Institutionen fr kommunikation och information

Examensarbete i kognitionsvetenskap 30hp

Avancerad niv
Vrterminen 2009

Running head: DJ VU PHENOMENON

Scientific Theories on the Dj Vu Phenomenon

Rickard Redgrd
School of Humanities and Informatics
University of Skvde, Sweden

Dj vu phenomenon

Scientific Theories on the Dj Vu Phenomenon

Submitted by Rickard Redgrd to the University of Skvde as a dissertation towards the
degree of M.Sc. by examination and dissertation in the School of Humanities and Informatics.
This dissertation has been supervised by Monica Bergman.
2010-01-11
I hereby certify that all material in this dissertation which is not my own work has been
identified and that no work is included for which a degree has already been conferred on me.
Signature: _______________________________________________

Dj vu phenomenon

ABSTRACT
The term dj vu was first introduced around the 1890s in order to separate the
phenomenon from other paramnesias, but a clear consensus on its definition was not reached
until mid 20th century. Since the middle of the 19th century, several dozens of
parapsychological, pseudoscientific and scientific theories have been proposed to explain the
dj vu phenomenon, ranging from messages from God to delayed neural transmission
speed. Most scientific theories can be divided into four categories: dual-processing,
neurological, memory and attentional. This paper discusses and compares some of these
theories. Memory and attentional theories are concluded to have most explanatory power and
potential to demystify the phenomenon through future research.

Keywords: dj vu, familiarity, neurology, memory, attention, cognition

Dj vu phenomenon

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. CONCEPTUAL HISTORY

1.2. RESEARCH METHODS ON DJ VU

1.3. THE NATURE OF DJ VU

1.4. THE FREQUENCY OF DJ VU

12

1.5. RELATED PHENOMENA

13

1.5.1. Jamais Vu
1.5.2. Capgras Syndrome
1.5.3. Fregolis Syndrome and Intermetamorphosis

14
14
15

1.6. RELATION TO PATHOLOGY AND DRUG USE

16

1.7. WHY STUDY DJ VU?

17

2. SCIENTIFIC THEORIES ON DJ VU
2.1. DUAL-PROCESSING THEORIES
2.1.1. Familiarity and Retrieving
2.1.2. Encoding and Retrieving

2.2. NEUROLOGICAL THEORIES

2.2.1. Single Pathways
2.2.2. Dual Pathways

2.3. MEMORY THEORIES

18
19
19
19

20
21
21

23

2.3.1. Single Element Familiarity

2.3.2. Multiple Element Familiarity
2.3.3. Gestalt Familiarity

23
24
25

2.4. ATTENTIONAL THEORIES

25

2.4.1. Perceptual Occlusion

2.4.2. Inattentional Blindness

3. DISCUSSION

25
26

27

3.1. THE NATURE OF DJ VU

27

3.2. THE FREQUENCY OF DJ VU

28

3.2. EVALUATION OF SCIENTIFIC THEORIES ON DJ VU

31

3.2.1. Dual-processing Theories

3.2.2. Neurological Theories
3.2.3. Memory Theories
3.2.4. Attentional Theories

3.3. LIMITATIONS ON RESEARCH METHODS

3.3.1. Retrospective and Prospective Reports
3.3.2. Case Reports

3.4. LIMITATIONS ON THE PRESENT PAPER

32
33
34
35

36
36
37

38

4. CONCLUSION

39

REFERENCES

41

Dj vu phenomenon

1. INTRODUCTION
The dj vu experience is widely experienced, with a majority of the population
having experienced it at least once in their lifetime (Brown, 2003). To those who have
experienced it, the dj vu phenomenon is a peculiar one and has a very strong, long-lasting
impact. To those who have not, the phenomenon might be nearly impossible to even imagine
(Wild, 2005). Despite the large general interest in the phenomenon, very little research has
been published on the subject. The dj vu experience lacks a clearly identifiable eliciting
stimulus, which makes it difficult to study, and its conceptual history has for long made it
difficult to agree on a definition, and thus exactly what to study (Berrios, 1995; Brown, 2004).
Recently, new findings in e.g. cognitive research has been related to the dj vu phenomenon
and a new interest in the scientific community has sparked (Brown, 2004).
Several dozens of theories have been proposed to explain the dj vu
phenomenon since the mid 19th century, ranging from reincarnation and messages from gods
to perceptual occlusion and delayed neural transmission speed (Berrios, 1995; Brown, 2004).
Due to the vast number of parapsychological, pseudoscientific and scientific theories, this
paper is limited to describing only a small number of scientific theories. Most scientific
theories can be categorized as one of four types of theories: dual-processing theories,
neurological theories, memory theories and attentional theories (Brown, 2003). All of these
categories are represented in this paper, but only a few theories from each category are
described, with the purpose of presenting the general ideas and shared assumptions of each
category, as opposed to the ideas and assumptions of individual theories. The specific theories
described have been selected by criteria of perceived interest for the scientific community, as
well as inter-categorical relations. Certain theories were chosen above others to maintain a
clear thread between theories and best represent the categories as wholes.

Dj vu phenomenon
Although the potential brain areas responsible for the elicitation of dj vu
experiences are touched upon in the descriptions of some theories, this paper is limited to only
discussing the general cognitive frameworks behind those theories. Some theories are more
detailed than others and given more support from related research, but due to time restraints it
is not the authors intention to go into great depth to discuss the exact biological mechanisms
enabling the dj vu phenomenon. Such a discussion could easily cover a whole paper in its
own right. The aim of this paper is to present a summary of scientifically interesting theories
on the dj vu phenomenon and discussing and evaluating these theories. The evaluation is
made with explanatory power and scientific falsifiability in mind. Theories that have strong
explanatory power and/or considered easily falsifiable are regarded more highly than
unfalsifiable theories or theories with less explanatory power.
The paper at hand begins with a summary of the conceptual history of dj vu,
descriptions on the nature and frequency of the experience, relation to other recognition
dysfunction phenomena, pathology and drug use, and a discussion on the reasons to study the
dj vu phenomenon. Descriptions of selected theories follow, starting with dual-processing
theories, then neurological theories, memory theories, and finally attentional theories. The
paper ends with a discussion on the nature and frequency of the dj vu experience, an
evaluation of the presented theories, and a discussion on dj vu research limitations.

1.1. CONCEPTUAL HISTORY

The term dj vu has a long history, in both clinical and popular use, but the
exact nature of the dj vu phenomenon and the underlying mechanisms activating it are still
largely unknown. This lack of knowledge is partly due to the terms long conceptual history
and the diversity of definitions proposed (Berrios, 1995).

