVE.
From
the above
it is
59
is
very
due
sumed by
some
difficulty in
projection of the line of sight is a line joining the horizontal projection of the point of sight and the horizontal projection of the
given point; also, that the vertical projection of the line of sight
is
horizontal
note that
6o
To
The
n\
FIG. 54-
FIG. 55.
two
quadrant has
its
The
projections
quadrant has
its
vertical
projection in this and other figures in this chapter, in that the vertical projection
It was thought,
of lines is invisible and should be represented by a dashed line.
however, that such notation would result in confusion in certain cases, and that
used is arbitrarily taken for the occasion in the belief that it makes the figures
more
clear.
61
PERSPECTIVE.
projection
its
horizontal projection
given
The Perspective
32.
To
of a Right Line.
extremes of the
To
line.
M-N
in
consider Fig. 56, which shows a line
the second quadrant, together with its projections m-n (horizontal)
and m'-n r (vertical); also a point of sight, 5, situated in the first
illustrate,
The
its
given line
two projections
is
and
s (horizontal)
its
per-
M' and
57
Fig.
AT',
of the line to be
M'-N'.
above example.
of the
The Perspective
33.
of a
Curved Line. -
The
perspective
of a curved line
of
illustrates
its
is
line.
Why Objects
student
which
is
as follows:
plane
is
moved toward
is
is
and larger as
it is
moved
62
c/>O
FIG. 57.
64
toward the object. It is evident also that so long as the intersecting plane is between the object and the point of sight the
perspective will be smaller than the object, and that if the plane
be placed beyond the object the perspective will be larger than
the object.
is
desired,
any
of
right lines
To
find the
may be considered
may be produced or
right lines
all
an
first
at
a line
some
is
of indefinite length
it
This point is clearly a point in the perspective of the line. Having, then, one point in the perspective of the line determined,
one has to find the perspective of but one other point by the
usual method (section 31) and then join these two perspectives
by an
Example.
line
A-B
S, together with
the
its
first quadrant.
T
usual orthographic method) to pierce the vertical plane at P
this point, then, according to the above is a point in the perspective
\
is
established
PERSPECTIVE.
66
by a
their perspectives
found
same plane are said to meet at infinity. In the science of perspective, when two parallel lines thus meet they are said to vanish.
Assuming two parallel lines, then, (i) a line in space and (2)
a line parallel to
pierces
point;
is
the perspective of
parallel
to
it
0}
a line
sight
the
is
pierces
vanishing-
where a line
the
picture
plane.
has a
common
vanishing-point.
To
find
projectioa of the point of sight draw a line parallel to the horiand through the vertical pro-
draw a
two
Example.
In Fig. 59
let
M-N
PERSPECTIVE.
rant,
and
let
5 be
the vanishing-point of
of the point of sight,
M-N,
5,
67
first
quadrant.
To
find
draw a
line parallel
to the
horizontal
FIG. 59.
the point
in
which the
line
<58
thus shown in
The
it
line,
which
it
point,
and
first
its
vanishingline;
this
Fig. 60, in
which
and
s'
this line
To
f
,
in
which the
PERSPECTIVE.
FIG. 60.
69
70
the
line will
The perpendicular.
perpendicular
is
a line which is
and which makes
is,
to F.
vanishing-point of the
line.
(Section 38.)
to
In addi-
the elementary
perspective of a point
line of sight to
is
it
This method
available.
is
as follows:
the point, then find the perspectives of these lines the intersection
of the perspectives will be the perspective of the point.
The two lines used for the above purpose are a diagonal
;
let 5
and p and
and
of their
Example.
point of sight
by the perpendicular-diagonal method, first pass a perpendicular (P-O) through the point. This is found to pierce the
picture plane in o' (the same point as p', which represents the
vertical projection of the given point), and by section 38 its perspective
is
found to be the
and
its
The
intersection of the
PERSPECTIVE.
7i
Fio. 61.
72
di-
FIG. 62.
by
PERSPECTIVE.
73
onal or
two-intersecting-lines
method
FIG. 63.
in practical perspective;
its
is
that
bound-
ing circle of vision where the sea seems to meet the sky; on land,
barring obstructions, it is that line where the sky and earth
74
seem
which
is parallel to
This plane
is
and which
of infinite extent,
Horizon Line
FIG. 64.
and,
line
is
which are
(Section 36.)
PERSPECTIVE.
42. Distance
From an
Points.
75
inspection
of
the
several
it
will
be seen
The
left
may
in fact
it
is
"
fix
the position
64:
line,
vertical line
That
is,
the horizontal
left
of the
and
draw
76
the
left) find
be
this is seen to
f
.
more convenient
it
to use
a diagonal which
vanish at d
used.
is
let
points.
