Cardiovascular Medicine

Aortic Stenosis:
Pathophysiology,
Diagnosis, and Medical
Management of
Nonsurgical Patients
THERESA CARY, RN, MSN, ACNS-BC, CCRN, CHFN
JUDITH PEARCE, RN, BSN, CCRN
As the average lifespan continues to increase, nurses are managing more patients with aortic stenosis. When
an asymptomatic patient begins to manifest signs and symptoms due to progressive narrowing and stiffening
of the aortic valve, the only effective therapy is surgical replacement of the valve. But, some patients cannot
undergo or do not opt for surgery. Nurses are challenged by the tenuous balance between the narrow range
of preload and afterload to maintain forward blood flow and adequate cardiac output in patients with severe
aortic stenosis. Understanding the complex normal anatomy and physiology of the aortic valve can help
nurses appreciate the consequences of this type of stenosis. Nursing care for patients with aortic stenosis
requires advanced skills in patient assessment and an appreciation of the hemodynamic responses to activities of daily living and to nursing interventions such as administration of medications. (Critical Care Nurse.
2013;33[2]:58-72)

ortic stenosis is caused by narrowing of the orifice of the aortic valve and leads
to obstruction of left ventricular outflow. This stenosis is rare in persons less than
50 years old.1 Calcification of the aortic valve is the most common cause of aortic
stenosis in adults in industrialized countries and affects more than 4% of North
American and Europeans more than 75 years old.2 In a study3 of 338 North American patients with severe asymptomatic aortic stenosis, the mean age was 71 (SD, 15) years. Aortic
stenosis was also associated with higher morbidity and mortality rates than were diseases involving other cardiac valves.4 For example, in a study5 of 161 patients, patients with moderate and

CNE

Continuing Nursing Education

This article has been designated for CNE credit. A closed-book, multiple-choice examination follows this article,
which tests your knowledge of the following objectives:
1. Describe the pathophysiology of aortic stenosis
2. Identify clinical manifestations of aortic stenosis
3. Discuss medical and nursing management of nonsurgical patients with aortic stenosis
2013 American Association of Critical-Care Nurses doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4037/ccn2013820

58

CriticalCareNurse

Vol 33, No. 2, APRIL 2013

www.ccnonline.org

D
Ao

Ao

PA

PA

RA

LA
MV

TV

MV
TV

PV

AV

AV

PV

LV
RV

Figure 1 Normal heart valve function. All 4 valves open and close in response to pressure changes during diastole and systole
to ensure forward progression of blood flow through the heart. A, Open tricuspid and mitral valves. In early and mid diastole,
blood flows passively into the right and left ventricles through the tricuspid and mitral valves, respectively. In late diastole, the
right and left atria contract. B, Closed tricuspid and mitral valves. In early systole, increasing ventricular pressures force the tricuspid and mitral valves to close. All 4 valves are closed briefly as the increase in ventricular pressure continues in response to
ventricular contraction and twist (isovolumetric contraction). C, Open pulmonic and aortic valves. During mid systole, when ventricular pressures exceed pulmonic and aortic pressures, the pulmonic and aortic valves are forced to open, and blood is ejected
into the pulmonary vasculature and aorta, respectively. D, Closed pulmonic and aortic valves. In late systole, ventricular muscle
begins to relax and untwist. Back pressure against the pulmonic and aortic valves force the valves to close (isovolumetric relaxation).
Abbreviations: Ao, aorta; AV, aortic valve; LA, left atrium; LV, left ventricle; MV, mitral valve; PA, pulmonary artery; PV, pulmonic valve; RA, right atrium; RV, right
ventricle; TV, tricuspid valve.
Reprinted with permission, Cleveland Clinic Center for Medical Art & Photography, 2012. All rights reserved.

severe aortic stenosis had 2-year mortality rates of

40.2% and 58.2%, respectively. In another study6 of
274 medically managed patients with severe aortic
stenosis, 66.4% of whom had concomitant coronary
artery disease, the cardiac related mortality rate in the
median follow-up period of 377.5 days was 43.1%,
including a sudden cardiac death rate of 3.9%.
Aortic stenosis is increasing in prevalence as the average lifespan continues to increase.7,8 In the prospective
Cardiovascular Health Study9 of 5201 patients more than
65 years old, 26% had aortic sclerosis, a thickening or
calcification of the valve without marked left ventricular
obstruction, and 2% had aortic stenosis. By age 85, 48%
had aortic sclerosis, and 4% had frank aortic stenosis.

Authors
Theresa Cary is a clinical nurse specialist in the medical
cardiology step-down units at Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.
Judith Pearce is a nurse manager in the coronary and heart failure
intensive care units at Cleveland Clinic. Lieutenant Colonel Pearce
is also a flight nurse with the 445th Aeromedical Evacuation
Squadron at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio.
Corresponding author: Theresa Cary, RN, MSN, ACNS-BC, CCRN, CHFN, Cleveland
Clinic, 9500 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH 44195-5245 (e-mail: [email protected]).
To purchase electronic or print reprints, contact The InnoVision Group, 101 Columbia, Aliso Viejo, CA 92656. Phone, (800) 899-1712 or (949) 362-2050 (ext 532);
fax, (949) 362-2049; e-mail, [email protected].

www.ccnonline.org

In this article, we briefly review normal aortic valve

anatomy and function and contrast normal function
with the structural and functional changes associated
with aortic stenosis. We also discuss the signs, symptoms,
and physical examination findings associated with aortic
stenosis; diagnosis and diagnostic studies; medical management of asymptomatic and symptomatic patients with
aortic stenosis; and nursing considerations for patients
with aortic stenosis.

Normal Heart and Valve Function

The aortic valve is 1 of 4 valves separating the 4 chambers of the heart. Each valve has leaflets that open easily
and close fully in response to pressure changes produced
during systole and diastole to ensure forward progression of blood through the heart. An increase in forward
pressure across a valve forces the leaflets to open. An
increase in backward pressure against a valve forces the
leaflets to close10 (Figure 1). The valves are stabilized and
supported by the fibrous skeleton, a sheetlike structure
of dense fibrous connective tissue that separates the atria
from the ventricles and encircles each valve, creating a
ring or annulus11 (Figure 2). The annulus acts as an anchor
to the heart muscle.11
Normal systole involves myocardial contraction and
rotation or twist. A brief clockwise rotation of the apex