Dj vu phenomenon
There are documented mentions of phenomena similar to the dj vu concept of
today reaching as far back as Aristotle, Plato and Pythagoras, but the phenomenon was not
introduced to scientific research until early 19th century, led by scholars in France (Brown,
2004). Memory research was highly popular at this time, which led to dj vu being labelled
as a memory dysfunction from the start (Berrios, 1995). A large emphasis was also put on the
phenomenons secondary features, e.g. feelings of conviction and prediction, however, and
many parapsychological theories were proposed to explain these more mystical qualities
(Berrios, 1995; Brown, 2004). As Brown (2004) points out, a rather logical conclusion to
having a feeling of conviction of something having happened before is that it actually has
happened before, which could be the reason behind theories on e.g. reincarnation. This
parapsychologically inspired trend obscured scientific research and researchers might have
had to think twice before publishing their scientific articles, in fear of being associated with
the parapsychological stigma.
Toward the end of the 19th century, scientific interest in memory dysfunctions,
or paramnesias, peaked, and with it the study of dj vu. The actual term dj vu was not
introduced until the middle of the 1890s1, however, and up until that point a multitude of
terms were suggested to cover the phenomenon: sentiment of pre-existence, phantasms of
memory, sensation of reminiscence, fallacies of memory, etc (Berrios, 1995). A problem
with terms such as paramnesia, reminiscence and phantasms/fallacies of memory was
that they all assumed a memory dysfunction (Brown, 2004). This changed during two big
debates where researchers gathered to all give their input on the phenomenon: the Revue
Philosophique and the Socit Mdico-Psychologique. During these debates, several
alternative theories to memory dysfunction were proposed, ranging from telepathy and double
personality to delayed perception and parallel hallucination. A framework for the nature of

See Brown (2004) for a summary of a debate on the origin of the term

Dj vu phenomenon
dj vu was narrowed down and many distinguishing qualities proposed then are still used
today to describe the phenomenon, e.g. the false recognition being instantaneous, the feeling
of recognition being identical, not only similar, to an unidentifiable source, and the conviction
of predictability (Berrios, 1995). The actual term dj vu was also introduced during these
debates1, which was quickly put to popular use to differentiate the phenomenon from other
paramnesias and memory disorders, but a clear consensus was not reached until the middle of
the 20th century (Brown, 2004).
At the end of the 19th century and beginning of 20th century, the behaviourist
movement grew stronger in psychological research. As the dj vu phenomenon did not come
with any external and noticeable cues, and was thus not objectively measurable, it was from
then on largely bypassed by mainstream psychological research in the US, Britain and
Germany (Brown, 2004). At the same time, the big memory theories in France were narrowed
down with subsequent research, leaving no room for the complex descriptive qualities of dj
vu, and it was considered a symptom without psychological function (Berrios, 1995, p.
123). For many decades little research was done and little interest was shown until the later
years of the 20th century when new findings in several fields of cognitive science once again
brought out interest and hopes of explaining the mysterious phenomenon (Brown, 2004).
In the following section, the research methods used to study the nature and
frequency of the dj vu experience are presented.

1.2. RESEARCH METHODS ON DJ VU

Most research on dj vu has been made through retrospective reports, i.e.
asking subjects to answer questions about what they have experienced in the past, but some
information has also been gathered from prospective reports, e.g. keeping a dj vu diary

Dj vu phenomenon
over a period of time, and case reports, most notably on temporal lobe epileptics (TLE)
(Brown, 2003; Weinand et al., 1994). Retrospective reports come in two forms: short surveys
containing only one or two questions, designed solely to assess dj vu frequency; and longer
questionnaires designed to evaluate the many different physical and psychological aspects of
the dj vu experience, including the psychological and emotional response of the subject and
the circumstances surrounding the experience, as well as more auxiliary information about the
subject, such as age, sex, dream recall and travel frequencies (Brown, 2003). Case reports
with information about dj vu experiences have mostly been gathered from epileptics,
especially in the past when dj vu was seen as indicative of pathology (cf. Jackson, 1888). In
modern times, case reports are more frequent from TLEs during brain operation. While
mapping out the areas focal to the seizures with electrical stimulation sometimes dj vu
experiences are elicited (Weinand et al., 1994). In the next two sections, the results and
findings of these research methods are presented.

1.3. THE NATURE OF DJ VU

Despite the widespread awareness of the dj vu phenomenon in the general
population, very little is actually known about its nature. Some people might have
experienced something that they themselves interpret as a dj vu, as it touched upon a
strange feeling of familiarity, while others that have never experienced anything like it might
have a very unclear idea of the phenomenon in general, and big problems even imagining
what it could be like. Because of the difficulties in grasping the nature of the dj vu
phenomenon, it has become a very wide label, encompassing all sorts of hard-to-explain
feelings of familiarity where the person cannot clearly identify the source (Funkhouser, 1996).
The term dj vu has also been adapted in cultural use to refer to a myriad of familiarity

Dj vu phenomenon
related events or situations, which do not have anything to do with the actual phenomenon.
This easy-going use of the term has further clouded its original meaning (Brown, 2004).
Very little scientific research has been published on the precise nature of the
dj vu experience. Most research has been directed at the quantitative measures, e.g.
frequency and life-time incidence (Brown, 2003). The few qualitative characteristics that have
been published include an instantaneous detection of the familiarity as inappropriate, a strong
conviction that the experienced familiarity is identical, not just similar, to a previous
experience, as well as a feeling of predictability; feeling as if one knows exactly what is going
to happen next (Berrios, 1995; Brown, 2004). The dj vu experience can last for several
minutes, but usually only lasts a few seconds (Brown, 2003; 2004).
The definition most commonly used in scientific literature these days is as
follows: any subjectively inappropriate impression of familiarity of a present experience with
an undefined past (Neppe, 1983e, p.3, in Brown, 2003; see also Sno & Linszen, 1990; Wild,
2005). This definition catches the most important qualities of the phenomenon but it does not
say much about the subjective feelings accompanying this experience. The following quote
from David Copperfield by Charles Dickens clearly captures some of the most
distinguishing subjective qualities of the experience:

We have all some experience of a feeling, that comes over us occasionally, of

what we are saying and doing having been said and done before, in a remote
timeof our having been surrounded, dim ages ago, by the same faces, objects,
and circumstancesof our knowing perfectly what will be said next, as if we
suddenly remember it! (1952, p. 537)

10

Dj vu phenomenon
In the technical sense, dj vu is translated as already seen, however the
common use has expanded its meaning to encompass many different subtypes of familiar
experiences (Brown, 2004). Table 1 below lists many of these different subtypes. Dj vu
usually functions more as an umbrella for all the different subtypes of dj experiences,
including all kinds of modalities. This umbrella function also has its uses in scientific inquiry,
as most people experiencing dj vu experience it as a more global phenomenon and might
not be able to narrow it down to just one specific mode. Further, the random subject
answering surveys might not have enough insight regarding subtypes of dj vu and would
get confused about their respective meanings, leading to an unrepresentative survey result
(Brown, 2004).

Dj

Already

Dj

Already

Arriv

Happened

Pressenti

Sensed

Connu

Known (personal)

Racont

Told

Dit

Said (spoken)

Recontr

Encountered

Entendu

Heard

Rv

Dreamed

Eprouv

Experienced

Senti

Felt, smelt

Gout

Tasted

Su

Known (intellect)

Fait

Done

Trouv

Found (met)

Lu

Read

Vcu

Lived

Parl

Spoken

Visit

Visited

Pens

Thought

Voulu

Desired

Table 1: Different subtypes of dj vu (Brown, 2004)

11

Dj vu phenomenon
In the technical sense, what is commonly referred to as dj vu is more
accurately dj vcu. This is the feeling that what is being experienced, e.g. speech or
action, has been experienced just like that once before and of being able to predict exactly
what is going to happen next. These experiences can incorporate any other modality, such as
hearing, tasting, or even proprioception (Funkhouser, 1996).
One particularly interesting subtype of dj vu is dj visit. As opposed to
dj vcu, it is not the actual situation and narrative of events that is recognized and predicted,
but only the location. It feels as if one has visited that specific location once before, and as if
one could make ones way around the place perfectly, predicting where things are located
(Funkhouser, 1996). Interestingly, dj visit seems to be particularly common in relation to
castles, e.g. when approaching the main entrance of a castle or going from one room to
another (Brown, 2004).