To
i.e.,
it is
it
is
shown
shown
the point as the point i', the intersection of the two above
perspectives; the perspective of point 5 is found in a similar
manner and is seen to be point 5'; the perspective of the line
of
Cases
of
the
Right Line.
it is
perspective at a glance,
and
proceeding
the student to a
well fixed in
Before
in the
execution of a drawing to
PERSPECTIVE.
77
These "helps" or
Every system of
plane, has a
common
(Section 36.)
vanishing-point.
perspective of a line which is parallel to the picture
plane is parallel to the line itself. (See Fig. 66.) If the line
a horizontal line parallel
is parallel to both planes of projection
2.
The
its
perspective
is
a line which
Horizon
is
d'
Line
Ground
parallel
Line
FIG. 66.
and
If the
parallel to the
be "full-size."
45.
Field of the
Picture.
65, which shows the plan and
By
elevation in projection and in their assumed position with reference
to the picture plane, one remarks the apparent confusion of lines,
referring to Fig.
and can readily imagine the real confusion which would occur
in a more complex perspective, as the perspective of a house
To minimize this conif it were drawn in a similar manner.
PERSPECTIVE.
79
p and
away
second quadrant,
distance
//
Line
O
FIG. 67.
of a point of sight,
plane,
and
assumed
point.
To
find the perspective of the point under the above conditions, and at the same time to keep the projections of the point
out of the field of the picture, it is necessary to employ an
auxiliary
ground-line, Fig. 68, B, delineating the usual arrangement. To
execute this figure, with the field of the picture (that portion of
the drawing surface to receive the picture) known, draw the
ground-line and locate the point s* (the vertical projection of the
or TMC
UNIVERSITY
8o
line,
and on
point of sight),
it
distance above
(may be
it;
and
is
repre-
in front of
or
away from
line
at
s'
If
sit!
Line
Plorizon
Ground Line
S
FIG. 68, A.
away from
and
it,
FIG. 68, B.
distance to the
left
the dimensions
and
and
correspond to
point to the
left
(may be
ventional projection
not
lie
of the point
To
ment,
is
violated
in a perpendicular to a
is,
(since
common
nevertheless, absolutely
and accurately
draw an
elevation line
X-Y
fixed.
new
81
PERSPECTIVE.
this
the point;
F, and
is
shown
in
of the
Perspective.
The arrangement
of
the
plan
The statement
B, is the one adopted for practical purposes.
has been made that the plan and elevation are removed from
the field of the picture to minimize the confusion of the lines;
in the two examples just discussed, it will be remarked that this
new arrangement
in projection
field
of the picture.
of the field of the picture, the points of the object are projected
into it by means of the
square and triangles and the perspective
"
of lines obtained by many
short cuts"; thus one finds it neces-
sary to
lines,
and the
kept
and
fundamental
in
82
practical perspective,
and should be
carefully studied
and
thor-
As a
first
real
example
first
in practical perspective
A, be the projec-
PERSPECTIVE.
tions of a small oilstone
be required to picture
it
mounted
in a
let
it
its
side ft"
away from
it.
its
nearest
84
in
These preliminaries
follows
arranged, the
perspective
found as
is
Through point
at
the point
line at
45
elevation
jection
draw a
line parallel
perspectives
the perpendicular
is seen to be
it
vanishes
and diagonal
is
the required
point
Proceeding in this
perspective;
manner the perspective of all of the corner points may be obtained
this
one at a time
i'.
where
point
it
2.
spective but the perspective of the line 1-2 is obtained at the same
time, and this, too, without the use of both a perpendicular
and diagonal.
a perpendicular
or a diagonal may be used it is not necessary to employ both
that one being used which will give the sharper intersection;
to terminate the perspective of the line 1-2; either
PERSPECTIVE.
85
the given perspective and the perspective of the perpendicular are so nearly parallel that it is difficult to determine
that
is,
if
probable that
it
will give a
it is
sharp intersection
graphic projection are observed in that a second vertical prois obtained, a point at a time, which is in
elevation
jection
projection with the plan by projecting, horizontally, in from
the elevation at the side as needed to a point in projection,
vertically,
When an
Perspective.
number
of
its
Fig. 70, By
is
object
results as
is
so
would
situated
Furthermore, that
same
is
Parallel perspective
it
plane will
be a true
is
which
is
a hexagon, a square,
the drawing.
If an object is so
48. Oblique or Angular Perspective.
situated relative to the picture plane that a large number of its
principal lines are not parallel to the plane but make a known
angle with
it,
perspective"; Fig. 71
sight,
86
distance-points,
and vanishing-points
The
s',
next,
assume one
lines, the
from
draw a 60
M-M
line,
the 60 lines of the object, to the ground-line, and from the point
in which it intersects the ground-line erect a perpendicular, X-X'
to an intersection with the horizon-line; this point (point X') will
,
if
one
will
it is
the
same
as the
To
either a 30
or
60
of
point
through the point
spective
i,
That
line
method.
for
example, pass a
and
is,
to
find
and
the per-
perpendicular
H-K
perpendicular (K'-s
is
PERSPECTIVE.
not only gives the point desired, but at the same time gives the
lines of the object.