CriticalCareNurse

Vol 33, No. 2, APRIL 2013

59

during diastole to prevent regurgitation of blood from the aorta back into
the left ventricle (Figures 4 and 5).
To enhance the integrity of the aorFibrous ring of
aortic valve
tic valve when closed, the leaflets
Fibrous skeleton
abut at a thickened area slightly
below their free margins.10,11
The aortic valve leaflets have 3
unique layers that synergistically
Fibrous ring of
Fibrous ring
contribute to valve function and
tricuspid valve
of mitral valve
competence.13 Each layer contains
valvular interstitial cells that help
maintain valve structure and function,
inhibit angiogenesis in the leaflets,
Atrioventricular bundle
and repair cellular damage.13,14 The
layer facing the aorta is the fibrosa,
Figure 2 Fibrous skeleton of the heart.
made primarily of collagen fibers
Reprinted with permission, Cleveland Clinic Center for Medical Art & Photography, 2005. All rights reserved.
that help evenly distribute the pressure load on the leaflets surface.11
and a counterclockwise rotation of the base occur just
Facing the left ventricle is the ventricularis, made primabefore systole as left ventricular pressure increases
rily of elastic fibers that help maintain the leaflets shape.
(known as isovolumetric contraction). This movement is
The soft middle layer, the spongiosa, has glycosaminofollowed by a sustained counterclockwise rotation of the
glycans and proteoglycans that cushion and minimize
apex and a clockwise rotation of the base during the ventricular ejection phase to essentially wring blood content
from the left ventricle2,12 (Figure 3). Ventricular twist augments ejection of blood through the aortic valve and into
the aorta and reduces myocardial oxygen demand.12
Diastole involves myocardial relaxation and progressive
untwisting, producing a suction effect that pulls blood
into the left ventricle.12
Closure of the mitral and tricuspid valves marks the
onset of systole and produces a sound known as S1, best
auscultated at the fifth intercostal space, left midclavicular line. Closure of the pulmonic and aortic valves marks
the end of systole and produces a sound known as S2,
best auscultated at the second intercostal space at the
left or right sternal border.
Fibrous ring of
pulmonary valve

Normal Anatomy and

Physiology of the Aortic Valve
The aortic valve separates the left ventricle and the
aorta. The valve is a complex structure with 3 relatively
equal-sized leaflets and an annulus.11 Each leaflet has a
cup-shaped body with a top edge (free margin) and a base.11
The leaflets open easily during systole to allow blood to
eject from the left ventricle into the aorta and close fully

60

CriticalCareNurse

Vol 33, No. 2, APRIL 2013

Figure 3 Twisting rotation of the heart during systole.

Reprinted with permission, Cleveland Clinic Center for Medical Art & Photography, 2012. All rights reserved.

www.ccnonline.org

Left coronary artery

Left coronary orifice

Commissure

Right coronary orifice

Right coronary artery

Figure 4 Normal aortic valve in the open position.

Reprinted with permission, Cleveland Clinic Center for Medical Art & Photography, 2006. All rights reserved.

Left coronary artery

bulging shape of the sinuses creates

space behind the aortic valve leaflets
during systole that prevents obstruction of blood flow into the coronary
arteries. The space also provides a
reservoir for pooling of blood during diastole for filling the coronary
arteries.10,11 The base of each leaflet
joins the fibrous skeleton of the
heart to form an annulus that
anchors the leaflet structure to the
aortic wall at the level of the left
ventricular outflow tract.11

Aortic Stenosis

Aortic stenosis can be viewed on

a continuum from aortic sclerosis to
severe aortic stenosis. Progression of stenosis is associated with increasing obstruction of blood flow through
the left ventricular outflow tract and occurs over many
years.1,8 Only 10% of patients with aortic sclerosis advance
to hemodynamically important aortic stenosis.15 In aortic sclerosis, mild valve thickening or calcification affects
normal leaflet motion.7,13 As the disease progresses, leaflets
become thicker, calcium nodules form, and new blood

Aorta
Right coronary artery

Figure 5 Normal aortic valve in the closed position.

Reprinted with permission, Cleveland Clinic Center for Medical Art & Photography, 2006. All rights reserved.

friction and stress-related damage between the fibrosa

and the ventricularis10,11 (Figure 6).
The leaflets are joined, edge to edge, by dense collagen
fibers called commissures (Figure 4). The commissures
penetrate into the aortic wall, where they absorb some
of the stresses of systole and diastole.11 Behind each leaflet
the aortic wall bulges outward to form the 3 sinuses of
Valsalva (Figure 5). Two of the sinuses provide the points
of origin for the right and left coronary arteries. The

www.ccnonline.org

Fibrosa
Spongiosa
Ventricularis

Left ventricle

Figure 6 The 3 layers of the aortic valve leaflet.

Reprinted with permission, Cleveland Clinic Center for Medical Art & Photography, 2012. All rights reserved.

CriticalCareNurse

Vol 33, No. 2, APRIL 2013

61

vessels appear.13 In aortic stenosis, calcium nodules located

within the layers of the leaflet bulge outward toward the
aorta and extend to the sinuses of Valsalva, causing
restricted leaflet motion and obstruction of left ventricular outflow during systole1,13 (Figure 7). The 1% to 2% of
adults born with 2 aortic valve leaflets, known as bicuspid aortic valve (Figure 8), account for about half of all
occurrences of aortic stenosis.1 Stenosis of a bicuspid
aortic valve typically occurs at an earlier age (fifth to sixth
decade) than does tricuspid valve stenosis (seventh to
eighth decade) because 2 cusps, instead of 3, are forced
to absorb the shearing stress of blood flow leaving the
left ventricle.7
The most common cause of aortic stenosis is valve
calcification, termed calcific aortic valve disease (CAVD),
which was previously considered a normal consequence
of aging.7,13 CAVD is an active cellular biological process
characterized by alterations of the cells within the layers
of the aortic valve. In one proposed mechanism, mechanical stress or disease causes valvular interstitial cells
within the valve leaflets to transform from the usual
state of maintenance and repair into an activated state in
which cell proliferation is increased and myofibroblasts
and osteoblasts develop, promoting calcification, osteogenesis, and bone formation.13,14,16 In 2 studies17,18 of
1524 stenotic aortic valves, bone formation was found in
10.9% to 13% of valve leaflets. In another proposed mechanism, mechanical stress associated with blood crossing
the aortic valve damages the basement membrane of the
leaflets, allowing entry and accumulation of T lymphocytes, monocytes, and low-density lipoprotein that then
initiate inflammation and oxidation of the lipoprotein.13,16,19 Rheumatic heart disease, a consequence of
untreated pharyngeal infections, rarely causes aortic
stenosis in developed countries because of aggressive
treatment of penicillin-sensitive streptococcal infections.19
The events that lead to the onset of aortic stenosis,
although unclear, are similar to those associated with
early atherosclerosis.

Pathophysiology of Aortic Stenosis

As the aortic valve progresses from sclerosis to stenosis, the left ventricle encounters chronic resistance to
systolic ejection. The ventricle must generate a higher
systolic pressure than the opposing pressure produced
by the unyielding, calcified aortic valve. An increased
resistance to systolic ejection is called afterload.8 To

62

CriticalCareNurse

Vol 33, No. 2, APRIL 2013

Figure 7 Calcified severely stenotic aortic valve.

