Queer Theories in Medieval Studies
Queer Theories in Medieval Studies
Queer Theories in Medieval Studies
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A. Definition
Queer Studies developed in part from the feminism movement but came
into its own during the late 1980s and early 1990s especially with the works
of Judith Butler. It is still a growing school of thought in relation to mod-
ern literature, and therefore few theorists have applied much of this critical
approach to Medieval Studies. However, this is not to say Queer Studies has
not begun finding ground in its concern over identity formation and identity
politics during the Middle Ages. The aim is less about discerning an author’s
meaning or intention behind the manner that certain characters or situations
are represented, but instead, to show how these characters or situations
exemplify the social formation of identity and the interactions between the
different identity roles during that period. Identifying texts that demon-
strate how society molds and enforces these various identity roles and rela-
tionships therefore reinforces the argument of many queer theorists over
the artificiality of identity as opposed to any sort of natural or inherent
gender and sexuality. Because this is still a developing field, there are many
facets of Queer Studies still emerging, however, the primary focus of this
selection will be that of how it relates to identity formation and identity
politics.
B. Terminology
Queer Studies finds its roots in post-structuralism, and its primary purpose
is to open the discourse to the needs and interests of the lesbian, gay, bisex-
ual, and transgender communities. Because these needs and interests con-
tinue to change and grow, this field of studies is still in a state of self-deter-
mination. Michel Foucault (“Lecture 7 Jan 1976,” Michel Foucault: Society
Must Be Defended, 2003, 1–24) describes an “insurrection of the subjugated
knowledges,” and Queer Studies is certainly one example of where a margi-
nalized population has is made itself known (6–12). Queer Studies centers
itself in identity formation and attempts to explore the methods by which
individuals are labeled as men and women, masculine and feminine, as well
as heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual. It acts as a force of resistance
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Studies’ assertions that gender and sexuality are never fully present in the in-
dividual, but exist only in varying degrees at different times and therefore
cannot be fixed (Derrida, 112). In the same way a word’s meaning will in-
variably change with time and context, the concepts of gender and sexuality
are never wholly emblemized by any one individual, and here we see Derri-
da’s fingerprint on Queer Studies. During the 1980s, Foucault (“The Re-
pressive Hypothesis” The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, 1978, 15–50) also helped
set the stage for the development of Queer Studies in The History of Sexuality
with his notion of how institutions exercise power through individuals
thereby making them subjects to those establishments. The individual acted
in accordance to the rules and guidelines of their specific role, and he later ex-
plains how sodomites had only been temporary in nature until they were
broken down into various categories such as homosexuals clearly illustrating
identity as a preconceived notion and society fitting its members into rigid
and often fixed roles (Foucault, 15). Only in recent times were individuals
who performed acts of sodomy labeled as homosexuals, and it raises the
question of the artificiality and need for labels such as heterosexual and
homosexual.
During the 1980s and early 1990s, critical theorists such as Adrienne
Rich, Bonnie Zimmerman, Judith Butler, and Eve Sedgwick began
their work in Queer Studies branching out from the feminist movement, and
the rising awareness of the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender commu-
nities resulting from the onset of the AIDS epidemic. The term “Queer
Studies” actually came about during this time period in the writings of
Teresa de Laurentis. During the early 1980s, there was a public miscon-
ception that this disease originated from within the homosexual commu-
nity, and critics from outside the community began crying out that homo-
sexuality was a leading source of the disease pointing to its supposed
fatalistic nature that lead one to eventually contract HIV/AIDS. These critics
failed to focus on the unsafe actions performed by individuals (including het-
erosexuals) as a cause for this disease, instead of labeling certain groups of in-
dividuals as being responsible for the epidemic. This further marginaliz-
ation and misunderstanding of the LGBT communities lead to the rise in
these individuals’ need to speak out against such unfair treatment especially
when it became clear that there were other behaviors responsible for the dis-
ease and that it was not limited only to the LGBT community.