49.
How
Assume
to
As has
Conditions.
been explained
it
was shown
the larger
its
it is
from the picture plane, the smaller the perspective of the object
would become.
It is obvious, then, that the position of the
plan with reference to the auxiliary ground determines the size
of the perspective.
to rest
on the
ground-line.
The
made manifest on
the
each
it is
first
quadrant
will reverse
PERSPECTIVE.
89
of the
the picture plane, the greater the distance between the vertical
projection of the point of sight and any vanishing-points used,
"wide"
it
is
In Fig. 71,
are required,
let
the
X'-X
board, and
let
X-Y
and from the lower right-hand corner draw the 30 line F-s",
and produce these lines to an intersection s"; this point will
be the revolved position of the horizontal projection of the point
which
of sight
will
That
etc.
is,
"
it
is
sometimes convenient
to
assume the
"
conditions
',
Fig. 72,
it is
then find
its
onto either
elevation.
well to
90
The
Shadows.
Before attempting to
should have a working knowledge
of the principles of cast shadows
such as may be derived from
of
this
a perusal
Chapter II;
knowledge, together with an under50.
Perspective
of
Line
Elevation
Ground Line
FlG. 72.
Shadows are
rarely
shown
PERSPECTIVE.
Theory.
The
theory
is
the
same as
91
that for all shadows,
and
Application
shadow
cast
of the theory.
To
find
Now,
in the
falls
which are
as the
shadow
of a line
located.
As
in all perspective
work where
it is
planes of projection,
obtained.
Through
92
draw the
rays
plane,
the point
is
r\ in
which
all
V*
is
found
to
(Section 37.)
be the vanishing-
PERSPECTIVE.
93
it
is
is
H, and
the line
edge
shadow
the
of the
ray,
of the point
and
two
must necessarily
lie
in the perspective
shadow
of the point
is
projection of
(3') the intersection
lines.
Examples.
in the
the desired shadow, as witness the points 3'~7'-6', etc., Fig. 73.
The shadow on the plane drawn, it is an easy matter to determine
those faces of the object which are in the shadow, as the face
4-3-7-8-
this
venience),
and
9'
how
may be
The
the point 9
is
projected onto
H at X, that
drawn.)
figure introduces the finding of the perspective of the
the
plane.
The
plane in this
94
PERSPECTIVE.
LLJ
95
-,-
35
o o
':,
"*\
<*
48-
96
H the procedure
is
very simple
of the
projection of the ray on the new plane; the intersection
of these two lines, point 3', is the shadow of point 3, and since
the line 3-9 is parallel to the plane its shadow on the plane will
be parallel to
itself.
3'
The shadow
is
finished
by drawing a line
i.e., to the same
vanishing-point.
The
To
shadow
and through
plane draw
the ray;
draw
oj
perspective oj
the projection
shadow.
Remarks.
In
all
shadow
work,
it is
man
recommended
and
Such a practice
might have been shortened.
to
will
suffice
in a comparatively few examples
give a knowledge
In
all of
an angle of 45
is
the light
may
be assumed at
will,
PART
II.
EXERCISES.
CHAPTER
IV.
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.
The following problems are given as exto perfect a working knowledge
calculated
ercises
drawing
of the principles of Descriptive Geometry, and, together with
51. Explanatory.
in
The work
is
so
finished
be a good quality of
or a
angle
little
a J" margin on
used in
in dimensions,
all
and the
greater, in dimensions;
8"Xn"
The
The paper
accordance with
this.
shown
in Fig. 76,
the conventions of
and
to be
Descriptive
is
assumed
at the draughts97
98
man's
discretion.
sufficient size to
may
high.
The
be upright or inclined.
or upper-case
letters,
initial
letters
date, and
all
title letters to
the
be capitals
letters
J"
initial letters
FIG. 76.
(Do not fail to reserve a space at the top for the title of the sheet,
and a space at the lower right-hand corner for the signature.)
(See sample sheets, Plates i and 2, pages 99 and 100).
Each sheet is to be neatly executed in pencil, in accordance
with the foregoing directions, then submitted for approval, and
when approved, inked in, and lettered, cleaned and trimmed to
size (9"Xi2")> then offered for acceptance, grading, and filing.
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.
99
PLATE
CO
o
o:
CL
o
cr
No.
i.
IOO
PLATE
09
d
z
^
a
CD
O
DC
DL
.J
O
o:
ed.
No.
2.
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.
POINTS, LINES,
PROBLEM
53.