Reprinted with permission, Cleveland Clinic Center for Medical Art & Photography, 2010. All rights reserved.

Figure 8 Bicuspid aortic valve.

Reprinted with permission, Cleveland Clinic Center for Medical Art & Photography, 2006. All rights reserved.

compensate for a high afterload, the left ventricular

myocardial wall thickens; the diameter of the left ventricle
maintains a normal size.7 Thickening of the left ventricular wall, known as concentric hypertrophy, strengthens
left ventricular systolic contraction to maintain adequate
stroke volume and cardiac output.7 Table 1 presents hemodynamic parameters and the effects of aortic stenosis.
Although left ventricular hypertrophy is a compensatory mechanism, the sequelae may be detrimental. Effects
of high left ventricular afterload include decreased left

www.ccnonline.org

Table 1

Hemodynamic parameters and the effects of aortic stenosisa

Parameter

Definition

Stroke volume (SV)

Cardiac output (CO)

Volume of blood ejected from the ventricle with each contraction

Volume of blood ejected from the heart per minute
CO = heart rate (per minute) SV

Preload
Afterload
Systemic vascular resistance
(SVR)

Volume of blood in the ventricle at end diastole (producing a stretch of ventricular muscle cells)
Resistance the heart must overcome to eject blood from the ventricle
Resistance to blood flow in all systemic vasculature

Reflects

Normal range

Right atrial pressure

Right ventricular preload
Pulmonary artery (PA) pressure Pressures in the pulmonary
vasculature

2-7 mm Hg
Systolic 15-30 mm Hg
Diastolic 4-12 mm Hg

Pulmonary artery occlusion

pressure
Left ventricular pressure (LVP)

Mean left atrial pressure (indirect reflection of LV preload)

LV afterload (systolic)
LV preload (diastolic)
SVR and preload

2-12 mm Hg

LV afterload

700-1600 dynes sec cm-5

Aortic pressure (AP)

Systemic vascular resistance

(SVR)
Pulmonary vascular resistance
Cardiac output/resting
a Based

Systolic 90-140 mm Hg
Diastolic 5-12 mm Hg
Systolic 90-140 mm Hg
Diastolic 60-90 mm Hg

Resistance to blood flow in

20-130 dynes sec cm-5
pulmonary vasculature
Volume of blood ejected from 5-8 L/min
the heart per minute

Effects of moderate to
severe aortic stenosis
Increases
Increases when PA systolic
pressure >60 mm Hg (severe
pulmonary hypertension)
May increase
Increases
Decreased preload causes decreases
in LVP and AP, increased SVR
Increased preload causes
increased LVP to maintain AP
Increases
Increases
Decreases

on information from Otto and Bonow.8

ventricular myocardial elasticity and coronary blood flow

and increased myocardial workload, oxygen consumption,
and mortality.2,7 Left ventricular hypertrophy increases
diastolic pressure and delays left ventricular untwisting;
thus, a forceful atrial contraction (commonly called
atrial kick) is needed for optimal filling of the left ventricle to maintain stroke volume and cardiac output.4,7 Late
manifestations of left ventricular hypertrophy include a
smaller left ventricular chamber size, which decreases
preload and worsens systolic dysfunction. The result is
insufficient stroke volume, cardiac output, and ejection
fraction.1,7,15 Finally, backward transmission of increased
left ventricular pressure to the lungs may cause pulmonary
venous hypertension and reactive vasoconstriction of
the pulmonary vasculature.1,20
As a result of the detrimental effects associated
with left ventricular hypertrophy, patients with aortic
stenosis become increasingly dependent on atrial kick
to maintain stroke volume and cardiac output. Loss or

www.ccnonline.org

compromise of atrial kick as a result of atrial fibrillation, ventricular pacing, and/or intravascular fluid volume overload may precipitate pulmonary congestion,
hypotension, and angina.7,21,22 Atrial arrhythmias may
result from an extension of calcific infiltrates from the
aortic valve into the conduction system.1,10,11 In one study,22
chronic atrial fibrillation was predictive of heart failure
and stroke and new-onset atrial fibrillation was associated with cardiac decompensation (see Case Report).

Grading of Aortic Stenosis

Aortic stenosis is graded as mild, moderate, or severe.
Grading is based on 3 hemodynamic parameters measured by using Doppler echocardiography: aortic jet
velocity, mean aortic valve pressure gradient, and aortic
valve area7,15 (Table 2). Aortic jet velocity is blood flow
measured at the narrowest orifice of the aortic valve during systole.23 Aortic jet velocity is a direct measurement
of the severity of stenosis and is the strongest predictor

CriticalCareNurse

Vol 33, No. 2, APRIL 2013

63

Case Report
r S was 84 years old, 178 cm tall, and weighed 72 kg. He came to the emergency department

because of increasing shortness of breath, intermittent chest pressure, and dyspnea on exertion for the
past 3 weeks. He stated that he had slept in his recliner for the past 2 nights because of the increasing

shortness of breath. Vital signs on admission were heart rate 148 beats per minute, respiratory rate 24 breaths
per minute, oxygen saturation 93% on 6 L of oxygen via nasal cannula, and blood pressure 109/59 mm Hg. A
12-lead electrocardiogram revealed rapid atrial fibrillation. Mr Ss medical history included hypertension, multivessel coronary artery disease, hypercholesterolemia, dilated cardiomyopathy, and aortic stenosis with an aortic valve
area of 0.6 cm2. He had been evaluated for aortic valve replacement 6 months earlier, but he refused to have

surgery. Two attempts to cardiovert him from atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm were unsuccessful. He was given
aspirin 325 mg orally and amiodarone 150 mg intravenously followed by continuous infusion at 1 mg/min. A nitroglycerin infusion was started at 20 g/min. He received furosemide 80 mg intravenously to promote diuresis and
heparin 5000 IU subcutaneously. Admission laboratory studies included electrolyte levels, coagulation studies,
and serum level of brain natriuretic peptide. The results were normal except for the level of brain natriuretic peptide, which was 2800 pg/mL (reference range, <130 pg/mL). Chest radiography revealed pulmonary congestion.
During the preceding 30 minutes, his respiratory rate had increased to 32 breaths per minute, with worsening
shortness of breath and oxygen saturation levels of 86% to 88% on 100% oxygen via a nonrebreather mask. He
was intubated and admitted to the coronary intensive care unit. The diagnosis was decompensated heart failure,
severe aortic stenosis, and uncontrolled atrial fibrillation. On arrival to the unit, his heart rate was 89 beats per
minute and his blood pressure was 112/78 mm Hg. Ventilator settings were assist control at a respiratory rate of 12
breaths per minute and fraction of inspired oxygen 0.50. A pulmonary artery catheter was placed, and hemodynamic values were measured and calculated: pulmonary artery pressure 78/36 mm Hg, right atrial pressure 21
mm Hg, pulmonary artery occlusion pressure 29 mm Hg, cardiac output 2.89 L/min, and systemic vascular
resistance 1882 dynes sec cm-5. An additional 40 mg of furosemide was given intravenously, and sodium
nitroprusside 5 g/min was started to decrease blood pressure and reduce the systemic vascular resistance.

