A Reviewof Studies On Central Receiver Solar Thermal Power Plants
A Reviewof Studies On Central Receiver Solar Thermal Power Plants
A Reviewof Studies On Central Receiver Solar Thermal Power Plants
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 16 September 2012
Received in revised form
31 January 2013
Accepted 3 February 2013
Available online 19 March 2013
The use of central receiver system (CRS) for electricity production promises to be one of the most viable
options to replace fossil fuel power plants. Indeed, research and development activities on its basic
subsystems have been booming rapidly since 1980s. This paper reviews the most important studies on
the major components of central receiver solar thermal power plants including the heliostat eld, the
solar receiver and the power conversion system. After an overview of Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)
technology, current status and applications of the CRSs are highlighted. Next, a detailed literature
survey of existing design comprising optical, thermal and thermodynamic analysis, and techniques
used to assess components have been arranged. This is followed by experimental investigations in
which design concepts are established. The last section contains recent subsequent improvement of
such key components as heliostat, receiver and hybrid solar gas turbine that are boosting in many R&D
activities merging international collaboration during the past 30 years.
& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Central receiver system
Heliostat eld
Solar receivers
Power conversion system
Concentrating solar power
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
1364-0321/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.02.017
13
4.1.
Volumetric receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.1.
Basic concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.2.
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.3.
Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.4.
Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2.
Solar cavity receiver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2.1.
Basic concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2.2.
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2.3.
Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2.4.
Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3.
Solar particle receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3.1.
Basic concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3.2.
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3.3.
Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3.4.
Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5. Power conversion system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.1.
Solar central receiverBrayton cycle (SCR-BC) system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.1.1.
Basic concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.1.2.
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.1.3.
Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.1.4.
Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2.
Solar central receiverRankine cycle (SCR-RC) system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2.1.
Basic concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2.2.
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2.3.
Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2.4.
Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.3.
Solar central receiverCombined cycle (SCR-CC) system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3.1.
Basic concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3.2.
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3.3.
Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3.4.
Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6. Analysis and outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
14
2. Background
2.1. Concentrating solar power (CSP): Historic and current status
2.1.1. Historic
Concentrating solar power (CSP) is not an innovation of the
last few years. Records of its use date as far back as 212 BC when
Archimedes used mirrors for the rst time to concentrate the
Suns rays [35]. In the early seventeenth century, Salomon De
Caux developed in 1615 a small solar powered motor consisting
of glass lenses and an airtight metal vessel containing water and
air [35]. More than a century later, in 1774, Lavoisier and Joseph
Priestley developed the theory of combustion by concentrating
solar radiation on a test tube for gas collection [36]. Next,
Augustin Mouchot has devised a solar steam machine to run a
printing press [37]. After that, in 1878, a small solar power plant
made up of a parabolic dish concentrator connected to an engine
was exhibited at the Worlds Fair in Paris [38]. In the early 1900s,
Fig. 1. CSP offers an integrated solution to global problems of the coming decades.
Fig. 3. installed solar thermal power plants since the 1980s [32].
Receiver
Receiver
Heliostat
Concentrator
Secondary
Concentrator
Receiver
Receiver
Dish
Reflector
Fig. 2. Basic concept of the four CSP families: (A) central receiver, (B) parabolic trough, (C) linear Fresnel, (D) dish.
15
overall efciency of the whole system varies with the location, the
time of day and the day of the year [4345].
In each CSP family, a variety of options is possible for solar
eld layout, tracking system, receiver type, heat transfer uid
(HTF), storage technology and power conversion system. North
South and EastWest orientations equipped with single tracking
mechanism are usually applied in trough solar eld [29]. For
central receiver, surrounded and North eld congurations are
the most proven technologies, while MTC (Micro Tower Conguration) is now under development [4650]. Whereas linear
receivers are used for parabolic trough and Fresnel technologies,
various congurations exist for power tower concept. These
congurations, for some of them under design, test or improvement, include the volumetric receiver, the particle receiver and
the cavity receiver [5154]. Concerning heat transfer uids (HTF),
molten salt is widely used as HTF in commercial plants. Synthetic
oil and saturated steam are also currently used as HTFs in
commercial plants. Superheated steam has been recently introduced as HTF [5559]. Pressurized air and other gases, in
particular CO2 and N2, nano-uids, concrete and circulating
particles are under development for both trough and tower, while
helium or hydrogen is used in dish Sterling [6062].
Concerning storage, liquid molten salt is already proven
storage medium for long time whereas steam is typically reserved
for short time storage [63,64]. Phase change materials and
compact heat storage (chemical reactions) are under development [6365]. Power conversion systems (thermodynamic cycles)
Storage
System
Solar
CollectorField
Radiation
transfer
SolarReceiver
Power
Conversion
System
Fluid
transfer
Back-up
system
Fig. 4. Flow diagram for a typical CSP-plant.
Table 1
Comparison of the four CSP families.
CSP technology
Parabolic trough
Central receiver
Linear Fresnel
Dish
Line focus
Mobile
RC, CC
7080
o 12
Medium
1516
1420
10300
2528 ( without storage) 2943 ( with 7 h storage)
Point focus
Fixed
RC, BC, CC
41 000
o24
Higher
1617
2335
10200
55 (with 10 h storage)
Line focus
Fixed
RC
460
o4
Relatively lower
0810
18
10200
2224 (without storage)
Point focus
Mobile
RC, SC
4 1 300
10 or more
Highest
2025
30
0.010.025
2528 (without storage)
Commercial proven
Low
Limited
18
Commercial
Medium
Very signicant
2528
Pilot project
Medium
Signicant
12
Demonstration stage
Medium
Via mass production
30
20
4065
25
25
16
Turbine
HRSG
Condenser
Solar Receiver
Heliostat Field
Fig. 5. The three main subsystems of central receiver solar thermal power plant.
17
Fig. 6. Examples of CRS power plants in operation, underway or in the planning; from Left to right. (A) PS10 PS20 (front) in operation nearby Seville, Spain [79]. (B) Ivanph
plant under construction, 75% completion, CA, USA [32]. (C) Artists design of Rio Mesa solar project (planned) [84].
Fig. 7. Advanced research projects; from left to right. (A) SOLUGAS project at the Solucar Platform in Seville, Spain [32]. (B) Variable Geometry Central Receiver Solar Test
Facility at CTAER [32].
Table 2
Central receiver solar thermal pilot plants in the 20th century [29,32,7880].
Project acronym
Capacity MW
Country
Starting year
SSPS
TSA
CESA-1
Solar one
MSEE/Cat B
Solar Two
THEMIS
EURELIOS
SUNSHINE
SPP-5
0.5
1
1
10
1
10
2.5
1
1
5
Spain
Spain
Spain
USA
USA
USA
France
Italy
Japan
Russia
1981
1993
1983
1982
1984
1996
1984
1981
1981
1986
Julich
Germany in 2009. Since 2011, the Gemasolar power plant,
built in Spain as large as the PS 20 power plant, but with
surrounded heliostat eld and15 h storage, has been operating
and delivering power around the clock [77]. After the three
pioneer CSP countries, i.e., the USA, Germany and Spain, China
have entered the CSP market by implementing, in 2010, the
Beijing Yanqing solar power plant. It has been then followed by
Beijing Badaling Solar Tower in 2012.The most important central
receiver power plants in operation throughout the world are
reported in Table 3.
18
Table 3
Central receiver solar thermal power plants in operation [32,7883].
Name
Country, location
Beijing
China Beijing
Badaling
Gemasolar Spain, Andaluca
(Sevilla)
Julich
Germany, Julich
Planta
solar 10
Planta
solar 20
Sierra
Yanqing
Spain, Sanlucar la
mayor (Sevilla)
Spain, sanlucar la mayor
(Sevilla)
United States lancaster
California
China, yanqing county
Owners
Capacity
(MW)
1.5
Break
ground date
Starting
year
July 2009
August
2012
April 2011
Academy of
sciences
Torresol
energy
DLR
19.9
Abengoa solar
11.0
2005
Abengoa solar
20.0
2006
1.5
February
2009
July 31, 2007
eSolar
5.0
July 2008
December
2008
June 25,
2007
April 22,
2009
July 2009
Academy of
sciences
2006
July 2011
Heliostat eld
area (m2)
Receiver
type
Power
cycle
Storage
Type
10,000
Cavity
Rankine
1h
304,750
Cavity
Rankine
15 h
17,650
Volumetric Rankine
1.5 h
75,000
Cavity
Rankine
1h
150,000
Cavity
Rankine
1h
27,670
Cavity
Rankine
10,000
Cavity
Rankine
Two-stage heat
storage
Fossil
solar
Fossil
solar
Fossil
solar
Fossil
solar
Fossil
solar
Solar
only
() not available.
Table 4
Central receiver solar thermal power plants underway [32,7880].