101
AND PLANES.
i:
in the
first
"
and
jrom
H.
Show a
Show a
parallel to H.
line in the
(f)
and
Suggestion
is
to
is
shown by
shown by
its
draw a
off the
to
F,
line
of a point always
line,
to
first
lie
projection,
in the
in the first
quadrant (a
point), and a point in the fourth quadrant; join the like projections of these two points, and produce the line obtained
this line will be the required line.
Since the position of a line with reference to V is
its
by
on a
H projection,
and
since a line
draw a
is
shown
plane 2" long and making an angle of 30 with the ground-line: this line will be the
projection of the line; to locate its vertical projection, draw perparallel plane,
line in the
draw a horizontal
be the required
line
projection.
102
54.
of
PROBLEM 2:
(a) Show a line
which are 30
(b) Find
to
long, 45
(c)
to the
in the
first
ground-line.
F, and 30
Show a
to
(in
H.
and draw
Suggestion
(a)
which are
Assume
at
oj
30
on the revolved
line,
its
original
position.
line
(in
Assume a
2" long and parallel with the groundthis position the projections will each be 2" long and
(b)
line
this line
line about the same extremes as used above, until it makes the
angle with the ground-line; this position defines the locus
revolve the
it
projection of
intersects a horizontal
line
H,
the
projection
obtained by projection; this extreme projected, join the projections with the projections of the other extreme (this point has
is
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.
remained stationary), and the resulting
lines will
be the required
projections.
in
each
meet
line
and
55.
PROBLEM
join
it
in the
ground-
V and H.
3:
M-N
into V.
(Fig.
770
(b)
(c)
Find
M-N-O.
(Fig. 78.)
(Fig. 79.)
and S.
n
On'
m
O'
FIG. 78.
Suggestion
(a) Pass a plane through the point perpendicular to the
line; find the intersection of this plane with V, and with the point
:
at
which the
into the
(6)
any
Draw
104
find
where these
H.
lines pierce
(c)
lines pierce
Since the
traces
intersect in a point,
which
is
a right
line.
Draw
and the
two points
in the
points.
m
FIG. 80.
FIG. 79.
56.
PROBLEM
(a)
line
M-N.
(b)
the line
4:
perpendicular
to the
(Fig. 80.)
Find
M-N.
Suggestion
(a)
to
(Fig. 81.)
The
on
this plane;
it
pierces
through
-H"
or F; this
this point
is
draw a
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.
(b) First
method.
this
is
Second method. Pass a plane through the point perfind where the line pierces this plane
pendicular to the line;
and join this point with the given point. The true length of this
line
57-
is
PROBLEM
(a)
5:
Find where a
(c)
M-N
on the plane T.
Project the ground-line on the plane T.
(Fig. 82.)
(Fig. 82.)
m'
m
FIG. 82.
Suggestion
(a) Pass a plane through the given line perpendicular to
:
the plane
(b)
by a
and
find
right line.
where these
of the
given
io6
Where
the traces of the given plane meet in the groundline will be one point in the required projection; from any other
(c)
on the ground-line.
PROBLEM
(a)
6:
Find
M-N
and
the plane T.
(Fig. 83.)
(b)
45
Through
the point
draw a
making an angle
line
of
(Fig. 83.)
The
the angle between the line and its projection on the plane;
therefore, project the given line on the given plane, pass a plane
is
FIG. 84.
through the line and its projection, and revolve this plane into
one of the planes of projection. The angle between the lines
in the revolved position is the required angle.
Second method.
point
the angle between the perthe given line will be the complement of the
pendicular and
required angle.
(6)
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.
107
the two planes; now revolve this line back to the original position of the point, this will give the projections of the required
line.
PROBLEM
59.
(a)
(b)
with
7:
Find
Find
H and 45
Suggestion
(a)
and
S.
(Fig. 84.)
making an angle
oj
60
with V.
:
in the line
of inter-
of intersection;
this
the
To show
the true size of this angle, revolve the auxiliary plane about one
of its traces into the corresponding plane of projection.
(b)
through
angle.
of either planes
tance from
and
or
5 and T
is
P to
T, describe
a circle;
will
be one point
in the
trace,
the
line
making the
to
where
circle to
which
first
circle
and
angle with
io8
where
the ground-line;
perpendicular through
be one point in the
trace; through this point and tantrace, and from where it
gent to the second circle draw the
will
draw the
point in
the trace.
PROBLEM
60.
8:
(a) Find
and O-P.
M-N
(b)
the
distance
perpendicular
between
two
lines,
(Fig. 85.)
Show two
\" apart.
o
FIG. 85.
Suggestion
(a) First
to the
second
at the point
method.
line,
where
Second method.
in
to
one of the
F;
lines (usually
one extreme)
now
Now
about a point
same
lines
project
draw a
dicular to the
line
on
is
perpendicular to
H as a point,
H.