1.4. THE FREQUENCY OF DJ VU

The dj vu phenomenon is not a universally experienced phenomenon but is
still very common. About two thirds of the population experiences a dj vu at least once in
their life. It is also highly likely that individuals who have ever experienced a dj vu have
experienced it more than once, whereas only one experience in a lifetime is much less
common. The relative frequency of dj vu experiences, i.e. among subjects who have
experienced at least one dj vu in their lifetime, decreases with age, with the exception of
teenagers. The frequency peaks in young adults and then consistently decreases for older
subjects. There is a lower reported frequency in older studies, both regarding relative
frequency and absolute frequency, i.e. number of subjects having experienced a dj vu at
least once (Brown, 2003; 2004). There is a positive relationship between education years and
frequency of dj vu incidence (Brown, 2003), but taken the education factor aside, there
12

Dj vu phenomenon
seems to be a negative relationship between socioeconomic class and the dj vu frequency
(Brown, 2004). Dj vu experiences seem to be more common among individuals who travel,
but the amount of travel itself does not seem to be of direct importance. A positive
relationship has also been observed between dj vu frequency and dream recall (Brown,
2003; 2004). No shared factors between dj vu and dream recall that contribute to higher
frequencies have been reported (see Farthing, 1992).
Common triggers for the phenomenon include physical and psychological
distress (Brown, 2004), stress, fatigue, alcohol consumption, visiting new locations and
experiencing novel situations (Brown, 2003). Three quarters of dj vu experiences are
triggered inside buildings, both public and private, with only one quarter being triggered
outdoors or in a vehicle. Most experiences are triggered during recreational activity or while
the individual is relaxing, as opposed to routine activity, e.g. eating or working. The dj vu
phenomenon is rarely experienced in solitude, but most often while the individual is
socializing with friends. Socializing with relatives or strangers does not seem to have the
same positive effect, however. The phenomenon seems to be slightly more frequent in the
afternoons and evenings, as well as in the later half of the week (Brown, 2004). Next, four
recognition dysfunction phenomena considered related to dj vu are presented.

1.5. RELATED PHENOMENA

Our ability to recognize up around thousands of different people as unique
individuals is one of our brains most amazing skills. We can recognize people with their face
alone, their whole body, or even just certain behaviours, e.g. the way a person walks. It is
important to be able to separate different people, not only those close to us that make a very
strong impact or those that stay with us for a very long time of our lives, but also those that
we only meet temporarily, e.g. waiters in restaurants (Hirstein, 2005). This also holds true for
13

Dj vu phenomenon
events, locations and simple objects. When these identification processes malfunction,
phenomena arises that show correlations with the dj vu phenomenon. The dj vu
experience has for long been considered analogous to certain misidentification syndromes
(Berrios, 1995). In this section, the following of these syndromes will be described shortly
and related to the dj vu phenomenon: jamais vu, Capgras syndrome, Fregolis syndrome
and intermetamorphosis.

1.5.1. Jamais Vu
As the dj vu experience is defined as an inappropriate feeling of familiarity,
the jamais vu experience can be seen as its mirror-case: an inappropriate feeling of
unfamiliarity. Jamais vu literally means never seen, and a person experiencing a jamais
vu interprets an objectively familiar situation, something already seen, as unfamiliar, i.e.
never seen before (Brown, 2004). E.g., one could imagine walking into ones own bedroom
and feeling as if one has never been there before, despite being certain that it really is your
bedroom and that you have been there before. Jamais vu experiences are much less frequent
than dj vu experiences but they seem to share common triggers, e.g. stress and fatigue
(Brown, 2004).

1.5.2. Capgras Syndrome

A similar case to jamais vu is Capgras syndrome. Capgras patients claim that
people close to them, typically a parent, spouse or child, have been replaced by impostors.
These impostors can be interpreted as either benevolent or malevolent. The misidentification
can also be directed at the patient itself, even claiming that the image in the mirror is of
someone else. The exact cause for the syndrome is not known but it has been related to e.g.

14

Dj vu phenomenon
Alzheimers disease, schizophrenia and head trauma (Hirstein, 2005). Capgras syndrome has
been paralleled with the jamais vu phenomenon, being seen as jamais vu about people, as the
two phenomena share the same absent feeling of familiarity. Capgras syndrome can however
be seen as a more pathological case of jamais vu (Berrios, 1995).

1.5.3. Fregolis Syndrome and Intermetamorphosis

The reversed case of Capgras syndrome comes in the form of Fregolis
syndrome. Fregolis patients claim that several unfamiliar people are actually all one familiar
person, i.e. the same person. The patient can recognize all the people as looking different from
each other, as they do, but still maintains that they are all the one familiar person (Hirstein,
2005). To relate this to Capgras syndrome, the patient would here see its parent, spouse or
child instead of a stranger. Random people on the streets would be misidentified as this
familiar person.
Intermetamorphosis is very similar to Fregolis syndrome, with the biggest
difference being that it is another familiar person that is misidentified as a familiar person.
Sometimes one person can even seem to change into another person right in front of the
patients eyes (Hirstein, 2005). These two phenomena have been paralleled with the dj vu
phenomenon, as they share the same inappropriate feeling of familiarity. Where dj vu is
related to situations, Fregolis syndrome and intermetamorphosis are related to people only
(Berrios, 1995). In the next section, the relationship between dj vu and pathology and drug
use is presented.

15

Dj vu phenomenon

1.6. RELATION TO PATHOLOGY AND DRUG USE

Much of the early research on dj vu assumed an underlying pathology.
Epilepsy has been of special interest, but dj vu has also been associated with consumption
or withdrawal from various types of drugs, as well as schizophrenia (Brown, 2004).
Jackson (1888) noted the phenomenon of dj vu (or a dreamy state)
preceding epileptic seizures and proposed that it was connected to epilepsy in general, as a
pre-seizure aura. Overall, though, statistical analysis of the prevalence of dj vu in relation to
epilepsy has shown no compelling evidence for the dj vu phenomenon being any more
common in epileptics compared to the normal population. However, epilepsy is generally
accompanied by a dullness of consciousness, which might make it difficult to detect dj vu.
Thus, the incidence of dj vu in relation to epilepsy might be higher than reported (Brown,
2004).
A higher incidence of dj vu has also been related to drug use and withdrawal.
Some studied drugs include amphetamine, toluene-based solvents, medication for bi-polar
disorder, and alcohol. Especially alcohol has shown a strong positive relationship with dj vu
experiences (Brown, 2004).
The dj vu related research on schizophrenia presents a similar difficulty as
that of epilepsy, as the nature of the disorder might distort or cloud the cognitive functions
and perception of the individual, making it difficult to detect the dj vu phenomenon, even if
it is present. It has been proposed that there is both a qualitative and quantitative difference in
the phenomenon compared to the normal population but very few studies have actually tried
to analyse these differences (Brown, 2004). Adachi et al. (2006) even detected a lower
frequency of dj vu experiences in schizophrenics compared to a control group. Overall,
there is no clear support for either quantitative or qualitative differences in the dj vu
experiences of schizophrenics and healthy subjects (Brown, 2004).

16

Dj vu phenomenon
Although there is no clear evidence for dj vu having any positive relationships
with epilepsy or schizophrenia, the big scientific interest in this pathological perspective
caused dj vu to become related to pathology in the common mans eyes and in a way
stigmatized as indicative of mental disorder (Brown, 2004). In the following section, reasons
for conducting further study on the dj vu phenomenon are discussed.