Name
Capacity (MW)
Country location
Expected
completion
Ivanpah
facility
(3 units)
Crescent
dunes
Khi solar
one
Delingha
e-Cube 1
THEMIS
377
2013
110
2013/14
100
2014
China, Delingha
China, Hainan
France, PyreneesOrientales
2013
2013
50
1
1.4
() not available.
same technology that has been adopted for the Crescent Dunes
which is underway by the same company in Tonopah, Nevada.
Intended to be operational two years after breaking ground, the
power facilities are expected to supply more than 500 GW h per
year of green electricity to Arizona or California.
2.3. Recent R&D activities in central receiver technology
Recent R&D activities in particular, ECOSTAR, have focused on
the most important factors and actions that contribute signicantly to achieve a cost reduction in tower concept. Scaling up
and mass production can contribute to about 50% in LEC reduction, while the other half in LEC reduction is the result of R&D
efforts, according to these studies [11,29,71].
The ECOSTAR study pointed out that the lowest LEC for large
scale CSP-plants would be for solar tower concept with pressurized air and molten salt technology [71]. These results are
conrmed by latest studies [40].
Over the last decade, R&D efforts have been growing sharply in
the USA (SNL, NREL) and the Europe (DLR and CIEMAT); China,
India and Australia are starting momentous R&D activities, while
other developing countries have expressed interest, in particular
Algeria, Morocco and UEA [1028,32,80,85]. Progress in R&D, and
so, performance improvements of the three major components
can achieve very signicant costs reduction [3,7,8,11,71].
After a stagnation period that extended from 1996 to 2000, several
R&D projects have been launched mainly in Europe and the USA to
investigate the solar tower technology under real solar conditions. As
a result, many pilot plants have been erected and their O&M methods
19
Table 5
Planned Central receiver solar thermal power plants [32,7880].
Name
Country
Capacity (MW)
Location
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
Spain
Spain
Spain
China
500
200
200
200
150
150
92
84
66
50
50
20
2000
Table 6
Recent and announced R&D projects of CRS.
Research project
Country Location
Main Developer
HTF
Budget
ConSolar [29,86,70]
Israel
Israel
WIS
Pressurized air
SOLAIR [70]
Spain
Almeria
DLR, SIEMAT
Air
SOLHYCO [70]
Spain
DLR
Pressurized air
SOLASYS [70]
EU
Algeria
EU
Israel
DLR
Pressurized air
SOLGATE [29,70,87]
EU
Spain
ORMAT
Pressurized air
SOLUGAS [29,32]
EU-SOLARIS [32]
Spain
EU
Seville
EU
Abengoa
CTAER
Pressurized air
Various
Spain
CTAER
Various
USA
Tabernas,
Almeria
USA
h3.3
million
h3,088,218 Hybrid Brayton cycle
cogeneration
h2,536,077 Syngas hybrid Brayton
cycle
h3.2
Volumetric receiver hybrid
million
Brayton cycle
h6 million Receiver Heliostat eld
h4,45 M
The three main
subsystems
h5 million Advanced concepts
NREL
USA
USA
USA
Gas/solid, twophase ow
Recirculation
Particles
Air a and carbon
particles
CO2
CO2
CO2
$3.8
million
$4.4
Million
$3.8
millions
$8 million
$6.8
million
SNL
Molten salt
USA
USA
USA
Albuquerque,
New Mexico
Particle receiver
Particle receiver
Particle receiver Brayton
cycle
Brayton cycle
Power conversion cycle
Particle receiver Brayton
cycle
HTF
() not available.
and components optimized. With special focus on the hybrid congurations and with the aim of developing the three main subsystems
of the central receiver concept, ConSolar, Solair and Solgate have
conrmed the viability of the full-scale application of central receiver
technology [70].
More recently, the US department of Energy has announced
the SunShot program. In order to achieve signicant costs reduction and to develop some innovative concepts such as the use of
supercritical CO2 as heat transfer uid for Brayton cycle plants or
falling particle receiver [32]. More than 21 R&D projects (totaling
$56 million over three years) have been launched. In order to
enhance the falling particle receiver technology performance and
reduce costs, four important R&D projects in the eld have been
awarded to NREL, SNL, Brayton Energy LLC and the University of
Colorado. These R&D projects are outlined in Tables 610.
Likewise, Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) has announced
the commissioning of its Molten Salt Test Loop (MSTL) at National
20
Table 7
Expected improvements for the three main subsystems of CRS [33,71,93].
Heliostats eld
Solar receiver
Enhancements
Benets (%)
Enhancements
Heliostat and layout Efciency: 3 [93]
Multi-tower conguration
Cost reduction: 1726 [93]
LEC reduction: 917 [71]
Tracking system
Benets (%)
Efciency: 5 [93]
Cost reduction: 25 [93]
LEC reduction: 17 [71]
Enhancements
Central receiver- Brayton cycle
system (up to 50 MW)
Central receiver-rankine cycle
system (current Efciency)
Efciency: 4060 [93] Central receiver -combined
LEC reduction: 17 [71] cycle system
Higher operating
temperature
Benets (%)
LEC reduction: 39 [71]
Cost reduction: 1729 [33]
Supercritical: 2226 [33]
Superheated: 1617 [33]
Cost reduction: 1728 [71]
LEC reduction: 314 [71]
Table 8
Heliostat eld design data of operational solar power towers [32,7886].
Name/Type
Julich
solar tower/
demonstration
Planta solar 10/commercial
Planta solar 20/ commercial
Sierra suntower/
demonstration
Yanqing solar power/
demonstration
Latitude,
longitude
Solar radiation
(kW h/m2/yr)
Land
area
Field area
(m2)/ Type
Area-N of
Helios
Heliostat
manufacturer
Heliostat Design
401400 North,
1151900 East
371330 North,
51190 West
Rhineland
1290
Sener
17 ha
2012
55 ha
Abengoa
2012
80 ha
Abengoa
2629
eSolar
208
acres
100 m2
N 100
120.0 m2
N 2,650
8.2 m2
N 2,153
120.0 m2
N 624
120.0 m2
N 1,255
1.136 m2
N 24,360
100 m2
N 100
902
100,000 North
eld
304,750
surrounded
17,650 North
eld
75,000 North
eld
150,000 North
eld
27,670
Himin solar
2172
13
acres
195 ha
Himin solar
371260 North,
61140 West
371260 North,
61140 West
341460 North,
118180 West
401400 North
1151400 West
10,000
() not available.
Table 9
Solar receiver data of operational solar power towers [32,7886].
Name
Tower height
Receiver manufacturer
Receiver type
HTF
Beijing Badaling
Gemasolar
Julich
Planta solar 10
Planta solar 20
Sierra
118 m
140 m
60 m
115 m
165 m
55 m
Kraftanlagen Munchen
Tecnicas reunidas
Tecnicas reunidas
Babcock & Wilcox victory energy
Water/Steam
Molten salts
Air
Water/ steam
Water/ steam
Water
104
290
80100
218
400
565
680
250300
250300
440
Yanqing
100 m
Cavity
Cavity
Volumetric
Cavity
Cavity
Dual-cavity receiver &
tubular external
Cavity
Superheating steam
390
Table 10
Power conversion cycle design of operational solar power towers [32,7886].
Name
Turbine capacity
gross/net
Turbine
manufacturer
Power cycle
Cooling system
Fossil
back-up
Beijing Badaling
1.5 MW/1.5 MW
Wet cooling
Gemasolar
19.9 MW/19.9 MW
Hangzhou steam
turbine
Siemens
Wet cooling
Julich
Planta solar 10
1.5 MW/1.5 MW
11.02 MW/11.0 MW
Siemens
GE
Planta solar 20
20.0 MW/20.0 MW
GE
Oil-red
Two stages; saturated
boiler
steam/oil
Natural gas Tow tank; Molten salt
Sierra
5.0 MW/5.0 MW
Steam Rankine
Yanqing
1 MW/1 MW
() not available.
() not available.
Dry cooling
Wet cooling, refrigeration
towers
Wet cooling, Refrigeration
towers
Wet cooling, Cooling
towers
Thermal storage
None
21
3.1.2. Design
Siala and Elayeb [94] have presented the mathematical modeling of a graphical method for no-blocking radial stagger heliostats layout. In the proposed method, the eld is divided into
certain groups of heliostats to increase its density and the Authors
reported that the method is simple compared to cell-wise
procedure.
For positioning the heliostats, Sanchez and Romero [95] have
proposed a new procedure, named Yearly Normalized Energy
Surface (YNES). In this method, the heliostats positioning is
determined using the yearly direct solar radiation available at
any location. The inferred results agree closely with that that of
WinDelsol and SOLVER codes; nevertheless, the annual optical
efciency needs to be calculated by ray tracing method, and thus,
the procedure is time consuming.
Wei et al. [96] have coupled the ray tracing technique with the
parametric search algorithm to estimate the optical efciency and
to optimise the heliostat eld layout. Using this method they have
investigated four different layout types, i.e., NorthSouth corneld, NorthSouth stagger, Radial corneld and Radial staggered,
and found that NorthSouth corneld layout is the most suitable
for 1 MWe solar tower power plant in China.