This
line as
line
line.
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.
(b)
Assume one
109
and pass
This plane
an auxiliary plane perpendicular
from the given plane and a parallel one from the required plane,
and the distance between the lines will be the perpendicular
to
it.
distance
projection, and draw the line of the required plane the given
distance from the line cut from the given plane. The points in
which this line pierces
and V are points in the corresponding
61.
PROBLEM
given plane.
9:
Pass a
circle
FIG. 86.
(Fig. 86.)
FIG. 87.
Suggestion
Pass a plane through the three points and revolve the
or V about the corresponding trace; the points
plane into
:
position,
points
assume a number of
on the
position.
circle,
to its initial
no
TANGENT PLANES.
62.
PROBLEM
(a)
10:
to
a cone
at
(Fig. 87.)
(b)
cylinder.
Pass a plane
parallel to
a line
M-N
to
(Fig. 88.)
FIG. 89.
FIG. 88.
Suggestion
(a)
and tangent
Through
the point
at the point
the cone;
where
of
These two
intersecting lines
draw a
of tangency
draw an element
of the cylinder.
and
at the point
These two
lines will
PROBLEM n:
(a)
surface.
(b)
to
a cylinder
at
a point on the
(Fig. 89.)
to the cone.
(Fig. 90.)
in
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.
Suggestion
Through
(a)
at the point
a tangent to
draw an element;
plane.
Draw
(b)
of the cone;
the cone,
find
where the
apex
base of
and through
These two
64.
lines will
PROBLEM
12:
(a)
(b)
to
face.
to
to
a cone.
(Fig. 91.)
FIG. 90.
FIG. 91.
Suggestion
(a) Pass a plane through the point parallel to either
or F, and draw a tangent to the curve cut from the surface at
:
This
112
Draw
draw a
These two
lines will
determine
PROBLEM
(a)
13:
to
a hyperbolic paraboloid
at a
(Fig. 92.)
to
(Fig. 93.)
P'
FIG. 93.
FIG. 92.
Suggestion
(a) Pass a projecting plane through the point. This plane
will cut a curve from the surface; a line drawn tangent to this
:
curve at the given point will be one line in the required plane.
Pass some other projecting plane and get a second curve and
tangent line at the point on the surface;
will determine the required plane.
(b)
Draw
of the cylinder
of the cylinder;
base.
This
line
through
this point
and the
line
draw a
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.
PROBLEM
66.
(a)
14:
line
and tangent
to
a sphere.
(Fig. 94.)
(b)
sphere.
to
to
(Fig. 95.)
FIG. 95.
FIG. 94.
Suggestion :
Take a
of the sphere
to
and
H or
parallel to either
line
of a tangent cone,
line will
The
V, and produce
line will
this line
be the axis
plane.
(b)
Draw
sphere;
given
67.
to
find
where
it
line.
PROBLEM
(a)
to
and
line.
(b)
line.
15:
to
helical convolute
and
parallel
(Fig. 96.)
to
H4
make
the
plane as
m'
FIG. 96.
FIG. 97.
now
find
and
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.
of the cone,
quired
and
traces
where
find
it
these
through
pierces
points
draw
and F;
to
parallel
the
the re-
respective
(b)
make
the
H as do the elements of
find
will,
an element
the cone,
and
these points
to the
is,
draw
auxiliary plane.
68.
cone parallel
plane
this
which
the helicoid,
PROBLEM
it
pierces
H and F;
through
This plane
will
16:
line
and tangent
to
(Fig. 98.)
FIG. 99.
FIG. 98.
Suggestion
which
Revolve the
line
now
a rolling
pass a meridian plane through the axis parallel to the plane of
hyperboloid an auxiliary surface of revolution;
u6
it
INTERSECTIONS.
(a)
69.
Find
PROBLEM
(b)
and a
plane.
(Fig. 99.)
17:
FIG. zoo.
(Fig. 100.)
FIG. 101.
Suggestion:
(a) Pass a series of projecting planes through the apex
of the cone that will cut elements from the cone and right lines
The
Draw
it
that will
intersection
PROBLEM
18:
(a)
Find
(b)
Find
and a plane.
(Fig.
101.)
(Fig. 102.)
Suggestion
(a) Pass a series of projecting planes through the elements
:
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.
117
of the cylinder;
plane.
The
FIG. 102.
FIG. 103.
Draw
PROBLEM
71.
19:
(a)
Find
(b)
Find
(Fig.
103.)
(Fig.
104.)
Suggestion
(a) Pass a series of projecting planes through the sphere;
:
these planes will cut circles from the sphere and right lines from
the given planes. The intersection of these lines with the circles
will
be points
(b)
it
draw a
two
lines will
point,
and through
n8
DEVELOPMENTS.