1.7. WHY STUDY DJ VU?

There is a widespread cultural awareness in the general population regarding the
dj vu phenomenon. It is referred to in fictional literature, newspaper articles and magazines
(Funkhouser, 1996). Only very few memory phenomena are talked about by the general
population, e.g. forgetting, tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (presque vu) and dj vu (Brown,
2004). Taken aside forgetting, which is undoubtedly the most commonly mentioned
memory phenomenon, a search on Googles search-engine with the terms dj vu and tipof-the-tongue2 gave 5 140 000 and 170 000 hits respectively3. Clearly, there is a uniquely
high interest in the dj vu phenomenon in the general population.
Similarly, the phenomenon holds a special position for researchers. Among
other metacognitive phenomena it is unique in the regard that there are no clearly identifiable
causes and no objectively measurable behavioural components (Brown, 2004). Dj vu is a
purely subjective and mental experience, and this poses a unique challenge for memory and
psychology researchers. Although a challenging subject to study, the findings of dj vu
research could surely provide much information about memory functions in general, and is
thus of great value to cognitive scientists. Alas, the dj vu phenomenon has gotten a
reputation of mysticism over the years and many researchers have thought twice before

2
3

The alternative search term presque vu gave 30 200 hits. Combined, the two search terms gave 200 200 hits.
The results were obtained on March 25th 2009.

17

Dj vu phenomenon
writing anything, with fear of themselves being associated with this label. A survey of
textbooks on memory and cognition, spanning the 30 years between 1964 and 1994, presented
39 books with no mention of the dj vu phenomenon at all, three books that touched on the
phenomenon in passing, and only two books that dedicated whole sections to the
phenomenon.
The highly subjective quality of the dj vu experience, and perhaps especially
the feeling of tapping into a memory that cannot be identified as having its source in ones
own prior experiences, is probably what has made the phenomenon so attractive to
parapsychological theories and connections with e.g. reincarnation. There are, however,
several theories in cognition and neuroscience that have the potential to demystify and explain
the dj vu experience in scientific terms, with new research on cognitive processes
constantly shedding stronger light on the phenomenon (Brown, 2004). In the next section,
some of these theories are presented.

2. SCIENTIFIC THEORIES ON DJ VU
Below follows a limited presentation of theories on dj vu found in scientific
literature. The theories are divided into four main categories: dual-processing theories,
neurological theories, memory theories and attentional theories, based on the respective
functions and processes put in focus. Although some theories consider functions and
processes belonging to more than one of these categories and are not as easy to categorize,
this division is made to highlight certain shared traits of the theories and string them together
for purpose of better overview.

18

Dj vu phenomenon

2.1. DUAL-PROCESSING THEORIES

The central idea of dual-processing theories is that dj vu is the result of two
otherwise parallel and synchronized cognitive processes becoming momentarily out of synch
(OConnor & Moulin, 2006; Brown, 2004). Dj vu is thus a byproduct of the disruption of
normal cognitive operations. It could express itself through a spontaneous activation of one
function in the absence of another, when they should be activated in parallel, e.g. familiarity
and memory, or the reversed case, where two related but separated functions are merged
together, e.g. encoding and retrieving. Below, two theories on dual processing will be
presented, one focusing on familiarity and retrieving, and one on encoding and retrieving.

2.1.1. Familiarity and Retrieving

In his research of experiential phenomena in relation to temporal lobe epilepsy,
Gloor (1990) proposed that dj vu is a byproduct of the disrupted function of familiarity and
retrieving. They are two independent cognitive functions that work in coordination, with
familiarity always coming after retrieval. This is the normal function of recollection as it
occurs in everyday life, but sometimes one of these functions could become spontaneously
activated independently of the other, giving rise to various experiential phenomena. The dj
vu phenomenon should be the result of familiarity being activated without a retrieval cue. The
reversed case, retrieval being activated without familiarity, can be associated with the relating
case, jamais vu (Brown, 2003).

2.1.2. Encoding and Retrieving

Also encoding and retrieval are separate cognitive functions, input and output
respectively, operating independently of each other (Brown, 2004). They maintain a strict

19

Dj vu phenomenon
coordinated relation where they are aware of each others activation but unable to both
activate at the same time. However, if one could imagine a situation where they would both
be activated at the same time new information being encoded while old information being
retrieved the resulting impression could be that of the new experience/information being
directly retrieved from memory. de Nayer (1979) devised a metaphor for the dj vu
phenomenon in this sense using a tape recorder where he likened the record and play buttons
with the encoding and retrieving cognitive functions respectively. Under normal
circumstances, the tape recorder can have either the record (encoding) or play (retrieval)
function turned on. Although de Nayer does not present any ideas on how it could happen, the
dj vu phenomenon is explained as the accidental activation of both the record and play
functions at the same time, giving rise to an interpretation of the new encoding as an old
memory.

2.2. NEUROLOGICAL THEORIES

A second way of scientifically interpreting the dj vu phenomenon is that it is
the result of some form of momentary neurological dysfunction (Brown, 2004). There are two
main ideas on what kinds of dysfunctions could give rise to the dj vu experience: 1) a
spontaneous neural activation in relation to seizure, and 2) a disturbance of the neural
transmission speed (Brown, 2003). This article will only discuss the neural transmission speed
theories in order to keep a coherent thread throughout the section and to avoid having to get
into too complex biological terms to explain the phenomenon. It is interesting to note, though,
that some of the researchers that have contributed to these theories were active more than a
hundred years ago and that their speculations still hold up remarkably well to modern science
and our current understanding of the nervous system (Brown, 2004).

20

Dj vu phenomenon

2.2.1. Single Pathways

One way for this dysfunction to express itself is by a momentary change of
neural transmission speed in a single neural pathway between any perceptual organ and
subcortical or cortical processing centers, either by speeding up the transmission or by
slowing it down (Brown, 2004). Grasset (1904) has proposed that a temporary slowing down
could express itself in the typical dj vu symptoms. The slight delay in delivery is
misinterpreted as the information being old. Brown (2004) adds that the resulting false
recognition could be caused by the slower transmission bringing the experience under more
thorough analysis. He compares it to the way we do not usually think about the way we walk
until we e.g. pull a muscle and the mechanics are brought to our conscious level of attention.

2.2.2. Dual Pathways

The pathway delay can also involve two pathways working in synchrony
(Brown, 2004). Perceived stimuli are transmitted over several different pathways on their way
to the higher processing centres. When they converge in the cortical areas, they usually arrive
at slightly different times. This is normally adjusted for automatically and the two sets of
information are merged into one impression. An interruption of the transmission speed could,
however, delay one of the sets of information long enough for the merging process to interpret
the two messages as unique to each other.
One version of this type of explanation is the optical pathway delay theory
(OConnor & Moulin, 2006; Osborn, 1884). Information from our eyes travel through several
pathways on its way to the cortical areas (Goodale & Milner, 1992; Brown, 2004). In the
higher cortical areas, the information is synthesized from first a primary pathway and then a
secondary pathway. When the transfer from the second pathway is slightly delayed, the
otherwise seamless synthesis of two sets of information into one perception is disrupted and
21

Dj vu phenomenon
experienced as two separate messages (Comfort, 1977). Dj vu is explained as the two sets
of sensory information arriving at different times due to this momentary delay creating a
sense of familiarity:

the supposed uneven action of the nerves supplying the eyes, one side of the
brain thus receiving the image before the other, and causing the secondary
image to appear as a familiar repetition of the first. (Osborn, 1884, p. 480)

The first set of information from one of the eyes barely has time to reach the visual cortex
before the information from the second eye arrives. The difference in time between the two
inputs is so short that the first eyes information is not encoded as an event of its own. When
the second eyes information is received and encoded as a separate event, a sense of
familiarity comes with it. The individual experiences the oncoming information as being
experienced for the second time, but cannot locate the source of the previously experienced
event as it has not been encoded for memory (OConnor & Moulin, 2006).
A similar theory says that it is the primary pathway, not the secondary as above,
that becomes delayed (Comfort, 1977). The information from the primary pathway is
normally interpreted as the initial perception so when this set of information arrives after an
already experienced set of information from the secondary pathway it comes with a feeling of
prediction of what is going to happen next. Brown (2004) suggests that the nature of the dj
vu experience could possibly best be described as the brain shifting focus from comparing the
primary input to the secondary input, to comparing the secondary input to the primary input,
while a delay has separated the two. In the one case, a perceived ability to predict what will
happen next is experienced, and in the other case, a novel but seemingly old experience is

22

Dj vu phenomenon
detected. These two focuses could change rapidly during the few seconds that a dj vu
experience lasts, explaining both distinguishing features.