Table 2
Grade

Aortic jet
velocity, m/s

Grades of aortic valve stenosisa

Mean aortic valve

pressure gradient, mm Hg

Mild

<3.0

<25

Moderate

3-4

25-40

Severe

>4

>40

a Based

on information from Bonow et al.21

of clinical outcome.24 The narrowed orifice produces a

nozzle effect as blood jets through the valve opening;
the narrower the orifice, the faster the speed (velocity).7
Mean aortic valve pressure gradient is the difference
between the higher left ventricular pressure and the
lower aortic pressure measured just above the aortic
valve during systole. The gradient indicates the degree
of valvular resistance to left ventricular ejection.7 The
aortic valve area is based on measurements taken across

64

CriticalCareNurse

Vol 33, No. 2, APRIL 2013

the aortic valve. This parameter is

more susceptible to measurement
error than are jet velocity and presAortic valve
area, cm2
sure gradient.1,23
1.5
Although grading of aortic
stenosis relies on validated measure1.0-1.5
ments of aortic jet velocity, pressure
<1.0
gradient, and aortic valve area, no
single value defines severity, and the
rate of progression of aortic stenosis
is impossible to calculate.21 A normal aortic valve is 3.0
to 4.0 cm2 in area (about the size of a nickel).4,7 Aortic
stenosis is considered hemodynamically important when
the valve area is less than 1.0 cm2 (about the size of the
head of a golf tee)4; however the degree of obstruction
resulting in signs and symptoms is widely variable.8,24
For that reason, severe aortic stenosis is defined as the
degree of valve obstruction at which symptoms might
be caused by valve obstruction.24

www.ccnonline.org

Table 3
Clinical manifestation

Clinical manifestations of aortic stenosisa

Causes

Significance

Decreased exercise tolerance due

to exertional dyspnea or fatigue

Diastolic dysfunction
Decreased cardiac output with exercise

If early indications of aortic stenosis are not

recognized, can delay diagnosis and treatment

Angina

Increased left ventricular workload and oxygen

consumption

May occur with or without coexisting coronary

artery disease
Commonly precipitated by exertion and
relieved with rest
Mean survival after symptom onset 5 years if
no surgical repair of aortic valve

Syncope

May be precipitated by high left ventricular pressures causing acute baroreceptor-activated

vasodilation leading to decreased cardiac output
or by an inability to increase stroke volume,
when needed, through a narrow, stiff aortic valve

Usually occurs during exercise

Mean survival after symptom onset 3 years if
no surgical repair of aortic valve

Heart failure

Diastolic dysfunction resulting in pulmonary

congestion and dyspnea

Most ominous symptom of aortic stenosis

Mean survival after symptom onset 2 years if
no surgical repair of aortic valve

a Based

on information from Carabello and Paulus.7

Clinical Manifestations
The classical clinical manifestations of angina, syncope, and heart failure do not occur until late in aortic
stenosis.15 Because of the prolonged latency period of
asymptomatic disease progression, patients are often
unaware of their condition until a systolic murmur is
detected during a physical examination, evaluation of
new onset of atrial fibrillation, or cardiac catheterization
for symptomatic coronary artery disease. Patients typical initial descriptions include decreased exercise tolerance, dyspnea on exertion, exertional dizziness, and
lightheadedness24 (Table 3). Many patients do not recognize the initial manifestations of aortic stenosis because
of the gradual change in hemodynamic status. Decreased
exercise tolerance manifested as exertional dyspnea or
fatigue has been attributed to cardiac ischemia, elevated
left ventricular end-diastolic pressure, and decreased
cardiac output.1 Angina may occur in patients with CAVD
as a consequence of coronary artery disease.1 In patients
without coronary artery disease, angina may be due to
decreased subendocardial blood flow and/or increased
myocardial oxygen demand associated with concentric
hypertrophy.2,25 Blood flow to the myocardium may be
limited by insufficient capillary density into the hypertrophied left ventricular muscle and/or by endocardial
compression due to increased filling pressures.7,8
Syncope occurs because of decreased cerebral perfusion associated with decreased cardiac output or during
exercise and times of decreased preload, such as after

www.ccnonline.org

arising from a seated position; dehydration; and use of

diuretics.1,7 Normally, exercise should cause blood pressure to increase and systemic vascular resistance to
decrease, and because the increase in blood pressure is
greater than the decrease in systemic vascular resistance,
stroke volume and cardiac output increase.7 The normal
response to exercise may not occur in patients with aortic stenosis because the narrowed aortic valve orifice may
limit the augmented stroke volume necessary to counterbalance the decrease in systemic vascular resistance.7
Another possible explanation of syncope in patients
with aortic
stenosis is The gold standard for diagnosing aortic
stenosis is noninvasive 2-dimensional
that high
Doppler echocardiography.
intraventricular pressure produced during exercise prompts
an inappropriate left ventricular baroreceptor reflex,
resulting in vasodilatation leading to a decrease in
cardiac output.1
In aortic stenosis, signs and symptoms of heart failure include exertional dyspnea, paroxysmal nocturnal
dyspnea, orthopnea, and pulmonary congestion. Symptoms can occur when forward blood flow from the pulmonary vasculature encounters high diastolic pressure in
the left ventricle.7,26 Delayed active myocardial relaxation
during early diastole decreases left ventricular filling time;
thus, the blood volume required to provide adequate
distending pressure required by the stiff left ventricular
chamber is not met.7 Typical indications of congestion

CriticalCareNurse

Vol 33, No. 2, APRIL 2013

65

Table 4

Diagnostic studies in aortic stenosisa

Study

Purpose

Doppler echocardiography

Estimation of severity of aortic stenosis, left ventricular size, and ejection fraction
Estimation of pulmonary pressures, aortic valve gradient, aortic valve area
Assessment of thickening of aortic valve leaflet, reduced leaflet motion, reduced valve opening

Cardiac catheterization

Assessment of coronary arteries to determine need for simultaneous coronary artery bypass surgery
and aortic valve replacement
Direct measurement of left ventricular and ascending aortic pressures to determine aortic valve
pressure gradient
Determination of left ventricular systolic pump function quantified by measuring left ventricular
end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes, and ejection fraction