72,
PROBLEM
20:
Suggestion
Draw a number of elements of the cone, and find the true
:
FIG. 105.
FIG. 104.
as a center, describe
element;
until all of
PROBLEM
The
21:
and while
or F,
parallel to either
a plane perpendicular to the
it is
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.
119
this
true development,
its
elements cut
it;
draw
lines
and
now
this will
show
where the
the elements.
PROBLEM
74.
22:
tfte
FIG. 106.
Suggestion
In this case the cylinder
FIG. 107.
is
perpendicular to
give
the cylinder
and the
is
now
H.
of the elements;
therefore, proceed as in
First
this will
line,
I2O
75.
PROBLEM
23:
(Fig. 108.)
is
therefore,
small sections;
any
section, revolve
drawn through
is coincident with
this will give
the approximate size of the section;
next, repeat
FlG
Io8
the
The
curved
line
is
all
of
add these
through each
the required
development, approximately.
76.
PROBLEM
24.
carefully
number
CHAPTER
V.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
77. Explanatory.
The
knowledge of the principles of Descriptive Geometry, the following examples are given to illustrate their practical application.
offered are typical of the problems confronting
The examples
the
engineering draughtsman
to that subject.
IV, page 97, the specific differences being that here each exercise
has all necessary dimensions given, either on the plate or in the
instructions.
to
Some
some proportional
scale.
drawn
full size,
others
balancing the drawing on the sheet are given. In every case these
figures represent full-size lengths, and are to be omitted on the
finished drawing.
In place of the notation given in Cha'pter IV, use the conventions of ordinary drawing, and
make
all
working
lines very
122
PROBLEM
To
i:
lay out the cutting lines jor gelling out the wreath start-
inclose
the
rectangle
inclosing
on the
and the
the
elevation
drawing.
In laying out
of the wreath,
them.
rail is
rail;
such a section
drawing
principles of isometric
drawing as
the
drawing
wreath within
outline of
these
may
The drawing shows a rectangular
lines laid
in practice the
and
useful as a
is
is
set forth in
the inclosing
Chapter
I,
by
first
it.
out
the
block.
Draw
all
first,
necessary lines
give
sheet
all
by
it
supplying those
as shown.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATF. No
.3
1*3
124
80.
PROBLEM
2:
To show
support.
develop the piece, draw the center line A-E of the plan
drawing, then draw the center line C-D of the development and
To
next,
draw
E-F
through
of horizontal lines,
the line
C-D
In addition
may
draw a
set of points
lines;
series
those on
be obtained.
in
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS,
PLATE
No.
4.
I2 5
126
Draw
all
plate
PROBLEM
To
and
finish
it
as shown.
to
3:
locate,
and
stack.
The
are,
stack,
quired to locate the ground end of each wire, and to find the
length of each.
A cable suspended as in this example would not assume
a straight line as shown, but would assume a curve, however for
the problem the hypothetical case of the straight line
is
to
be
taken.
To
revolve one of
them
parallel
tection of a
guy when
parallel to F.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
5.
127
128
To
the plane of the roof strikes the ground B distance from the foundation, which enables one to draw the trace of the roof plane (t-T-f),
and with the projections of the guy given, to find the point in which
the guy pierces the plane T.
The true length of the guys are
found by revloving them into parallelism with F.
Directions for Drawing.
Execute a scale drawing ( TV"
all
sionsgiven, drawing
the drawing
for
82.
PROBLEM
To
In inking, omit
inspection.
by
to the
dimensions
= i') according
lettering
all
dimen-
then submit
construction
and
as shown.
4:
and
shown in Plate
6,
and
to
forming
of geometry, "To
true size of an angle."
It is
met with
in practice in
many
different
forms.
the bevels
may
be found.
draw the
removed
sections;
to
one
scale this
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
6.
129
130
H.
may
The
parallel
angles between the pieces are found by
adding the bevels of each piece, as shown by the plate.
to
In addition
draw a
half-size
to the
above statement,
isometric
drawing
let it
of the
be required to
object,
taking the
Chapter
Draw
I.
and
Plate
tive,
7,
illustrates
by
lettering
it
as shown.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
7.
132
83.
PROBLEM
5:
To show
stack.
cylinder (No. 3)
therefore,
cones,
and parts
of
two
it
to
be
made up
locomotive
of a right
i
and
2);
Execute a scale drawing (|" = i') according to the dimensions given, drawing all necessary lines in light pencil,
then submit the drawing for inspection. In inking, omit all
construction lines; give all dimensions supplying those marked
X and finish the sheet by lettering it as shown.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
'33
8.
SlN3kNd013A3Q
00
O
o:
CL
_j
o
<-r
-9,*
17,5
r>
.e-j^j
rrj
//^T*^!
* *
77^2
134
84.