Mirrors
Frame
Tracking
Control
Foundation
Fig. 8. Basic concept of heliostat (left); radial staggered layout for positioning heliostats (right).
Fig. 9. Field density and optical efciency of radially staggered layout (left) and phyllotaxis spiral layout (right). Spiral layout respectively enhances optical efciency and
reduces land area by 0.36% and 15.8%, compared with radial layout [112].
22
Azimuth Axis
Azimuth Axis
Target
Target
Spinning
Axis
Elevation Axis
Temperature
Porous Structure
Structure
Hot Air
Air
Concentrated
Direct
Radiation
Absorber
thickness
e
Inlet
Outlet
Fig. 12. Volumetric receiver used in HiTRec and Solair projects (left), solar receiver at PSA (right) [53] (experiments).
Wei et al. [97] have developed a new method and a faster code
called HFLD (Heliostat Field Layout Design) for heliostats layout.
In this method the heliostat eld optimization is based on the
receiver geometrical aperture and an efciency factor. Applying
their technique to the PS10 power plant, they proposed a new
layout for PS10 eld as good as that is already implanted.
Furthermore; the Authors introduced a new methodology based
on sunshine duration to investigate the possibility of framing
under heliostats.
Wei et al. [98] have detailed the mathematical formulations of
tracking and ray tracing techniques for the target-aligned heliostat. To this end they have created and incorporated in the HFLD
Cold Air
Volumetric
Receiver
Concentrated
Direct
Radiation
Hot
Air
Porous
Material
Tubular
Receiver
Water/
Steam
Air jet
Panel
Aperture
Heliostat Field
Fig. 14. Basic design of a cavity receiver made of ve panels, an aperture and an
aerowindow for the protection.
23
on the ray tracing method. The selected power plant for the study
has consisted of 3 heliostats and a hyperboloid reector. They
have found good agreement between their results and that
obtained by the well-known software Zemax. [100]
Zhang et al. [101] have dened a new factor named available
land efciency. This factor is function of the cosine effect, atmospheric attenuation and the intercept efciency. It has been used
to position in an optimum way the heliostats of 1 MW solar tower
power plant and found that their technique grants an annual
efciency of 71.36% when incorporated in the HFLD code.
Augsburger and Favrat [102] have studied the thermoeconomic of heliostat eld to nd design parameters of solar tower
power plant that offers better performance, in particular, efciency, investment costs and environmental benets.
Collado [103] has developed a simplied model to be used for
preliminary studies of surrounding heliostat eld and successfully
compared its performance to Solar Tres demonstration plant data.
Utamura et al. [104] have proposed a methodology to get an
optimal layout of group of heliostats in beam-down central
receiver. They found that, due to spillage effect, the optical losses
become signicant at heliostats located at a distance from the
tower farther than four times the tower height.
Wang and Wei have proposed a layout of 100 heliostats for
1 MW solar tower power plant in China. [105]
Lopez-Martinez et al. [106] have predicted the cloud passage
by computing heliostat eld cover factor. They have suggested
turning off some heliostats to bring down the receiver temperature before the cloud covers, and therefore, prevent the receiver
from thermal stress.
3.1.3. Experiment
Wang et al. [107] have experimentally measured the effects of
wind on a 100 m2 area Dahan heliostat under various operating
conditions of vertical and horizontal wind direction. They have
found that the maximum wind pressure at each test point and
blockage is obtained in the wind speed of 14 m/s. This latter have
been used to estimate the maximum displacement and strain of
the heliostat structure.
Chen et al. [108] have designed, constructed and tested the
rst prototype of a 4 m2 non-imaging focusing heliostat. They
have reported that a solar furnace system using this prototype has
successfully reached in access of 3400 1C.
Schell [109] has reported the design, the realisation, the
testing-calibration, and performances measurement of esolar
heliostat elds which focuses on low-cost design, high-volume
manufacturing and ease of installation.
Fernandez-Reche [110] has carried out a statistical analysis of
the reectance in the heliostat eld at the Plataforma Solar de
24
Combustor
Pressurized Receiver
Heliostat Field
Turbine
Compressor
Air Intake
To stack
SteamTurbine
Steam Drum
Storage System
Wet Cooling
Tower-Receiver
Heliostat Field
Fig. 17. Solar power tower with saturated steam cavity receiver and storage system (PS 10-like plant).
3.1.4. Enhancement
Noone et al. [112] have proposed a new pollytaxis spiral eld
layout based on heliostats discretization approach. They have
compared the results of the proposed layout approach with
current PS10 eld arranged in a radially staggered conguration,
as well as, with the simulated results of Wei et al. [97]. They
concluded that the spiral layout allow placing heliostats in high
efciency eld positions, and thus, offers higher optical efciency
and signicantly reduce land area and Levelized Energy Cost LEC.
Leonardi and Aguanno [113] have developed a code named
CRS4-2 to evaluate the optical performance of solar eld made up
of both square and circular heliostats of diverse geometrical
parameters. They have then introduced a new factor called the
characteristic function that depends on the zenith and the
azimuth angles. This factor has been applied to estimate the total
energy collected by the eld; while the shading-blocking effects
have been determined by a tessellation of the heliostats.
In addition to the comparisons of concentrating solar thermal
systems, the code going to be extended to the analysis of MultiTower conguration, Beam-Down and Multi-Apertures concepts.
Danielli et al. [114] have introduced a new concept named
Concatenated Micro-Tower CMT. They have compared its performance with that of larger conguration and have revealed that
CMT with a dynamic receiver allocation can improve the annual
optical efciency by 1219%.
Pitz-Paal et al. [115] have coupled genetic algorithm with
NelderMead algorithm to design heliostat eld for high temperature thermo-chemical processes for fuels production. They
have found that the selected chemical process has a strong impact
on the eld design and performance.
Collado [116] has developed a simplied radial staggered
method for surrounded heliostat eld that uses only two parameters for the optimisation, i.e., a blocking factor and an additional
security distance, required for installation and maintenance. He
has conrmed that the Houston cell-wise method (UHC-RCELL)
needs some improvements to nd optimum mean radial and
azimuth spacing of the heliostat eld.
Collado and Guallar have partially described a new code, called
campo. This code is meant to be used to solve the complex
problem of the optimized design of heliostat eld layouts, by
performing accurate evaluation of the shadowing and blocking
factor for heliostats placed in radial staggered conguration. They
have compared the resulting optimized layout to that of the
Gemasolar plant with good agreement. [117]
Chen et al. [118] have developed and constructed a second
generation of non-imaging heliostat, which is three times larger
than the rst generation. They have then applied the new
heliostat prototype for potato peeling and results have been very
promising.
25
the solar zenith and azimuth angles with a 0.052 mrad precision,
taking into consideration the errors occurring during the heliostats installation.
Badescu [127] has investigated the heliostat tracking error
distribution of concentrated solar radiation on the receiver. He
has compared the obtained results with the measurements data
of Kosuke Aiuchi et al. [131]. He has deduced that some empirical
probability distributions models such as Gaussian and the Uniform Distribution Approaches have many advantages in practice.
Jones et al. [128] have developed the so-called V-shot measurement system for measuring the local slopes of a heliostat
mirror by scanning it with a laser beam, detecting the point of
incidence of the reected beam and calculating the resulting
surface normal.
Chen et al. [129] have reported the algorithm and the methodology of residual aberration analysis of non-imaging focusing
heliostat.
Moeller et al. have presented a control strategy for the
detection of cloud passage. The control system turns the heliostats to standby position, and then returns them automatically to
their original orientation after could passage [130].
3.2.3. Experiment
Aiuchi et al. [131] have designed, constructed and tested the
accuracy of a photo-sensor sun tracking system for controlling
heliostat using an equatorial mount in addition to two Aidedsensors to maintain stable tracking in a cloudy sky. They have
achieved sun-tracking with an error of 0.6 mrad in clear weather.
Nevertheless, the error is larger during cloudy periods and hence
the larger are the energy losses.
Kribus et al. [132] have tested, at the Weizmann Institute
heliostat eld, a closed loop control system. This control system
automatically corrects the tracking error though a dynamic
measurement of spillage, detection of aiming errors, and feedback
of a correction signal to the tracking algorithm that can reach the
precision of 0.1 mrad.
Ulmer et al. [133] have designed, implemented and tested, at
CESA-1 heliostat eld, an automatic measurements system of
heliostat slope deviation which based on the reection of regular
patterns in the mirror surface and their distortions due to mirror
surface errors. The method offers signicant gain in speed and
handling and provides better predictions of the heliostat eld
performance with high resolution of about 1 million points per
heliostat and measurement time of 1 min/heliostat. Furthermore,
it can be used to measure other solar concentrators such as dish
and parabolic trough.
3.2.4. Enhancement
Arqueros et al. [134] have suggested the use of star reection
on the mirror at night to move the heliostat in order to get
enough information for determining the local surface normal at
various points on the reector.