In the 1990s, Judith Butler focused on this notion of self-realization as
key to understanding an individual’s identity. Like Sedgwick, she contends
that gender is mutable and not a fixed concept determined by genetics.
Butler initially concerns herself with challenging the accepted binary ap-
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proach to gender, that is, the socially normative convention of being only
masculine or only feminine, along with the accompanying system of thought
that allows only these two gender choices (109–11). She argues against so-
ciety’s use of chromosomal sex in its determination of gender and sexuality
of the individual. The problem with this system can be seen for example,
when a male child slowly develops a sexual preference for other males (that
is, a manifestation of sexuality), demonstrates behaviors characteristic of
femininity (emblematic of his gender preference). This presents only one of
many possible variations in sexuality and gender. The individual possesses
the genetic makeup of a man, yet he displays gender and sexual preferences
outside the framework aligning male chromosomes with masculine gender
and heterosexual preference. In similar fashion, how does one label a woman
who does not adhere to feminine tastes and opts for more masculine beha-
viors? This illustrates the possibility for the rearrangement of gender and
sexuality not taken into account by the hegemonic construction of gender
identity.
Looking closely at cross-dresser, or drag queens, we can see begin to see
this rearrangement of gender and sexuality. Butler uses the example of Di-
vine (born Harris Glenn Milstead), a 300-pound cross-dresser who per-
formed in a number of John Waters’ movies, such as Hairspray (Butler,
X–XI). Butler makes a compelling argument when she posits the ways
“drag [is] the imitation of gender,” or it highlights the performative aspects
to those “signifying gestures through which gender itself is established” (X).
Drag queens demonstrate one of two possibilities: first, that they are simply
imitating the socially traditional understandings of gender, or secondly,
they illustrate the possibility that all methods of self-identification are per-
formances. If we believe the second claim, as Butler does, then we must ac-
cept that the idea of any sort of natural, inherent gender is a fantasy. Drag
replicates and mocks the gender role being performed, thereby exemplifying
the continued deconstruction of the binary system of gender. In revealing
the performative nature of gender, drag underscores the performative and
non-inherent aspects of identity as a whole (X–XI).
One of the significant problems of socially constructed identities lies at
the margins of the social group, with those individuals whose behaviors do
not fit in perfectly with the mainstream. Because we see “all social systems
are vulnerable at their margins, and that all margins are considered danger-
ous,” Butler (“Interiority to Gender Performatives,” The Norton Anthology of
Theory and Criticism) argues societies tend to label those individuals as margi-
nal and polluted since they no longer fit into the mainstream (Douglas
quoted in Butler, 2493). Taking Mary Douglas’ idea of the marginal
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and the performing arts. In the late 1990s, Marvin Carlson (Performance:
A Critical Introduction, 1998) provided a three-part working definition of per-
formance that involves the public display of a “recognized and culturally
coded pattern of behaviors” where the “success of the activity” is judged in
view of “some standard of achievement” (4–5). An act taking place on stage
is considered performed and the same action off-stage is “merely done,” yet
both are presented to the public (4). Every performance is public requiring
recognition and validation of the performer by the audience. Carlson
diverges from most gender performance theorists, however, when he argues
that the “recognition that our lives are structured according to repeated and
socially sanctioned modes of behavior raises the possibility that human activ-
ity could potentially be considered ‘performance’” (4). He further clarifies
the focus of the argument by suggesting “at least all activity carried out with
a consciousness of itself […] when we think about them […] gives them the
quality of performance” (4). While most Queer theorists would not argue
against the first part of his argument, the concept of performance only taking
place when the individual is aware of it places him in opposition to many. He
does seem willing to commit to the conscious construction of identity, but
does not address how unconscious behaviors relate to performance. This fails
to take into account either those behaviors individuals may not be aware
of what they are doing or the reasons individuals act in ways that contribute
to the performance of identity. Carlson’s point is worth considering, how-
ever, because sometimes the individual makes a decision to carry out an act
and the performed behavior may eventually become an unconscious repeti-
tion. Carlson’s argument for the conscious decision to perform is still valid
despite appearing to overlook the unconscious aspects of performance.