2.3. MEMORY THEORIES

One of the most central, and perhaps most intriguing, characteristics of the dj
vu experience is the sense of familiarity without any objective reference, i.e. false memories
(Brown, 2004). It is imaginable that complete situations have previously been experienced in
their entirety, forgotten, and then retrieved subconsciously during a dj vu experience, but
perhaps a more plausible interpretation of these false memories is that only some aspect of the
situation has been experienced before. The sense of familiarity tied to this one or few aspects
is then misattributed to the whole situation. In this section, theories relating to the memory
function alone are presented.

2.3.1. Single Element Familiarity

The single element familiarity theory is one of the most popular interpretations
of the dj vu phenomenon (Brown, 2004). The main idea is that any single element in the
present setting that is objectively familiar but not (momentarily) consciously recognized could
elicit the dj vu experience. The single element familiarity is misinterpreted to cover the
entire setting or situation. As an example, you walk into your friends living room, where you
have never been before, and there is a grandfather clock identical to one of your relatives
clocks. You feel a very strong sense of familiarity but are unable to locate the source, and so
you mistakenly attribute the sense of familiarity to the whole situation. Reed (1979) compares
this feeling to encountering someone you know only casually, e.g. your barber, in a
completely different setting where you do not expect to see him. Seeing him will create a

23

Dj vu phenomenon
sense of familiarity without you being able to clearly identify where you know the person
from.

2.3.2. Multiple Element Familiarity

An alternative to the single element familiarity theory is the multiple familiarity
theory (Wohlgemuth, 1924). The two theories share the same principle idea, that some
subconsciously recognized element in any given situation can give rise to the dj vu
experience, only the latter requires more than just one. Wohlgemuth analysed a personal dj
vu experiences and found that several almost identical elements had previously been
experienced, and argued that the combination of these elements is what produced the dj vu.
It is possible that the individual elements also compete for awareness, thus blocking each
other out from conscious recognition (Brown, 2004). Similarly, Fleminger (1991) argues that
structural codes used to identify faces may elicit dj vu experiences in cases where certain
features overlap (cf. Bruce & Young, 1986). Brown (2004) argues that the same mechanism
probably handles inanimate objects, as well, thus expanding Flemingers theory to the
multiple element familiarity theory. Osborn (1884) theorizes that the phenomenon could be
the result of not necessarily the physical objects in a setting subconsciously recognized but the
revisited pattern of cognitive processing that e.g. seeing an identical grandfather clock at both
your friends and relatives forms:

if at any time in our past lives we passed in actual experience or in

imagination over a mental track, say a b c d e, and if to-day this track is again
traversed, although the former experience itself may have been long forgotten,
we have a sense that it has been through the mind before if the mind passes

24

Dj vu phenomenon
over only part of the former track, say b c d, we sometimes, in the dim
recognition that arises believe we have been over the whole before (p.481)

2.3.3. Gestalt Familiarity

The gestalt familiarity theory is similar to the multiple element familiarity
theory in that it requires several elements to elicit the dj vu experience, however, it differs
in that it is not the actual elements that cause the elicitation but the overall organization of
those elements (Reed, 1974). If a scene is organized very similarly to a previously
experienced one, e.g. a sofa in one corner, an oriental rug in the middle of the floor and a
grandfather clock next to it, the familiarity of that organization could trigger a sense of
familiarity to the entire experience. The elements do not have to be identical to the previously
experienced ones, as long as the organization is similar enough (Brown, 2004).

2.4. ATTENTIONAL THEORIES

Attentional theories on dj vu try to explain the phenomenon as a momentary
break in ones perception, of which one is completely unaware, that gives rise to an
impression of there being two separate yet identical experiences. The two experiences are
separated by an indeterminate period of time, giving the impression of oldness (Brown,
2004). Two attentional theories will be discussed in this section: one on perceptual occlusion
and one related to inattentional blindness.

2.4.1. Perceptual Occlusion

The way a dj vu occurs according to the perceptual occlusion theory is by
immediately following an occluded initial perception with a second perception in full clarity.

25

Dj vu phenomenon
There is actually only one ongoing perceptual experience; one perception of focal stimulus,
but the switch from initial occlusion to full clarity cuts the experience in two and gives rise to
the feeling of familiarity. The initial perception can be degraded by other means than
occlusion, e.g. through distraction or misdirected attention (Brown, 2004).

2.4.2. Inattentional Blindness

The inattentional blindness phenomenon has been discussed in relation to dj
vu. A person experiences inattentional blindness when perceiving an above threshold stimulus
but do not consciously attend to it, e.g. because the person was concentrating on some other
focal stimulus at the same time (Mack & Rock, 1998). Subjects in experiments on
inattentional blindness claim that they have not seen the stimulus presented to them, but
through e.g. priming tests the stimulus can be shown to have been subconsciously processed.
Brown (2004) theorizes that if this subconsciously processed stimulus were to
be immediately followed by a conscious processing of the same stimulus then the previous
subconscious processing might prime the following conscious processing so that a sense of
familiarity accompanies it. This theory differs from the previous in that perceptual occlusion
assumes that both processed stimuli are identical and focal whereas the theory based on
inattentional blindness assumes that the first processed stimulus is peripheral and the second,
immediately following, stimulus is focal. Brown (2004) exemplifies this process by imagining
walking into a hotel lobby, looking for the front desk. As this is the attended to stimulus, even
though many other stimuli (plants, paintings, coat rack) are processed at the same time, they
are not consciously processed. As you turn around to quickly survey the room, putting all
these objects in direct attention and process them consciously, the processing matches that
made previously and you are struck by a sense of familiarity, possibly eliciting a dj vu
experience.

26

Dj vu phenomenon

3. DISCUSSION
3.1. THE NATURE OF DJ VU
The nature and definition of dj vu has a long history behind it and even
today there is not a completely clear consensus regarding its use. Most research has been
concentrated on quantitative measures, meaning that one has not typically been interested in a
precise and unmistakable description and definition of the phenomenon. Among laymen,
perhaps because not everyone has actually experienced the phenomenon, the term dj vu
has come to encompass a myriad of familiarity related phenomena, out of which only some
are actually related to dj vu. Among scientists, one definition has in recent times become
more or less standard: any subjectively inappropriate impression of familiarity of a present
experience with an undefined past. In addition, a strong conviction of the impression being
identical, not only similar, to a previously experienced one, and a feeling of predictability
have frequently been discussed as part of the dj vu experience. The experience itself usually
lasts for only a few seconds but is sometimes several minutes long. What determines how
long the experience is would most probably be explained differently for each group of
theories but none of the theories presented in this paper have mentioned this aspect.
The term dj vu has come to function as an umbrella for all phenomena that
fits under this definition (and similar ones). Many subtypes have been mentioned in scientific
literature, focusing on different senses and activities others and personal ones. This
collection of subtypes probably helps to confuse matters more for the laymen, and it could
possibly cause confusion among scientists, too, if it is not made entirely clear if one is
discussing dj vu as a whole or as a specific subtype. The demarcation between subtypes
seems very difficult to make in some cases, e.g. between dj pressenti and any specific

27

Dj vu phenomenon
sense subtype, and between dj arriv and dj eprouv. These subtypes most probably
find their conceptions in the individual researchers creativity and are not yet standardized. As
research on dj vu is becoming increasingly popular it is important to find an agreement on
what terms to use, as well as how and when to use them.