Berenguel et al. [135] have used articial vision technique and
a B/W CCD camera to correct and control heliostat positioning
offset in an automatic way. The proposed control system allows
the elimination of the manual regulation.
Mehrabian and Aseman [136] have developed a computer
programming algorithm for evaluating the typical angles of
individual heliostats. The algorithm can be used for open loop
control and to predict blocking and shading effect of the
heliostat eld.
Bonilla et al. [137] have coupled the hybrid heliostat eld
model and a wrapped model to handles the real-time simulation
and communication between the heliostat eld simulator and
26
4. Solar receiver
In a CRS, the solar receiver is the heat exchanger where the
solar radiation is absorbed and transformed into thermal energy
useful in power conversion systems. There are different classication criteria for solar receivers, depending on the geometrical
conguration and the absorber materials used to transfer the
energy to the working uid. In this survey, receivers are classied
into three groups widely employed in central receiver system, i.e.,
volumetric receivers, cavity receivers and particle receivers. The
results of numerous articles concerned with receivers design,
experiments and improvements are presented in this part.
4.1. Volumetric receiver
4.1.1. Basic concept
Volumetric receivers consist of porous wires or either metal or
ceramic. A good volumetric receiver produces the so-called
volumetric effect, which means that the irradiated side of the
absorber is at a lower temperature than the medium leaving the
absorber [29]. The porous structure acts as convective heat
exchanger where the HTF (in particular air) is forced to absorb
the direct solar irradiation by convection heat transfer mode [29].
4.1.2. Design
Avila-Marn [53] has presented a detailed review of more than
twenty volumetric receivers including their design, material and
performance and then classied them into four groups based on
air pressure and type of material: two open-loop receiver groups
(Phoebus-TSA and SOLAIR), and two closed-loop receiver groups
(DIAPR and REFOS).
Sani et al. [139] have investigated the use of ceramic zirconium carbide samples as absorbers in solar power plants. They
have concluded that ZrC-based ultrahigh temperature ceramics
has lower emissivity than SiC already used in volumetric solar
receiver.
Kribus et al. [140] have dealt with unstable gas ow in
volumetric receiver to nd out overheating regions that cause
local failures such as melting or cracking.
Becker et al. [141] have studied theoretically and numerically
the ow behaviour in porous material and indicated that volumetric receivers with a high heat conductivity, a quadratic
pressure drop and high ratio of viscous permeability coefcient
to inertial permeability coefcient lead to stable ow.
Marcos et al. [142] have studied the effect of geometrical
parameters on the Air Return Ratio ARR in volumetric receiver
and obtained a higher average value of 70%. They have concluded
that further improvements in design should take into account
receiver edge, lateral wind and air injection angle.
Villafan-Vidales [143] has numerically analysed the heat
transfer into volumetric receiver made of porous ceramic foam
and applied in a thermo-chemical solar reactor for hydrogen
production. He has validated the simulated results with experimental data of a reactor tested at a solar furnace. The Author has
also reported that the receiver length has a weak inuence on the
4.1.3. Experiment
Sciti et al. [152] have conducted experiments to examine the
potential of Ceramics, hafnium and zirconium diborides when
used in high-temperature solar receivers. They have measured the
room-temperature hemi- spherical reectance spectra from the
ultraviolet (UV) to the mid- infrared (MIR) wavelength regions.
They have concluded that diboride family has a very high solar
absorber performance because of higher absorbance over emittance ratio compared with SiC.
Fend et al. [144] have made comparative studies between the
thermo-physical and heat transfer properties of six porous materials used in volumetric solar receivers. They have concluded that
combining materials of high specic surface and porosity with
good thermal conductivity (eg. SiC catalyst carrier) improves
receiver performance although ceramic-based materials are are
still offers better solution.
Fend et al. [153] have analyzed two high porosity materials
that are suitable for volumetric receivers. The metal foam of
different cell density has been investigated. The obtained results
have shown that double layer silicon carbide metal foam has
better performance than single layer.
Albanakis et al. [154] have experimentally compared the heat
transfer and pressure drop of nickel and inconel metal foams
when used as volumetric solar receiver and revealed that the
pressure drop and the heat transfer of nickel foam are higher than
those of inconel metal.
Wu et al. [155] have experimentally and numerically investigated the pressure drop in ceramic foam employed in volumetric
receiver considering ten sorts of ceramic foam structures. They
have derived a new pressure drop correlation that is more
accurate than the existing ones.
Garcia-Martin et al. [156] have developed and implanted, at
the Plataforma Solar de Almeria (PSA), an automatic control
system that allows appropriate distribution of temperature in a
volumetric receiver, based on a heuristic knowledge-based heliostat control strategy. They have also reported the tests details and
the results.
4.1.4. Enhancement
Lenert and Wang [157] have presented a combined modeling
and experimental study to optimize the performance of a cylindrical nano-uid volumetric receiver. Their results suggest that
optimized nano-uids have signicant potential as receivers for
CSP systems because their efciencies are expected to exceed 35%
when coupled to a power conversion cycle.
Cheng et al. [158] have developed a general numerical modelling method and homemade unied code with the MCRT to
simulate the thermal conversion process of REFOS-SOLGATE
pressurized volumetric receiver. They have pointed out to the
fact that the non-uniformity of the radiation ux density distribution is very signicant; it could reach the maximum at the
center-left area near the symmetry axis, and the minimum near
the pressure vessel wall, with the order of magnitude of 8 and 3,
respectively. The proposed design-simulation tool is very powerful for simulating other CSP systems and it is capable of providing
behaviour information on many parameters and phenomena
difcult to study experimentally.
Cheng et al. [159] have combined the Finite Volume Method
(FVM) and the Monte Carlo Ray Tracing (MCRT) method to
examine the effects of geometric parameters of the compound
parabolic concentrator (CPC) and the properties of the porous
absorber on the performance of solar conversion process in
pressurized volumetric receiver (PVR). He has concluded that
CPC exit aperture has much larger effects on the characteristics
and the performance of the PVR than that of the CPC entry
aperture with a constant acceptance angle.
Veeraragavan [160] has developed an analytic model through the
combination of radiative and convective losses coefcients to evaluate the effect of design features and solar radiation on the performance of volumetric receiver with nano-particle-HTF. He has selected
the heat transfer uid VP-1 suspended graphite nano-particle as a
case study. The obtained results have been very interested. He has
then pointed out that the proposed model is a good tool to optimise
the efciency of various receiver congurations.
Arai et al. [161] have considered transient radiative heating of
a semi-transparent liquid suspension in taller solar receivers.
They have found that volumetric receiver with such uid media
would have higher performance.
Buck et al. [162] have developed a hybrid receiver made up of a
tube absorber and an open volumetric receiver. They have compared
its performance with that of PS10 saturated steam receiver. The
Authors have indicated that the new concept offers many advantages;
in particular, the reduction of thermo-mechanical stress induced by
variations in the extent of the evaporation section during transients
as occurred it has occurred in Solar One plant. They have indicated
that the proposed receiver could improve the net annual energy by
27% compared with the solar air heating system.
Garcia-Casals et al. [164] have studied the possibility of
enhancing duct volumetric receiver performance by analyzing
the effect of numerous design parameters, in particular selectivity
mechanisms. Unlike A. Kribus et al. [140] and Pitz-Paal et al.
[163], they have shown that modular absorber design with small
sizes is not necessary because the duct receiver appears to be
inherently stable.
Pritzkow [165] has simulated the dynamic behavior of volumetric receiver during cloudy periods. He has then proposed an
attenuator to protect the receiver from transient conditions and
clouds.
27
4.2.2. Design
James and Terry [166] have investigated the thermal performance of ve cavity receivers of different geometries comprising
spherical, hetero-conical, conical, cylindrical and elliptical. They
have found that the rim angle and cavity geometry have a strong
effects on the energy absorption efciency.
Zhilin et al. [167] have provided a quick overview of the basic
design of cavity air receiver. They have also reported the design
data of the rst demonstrative hybrid solar gas turbine of 70 kW
in Nanjing, China.
Yu et al. [168] have evaluated and simulated the dynamics
performance of solar cavity receiver for full range operation
conditions using combined model which mainly couples the
radiationheat conversion process and three heat transfer parameters. They have also tested the effect of wind and DNI on the
performance of DAHAN receiver. Their results show that wind
angle or velocity can obviously inuence the thermal losses.
Fang et al. [169] have described a methodology for evaluating
thermal performance of saturated steam solar cavity receiver
under windy environment. To this end, the MonteCarlo method,
the correlations of the ow boiling heat transfer and the calculation of air ow eld were coupled to assess absorbed solar energy.
They have concluded that the air velocity attained the maximum
value when the wind came from the side of the receiver and the
thermal loss of receiver also reached the highest value due to the
side-on wind.
Yang et al. [170] have used Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) to look into the distributions of temperature, heat ux and
the heat transfer characteristics of a molten salt tube receiver of a
central receiver system. They have concluded that temperature
distribution of the tube wall and HTF is irregular and the heat ux
of the exposed surface rise with the rise of molten salt velocity.