There is an interesting addition to Butler’s dialogue about drag in
Carlson’s discussion of the 1970s “Roberta Breitmore” character. Actress
Lynn Hershman embodies Queer Studies’ notion of identity performance in
her portrayal of a female exploring various aspects of real life, from joining a
mundane Weight Watchers group to participation in a prostitution ring.
“Roberta” had her own bank account, a driver’s license, fictional back-
ground, as well as a therapist she regularly saw until her eventual “death”
when Hershman completed her experiment in 1978 (Carlson, 152). This
suggests that drag, as Butler discussed it, is simply an extension of the very
theatrical performance Carlson discusses. Hershman’s drag accomplishes
two things: first, it doesn’t necessarily mock those presented aspects of iden-
tity Butler asserted were characteristic of drag, but it does illustrate the
performative nature of identity. Secondly, it shows that individuals can con-
duct a drag performance of characters of the same sex with purpose of explor-
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ing “many of the personal/ daily conflicts […] faced” in day-to-day experi-
ence (152).
There is also the issue of the individual’s deliberate manipulation of
these signs – those acts and behaviors indicative of a specific script – that il-
lustrate the performative aspect of identity. Some signs considered emblem-
atic of one stigmatized script can be associated with a second script of a dif-
ferent sort:
Those attempting to direct attention from their stigma may present the sign of
their stigmatized failing as the signs of another stigma […] [Oscar Wilde] man-
aged the stigma of homosexuality through claiming an identity built upon sec-
ondary signs (Carlson, 154).
the body from social expectations otherwise placed on the unmasked body.
The body is the vehicle for communicating signs, but for Crane (and unlike
Butler) “clothing, not the skin, is the frontier of the self,” acting as the sign
that communicates the different meanings or characteristics of identity.
Crane supports her argument by stating that “clothing mark[s] social posi-
tion, age, gender, season, and even time of the day” (6). Only knights were
found wearing armor astride a horse, and nobility were easily identified by
the family coat of arms they wore. Both upper and lower classes lived under
“sumptuary legislation [that] assigned clothing significant social weight […]
[and] restricted various fabrics, furs, and ornaments to the use of specific
ranks and income levels” (11). These examples provide concrete evidence of
the significance of clothing in the social construction of identity in 15th-cen-
tury England. In this way, Crane demonstrates how Queer Studies’ contem-
porary understanding of identity performance applies to the late medieval
period in a relevant manner.
Dorsey Armstrong (Gender and the Chivalric Community in Malory’s Morte
d’Arthur, 2003) breaks new ground in when she ties Queer Studies and iden-
tity performance to Le Morte d’Arthur – a text previously unexamined by other
Queer theorists. Taking Judith Butler’s understanding of drag as a per-
formance of self, Armstrong makes the argument that knighthood is itself
a form of drag. The individual puts on an identity through the adherence to a
rigid code of conduct and wearing such accoutrements such as armor and a
coat of arms (Armstrong, 68). Drag often serves as a disruptive force among
socially expected gender roles in modern society. Since Lancelot adopts the
script of the madman and causes a significant disruption wherever he goes,
Armstrong’s connection of this contemporary theory to Malory’s text ap-
pears to be a logical one.
One of the most clear-cut examples of identity’s social formation is seen
in “The Book of King Arthur” when the Knightly Code is established. Arm-
strong notes how Arthur helps create a society that imprints upon each in-
dividual an identity script dependent such factors as gender and the socio-
economic class. Once the individual is properly identified, there is a cultural
expectation that the individual performs this role to a satisfactory degree.