12-Lead electrocardiography

Evidence of left ventricular hypertrophy: Increased R-wave amplitude of the QRS complex in lead V6,
increased S-wave amplitude in lead V1
ST-segment depression and T-wave inversion in leads facing the left ventricle: I, aVL, V5, and V6

Chest radiography

Determination of heart size

Detection of calcification in the aortic valve (lateral view)
With heart failure, enlarged heart size from dilatation of left atrium and left ventricle, venous congestion,
and pulmonary edema

Stress testing

Determination of the degree of exercise tolerance

Distinguish between asymptomatic and symptomatic aortic stenosis

Brain natriuretic peptide

Determination of severity of increased left ventricular pressure and volume overload

Distinction between cardiac and noncardiac dyspnea

a Based

on information from Kurtz and Otto,1 Mookadam et al,27 and Bergler-Klein.28

in heart failure may include jugular vein distension and

pulmonary rales.19
Palpation of the carotid artery and auscultation of
heart sounds provide valuable insight in patients with
aortic stenosis. Careful palpation of a carotid artery can
reveal indications of the resistance of the calcified aortic
valve to opening, subsequent delay in left ventricular
ejection, and decreasing volume.1 Gentle pressure to the
right carotid artery slightly above the clavicle reveals a
slowly increasing carotid upstroke that takes longer to
reach peak pressure (pulsus tardus) and weaker pulse
amplitude.7 In elderly patients, age-related changes in
arterial compliance and stiffness can mask carotid changes
associated with severe aortic stenosis, causing carotid
artery upstroke and amplitude to appear normal.4,21
Turbulent blood flow through the aortic valve can be
heard as a systolic ejection murmur that peaks in early
systole in mild aortic stenosis and progressively later as
aortic stenosis becomes more severe.1,7 The crescendodecrescendo late-peaking murmur is heard best at the
upper right sternal boarder at the second intercostal space
and may radiate to the carotid arteries.1,4 In older patients,
the murmur may be less intense and may radiate to the
apex of the heart rather than to the base.4

66

CriticalCareNurse

Vol 33, No. 2, APRIL 2013

Diagnosis and Diagnostic Studies

The gold standard for diagnosing aortic stenosis is
noninvasive 2-dimensional Doppler echocardiography1
(Table 4). Findings on physical examination and
2-dimensional Doppler echocardiography can usually
indicate the extent and severity of aortic stenosis. Cardiac
catheterization provides an invasive, direct measurement
of intracardiac and aortic pressures.7 Catheterization
becomes necessary only when noninvasive data are inconclusive or do not support clinical findings and before
surgical aortic valve repair in patients who are at risk for
coronary artery disease.21 Tests that can provide support
for a diagnosis of aortic stenosis include 12-lead electrocardiography and chest radiography.7
Exercise stress tests are contraindicated in patients
with symptomatic aortic stenosis but may be considered
in asymptomatic patients to assess for underlying signs
and symptoms.1,7,21 Many patients who report they have
no symptoms become symptomatic for the first time
when subjected to a stress test.3 The stress test should be
supervised by an experienced physician with close observation of the electrocardiographic tracings and blood
pressure.21 During exercise, patients with aortic stenosis
may experience signs or symptoms such as hypotension

www.ccnonline.org

or failure to develop the usual increase in blood pressure.

Abnormal hemodynamic responses to exercise should
prompt a change in a patients status from asymptomatic
to symptomatic.7 Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) is a
peptide hormone released from ventricles in response to
increased ventricular pressure.7 Serum levels of BNP
increase in patients with asymptomatic aortic stenosis
shortly before the onset of signs and symptoms, and
higher levels correlate with the severity of the signs and
symptoms.7,28 Patients with a serum baseline BNP greater
than 130 pg/mL are likely to become symptomatic within
6 months, and BNP greater than 550 pg/mL is predictive
of a poor outcome.28

Medical Management
of Asymptomatic Patients
Currently no known medical therapy is available to prevent CAVD or delay the progression of aortic stenosis.21,24
Treatment focuses on reducing cardiovascular risk factors,
including hypertension, diabetes mellitus, smoking tobacco,
high cholesterol levels, overweight, and lack of exercise.24
Periodic evaluation by a health care provider includes
echocardiographic monitoring and education about progression of aortic stenosis, recognition of signs and symptoms of worsening aortic stenosis, and prompt reporting of
the signs and symptoms at the onset.1,19,24 Having patients
compare current activity level with past activity level may
indicate if usual activity has been altered to avoid signs and
symptoms.24 Physical activity is not restricted in mild aortic
stenosis, but competitive sports should be avoided by
patients with moderate to severe aortic stenosis.21
Guidance for medication therapy is limited and is
primarily based on expert consensus. Statin therapy has
been evaluated as a means of retarding progression of
valvular stenosis. In some studies,29-31 statins were effective in slowing the progression of aortic stenosis, but the
results of larger randomized controlled trials32-34 did not
support those findings. Current guidelines recommend
statin therapy for patients with aortic stenosis and
hypercholesterolemia to reduce cardiovascular events.1,21
Antibiotic prophylaxis before dental and other invasive
procedures was standard therapy for patients with aortic
stenosis until recently. Currently, antibiotic prophylaxis
is indicated solely for patients with rheumatic aortic
stenosis, to prevent recurrent rheumatic fever.21 The
changes in the guidelines were based on newer evidence
that bacteremia from routine activities such as tooth

www.ccnonline.org

brushing, flossing, and chewing occurred more often than

did bacteremia related to dental procedures.8 Thus, maintaining optimal oral health and hygiene and routine dental
care convey the greatest risk reduction. Further, controlled
studies indicating that endocarditis was prevented by
short-term antibiotic therapy are lacking; the risk of
antibiotic therapy outweighs potential benefit.8
The prevalence of patients with hypertension and
aortic stenosis is high. In a study35 of 1873 patients with
asymptomatic aortic stenosis, 50.9% had hypertension.
No clear management guidelines are available beyond
starting antihypertensive medications at low doses and
titrating up to the target doses used in randomized controlled trials, while monitoring blood pressure and signs
and symptoms of the stenosis.7,21 Hypertension in patients
with aortic stenosis contributes to the increased workload of the hypertrophied left ventricular during systole
by increasing left ventricular afterload.4 Treatment must
be expertly guided in patients sensitive to hemodynamic
changes, because inappropriately high doses of antihypertensive medication can result in hypotension and
exacerbation of heart failure.1,7
Vasodilators are the preferred therapy for treatment
of hypertension.1 Angiotensin-converting enzyme
inhibitors cause vasodilatation by inhibiting the formation of angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor, and are
well tolerated in patients with moderate aortic stenosis.7,19
In a recent
retrospec- Many patients do not recognize the
tive study,25 initial manifestations of aortic stenosis
patients typical initial descriptions
patients
include decreased exercise tolerance,
with mild,
dyspnea on exertion, exertional
moderate, dizziness, and lightheadedness.
and severe
aortic stenosis who received angiotensin-converting
enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers had
lower all-cause mortality and cardiovascular event rates
during a mean follow-up of 4.2 years than did patients
who did not receive these medications.25
-Blockers are not routinely used in patients with
aortic stenosis and have been considered unsafe because
they depress myocardial function and can induce left
ventricular failure.1,7 However, a retrospective study3 of
the use of -blockers in patients with asymptomatic
severe aortic stenosis who were nonsurgically managed
indicated that use of -blockers was an independent predictor of improved survival. The investigators3 suggested