Sobin et al. [171] have considered the design of the receiver
thermal cyclic life. They have found that asymmetrical shapes of
the receiver caused by expected ux by suitable sensing and
controlling the energy intensity.
Li et al. [172] have performed a steady-state thermal model for
100 kW t molten salt cavity receiver. They have analyzed the
effect of optical parameters on the design of such a receiver.
Hinojosa et al. [173] have presented the numerical results of
natural convection and surface thermal radiation for open cavity
based on Boussinesq approximation.
Gonzalez et al. [175] have numerically analyzed the heat
transfer by natural convection and surface thermal radiation in
a two-dimensional square cavity receiver with large temperature
gradients. Comparing their results to those of Hinojosa et al. [173]
and Chakroun et al. [174], they have concluded for larger
Temperature gradients, i.e., between 200 K and 400 K, the radiative heat transfer is more important that convective heat transfer.
Yang and Yang [176] have considered the relation between the
heat transfer performance and the efciency of a molten salt tube
receiver. They have found that the Nusselt number of the spiral
tube is on average about three times larger than that of the
smooth tube.
Paitoonsurikarn and Lovegrove [177] have numerically examined three different cavity geometries. They have then established
a correlation of the Nusselt number for natural convection.
28
4.2.3. Experiment
Kribus. et al. [188] have experimentally developed and tested a
multistage solar cavity receiver to reduce the heat losses by
dividing the aperture into separate stages according to the
irradiance distribution levels. They have been able to get an air
exit temperatures of up to 1000 1C.
Melchior et al. [189] have designed, fabricated, and tested a
5 kW cylindrical cavity receiver comprising a tubular absorber, for
performing thermo-chemical reaction. The reactor has been
modeled using a 2D steady-state model coupling the three heat
transfer modes to the chemical kinetics, and solved using Monte
Carlo and nite difference techniques. The prototype has achieved
solar-to-chemical energy conversion efciency of 28.5% at a
reactor temperature of 2300 K for an input solar power per unit
length of absorber of 40 kW/m.
Hahm et al. [190] have fabricated and tested a cone concentrator combined with a solar cavity receiver at the solar furnace in
Cologne for comparison to that of single cavity. They have found
that the optimum cone geometry strongly depending on the
cavity model.
4.2.4. Enhancement
Montes et al. [55] have put forward a new design for the active
absorber surface of cavity receivers. In this new design the uid
ow pattern has been divided according to the radiation ux map
symmetry. It can then provide uniform temperatures of HTF at
the receiver outlet. Irreversibility can also be decreased by
circulating the uid from the lower temperature region to the
higher temperature region of the absorber surface.
Hischier et al. [200] have proposed a new receiver design, for
combined cycle power plants, consisting of two concentric cylinders. To analyze the temperature distribution and thermal efciency as a function of the geometrical and operational
parameters, they have developed a 2D-steady state model combining the three heat transfer modes. They have been able to
29
30
5.1.3. Experiment
Heller et al. [227] have reported on the system conguration,
the components efciency and the operation experiences of
SOLGATE project. In this project, the aim was to develop a solar
receiver cluster for hybrid solar gas turbine and to demonstrate
the operational ability of such a system. They have found that the
cluster solar receiver can heat up pressurized air up to 1000 1C
without major problems.
5.2.2. Design
Zoschak and Wu [238] have examined seven congurations
that integrate concentrated solar radiation by CRS into solar
hybrid steam cycle of 80 MW, including feed-water heating,
Steam Turbine
Steam
power plant. They have found that the model is capable for
predicting future behaviour of the plant with regard to changes
in actuating variables.
Honeywell [250] has developed a mathematical model to
simulate the dynamic performance of solar tower pilot plant
during clouds passage.
5.2.3. Experiment
Hennecke et al. [251] have reported the technical data about
the engineering and the development of the Solar Power Tower
Julich.
The Julich
central receiver is used atmospheric air as the
heat transfer uid to generate a steam that used to drive a
Rankine cycle. The basic design of this power tower is represented
in Fig. 18.
Lowrie [252] has conducted experiments on a pilot central
receiver system. They have focused on the effect of cloud passage
on the performance of central receiver system, in particular its
key subsystem, the receiver.
McDonnell [253] has experimentally studied the performance
of 10 MW central receiver.
5.2.4. Enhancement
McGovern and Smith [254] have investigated the effect of
thermal conductance and receiver irradiance on the optimal
receiver temperature and the solar conversion efciency of ve
power cycles, i.e., Rankine cycle, solar parabolic-trough, solar
central-receiver, direct-steam and molten-salts power plant. they
have concluded that, for maximum efciency and optimum
receiver temperatures, sub-critical Rankine cycles is preferred
for parabolic trough power plants, while super-critical Rankine
cycles is suitable for central receiver systems.
Coelho et al. [255] have analyzed numerous possibilities of
hybridising biomass and volumetric receiver CRS power plants.
They have used Ebsilon Professional software to design and
optimise the power conversion system, while the solar subsystems, i.e., heliostat eld and volumetric receive have been
designed and optimised in HFLCAL software. The control strategy
and power plant economics have been analyzed using a mathematical program implanted in Excel. The authors have selected
the Portuguese Algarve region for their study. They have found
that the larger the hybrid plant, the better are the performance;
for instance, 10 MWe power plant can have LEC of 0.108 h/kW h
with twice the annual efciency and lower costs than solar only
tower system of 4 MWe. The proposed concept could reduce
biomass consumption by 17% compared with conventional power
plant of similar capacity.
Xu et al. [256] have focused on the energy and exergy analysis
of the solar tower power plant that uses molten salt as the heat
transfer uid. The aim has been to identify the source and regions
of energy and exergy losses. They have found that the power
Volumetric Receiver
HRSG
Hot Air
31
Heliostat Field
Cold Air
Storage
Water
Dry Cooling
Pump
Blower
Fig. 18. Solar power tower with atmospheric air volumetric receiver (Julich-Like
plant).
32
5.3.2. Design
Schwarzbozl et al. [263] have carried out a theoretical investigation on the performance of three prototypes of hybrid solar
Steam Turbine
To stack
Pressurized Receiver
Gas Turbine
Air Intake
Wet Cooling
Steam Generator
Heliostat Field
Steam
Pressurized
Receiver
To stack
Steam HRSG
33
Combustor
Cold Air
Hot Air
Wet Coolin
Duct Burner
Fig. 20. Combined cycle with solar air tower and gas turbine.
7. Conclusion
Concentrating solar power technology has been lately attracting a lot of attention. A sustainable effort is underway to develop
its technology. Tough it has been reached the commercial maturity, there are still a lot of activities at different levels to improve
its performance.
At the commercial levels the installed capacity has skyrocketed. Examination of the available data has shown that there
has been an exponential increase in the installed power. At this
level Spain and the USA followed by China are setting the place
for a viable development of a CSP economy. At the regional level,
Desertec initiative has been recently advocating and taking steps
for the development of CSP in the Mediterranean region.
Though most of the installed CSP is of parabolic trough
technology, the central receiver system (CRS) technology is
gaining ground and is under consideration worldwide for many
projects.
Besides the efforts is commercial development of CRS technology the action taken encompassed R&D activities for better
understanding of the basic phenomena, design activities for the
design of more efcient plants and prototyping and testing
activities for improving the performance of the subsystems and
of the systems.
The actions have not only been in improving the existing
concepts but also in proposing innovative ideas.
The present study has reviewed in details the central receiver
solar thermal power plants. This work shows that the World
energy demand, energy costs and climate change are the main
drivers of R&D activities. In other words, the market realities are
34
Fig. 22. Comparison of the fraction of published papers according to their subject, and purpose. R&D activities are strongly related to experiments (gure right).
PS10 that has reduced thermal stress in the receiver and advanced
their performance.
In this work, we have found that there has been a little interest
in the particle receivers. This might be due to a lack of experience.
This could also be due to the difculties of integrating it into
power conversion systems as the employed HTF is mostly
particles (power cycles usually used water/steam or air).
For a power conversion cycles, about 30% of this review has dealt
with this subject. A lot of congurations, hybrid systems and
advanced concepts, have been investigated and analyzed in-depth
using simulation tools and experimental data to validate the results.
The SCR-RC with cavity receiver, such as in the case of PS10 and
PS20, has been well designed and tested and recent studies have
conrmed that supercritical and ultra-supercritical cycles are very
promising for the improvement of efciency. The SCR-BC has also
been designed, tested and enhanced together with volumetric
receiver, such as Solgate and Consolar. This conguration appears
to be more promising as there is an increase interest in it in the
35
36
[93] Kearney, AT and ESTELA (2010). Solar thermal electricity 2025. ESTELA,
June; 2010./http://www.estelasolar.eu/leadmin/ESTELAdocs/documents/
Cost_Roadmap/2010-06_-_Solar_Thermal_Electricity_2025_-_ENG.pdfS.