PROBLEM
6:
To lay out the sheet for the smoke-box (No. 4} and the
second ring (No. 5) of the barrel of a locomotive. Plate 9
(see
Plate 7, also).
An
the smoke-box).
To
proceed as
i')
lines
all
necessary
given, drawing
submit the drawing for inspection. In inking, omit all construction lines; give all dimensions
supplying those marked X and
by
lettering
it
as shown.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
9.
135
I3 6
PROBLEM
85.
7:
To
An
6,
the slope-sheet,
is
one half a conoid and one half a right cylinder, and that No. 7
is
an
To
find
To
develop sheet
draw a number
6,
etc., of the
of elements of the
this length as
an arc
now
and with
the
arc;
with the
is
clearly indicated
by the
plate.
all
= i')
necessary
drawing
submit the drawing for inspection.
struction lines, give all dimensions
and
by
lettering
lines
it
In inking, omit
supplying
as shown.
those
all
con-
marked
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
10.
137
1 38
86.
PROBLEM 8:
To find the shape and
problem
to
To
first
planes (these lengths are taken directly from the elevation drawing of "-4"), and through their extremes draw the curve /-/
must
first
be obtained by revolving
is
it
center- point, C,
equal in length
should be noted that the
line C-G-"j
(It
elevation drawing
figures are cut along the outside element
cut by the intersecting plane i-C of the plan drawing.) With
as a center
describe an arc;
6-C
"A"
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
ii.
139
140
the point
of intersection,
will
e,
the locus of the lower base end of element 6-C; this element
be
may
With
these points,
it is
is
drawn.
a simple
procedure to lay off the true length of each element and through
the extremes to draw the developed line of the upper base, and
thus complete the development.
Fig. "C" is a right cylinder neither base of which
is
at
cylinder
"A."
= i')
lines in
all
given, drawing
necessary
submit the drawing for inspection. In inking, omit
and
all
construc-
by
lettering
as shown.
PROBLEM
87.
the
9:
and in
main
135.
Let the problem be that presented by Plate 12 and illustrated by Fig. 109, and let it be required to develop sheets A
and
the
to be
To lay out the breeching, first draw the center lines making
the required angles with one another, then draw the end view
of the 26" main; next, at the intersection of the center lines.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
PLATE
No.
12.
141
142
PLATE
No.
12 A.
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
OF
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
'43
draw
the cylindrical
main (end
to
an
in-
FIG. 109.
cones assumed; next, find the intersection of the cylindrical main with the conical reducing legs,
and the intersection of the legs themsleves, then cut the legs off
Sheets
A and B
all
given, drawing
necessary
submit the drawings for inspection.
lines
shown on
sheets
by
lettering
all
them as shown.
= i')
lines
144
PROBLEM
88.
10:
To
and
let it
manner
13,
which
for
The problem
wends
his
For punching,
evident that by laying out the blade in two sections for each
convolution one can effect a saving of material, and, disregarding
the question of lap and method of fastening to the central core
it is
let
be
it
re-
helicoid."
surface
it
To
uniform;
and of arc
^4,
respectively.
With
cord of arc
and the
lengths
required
for
the
development;
CL
Next,
the
last of
be concentric
circles,
will
be found
either
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
13.
146
extreme
the
may
drawn.
Directions for Drawing.
Execute a
given,
In inking, omit all construction lines, give all dimensions supplying dimensions marked X and finish the sheet by lettering it as
shown.
89.
PROBLEM n:
To
housewife's
because of
its
food-grinder
this
though
familiarity,
is
named
as
an example
"screw"
Assuming
that
if
may
laid
(see
it
is
Problem
10;
dimen-
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
14.
147
148
arcs.
on the
these
and
90.
would be necessary
PROBLEM
To
by
lettering
it
dimensions marked
on a sheet of metal
as shown.
12:
an angle-iron
a metal coal-hopper.
Let the problem be that presented by Plate 15, an inspection of which shows the hopper to be formed by four inclined
jor framing the corners of
planes,
to be,
"To
find
and
all
(" = 1')
necessary
lines
submit the drawing for inspection. In inking, ink only those lines
shown on the plate, give all dimensions supplying the angle
A and finish the sheet by lettering it as shown.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
is.
149
SHADOWS.
PROBLEMS 13, 14, and 15:
To find some elementary shadows.
91-93.
and
1 8,
by the
cast
The
of
Descriptive Geometry
involved in these problems is, "To find the point in which a
line pierces the planes of projection."
figures.
principle
In Problem
let
it
be required to
drawing of
illustrate
the problem
shadow,
with an isometric
it.
Execute a
full-sized
and the
according
to the
by
lettering
it
as shown.
all
shadow
in as
dimensioning, and
shown
finish
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
16.