CriticalCareNurse

Vol 33, No. 2, APRIL 2013

67

Table 5
Procedure

Surgical interventions for aortic stenosisa

Indication

Description

Aortic valve replacement

Symptomatic severe aortic stenosis

Severe aortic stenosis with ejection fraction <50%
Severe aortic stenosis and a need for any other
heart surgery

Aortic valve is removed and a new valve (mechanical or biological) is sewn to the annulus of the
native valve

Balloon aortic valvuloplasty

Bridge to aortic valve replacement in patients in

unstable condition
Palliative to reduce symptoms when surgery is
high risk

A balloon is placed across the stenotic valve and

inflated and deflated several times per second
to widen the valve annulus and reduce degree
of stenosis

Transcatheter aortic valve

implantation

Seriously ill patients who are not candidates for

conventional aortic valve replacement surgery

Replacement valve inside a stent that is deployed

over the diseased aortic valve annulus via a
transapical or transcatheter approach

a Based

on information from Mookadam et al.27

that -blockers may prevent or attenuate atrial fibrillation

and other poorly tolerated tachyarrhythmias. Patients
with aortic stenosis who are taking antihypertensive
medications may require periodic decreases in the
dosage to prevent hypotension as the aortic valve progressively narrows.8 Prognosis is good for patients with
moderate to severe aortic stenosis who remain asymptomatic, but once even mild signs and symptoms appear,
life expectancy is limited to 2 to 5 years.19

Medical Management
of Symptomatic Patients
Once severe aortic stenosis has been diagnosed, retrospective analyses24 reveal that the onset of signs and
symptoms can be anticipated within 5 to 10 years. After
onset, without surgical intervention, the mean life
expectancy is 2 to 3 years21 (Table 5). Surgical repair is
the only effective treatment for symptomatic aortic
stenosis;
For patients who do not have surgical
however,
repair, medical management of angina,
some
exertional syncope, and signs and
patients
symptoms of heart failure becomes
may not
necessary.
be considered surgical candidates or may require medical stabilization before surgery; other patients refuse surgical
options altogether.6,25 For patients who do not have surgical repair, medical management of angina, exertional
syncope, and signs and symptoms of heart failure
becomes necessary.
Treating angina in patients with severe aortic stenosis is a challenge. Among patients with aortic stenosis,
the 20% to 60% who experience angina also have coronary

68

CriticalCareNurse

Vol 33, No. 2, APRIL 2013

disease, making it difficult to determine the cause of the

angina.4,8 Although little information is available to guide
therapy, treatment strategies and goals for angina relief
in nonsurgical patients include bed rest, oxygen therapy,
use of -blockers to decrease oxygen consumption, and
treatment with nitrates to enhance oxygen delivery via
dilatation of the coronary arteries.21 -Blockers can help
restore balance to myocardial oxygen supply and demand
by blocking the cardiac 1 receptors responsible for
increasing heart rate and contractility.19 -Blockers and
nitrates must be used cautiously because of the risk of
decreasing preload and systemic blood pressure in
patients who are preload dependent.21 Low-dose intravenous nitroglycerine or low-dose sublingual nitroglycerine tablets (200 g) may be preferred over the more
commonly prescribed 400-g tablets.
Syncope usually occurs during exercise and is not
specifically treated after the event ends, except to encourage rest, unless the syncope is due to an arrhythmia.7 If
the syncope is associated with a tachyarrhythmic or
bradyarrhythmic event, antiarrhythmic medications or
implantation of a pacemaker and/or an internal cardiac
defibrillator may be indicated. New-onset symptomatic
atrial fibrillation is treated with prompt cardioversion.7,8
Pulmonary congestion caused by heart failure is treated
with digitalis, diuretics, and an angiotensin-converting
inhibitor or angiotensin-receptor blocker, with careful
avoidance of an excessive reduction in preload that
could precipitate hypotension and decreased cardiac
output.21 Diuretic therapy is used with the utmost of
care because it can precipitate life-threatening hemodynamic compromise in patients with aortic stenosis, who
are so dependent on preload.1 This is particularly true

www.ccnonline.org

Case Report, Update 1

en hours after admission to intensive care, Mr Ss blood pressure was 98/51 mm Hg; he was receiving
sodium nitroprusside 50 g/min. Cardiac output increased to 3.6 L/min and systemic vascular resistance
decreased to 1180 dynes sec cm-5. Urine output was 1500 mL, respirations were 16 breaths per

minute, and oxygen saturation was greater than 98%. A trial of continuous positive airway pressure was started.
Mr S tolerated the intervention with no increase in respirations and no decrease in oxygen saturation. Echocardiography revealed an ejection fraction of 15% (normal 55%-70%). The left ventricle appeared concentric, with
severely decreased left ventricular function. Mr S also had severe aortic stenosis, with a peak gradient of
80 mm Hg (mean gradient 48 mm Hg). The area of the aortic orifice was 0.6 cm2. On auscultation, a harsh systolic ejection murmur was heard at the second intercostal space at the right sternal border. Eleven hours after
admission to the cardiac unit, Mr S was extubated and started on 6 L of oxygen via nasal cannula. A multidisciplinary team that included the cardiologist, cardiothoracic surgeon, clinical nurse specialist, and bedside nurse met
with Mr S and his family to discuss management options. Mr S insisted that he still did not want surgery or any
other intervention and requested that a do-not-resuscitate order be placed in his record. Treatment was started
with oral amiodarone 400 mg 3 times per day and warfarin 5 mg daily for atrial fibrillation. Nitroglycerin and
sodium nitroprusside infusions were titrated off as oral medications (isosorbide dinitrate 10 mg 3 times per day
and captopril 25 mg 3 times per day) were started. Mr S continued taking medications that he had been taking at
home: digoxin 0.125 mg daily, furosemide 20 mg daily, and pravastatin 40 mg daily. The pulmonary artery
catheter was removed.

in elderly women, who tend to have an especially small,

hypertrophied ventricle.8
Decompensated heart failure caused by severe left
ventricular systolic dysfunction and concomitant hypertension can be treated with sodium nitroprusside, a
potent intravenous vasodilator, in an intensive care unit
with invasive hemodynamic monitoring (pulmonary
artery catheter) to guide treatment.21,36 Intra-aortic balloon pump therapy may enhance afterload reduction.
Such strategies to decrease resistance to left ventricular
emptying can improve cardiac output, optimize cardiac
function before aortic valve surgery, and provide a bridge
from intravenous vasodilators to oral vasodilators36 (see
Case Report, Update 1). Table 6 summarizes treatment
strategies and their hemodynamic effects in aortic stenosis.