[94] Siala FMF, Elayeb ME. Mathematical formulation of a graphical method for a
no-blocking heliostat eld layout. Renewable Energy 2001;23:7792.
[95] Sanchez Marcelino, Romero Manuel. Methodology for generation of heliostat eld layout in central receiver systems based on yearly normalized
energy surfaces. Solar Energy 2006;80:86174.
[96] Xiudong Wei, Zhenwu Lu, Zi Lin, Zhang Hongxin, Zhengguo NI. Optimization procedure for design of heliostat eld layout of a 1 MWe solar tower
thermal power plant. Proceedings of SPIE 2007;6841(684119):110.
[97] Wei Xiudong, Lu Zhenwu, Wang Zhifeng, Yu Weixing, Zhang Hongxing, Yao
Zhihao. A new method for the design of the heliostat eld layout for solar
tower power plant. Renewable Energy 2010;35:19705.
[98] Wei Xiudong, Lu Zhenwu, Yu Weixing, Zhang Hongxin, Wang Zhifeng.
Tracking and ray tracing equations for the target-aligned heliostat for solar
tower power plants. Renewable energy 2011;36:268793.
[99] Wei Xiudong, Lu Zhenwu, Yu Weixing, Wang Zhifeng. A new code for the
design and analysis of the heliostat eld layout for power tower system.
Solar Energy 2010;84:68590.
[100] Wei Xiudong, Lu Zhenwu, Yu Weixing, Xu Wenbin. Ray tracing and
simulation for the beam-down solar concentrator. Renewable Energy
2013;50:1617.
[101] Zhang Hongli, Wang Zhifeng, Wei Xiudong, Lu Zhenwu. Design of heliostats
eld for scale of 1 MW solar power tower plant. Procedia Environmental
Sciences 2011;11:116470.
[102] Augsburger, G, Favrat, D Thermo-economic optimisation of the heliostat
eld of solar tower thermal power plants. In: ECOS 201023rd international conference on efciency, cost, optimization, simulation and environmental impact of energy systems, EPFLLENI, Lausanne, Switzerland; 2010.
p. 18.
[103] Francisco JCollado. Preliminary design of surrounding heliostat elds.
Renewable Energy 2009;34:135963.
[104] Utamura, Motoaki, Tamaura, Yutaka, Yuasa, Minoru, Kajita, Rina, Yamamoto, Takashi. Optimal heliostat layout for concentrating solar tower
systems. In: International conference on power engineering, October 23
27, Hangzhou, China; 2007. p. 1196201.
[105] Wang RT, Wei XD. Shadow of heliostat eld in the solar tower power plant.
Acta Photonica Sinica 2009;38(9):24148.
[106] Lopez-Martnez, M, Vargas, M, Rubio, F Advances in articial intelligence
IBERAMIA 2002. In: Garijo, FJ, Riquelme, JC, Toro, Meditors, Lecture notes in
computer science, vol. 2527/2002.
[107] Zhifeng Wang, Zhiyong Wu, Xiaobin Liu, Zhengnong Li. Wind dynamics
testing on Dahan heliostat. In: Proceedings of ISES solar world congress
2007: Solar energy and human settlement; 2007. p. 19349.
[108] Chen YT, Chong KK, Lim CS, Lim BH, Tan KK, Omar Aliman, et al. Report of
the rst prototype of non-imaging focusing heliostat and its application in
high temperature solar furnace. Solar Energy 2002;72(6):53144.
[109] Schell Steve. Design and evaluation of esolars heliostat elds. Solar Energy
2011;85:6149.
[110] Fernandez-Reche Jesus. Reectance measurement in solar tower heliostats
elds. Solar Energy 2006;80:77986.
[111] Francisco JCollado. One-point tting of the ux density produced by a
heliostat. Solar Energy 2010;84:67384.
[112] Noone J, Torrilhon Manuel, Mitsos Alexander. Heliostat eld optimization: a
new computationally efcient model and biomimetic layout. Solar Energy
2012;86:792803.
[113] Leonardi Erminia, DAguanno Bruno. CRS4-2: a numerical code for the
calculation of the solar power collected in a central receiver system. Energy
2011;36:482837.
[114] Danielli Amos, Yatir Yossi, Mor Oded. Improving the optical efciency of a
concentrated solar power eld using a concatenated micro-tower conguration. Solar Energy 2011;85:9317.
[115] Pitz-Paal Robert, Botero Nicolas Bayer, Steinfeld Aldo. Heliostat eld layout
optimization for high-temperature solar thermochemical processing. Solar
Energy 2011;85:33443.
[116] Francisco JCollado. Quick evaluation of the annual heliostat eld efciency.
Solar Energy 2008;82:37984.
[117] Collado FJ, Guallar Jesus. A review of optimized design layouts for solar
power tower plants with campo code. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 2013;20:14254.
[118] Chen YT, Chong KK, Lim CS, Lim BH, Tan BK, Lu YF. Report on the second
prototype of non-imaging focusing heliostat and its application in food
processing. Solar Energy 2005;79:2809.
[119] Vazquez Jorge, Relloson Sergio, Domingo Miguel, Valverde Antonio, Monterreal Rafael, Garca Gines. SENER heliostat design and testing, A6S4. In:
SolarPACES. Spain: Sevilla; 2006.
[120] Augsburger Germain, Favrat Daniel. Modelling of the receiver transient ux
distribution due to cloud passages on a solar tower thermal power plant.
Solar Energy 2013;87:4252.
[121] Pitman CL, Vant-Hull LL. Atmospheric transmittance model for a solar beam
propagating between a heliostat and a receiver. ASES Progress in Solar
Energy 1982:124751.
[122] Ballestrn Jesus, Marzo Aitor. Solar radiation attenuation in solar tower
plants. Solar Energy 2012;86:38892.
[123] Chen YT, Kribus A, Lim BH, Lim CS, Chong KK, Karni J, et al. Comparison of
two sun tracking methods in the application of a heliostat eld. Journal of
Solar Energy Engineering 2004;126(1):63844.
[124] Chong KK, Tan MH. Range of motion study for two different sun-tracking
methods in the application of heliostat eld. Solar Energy 2011;85:183750.
[125] Chen YT, Chong KK, Bligh TP, Chen LC, Jasmy Yunus, Kannan KS, et al.
Nonimaging focusing heliostat. Solar Energy 2001;71(3):15564.
[126] Wenfeng, Liang, Zhifeng, Wang. Research on tracking precision of the
heliostat. In: Proceedings of ISES Solar World congress 2007: solar energy
and human settlement, vol. 5; 2007. p. 17647.
[127] Badescu Viorel. Theoretical derivation of heliostat tracking errors distribution. Solar Energy 2008;82:11927.
[128] Jones, SA, Neal, DR, Gruetzner, JK, Houser, RM, Edgar, RM, Kent, J, et al. VSHOT:
a tool for characterizing large, imprecise reectors. In: International symposium on optical science engineering and instrumentation, Denver, CO; 1996.
[129] Chen YT, Chong KK, Lim BH, Lim CS. Study of residual aberration for nonimaging focusing heliostat. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
2003;79:120.
[130] Eugene Moeller C, Brumleve TD, Grosskreutz C, Seamons LO. Central receiver
test facility Albuquerque, New Mexico. Solar Energy 1980;25:291302.
[131] Aiuchi Kosuke, Yoshida Kazuo, Onozaki Masaki, Katayama Yukuo, Nakamura Minoru, Nakamura Katsushige. Sensor-controlled heliostat with an
equatorial mount. Solar Energy 2006;80:108997.
[132] Kribus A, et al. Closed loop control of heliostats. Energy 2004;29(56):90513.
[133] Ulmer Steffen, Marz Tobias, Prahl Christoph, Reinalter Wolfgang, Belhomme
Boris. Automated high resolution measurement of heliostat slope errors.
Solar Energy 2011;859(04):61388.
[134] Arqueros F, Jimenez A, Valverde A. A novel procedure for the optical
characterization of solar concentrators. Solar Energy 2003;75:13542.
[135] Berenguel M, et al. An articial vision-based control system for automatic
heliostat positioning offset correction in a central receiver solar power
plant. Solar Energy 2004;76(5):56375.
[136] Mehrabian, MA, Aseman, RD. Computer programming to calculate the
variations of characteristic angles of heliostats as a function of time and
position in a central receiver solar power plant. In: Proceedings of ISES solar
world congress: solar energy and human settlement; 2007.
[137] Javier, Bonilla Lidia, Roca Yebra, J Sebastian, Dormido. Real-time simulation
of CESA-I central receiver solar thermal power plant. In: Proceedings 7th
Modelica conference, 2022 Sep; 2009.
[138] Roca Lidia, de la Calle Alberto, Yebra J. Heliostat-eld gain-scheduling
control applied to a two-step solar hydrogen production plant. Applied
Energy 2013;103:298305.
[139] Sani E, Mercatelli L, Francini F, Sans J-L, Sciti D. Ultra-refractory ceramics for
high-temperature solar absorbers. Scripta Materialia 2011;65:7758.