3.2. THE FREQUENCY OF DJ VU

First of all, dj vu is not a universal phenomenon. Only two thirds of the
population are estimated to ever experience a dj vu in their lifetime, but out of those who do
experience a dj vu, it is highly likely that they will experience more than one. Most dj vu
experiences are triggered during recreational or relaxing situations and/or while socializing
with friends. This does not seem to be targeted at a specific group of people. Save for a few
exceptions, everyone relaxes from time to time and most have time to socialize with friends.
Nevertheless, only two thirds experience the phenomenon. Perhaps some people are more
prone to dj vu experiences than others, regardless of what social and recreational activities
are engaged.
There are two specific groups of people that do seem to be more prone to dj
vu experiences: those who travel and those with a higher education. One of the typical
triggers is novelty. Experiencing new situations has a positive effect on the probability of
experiencing a dj vu. People who travel often see many new locations and experience novel
situations, ideas and routines. This could explain why the frequency of dj vu experiences is
higher among people who travel, but interestingly enough the amount of travel does not seem
to have any positive effect. One would imagine that more travel would result in more novelty,
and thus more frequent dj vu experiences. Perhaps there is a limit as to how much novelty
alone can affect the frequency. It is also probable that people who travel regularly do so along
with one or several friends, with whom they will socialize a great deal, and become fatigued
28

Dj vu phenomenon
more often than non-travelers. Highly educated people also have a higher reported frequency
of dj vu experiences. This could probably be explained by the higher amount of novelty, as
well, by learning about new things, meeting new people in new settings and often work on
new projects, and by the amount of stress and fatigue many students experience. It is not as
simple to draw conclusions, however, about why this higher frequency of dj vu experiences
would remain even after one has stopped studying and moved on to other things. One possible
reason is that people with a higher degree have a higher probability of getting jobs that have
more room for triggers, e.g. higher tempo and demand, stressful situations and/or more
diversified tasks.
Despite stress being an important trigger, most dj vu experiences are triggered
in the weekends and afternoons to evenings during recreational or relaxing situations where
one would imagine the stress-levels to be very low. Probably, the fatigue from the rest of the
week sets in, perhaps in combination with an increase in alcohol. The fact that most dj vu
experiences are triggered during relaxing situations could simply be because people seek out
such situations when fatigued. Thus, the actual trigger could still be fatigue, not necessarily
relaxation in itself. The higher frequency during recreational activities could also be
attributed, in part, to them probably taking place in the weekends when fatigue is present. It
would also seem likely that people often carry out these activities along with friends, with
whom socializing has a positive effect. There is probably also a higher degree of novelty in
recreational activities as one tries to find something new and exciting to experience.
Both relative and absolute frequencies of dj vu experiences seem to decrease
with age. Relative frequency, i.e. the number of dj vu experiences among those who have
already experienced at least one dj vu, peaks in young adulthood and then steadily
decreases. This might be due to young people experiencing more diversity in their everyday
lives and have yet to become heavily routinized. It might also be due to cognitive sensitivity

29

Dj vu phenomenon
in general decreasing with age. Younger people might be more sensitive and attentive of
minor mental events, whereas older people might not even take notice of them. The
decreasing absolute frequency, i.e. the number of people who have had one or several dj vu
experiences in their lifetime, with age is more probably due to social factors. Dj vu was
long regarded as a mental disorder and several attempts have been made to find a connection
between e.g. schizophrenia and frequency of dj vu. The phenomenon was, and perhaps still
is to some, regarded as something negative; as a sign of something abnormal. In later years,
people have become more open and accepting of the phenomenon and scientific research has
shown that there is no definite relation between the dj vu phenomenon and mental
disorders. This might explain why the reported frequency is lower among the older
generations. Out of shame and fear, perhaps, people simply did not want to report any dj vu
experiences.
There are a few points that are especially interesting to consider regarding the
frequency reports: 1) frequency is higher in higher educational classes but lower in higher
socioeconomic classes, 2) socializing with friends is a strong trigger but socializing with
relatives and strangers seems to have no effect, at all, 3) frequency is higher among people
with higher dream recall, and 4) approaching, and moving inside, castles is a unique trigger.
Regarding the first point, it is usually assumed that higher education leads to
higher socioeconomic class, but of course it is not always so. Following the idea that higher
education leads to higher frequency of dj vu, one would think that this is something that
remains regardless of future socioeconomic paths taken. Apparently, there is something
special about the actual belonging to a lower socioeconomic class that elicits more dj vu
experiences, and less experiences in belonging to a higher class. The reasons for this could be
many but are difficult to speculate about without specific survey results or similar
information. Perhaps belonging to a lower socioeconomic class creates more stress in

30

Dj vu phenomenon
everyday living compared to higher socioeconomic class? It is possible that higher
socioeconomic class presents less novel situations, as well, but such a generalisation is
probably not possible to make.
Regarding the second point, it is possible that the differing aspect is that while
socializing with friends one more frequently engages in more diverse activities and have more
frequent novel experiences compared to the socializing with relatives. Socializing with
strangers should, per definition, include novelty, in a sense, but perhaps this interpersonal
interaction alone is not enough to cross the threshold for a dj vu experience elicitation.
Regarding the third point, it is difficult to imagine any links between high dream
recall and high dj vu frequency, considering the selection of contributing factors presented
in this paper. Perhaps dream recall is higher during periods of fatigue or stress? Perhaps
dream recall is higher during travel or other situations where novel situations are experienced?
More specific research on the factors contributing to the relative dream recall frequency is
needed to compare the two phenomena and see what they have in common.
Regarding the final point, perhaps castles, being impressive and rare buildings
for most people, elicit dj vu experiences through its novelty-value, along with stress and
fatigue related to carrying out a trip to a castle. Castles are usually remotely located and
visited as part of a larger travel arrangement. The castle itself might simply be the last drop
that pushes the experience over the threshold. Arguably, there should then be a much broader
spectrum of locations and objects that have a stronger chance of eliciting dj vu experiences,
e.g. popular tourist attractions in general.

3.2. EVALUATION OF SCIENTIFIC THEORIES ON DJ VU

All scientific theories on dj vu presented in this paper explain the
phenomenon as some sort of byproduct or mistake; the result of brain functions failing to do
31

Dj vu phenomenon
what they are supposed to. The processes discussed in dual-processing theories are usually
coordinated in a specific pattern. When this pattern is disturbed, dj vu supposedly arises.
The information transfer via neural pathways discussed in neurological theories is supposedly
slowed down or interrupted from its normal function in cases where dj vu is experienced.
Memory theories proposes that the dj vu experience arises from the function of familiarity
failing to identify the feeling of familiarity in a situation to the correct object or milieu and
instead identifying it to the whole experience in general. The attentional theories proposes that
distracting and/or causing a momentary break in a persons perception could result in the
interpretation of there having been two separate perceptions, leading to undefined familiarity
and dj vu.
Some theories are more clearly constructed to allow testing of these premises,
while some are more theoretical in nature and function more as general ideas than concrete
hypotheses. Below, short summaries of each category of theories follow with discussions on
their explanatory power and usefulness in future dj vu research.