Nursing Considerations
Caring for medically managed patients with aortic
stenosis requires knowledge and understanding of the
tenuous balance between the narrow range of preload
and afterload necessary to maintain forward blood flow
and adequate cardiac output. In the intensive care unit,
medication management is based on the desired hemodynamic parameters; a pulmonary artery catheter is
used to calculate adequate preload, afterload, and cardiac

www.ccnonline.org

output. Hemodynamic considerations must always be

weighed when nurses respond to signs and symptoms
associated with aortic stenosis, such as when providing
general nursing care and activities. Orthostatic hypotension may occur when a patient goes from a supine or
seated position to a standing position or after administration of vasodilators such as nitrates or diuretics.
Goals in patients daily plan of care include balancing rest and activity to maintain oxygen supply and
demand and maintaining heart rate, blood pressure,
temperature, and fluid volume status within reference
ranges. Nurses should monitor patients for potential
indications of hemodynamic decompensation associated
with activity, such as hypoxia, arrhythmias, changes in
blood pressure, shortness of breath, chest pain, and prolonged status of nothing by mouth. Medical tests or
procedures that require patients to receive nothing by
mouth beforehand should be scheduled early in the day
to reduce the possibility of volume depletion that may
lead to hemodynamic compromise.1 Key nursing goals
in acute care are resolution of acute signs and symptoms,
prevention of deterioration in clinical status, and prevention of new signs and symptoms.
Assessment strategies are tailored to patients with
aortic stenosis and include visualization for jugular vein

CriticalCareNurse

Vol 33, No. 2, APRIL 2013

69

Table 6

Treatment strategies and hemodynamic effectsa

Blood
Cardiac
Heart rate pressure Preload Afterload Contractility output

Treatment

Vasodilators (nitrates)

-Blockers

Angiotensin-converting
enzyme inhibitor

Positive inotrope (digoxin)

Intra-aortic balloon pump

Low-dose intravenous or
low-dose sublingual nitroglycerin; avoid hypotension

Diuretics

Initially Controversial in aortic

stenosis; decrease in
systolic contraction can
induce heart failure
Management of pulmonary
congestion; avoid
hypotension

Decrease afterload; avoid

hypotension

Nursing considerations

May precipitate ventricular

arrhythmias

Patient needs anticoagulation

therapy, frequent assessment of pulses/limb perfusion, supine positioning

Abbreviations: , decreased; , increased; blank cells, not applicable.

a Based on information from Turkoski et al37 and Aksoy et al.38

distension and auscultation of heart sounds such as S4

and S3. Inadequate response to therapy requires prompt
attention and collaboration with the medical team to
avoid deterioration in clinical status. For example, if
afterload reduction strategies (vasodilatation) do not
produce sufficient reduction in systemic vascular resistance or blood pressure, titration of vasodilator medications may be considered. Angina unrelieved with oxygen,
rest, and nitrate therapy or associated with hypotension
may prompt intra-aortic balloon pump therapy to augment
coronary perfusion and decrease myocardial workload.
Patients and their families should receive education
throughout the hospital stay, including information on

Case Report, Update 2

r S remained in stable condition with

strategies to comply with modifying risk factors for coronary artery disease, as described previously.8 Patients with
aortic stenosis must be educated to recognize worsening
of signs and symptoms and to promptly report the changes
to the appropriate health care provider. Symptomatic
patients should be evaluated for surgical replacement of
the aortic valve.8,21 For symptomatic patients who are nonsurgical candidates (or who refuse surgery), education
should include prevention of worsening symptoms or
onset of new symptoms through balanced activity and
rest and the impact of medication adherence on cardiac
function and pathological changes associated with aortic
stenosis. All nonsurgical patients should be assessed for
appropriate coping mechanisms and psychosocial support
systems and should be referred, as needed, for counseling
and discussion of resuscitation status (see Case Report,
Update 2).

oral medications and was transferred to

the cardiac step-down unit on day 3.

Education for him and his family was focused on

management of signs and symptoms, medications,
diet, activity, and coping strategies. On day 5, Mr S
was discharged home with follow-up instructions to
see his physician in 2 weeks and to immediately
report any worsening signs and symptoms.

70

CriticalCareNurse

Vol 33, No. 2, APRIL 2013

Conclusion
Medical management of patients with asymptomatic
aortic stenosis is challenging. Severe symptomatic aortic
stenosis cannot be corrected with medical therapy, but
some patients do not desire surgical intervention or
meet criteria for surgical repair or replacement of the
calcified aortic valve. Acute and critical care nursing
care is difficult because of patients tenuous hemody-

www.ccnonline.org

namic status. Understanding aortic stenosis, including

the pattern of progression, hemodynamic challenges,
and treatment modalities, will facilitate nurses recognition of the consequences of underaggressive or overaggressive treatment of the signs or symptoms of angina,
syncope, and heart failure that can result in hemodynamic collapse. CCN
Financial Disclosures
None reported.

Now that youve read the article, create or contribute to an online discussion
about this topic using eLetters. Just visit www.ccnonline.org and click Submit a
response in either the full-text or PDF view of the article.

To learn more about caring for patients with aortic stenosis, read
A New Option for the Treatment of Aortic Stenosis: Percutaneous
Aortic Valve Replacement by Lauck et al in Critical Care Nurse,
June 2008;28(3):40-51. Available at www.ccnonline.org.