[140] Kribus A, Ries H, Spirkl W. Inherent limitations of volumetric solar receivers.
Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 1996;118:1515.
[141] Becker M, Fend Th, Hoffschmidt B, Pitz-Paal R, Reutter O, Stamatov V, et al.
Theoretical and numerical investigation of ow stability in porous materials
applied as volumetric solar receivers. Solar Energy 2006;80:12418.
[142] Marcos MJ, et al. Analysis of air return alternatives for CRS-type open
volumetric receiver. Energy 2004;29(5-6):67786.
[143] Villafan-Vidales HI, Abanades Stephane, Caliot Cyril, Romero-Paredes H. Heat
transfer simulation in a thermochemical solar reactor based on a volumetric
porous receiver. Applied Thermal Engineering 2011;31:337786.
[144] Fend Thomas, Hoffschmidt Bernhard, Pitz-Paal Robert, Reutter Oliver,
Rietbrock Peter. Porous materials as open volumetric solar receivers:
experimental determination of thermophysical and heat transfer properties.
Energy 2004;29:82333.
[145] Wu Zhiyong, Caliot Cyril, Flamant Gilles, Wang Zhifeng. Coupled radiation
and ow modeling in ceramic foam volumetric solar air receivers. Solar
Energy 2011;85:237485.
37
[153] Fend T, Paal R-P, Reutter O, Bauer J, Hoffschmidt B. Two novel high-porosity
materials as volumetric receivers for concentrated solar radiation. Solar
Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2004;84:291304.
[154] Albanakis C, Missirlis D, Michailidis N, Yakinthos K, Goulas A, Omar H, et al.
Experimental analysis of the pressure drop and heat transfer through metal
foams used as volumetric receivers under concentrated solar radiation.
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 2009;33:24652.
[155] Wu Zhiyong, Caliot Cyril, Bai Fengwu, Flamant Gilles, Wang Zhifeng, Zhang
Jinsong, et al. Applied Energy 2010;87:50413.
[156] Garcia-Martin FJ, Berenguel M, Valverde A, Camacho EF. Heuristic knowledgebased heliostat eld control for the optimization of the temperature distribution in a volumetric receiver. Solar Energy 1999;66(5):35569.
[157] Lenert Andrej, Wang N. Optimization of nanouid volumetric receivers for
solar thermal energy conversion. Solar Energy 2012;86:25365.
[158] Cheng ZD, He YL, Cui. FQ. A new modelling method and unied code with
MCRT for concentrating solar collectors and its applications. Applied Energy
2013;101:68698.
[159] Cheng ZD, He YL, Cui FQ. Numerical investigations on coupled heat transfer
and synthetical performance of a pressurized volumetric receiver with
MCRT-FVM Method. Applied Thermal Engineering 2013;50:104454.
[160] Veeraragavan Ananthanarayanan, Lenert Andrej, Yilbas Bekir, Al-Dini Salem,
Wang N. Analytical model for the design of volumetric solar ow receivers.
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2012;55:55664.
[161] Arai N, Itaya Y, Hasatani M. Development of a volume heat-trap type solar
collector using a ne-particle semitransparent liquid suspension (FPSS) as a
heat vehicle and heat-storage medium. Solar Energy 1984;32:4956.
[162] Buck Reiner, Barth Christian, Eck Markus, Steinmann Wolf-Dieter. Dualreceiver concept for solar towers. Solar Energy 2006;80:124954.
[163] Pitz-Paal R, Hoffschmidt B, Bohmer M, Becker M. Experimental and
numerical evaluation of the performance and ow stability of different
types of open volumetric absorbers under non-homogeneous irradiation.
Solar Energy 1997;60(3/4):13550.
[164] Garcia-Casals Xavier, Ajona Jose Ignacio. The duct selective volumetric
receiver: potential for different selectivity strategies and stability issues.
Solar Energy 1999;67(46):26586.
[165] Pritzkow WE. Pressure loaded volumetric ceramic receiver. Solar Energy
Materials 1991;24:498507.
[166] James A, Terry G. Thermal performance of solar concentrator cavity receiver
systems. Solar Energy 1985;34(2):13542.
[167] Fan, Zhilin, Zhang, Yaoming, Liu, Deyou, Wang, Jun, Liu, Wei. Discussion of
mechanical design for pressured cavity-air-receiver in solar power tower
system. In: Proceedings of ISES Solar World congress 2007: solar energy and
human settlement, vol. 5; 2007. p. 186972.
[168] Yu Qiang, Wang Zhifeng, Xu Ershu. Simulation and analysis of the central
cavity receivers performance of solar thermal power tower plant. Solar
Energy 2012;86:16474.
[169] Fang JB, Wei JJ, Dong XW, Wang YS. Thermal performance simulation of a
solar cavity receiver under windy conditions. Solar Energy 2011;85:12638.
[170] Yang Xiaoping, Yang Xiaoxi, Ding Jing, Shao Youyuan, Fan Hongbo. Numerical simulation study on the heat transfer characteristics of the tube
receiver of the solar thermal power tower. Applied Energy 2012;90:1427.
[171] Sobin A, Wagner W, Easton C. Central collector solar energy receivers. Solar
Energy 1976;18:2130.
[172] Li Xin, Kong Weiqiang, Wang Zhifeng, Chang Chun, Bai Fengwu. Thermal
model and thermodynamic performance of molten salt cavity receiver.
Renewable Energy 2010;35:9818.
[173] Hinojosa JF, Cabanillas RE, Alvarez G, Estrada CA. Numerical study of transient
and steady-state natural convection and surface thermal radiation in a horizontal square open cavity. Numerical Heat Transfer 2005;48:17996 Part A.
[174] Chakroun W, Elsayed MM, Al-Fahed SF. Experimental measurements of heat
transfer coefcient in a partially/fully opened tilted cavity. Journal of Solar
Energy Engineering 1997;119:298302.
[175] Gonzalez Moises Montiel, Palafox Jesus Hinojosa, Claudio AEstrada. Numerical study of heat transfer by natural convection and surface thermal
radiation in an open cavity receiver. Solar Energy 2012;86:111828.
[176] Yang XP, Yang XX, Ding J, Shao YY, Fan HB. Numerical simulation study on
the heat transfer characteristics of the tube receiver of the solar thermal
power tower. Applied Energy 2012;90:1427.
[177] Paitoonsurikarn, S, Lovegrove, K A new correlation for predicting the free
convection loss from solar dish concentrating receivers. In: Proceedings of
44th ANZSES conference, Australia; 2006.
[178] Dehghan AA, Behnia M. Combined natural convectionconduction and
radiation heat transfer in a discretely heated open cavity. Transactions of
the ASME 1996;118:5664.
[179] Boehm R, Nakhaie H. A ux-on method for determining thermal losses from
solar central receivers. Solar Engineering 1987.
[180] Carasso M, Becker M. Solar thermal central receiver systems.Performance
evaluation standards for solar central receivers, vol. 3. New York: SpringerVerlag; 1990.
[181] Sendhil Kumar N, Reddy KS. Numerical investigation of natural convection
heat loss in modied cavity receiver for fuzzy focal solar dish concentrator.
Solar Energy 2007;81:84655.
[182] Clausing AM. An analysis of convective losses from cavity solar central
receiver. Solar Energy 1981;27:295300.
38
[183] Clausing AM. Convective losses from cavity solar receivers - comparisons
between analytical predictions and experimental results. Journal of Solar
Energy Engineering 1983;105:2933.
[184] Taumoefolau T, Paitoonsurikarn S, Hughes G, Lovegrove K. Experimental
investigation of natural convection heat loss from a model solar concentrator
cavity receiver. Journal of solar energy engineeringtransactions of the ASME
2004;126(2):8017.
[185] Li X, Kong WQ, Wang ZF, Chang C, Bai FW. Thermal model and thermodynamic performance of molten salt cavity receiver. Renewable Energy
2010;35:9818.
[186] Ferriere A, Bonduelle B. Development of an optical control strategy for the
Themis solar plant: Part IThemis transient model. Journal of Solar Energy
Engineering 1989;111:298303.
[187] Fang JB, Wei JJ, Dong XW, Wang YS. Thermal performance simulation of a
solar cavity receiver under windy conditions. Solar Energy 2011;85:12638.
[188] Kribus A, Doron P, Rubin R, Karni J, Reuven R, Duchan S, et al. A multistage
solar receiver: the route to high temperature. Solar Energy 1999;67:311.
[189] Melchior Tom, Perkins Christopher, Weimer W, Steinfeld Aldo. A cavityreceiver containing a tubular absorber for high-temperature thermochemical processing using concentrated solar energy. International Journal of
Thermal Sciences 2008;47:1496503.
[190] Hahm T, SchmidtTraub H, Lemann. B. A cone concentrator for hightemperature solar cavity-receivers. Solar Energy 1999;65(l):334.
[191] Yeh, KC, Hughes, G, Lovegrove, K Modeling the convective ow in solar
thermal receivers. In: Proceedings of the 43rd conference of the Australia
and New Zealand solar energy society (ANZSES), New Zealand; 2005.