6
z
CD
O O
Q
< cr
x CL
~r\
o:
CL
in oo
cp
M--K!-
PLATE
No.
17.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
'53
18.
<: CL
o
o
k<
-n*
.!_,
-]H
154
94.
PROBLEM
To
it
16:
find the
shadow
cast by
taboret.
let
all
95-96.
PROBLEMS 17 and
To find the shadow
Problem 17:
Find the shadow
either
18:
cast
of
the niche
shown on page 52 by
figure,
or
by enlarging the cut in either case, draw a figure that will nearly
fill the sheet, reserving, however, a space for the title and signa;
ture.
Problem 18:
Find the shadow
of
a sphere.
Each problem
is
to constitute
an exercise and
is
to
occupy
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
\<
'55
19.
,91
s^\
TO:
C/>0-
156
PERSPECTIVE.
97.
PROBLEM
To
19:
Execute a
full-sized
by
and signature
only.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
20.
157
158
PROBLEM
98.
To
20:
The
and
than as
specific
assume
instruction,
it
is
more
as
an example
i"
= i'
other than the sheet to receive the perspective, then cut the paper,
separating the plan and elevation, and arrange these views and
the sheet to receive the perspective as suggested by the plate;
find the perspective, then submit the sheet for inspection.
In
inking,
and
by
lettering
it
8"Xn"
as follows
TITLE,
PERSPECTIVE.
Practical Problem No. 2O.
to
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
21.
'59
160
99.
PROBLEM
To
21
inking, ink the lines of the perspective and the border line only,
and finish the sheet by lettering it as follows:
TITLE,
PERSPECTIVE.
Practical Problem No. 21.
to
be
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
22.
161
162
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
100.
PROBLEM
To
163
22:
Let the problem be that presented by Fig. no, and illustrated by Fig. in, and let the student assume his own conditions,
such that the perspective will look well on a standard
8"Xii"
sheet of paper.
FIG.
in.
proval;
inspection.
drawing for
it
as follows:
TITLE,
PERSPECTIVE.
Practical
to
1 64
10 1.
PROBLEM
To
Let
23:
be
the
an
architectural arch.
that
problem
presented by Fig. 112 (the
mechanical drawings), and illustrated by Fig. 113, and let the
student assume his own conditions, such that the perspective
will look well
on a standard
8"Xn"
sheet of paper.
them about
inspection.
drawing for
In inking, ink the lines of the perspective and the
it
as follows:
TITLE,
PERSPECTIVE.
Practical
to be
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
165
SIDE LLEVATION
FIG.
us.
FIG.
in.
66
FIRST
FLOOR PLAN.
FIG. 114, A.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
102.
PROBLEM
To
167
24.
FRONT ELEVATION.
FIG. 114, B.
Plate 23, and let the student assume his own conditions, such
that the perspective will look well on a standard
sheet
8"Xn"
of paper.
left
then separate the views and arrange them about the sheet to
receive the picture in accordance with the conditions assumed;
then submit the arrangement for approval; next, find the perfor inspection.
In inking,
spective, then submit the drawing
168
PLATE
O
UJ
CD
CL cr
CO a.
Q.
No.
23.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
169
170
ink the lines of the perspective and the border line only, and
finish the sheet
by
lettering
it
as shown.
REAR ELEVATION,
FIG. 114,
D,
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
I7 2
103.
PROBLEM
To
25:
in isometric.
set forth in
Chapter
In inking,
I, execute the drawing, then submit it for inspection.
ink only the lines shown on the plate, and finish the sheet by
lettering
it
as shown.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
24.
174
SUPPLEMENTAL.
EXERCISES IN FREE-HAND LETTERING.
104. Explanatory.
Since there
is
so
little
free-hand work
let-
tering
is
In
all
should be
student
is
The
pencilled in to insure balance, then inked in.
to make a choice of the size of letters and spacing by
first
8"Xn"
Plate 25 illustrates
cuted
some types
free-hand letters;
Plate
26,
the
sometimes practice of
tabulating standard information for use in the shop, and Plate 27,
a cover-sheet for a folio for a set of drawings, such as the exercises of this Course in Drawing.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
25.
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3 t
o o >
"S
o o o
2 -
CO
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ff
Q;
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Sit
D
b
a:
o
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2
O
- o
Si
JKL
EFGHI
o
'
>
1!
V
"
811
Z.
*^
ABCD
'75
76
PLATE
No.
26.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.
PLATE
No.
177
27.
Sheet Wo /
FOL_IO
Theorehco/ Pro6/em No.
/.
Wo. /
2
3
7
8
9
Prob/em No. 6
Pro6/e/n
10
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5.
12
An
Id
fxerc/se /n fettering -A
<Sfrop
Cord
J6
/5
Pro6fem Ab
16
/7
Id
20
21
22
23
//
}i
28
29
30
An
22
25
}!
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