References
1. Kurtz CE, Otto CM. Aortic stenosis: clinical aspects of diagnosis and
management, with 10 illustrative case reports from a 25-year experience.
Medicine. 2010;89(5):349-379.
2. Ozkan A, Kapadia S, Tuzcu M, Marwick TH. Assessment of left ventricular function in aortic stenosis. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2011;8(9):494-501.
3. Pai RG, Kapoor N, Bansal RC, Varadarajan P. Malignant natural history
of asymptomatic severe aortic stenosis: benefit of aortic valve replacement.
Ann Thorac Surg. 2006;82(6):2116-2122.
4. Grimard BH, Larson JM. Aortic stenosis: diagnosis and treatment. Am
Fam Physician. 2008;78(6):717-724.
5. Schueler R, Hammerstingl C, Sinning JM, Nickenig G, Omran H. Prognosis of octogenarians with severe aortic valve stenosis at high risk for
cardiovascular surgery. Heart. 2010;96(22):1831-1836.
6. Ben-Dor I, Pichard AD, Gonzalez MA, et al. Correlates and causes of
death in patients with severe asymptomatic aortic stenosis who are not
eligible to participate in a clinical trial of transcatheter aortic valve implantation. Circulation. 2010;122(11 suppl):S37-S42.
7. Carabello BA, Paulus WJ. Aortic stenosis. Lancet. 2009;373(9667):956-966.
8. Otto CM, Bonow RO. Valvular Heart Disease: A Companion to Braunwalds
Heart Disease. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2009.
9. Stewart BF, Siscovick D, Lind BK, et al. Clinical factors associated with
calcific aortic valve disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;29(3):630-634.
10. Ho SY. Structure and anatomy of the aortic root. Eur J Echocardiogr. 2009;
10(1):i3-i10.
11. Saremi F, Achenback S, Arbustini E, Narula J, eds. Revisiting Cardiac
Anatomy: A Computed-Tomography-Based Atlas and Reference. Hoboken, NJ:
Wiley-Blackwell; 2011.
12. Bloechlinger S, Grander W, Bryner J, Dnser MW. Left ventricular rotation:
a neglected aspect of the cardiac cycle. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37(1):156-163.
13. Rajamannan NM, Evans FJ, Aikawa E, et al. Calcific aortic valve disease:
not simply a degenerative process: a review and agenda for research
from the National Heart and Lung and Blood Institute Aortic Stenosis
Working Group. Executive summary: calcific aortic valve disease-2011
update. Circulation. 2011;124(16):1783-1791.
14. Hinton RB, Yutzey KE. Heart valve structure and function in development
and disease. Annu Rev Physiol. 2011;73:29-46.
15. Vahanian A, Otto CM. Risk stratification of patients with aortic stenosis.
Eur Heart J. 2010;31(4):416-423.
16. Akat K, Borggrefe M, Kaden JJ. Aortic valve calcification: basic science to
clinical practice. Heart. 2009;95(8):616-623.
17. Steiner I, Kasparov P, Kohout A, Dominik J. Bone formation in cardiac valves:
a histopathological study of 128 cases. Virchows Arch. 2007;450(6):653-657.
18. Mohler ER III, Gannon F, Reynolds C, Zimmerman R, Keane MG,
Kaplan FS. Bone formation and inflammation in cardiac valves. Circulation. 2001;103(11):1522-1528.

www.ccnonline.org

19. Bonow RO, Mann DL, Zipes DP, Libby P, eds. Braunwalds Heart Disease:
A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier
Saunders; 2012.
20. Mutlak D, Aronson D, Carasso S, Lessick J, Reisner SA, Agmon Y. Frequency, determinants and outcome of pulmonary hypertension in
patients with aortic valve stenosis. Am J Med Sci. 2011;343(5):397-401.
21. Bonow R, Carabello BA, Chaterjee K, et al; American College of Cardiology/
American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. 2008
focused update incorporated into the ACC/AHA 2006 guidelines for the
management of patients with valvular heart disease: a report of the
American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force
on practice guidelines. (Writing Committee to revise the 1998 guidelines
for the management of patients with valvular heart disease). Endorsed
by the Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, and Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Circulation. 2008;52(13):e2-e142.
22. Greve AM, Gerdts E, Boman K, et al. Prognostic importance of atrial
fibrillation in asymptomatic aortic stenosis: the Simvastatin and Ezetimibe in Aortic Stenosis study. Int J Cardiol. In press.
23. Baumgartner H, Hung J, Bermejo J, et al; American Society of Echocardiography; European Association of Echocardiography. Echocardiographic
assessment of valve stenosis: EAE/ASE recommendations for clinical
practice [published correction appears in J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2009;22(5):
442]. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2009;22(1):1-23.
24. Otto CM. Calcific aortic valve disease: new concepts. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2010;22(4):276-284.
25. Nadir MA, Wei L, Elder DHJ, et al. Impact of rennin-angiotensin system
blockade therapy on outcome in aortic stenosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;
58(6)570-576.
26. Aronow WS. Recognition and management of aortic stenosis in the elderly. Geriatrics. 2007;62(12):23-32.
27. Mookadam F, Moustafa SE, Khandheria B. Management of aortic valve
disease in the presence of left ventricular dysfunction. Expert Rev Cardiovasc
Ther. 2010;8(2):259-268.
28. Bergler-Klein J. Natriuretic peptides in the management of aortic stenosis.
Curr Cardiol Rep. 2009;11(2):85-93.
29. Shavelle DM, Takasu J, Budoff MJ, Mao S, Zhao XQ, OBrien KD. HMG
CoA reductase inhibitor (statin) and aortic valve calcium. Lancet. 2002;
359(9312):1125-1126.
30. Pohle K, Mffert R, Ropers D, et al. Progression of aortic valve calcification:
association with coronary atherosclerosis and cardiovascular risk factors.
Circulation. 2001;104(16):1927-1932.
31. Rosenhek R, Rader F, Loho N, et al. Statins but not angiotensin-converting
enzyme inhibitors delay progression of aortic stenosis. Circulation. 2004;
110(10):1291-1295.
32. Cowell SJ, Newby DE, Prescott RJ, et al; Scottish Aortic Stenosis and Lipid
Lowering Trial, Impact on Regression (SALTIRE) investigators. A randomized trial of intensive lipid-lowering therapy in calcific aortic stenosis.
N Engl J Med. 2005;352(23):2389-2397.
33. Rossebo AB, Pedersen TR, Boman K, et al. Intensive lipid lowering with
simvastatin and ezetimibe in aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(13):
1343-1356.
34. Chan KL, Teo K, Dumesnil JG, Ni A, Tam J, et al; ASTRONOMER Investigators. Effect of lipid lowering with rosuvastatin on progression of aortic
stenosis: results of the Aortic Stenosis Progression Observation: Measuring Effects of Rosuvastatin (ASTRONOMER) trial. Circulation. 2010;
121(2):306-314.
35. Rossebo AB, Pedersen TR, Allen C, et al. Design and baseline characteristics of the Simvastatin and Ezetimibe in Aortic Stenosis (SEAS) study.
Am J Cardiol. 2007;99(7):970-973.
36. Khot UN, Novaro GM, Popovic ZB, et al. Nitroprusside in critically ill
patients with left ventricular dysfunction and aortic stenosis. N Engl J
Med. 2003;348(18):1756-1763.
37. Turkoski BB, Lance BR, Tomsik EA. Drug Information Handbook for
Advanced Practice Nursing. 12th ed. Hudson, OH: Lexi-Comp Inc; 2011.
38. Aksoy O, Yousefzai R, Singh D, et al. Cardiogenic shock in the setting of
severe aortic stenosis: role of intra-aortic balloon pump support. Heart.
2011;97(10):838-843.

CriticalCareNurse

Vol 33, No. 2, APRIL 2013

71