She points out Arthur’s establishment of Knight’s Code from “The Tale of
King Arthur” as an example of such societal identity formation:
“[…] than the kynge stablysshed all the knyghtes and gaff them rychesse and lon-
dys; and charged them never to do outerage nothir mourthir, and allwayes to
fle treson, and to gyff mercy unto hym that askith mercy, upon payne of forfiture
[or their] worship and lordship of kynge Arthure for evermore; and allwayes to do
ladyes, damsels, and jantilwomen and wydowes [socour:] strengthe hem in hir
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ryghtes, and never to enforce them, upon payne of dethe. Also, that no man take
no batalyes in a wrongefull quarell for no love ne for no worldis goodis. So unto
thys were all knyghtis sworne of the Table Rounde, both olde and younge, and
every yere so were the[y] sworne at the hyghe feste of Pentecoste” (Malory 75–6).
eventually makes clear the structured failings of the code” and by extension
the tensions within any socially imposed identity (78). While Malory is not
alone in depicting some of the ways society has acted in the creation of the
identity roles, the lasting endurance of Le Morte d’Arthur speaks to the level of
his contribution to the discourse of identity formation.
The last difference Armstrong makes between Malory and his prede-
cessors is his inclination to depict a culture of chivalry where the masculine is
completely subservient to the feminine: knights were tasked to aid all
women of every social station. This is a drastic change from Lull and de Char-
ney who both advocated courtly relationships of mutual benefit to both the
man and woman (84). Malory’s reinterpretation of courtly love carries an
underlying implication that all women need the aid of a man in all matters.
This implication suggests when the woman does not need the man’s aid, the
man’s identity is called into question. Armstrong states “the feminine rep-
resents the perpetual opportunity for positive construction and refinement
[…] [and] to admit the possibility that the feminine need not always be help-
less and vulnerable would be to admit to a potential threat to the idealized
stable gender system” (82). Men repeatedly performing masculine behaviors
reinforce both their roles as men and the women’s place in society. Women
who are able to help themselves leave little for men to accomplish. For this
reason, we see a further breakdown of Malory’s vision of the chivalric com-
munity when women act outside of their given roles.
E. Summary
Every individual has various identity scripts written on their bodies that help
determine whether the body can be identified as masculine or feminine, het-
erosexual or homosexual, aristocratic or peasant. The body performs these
signs through performing actions or clothing itself with accessories. Cul-
tures imprint these identity scripts on the body of every individual through
the ages, leading to the misconception that this established practice is a natu-
ral and real standard for the individual to meet. Queer Studies shows that
each person forms a composite of these various scripted identities, with the
end result the construction of an individual public persona. When individ-
uals act out these respective scripts be they male or female, masculine or
feminine, or some differing form of sexual orientation, they demonstrate
both a conscious and an unconscious performance. When the individual per-
forms consciously, this demonstrates the notion of performance and is as
close to self-representation as is possible.
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Select Bibliography
Elizabeth Allen, “The Pardoner in the ‘Dogges Bour’: Early Reception of the Canter-
bury Tales,” False Fables and Exemplary Truth in Later Middle English Literature (New York:
MacMillan, 2005), 111–32; Judith Butler, “Imitation and Gender Insubordination,”
The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader (New York: Routledge, 1993), 307–20; Teresa de
Lauretis, “Queer Studies: Lesbian and Gay Sexualities: An Introduction,” Differences
3.2 (1991): III–XVIII; Carolyn Dinshaw, “Got Medieval,” Journal of the History of Sexual-
ity 10.2 (2001): 202–12; Lisa Duggan, “The Discipline Problem: Queer Studies Meets
Lesbian and Gay History,” GLQ 2.3 (1995): 179–91; Tison Pugh, “Queering Harry
Bailey: Gendered Carnival, Social Ideologies, and Masculinity Under Duress in the
Canterbury Tales,” The Chaucer Review 41.1 (2006): 39–69; Adrienne Rich, “Compul-
sory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and
Society 5 (1980): 631–60; James Schultz, “Heterosexuality as a Threat to Medieval
Studies,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 15.1 (2006): 14–29.
Forrest C. Helvie