3.2.1. Dual-processing Theories

The dual-processing theories assume that two normally coordinated cognitive
processes are momentarily separated to elicit a dj vu experience. One such separation
occurs when one of the two processes becomes active at the wrong time, e.g. how familiarity
and retrieving are normally activated together, but with the activation of familiarity in the
absence of retrieval, dj vu occurs. Two cognitive processes that are normally separate, yet
coordinated, can also become simultaneously activated and merge together to elicit a dj vu
experience, such as in the case of encoding and retrieving.
Among the scientific theories presented in this paper, the dual-processing
theories are the most difficult to test. It would require much greater knowledge of how these

32

Dj vu phenomenon
cognitive processes operate in order to properly design a satisfactory test. Although the
theories gain support from large-scale surveys on contributing factors, they are based around
more abstract descriptions of cognitive processes and are not easily traced to more concrete
events in the brain. Due to the level of abstract, it is also difficult to find support from other
literature on cognitive science. The dual-processing theories are thus much too vague to be
considered scientifically plausible explanations.

3.2.2. Neurological Theories

The neurological theories presented in this paper assume that there is a
momentary alteration in neural transmission speed that gives rise to the dj vu experience.
This alteration in transmission speed can occur in two ways, either by a single or dual neural
pathway. With a single neural pathway, the neural transmission is delayed slightly, which,
because of the expected delivery, results in a sense of familiarity when the transmission is
actually delivered. With dual pathways, only one of the pathways transmission speed is
altered. If the neural transmission speed of the primary pathway is slowed down, focusing on
the comparison between the primary and secondary transmissions results in a feeling of
prediction, and focusing on the comparison between the secondary and primary transmissions
results in a feeling of familiarity. A rapid change of focus between these two could be the
cause of the dj vu experience. The dual pathway neurological theory is alone in the ability
to adequately explain the feeling of predictability.
The neurological theories are based on previous neurological findings and are
possible to test and falsify but the only way to do this is by measuring neural transmission
speeds, something that is very difficult to do. A possible way to test the premise is to present a
single stimulus to a subject, but with a slight delay in either left or right visual or auditory
field. This could possibly simulate the natural transmission delay and give rise to a feeling of

33

Dj vu phenomenon
familiarity in the subject. From hereon the test could be further restricted to find the exact
delay necessary to elicit dj vu experiences, as well as experimenting with different types of
delays on the primary and secondary pathways, and in different senses. The theories also
gain support from large-scale surveys on contributing factors, although it is unclear why dj
vu is elicited only sometimes.

3.2.3. Memory Theories

The memory theories presented in this paper have focused on element
familiarity objects from one setting, or a whole setting itself, giving rise to a sense of
familiarity in a different setting. The single and multiple element familiarity theories suggest
that seeing identical objects in different settings could in some cases elicit dj vu experiences
if the sense of familiarity is generalized from the object to the whole setting. The gestalt
familiarity theory similarly suggests that two settings with comparable organization could
give rise to the same sense of familiarity.
These theories are quite similar to the attentional theories and are also based on
implicit memory. As such, they are more easily testable. For the single and multiple element
familiarity theories, one could have subjects look at various scenes and reuse certain objects
in attempt to elicit a generalized sense of familiarity. The same idea could be used for testing
the gestalt familiarity theory, with similarly organized whole settings. The complexity of live
environments might be too much for test situations, but perhaps virtual reality could prove
useful for exploring these types of settings in controlled tests. The question is, if only single
objects and similar organisation is required to elicit dj vu experiences, why do we not
experience them more often? What separates one object from a dj vu-eliciting one, and just
how similar do settings have to be in order to give rise to this experience? Are the objects
completely random or do they share certain features that make them more prone to

34

Dj vu phenomenon
familiarity? The type of testing described above might be able to address these questions
adequately.

3.2.4. Attentional Theories

Attentional theories are based on the assumption that two quickly following
perceptions of an identical stimulus could elicit a dj vu experience. This might happen by
perceiving something under full awareness and becoming distracted for an instant, a quick
break in ones attention or by the initial perception becoming degraded by some means.
Inattentional blindness as a phenomenon has been used to explain how this might occur
implicitly registering an unattended stimulus and then directly following with an explicit
registration of the same stimulus in full attendance. During the right circumstances, these
seemingly separate perceptions (perceptual occlusion) or matching memory registrations
(inattentional blindness) could give rise to dj vu experiences.
Using simple recognition tasks on inattentional blindness where focal stimulus
is presented either at the center of a screen with flanker stimulus presented in the periphery, or
at the periphery with flanker stimulus at the center could possibly trigger dj vu experiences.
If the flanker stimulus of trial N is presented as focal stimulus on trial N+1 this should give
rise to the same feeling of familiarity as in the lobby example. For more complex tests, one
could use live settings or objects with the same distribution of focal and flanker stimuli.
Questions still remain on whether any stimulus is capable of triggering dj vu experiences or
if there are certain characteristics in some objects that can more easily push the experience
over the threshold. It is also interesting to consider special groups of subjects for these tests,
e.g. amnesics. If the dj vu experience is elicited by matching a previously implicit memory
with an explicit, identical memory, would amnesics experience dj vu more frequently than
healthy subjects? Properly designed and executed tests of this type should be able to address

35

Dj vu phenomenon
these questions. Attentional theories also gain support from large-scale surveys on
contributing factors, and if the tests described above give results, these theories show great
potential for further research.

3.3. LIMITATIONS ON RESEARCH METHODS

The dj vu phenomenon is a very difficult subject to study as the experience is
completely subjective with no external cues. Although two thirds of the population
experiences a dj vu at least once in their lifetime, the intervals between experiences can be
quite long, especially in adult years, making it hard to remember everything surrounding the
experiences. Unless prepared, it might be difficult to even take note of the surrounding factors
as the experience can be quite imposing. Three types of research methods have been presented
in this paper: retrospective reports, prospective reports and case reports.

3.3.1. Retrospective and Prospective Reports

As with surveys in general, a big difficulty with retro- and prospective reports
on dj vu has been finding representative subjects (Brown, 2003). Many researchers have
used psychology students from their own workplace or gathered subjects from
parapsychological forums. These subjects might be more willing to please the researcher and
contribute to a positive result, as well as consisting to a larger extent of people who are drawn
to similar phenomena, perhaps because of an overrepresentation of personal experience with
such experiences. On the other hand, psychology students will more probably have better
understanding of the phenomenon than others and can give more accurate and descriptive
answers. Several surveys have also lumped the dj vu phenomenon together with
parapsychological phenomena such as telekinesis, clairvoyance and ghost sightings on the
same survey. People who have experienced a dj vu might here feel uncomfortable reporting
36

Dj vu phenomenon
so as they either are afraid of the implied connection to the other phenomena or, if they do not
believe in the paranormal, might write off their experiences as something else entirely not as
some paranormal mumbo-jumbo.
A specific problem with retrospective reports is the rarity of dj vu
experiences. Unless you only experience one dj vu in your lifetime, it will probably become
difficult to remember the exact number and more importantly the events surrounding it and
the possible causes, e.g. if you were exhausted, stressed, what time of the day it was, what
you were doing at the time, if there were people around you, etc. It will also be easier to feel
pressured into giving an answer if you think you might have experienced something but are
not sure exactly what it was and if it corresponds to what the researcher is after.
The prospective reports eliminate the issue of remembrance as subjects are
asked to report directly after having a dj vu experience, not long after. However, it is very
time-consuming to accumulate any results, considering the rarity of the phenomenon.
Moreover, the subjects have to be motivated enough to keep such a dj vu diary over a
long period of time. People who have frequent dj vu experiences could be asked to keep
diaries in order to describe the surrounding factors and the nature of the experience, but the
small number of subjects would make the results difficult to generalize.