[192] Qiangqiang Zhang, Xin Li, Chun Chang, Zhifeng Wang, Hong Liu. An
experimental study: Thermal performance of molten salt cavity receivers.
Applied Thermal Engineering 2013;50(1):33441.
[193] Taumoefolau T, Paitoonsurikarn S, Hughes G, Lovegrove K. Experimental
investigation of natural convection heat loss from a model solar concentrator cavity receiver. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering e Transactions of
the ASME 2004;126:8017.
[194] Quere, PL, Penot, F, Mirenayat, M Experimental study of heat loss through
natural convection from an isothermal cubic open cavity. Sandia National
Laboratories report SAND81-8014; 1981.
[195] Reynolds DJ, Jance MJ, Behnia M, Morrison GL. An experimental and
computational study of the heat loss characteristics of a trapezoidal cavity
absorber. Solar Energy 2004;76(1-3):22934.
[196] Prakash M, Kedare SB, Nayak JK. Investigations on heat losses from a solar
cavity receiver. Solar Energy 2009;83(2):15770.
[197] Baker AF, Faas SE, Radosevich LG, Skinrood AC. U.S-Spain evaluation of the
solar one and CESA-1 receiver and storage systems. Sandia National
Laboratories; 1989.
[198] Zhang Qiangqiang, Li Xin, Wang Zhifeng, Changa Chun, Liu Hong. Experimental and theoretical analysis of a dynamic test method for molten salt
cavity receiver. Renewable Energy 2013;50:21421.
[199] Yu-ting Wu, Bin Liu, Chong-fang Ma, Hang Guo. Convective heat transfer in
the laminar-turbulent transition region with molten salt in a circular tube.
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 2009;33:112832.
[200] Hischier I, Hess D, Lipinski W, Modest M, Steinfeld A. Heat transfer analysis
of a novel pressurized air receiver for concentrated solar power via
combined cycles. Journal of Thermal Science and Engineering Applications,
ASME paper. 1-041002-1; 2009.
[201] Beckman, WA, In: Proceedings of 1968 aviation and space conference
(ASME), New York; 1968.
[202] Gebhart, B Unied treatment for thermal radiation transfer processes. ASME
paper No. 57-A-34; 1957.
[203] Teichel H, Feierabend Lukas, Klein A, Douglas TReindl. An alternative
method for calculation of semi-gray radiation heat transfer in solar central
cavity receivers. Solar Energy 2012;86:1899909.
[204] Behnia M, Reizes JA, Davis GD. Combined radiation and natural-convection
in a rectangular cavity with a transparent wall and containing a nonparticipating uid. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids
1990;10(3):30525.
[205] Wu SY, Xiao L, Li YR. Effect of aperture position and size on natural
convection heat loss of a solar heat-pipe receiver. Applied Thermal Engineering 2011;31:278796.
[206] Leibfried U, Ortjohann J. Convective heat loss from upward and downward
facing cavity solar receivers: measurements and calculations. Journal of
Solar Energy Engineering 1995;117:7584.
[207] Fang JB, Tu N, Wei JJ. Numerical investigation of start-up performance of a
solar cavity receiver. Renewable Energy 2013;53:3542.
[208] Balaji C, Venkateshan SP. Interaction of surface radiation with freeconvection in a square cavity. International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow
1993;14(3):2607.
[209] Maffezzoni C, Parigi F. Dynamic analysis and control of a solar power plantI:
Dynamic analysis and operation criteria. Solar Energy 1982;28:10516.
[210] Ben-Zvi R, Epstein M, Segal A. Simulation of an integrated steam generator
for solar tower. Solar Energy 2012;86:57892.
[211] Chen H, Chen Y, Hsieh HT, Siegel N. Computational uid dynamics modeling
of gasparticle ow within a solidparticle solar receiver. ASME Journal of
Solar Energy Engineering 2007;129:16070.
[212] Evans, G, Houf, W, Grief, R, Crowe, C Numerical modeling of a solid particle
solar central receiver. Sandia report SAND85-8249; 1985.
[245] Wang, Zhifeng, Yao, Zhihao, Dong, Jun, Jin, Hongguang, Han, Wei, Lu,
Zhengwu, et al.. The design of a 1 MW solar thermal tower plant in Beijing,
China. In: Proceedings of ISES Solar World congress 2007: solar energy and
human settlement; 2007. p. 172932.
[246] Yebra, LJ, Berenguel, M, Dormido, S, Romero, M. Modelling and simulation of
central receiver solar thermal power plants. In: Proceedings of the 44th IEEE
conference on decision and control, and the European control conference;
2005. p. 741015.
[247] Moon, Myung-Hoon, Kim, Yong, Kang, Kyung-Moon, Ko, Jo Han, Seo,
Tae Beom. System performance estimation for a solar tower power plant.
In: Proceedings of ISES Solar World congress 2007: solar energy and human
settlement, vol. 5; 2007. p. 1899903.
[248] Alexopoulos Spiros, Hoffschmidt Bernhard. Solar tower power plant in
Germany and future perspectives of the development of the technology in
Greece and Cyprus. Renewable Energy 2010;35:13526.
[249] Gall, Jan, Abel, Dirk, Ahlbrink, Nils, Pitz-Paal, Robert, Andersson, Joel, Diehl,
Moritz, et al.. Optimized control of hot-gas cycle for solar thermal power
plants. In: Proceedings 7th Modelica conference, 2022 Sep.; 2009.
[250] Honeywell. Solar pilot plant, phase I. Preliminary design report. vol. II, Book
3. Dynamic simulation model and computer program descriptions. CDRL
Item 2. [SPP dynamics simulation program]. Technical report. Honeywell,
Inc., Energy Resources Center. Minneapolis, MN, USA; 1977.
39
[259] Grifth LV, Brandt H. Solarfossil hybrid system analysis: performance and
economics. Solar Energy 1984;33:26576.
[260] Hu E, Baziotopoulos C, Li Y. Solar aided power generation from coal red
power stations: THERMSOLV software. In: Duke R, editor. Australasian
Universities power engineering, Melbourne, Vic, Australia. Melbourne,
Australia: MonashU niversity; 2002. p. 17.
[261] Tora E, El-Halwagi M. Optimal design and integration of solar systems and
fossil fuels for sustainable and stable power outlet. Clean Technologies and
Environmental Policy 2009;11:4017.
[262] Xu Ershu, Wang Zhifeng, Wei Gao, Zhuang Jiayan. Dynamic simulation of
thermal energy storage system of Badaling 1 MW solar power tower plant.
Renewable Energy 2012;39:45562.
[263] Schwarzbozl Peter, Buck Reiner, Sugarmen Chemi, Ring Arik, Crespo Jesus
Marcos, Altwegg Peter, et al. Solar gas turbine systems: design, cost and
perspectives. Solar Energy 2006;80:123140.
[264] Kribus A, Zaibel R, Carey D, Segal A, Karni. J. A solar-driven combined cycle
power plant. Solar Energy 1998;62(2):1219.
[265] Kolb GJ. Economic evaluation of solar-only and hybrid power towers using
molten-salt technology. SolarEnergy 1998;62:5161.
[266] Horn M, Fuhring H, Rheinlander J. Economic analysis of integrated solar
combined cycle power plants: a sample case: the economic feasibility of an
ISCCS power plant in Egypt. Energy 2004;29:93545.
[267] Garcia Pierre, Ferriere Alain, Bezian Jean-Jacques. Codes for solar ux
calculation dedicated to central receiver system applications: a
comparative review. Solar Energy 2008;82:18997.
[268] Lippke, F, Schmitz-Goeb, M and Finker, A PHOEBUS power tower processes
with the open volumetric air receiver. In: 8th International. symposium on
solar thermal concentrating technologies, Oct. 611, Cologne, Germany;
1996.
[269] Bonadies MF, Mohagheghi M, Ricklick M, Kapat JS. Solar retrot to
combined cycle power plant with thermal energy storage. ASME conference
proceedings 2010:92131.
[270] Heide S, Gampe U, Orth U, Beukenberg M, Gericke B, Freimark M, et al.
Design and operational aspects of gas and steam turbines for the novel solar
hybrid combined cycle SHCC [sup[registered sign]]. In: ASME conference
proceedings; 2010. p. 46574.
[271] rheinlander jurgen, lippke frank. Electricity and potable water from a solar
tower power plant. Renewable Energy 1998;14(I-4):238.
[272] Ramos A, Ramos F. Strategies in tower solar power plant optimization. Solar
Energy 2012;86:253648.
[273] Spelling, James, Favrat, Daniel, Martin, Andrew, Augsburger, Germain. Thermoeconomic optimization of a combined-cycle solar tower power plant.
[274] Price, HWWDD, Beebe, HI. SMUD Kokhala power tower study. In: Proc.
of the 1996 international solar energy conference, San Antonio, TX; 1996.
p. 2739.