3.3.2. Case Reports

Case reports on dj vu were more common in the past when it was still
assumed to have ties to pathology. While studying epilepsy, dj vu would show itself as a
symptom rather than an independent phenomenon. As dj vu was not the focus of attention
in these cases, too detailed and analytical descriptions can not be expected. In more modern
times, electrically stimulating parts of the brain of TLEs have elicited dj vu experiences in
some cases, which have been subject of study. Although the thought of forcing a dj vu

37

Dj vu phenomenon
experience is very interesting for research purposes, the fact that it has only worked in some
cases and in other cases not makes it a very unreliable method. It is also unknown whether
electrical stimulation could elicit dj vu experiences in healthy subjects, as well, or if it is
exclusive to TLEs. Further study in this area might prove fruitful.

3.4. LIMITATIONS ON THE PRESENT PAPER

With the vast number of existing theories on dj vu, even within only scientific
literature, it was impossible to give each and one equal much space and consideration, given
the time restraints of the present paper. Instead of analysing all theories from the start and
selecting the ones deemed to have the highest explanatory power, a rough selection was
divided into categories and from there on analysed relative to each respective category. This
made it easier to select interesting theories, group together theories that were very similar, and
discard anything that seemed to have very low explanatory power. An attempt was also made
to keep a very clear thread within each category so that the theories in each respective
category shared only one or two more specific themes. As a negative result of this, the final
selection of theories became very limited, especially as whole themes of theories were
discarded in favour of keeping the thread simple and clear.
Another selective decision that was made was to discard any theories that
focused too much on the biology of dj vu as it was expected to demand much more in-depth
and complicated explanations with necessary support from a wide array of literature on the
anatomy of the brain. The neurological pathway delay theories are based on brain anatomy
but do not demand much knowledge of the anatomy of the brain to be fully understandable.
There are many theories on the role of epileptic seizures in the elicitation of dj vu
experiences and although there is much mention of epilepsy in relation to dj vu in this
paper, none of those theories are presented. Theories on epilepsy and dj vu especially

38

Dj vu phenomenon
seemed very demanding to describe as it involves specific brain regions, both shallow and
deep, and those brain regions functions would also have to be described in order to clearly
explain the effects of a seizure originating in those regions.
All in all, there are dozens of scientific theories not mentioned in this paper. Due
to space constraints, it would be very difficult to mention all theories in just one paper. Even
though the number of theories is very limited here, this paper should be seen as a more
general summary of theories. It would be interesting to reuse the present categorization and
re-gather theories on e.g. memory, and go more in-depth with each theory.

4. CONCLUSION
Dj vu is a common but not universal phenomenon with about two thirds
having experienced at least one dj vu in their lifetime, although most people who have
experienced it have done so several times. It is most common in young adulthood after which
the frequency decreases with age. The frequency seems to be positively influenced by travel,
stress and fatigue. The commonly used definition of dj vu is any subjectively inappropriate
impression of familiarity of a present experience with an undefined past to which a feeling of
predictability is often added.
The phenomenon has ever since it was first studied been linked to pathology,
especially epilepsy and schizophrenia, but there are no compelling evidence for any such
relation. Drug use and withdrawal, however, have shown positive relations to the frequency of
dj vu experience. The mystic nature of the phenomenon has paved way for many
parapsychological theories, which stigmatized dj vu early on in the scientific community,
restricting the amount of interest in the subject. The speculated link to pathology also

39

Dj vu phenomenon
stigmatized the phenomenon among common people who were afraid to admit having
experienced dj vu something that has only recently become more accepted.
The scientific theories discussed in this paper can be divided into four groups:
those that explain the phenomenon as the result of 1) two normally synchronous cognitive
processes becoming separate or merging, 2) altered neural transmission speed, 3)
misidentified and/or generalized familiarity, and 4) degraded or misdirected attention.
Although no category of theories can adequately explain the phenomenon with todays
findings, it is concluded that the third and fourth categories hold the greatest potential for
doing so with future research because of its easily testable hypotheses and support from
already existing findings in cognitive sciences.

40

Dj vu phenomenon

REFERENCES
Adachi, T. et al. (2006) Dj vu experiences in patients with schizophrenia. Comprehensive
Psychiatry, 47(5), 389-93.
Berrios, G.E. (1995) Dj vu in France during the 19th century: A conceptual history.
Comprehensive Psychiatry, 36(2), 123-129
Brown, A.S. (2003) A review of the dj vu experience. Psychological Bulletin, 129(3), 394413
Brown, A.S. (2004) The Dj Vu Experience. East Sussex, England: Psychology Press.
Bruce, V. & Young, A.W. (1986) Understanding face recognition. British Journal of
Psychology, 77, 305327.
Comfort, A. (1977) Homuncular identity-sense as a dj-vu phenomenon. British Journal of
Medical Psychology, 50, 313315.
de Nayer, A. (1979) Dj vu: Elaboration of a hypothetical model of explanation. Psychiatria
Clinica, 12, 9296.
Dickens, C. (1952) David Copperfield. Glasgow, Great Britian: Press of the Publishers.
Fleminger, S. (1991) The dj vu experience: Remembrance of things past?: Comment.
American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 14181419.
Funkhouser, A. (1996) Three Types of Dj Vu. Retrieved December 8, 2007 from
http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=264
Gloor, P. (1990) Experiential phenomena of temporal lobe epilepsy: Facts and hypotheses.
Brain, 113, 16731694.
Goodale, M.A. & Milner, A.D. (1992) Separate visual pathways for perception and action.
Trends in Neuroscience, 15, 2025.
Grasset, J. (1904) La sensation du dj vu. Journal de Psychologie, Normale et

41

Dj vu phenomenon
Pathologique, 1, 17.
Hirstein, W. (2005) Brain Fiction: Self-Deception and the Riddle of Confabulation.
Cambridge: MIT Press.
Jackson, J.H. (1888) On a particular variety of epilepsy (intellectual aura), one case with
symptoms of organic brain disease. Brain, 11, 179-207.
Mack, A. & Rock, I. (1998) Inattentional Blindness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
OConnor, A.R. & Moulin, C.J.A. (2006) Normal patterns of dj vu experience in a healthy,
blind male: Challenging optical pathway delay theory. Brain and Cognition,
62(3), 246-249.
Osborn, H. F. (1884) Illusions of memory. North American Review, 138, 476486.
Reed, G. (1974) The psychology of anomalous experience. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Reed, G. (1979) Everyday anomalies of recall and recognition. In J. F. Kihlstrom & F. J.
Evans (Eds.), Functional Disorders of Memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Sno, H. N. & Linszen, D. H. (1990) The dj vu experience: Remembrance of things past?
American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 15871595.
Weinand, M.E. et al. (1994) Long-term subdural strip electrocorticographic monitoring of
ictal dj vu. Epilepsia, 35(5), 1054-1059.
Wild, E. (2005) Dj vu in neurology. J Neurol, 252, 1-7.
Wohlgemuth, A. (1924) On paramnesia. Mind, 33, 304310.

42