World War II - Causes and Consequences (Emergence of Super Powers)
World War II - Causes and Consequences (Emergence of Super Powers)
World War II - Causes and Consequences (Emergence of Super Powers)
Let Us Sum Up
~ e Words
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Some Useful Books
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
6.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit discusses World War-I1 that started in September 1939 and ended only in
August 1945 after the drop of two atom bombs by the United States of America on
Japan. By studying' through this unit you should be able to :
idendify causes for World War 11;
describe how World War I1 began and how USA and USSR became allies;
discuss the outcome of the peace treaties signed at on the conclusion of the war;
and
understand the emergence of USA and USSR as Super Powers.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
World War-I1 began in 1939 with German a~gressionon Poland on September 1. Earlier,
two erstwhile enemies namely Germany and Soviet Union had signed a non-aggression
pact making way for Polish partition between two of them. All efforts to reach an
understanding between the Soviet Union on the one hand and Britain and France on the
other had proved fruitless. In fact, secret negotiations were being simultaneously carried
on between the Soviet Union and Germany and also between Britain and Gennany.
Britain and France took Soviet Union for granted and did not bother to conclude a
military alliance with the latter. This paved the way for Soviet-German non-aggtession
pact and German attack on Poland.
A few months before the outbreak of World War 11, both Britain and France and given
guarantees to Poland assuring that in case of an aggression on it, they would provide
her all possible assistance. When all attempts to avoid war and protect Poland had failed
and Germany invaded Poland, Britain and France declared a war on Germany on
September 3, 1939. Soon afterwards, many other countries too declared war on
Germany. Japan had launched aggression against China, but did not declare war either
on the Soviet Union or, for some time, on the USA, Italy remained neutral in the war
for some time, but finally joined the war on the side.of Germany in June 1940. After
Germany had won decisive victories against several countries in Europe, it waged a war
against the Soviet Union also on June 22, 1941. This brought USSR into the Allied
Camp. With the Japanese bombardment of Pearl Harbour on December 7, 1941 the
United States finally entered the war. The War was fought between the Allies (Britain,
France, Soviet Union, USA and their friends) on the one side and the Axis Powers
(Germany, Italy and Japan) on the other.
The War ended in the unconditional^ surrender of Italy, Germany and Japan in that order
In this unit you will read about the circumstances under which World War I1 broke out
and the factors responsible for the war. You will also read about the consequences of
this most destructive war in the history of the world. Military activities and details of
various battles are not our concern in this Unit. We will conclude the unit with a
reference to the attempts made after the war for the conclusion of the peace treaties
with the defeated powers. We will also discuss how some of the erstwhile big powers
lost their power, and how the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the two
Super Powers.
Treaty of Versailles
An attempt was made in Paris Peace Conference, held after the First World War, in
1919 to establish an ideal world order based on justice, peace and disarmament. But,
what finally emerged in the shape of treaty of Versailles was a dictated treaty of peace
imposed upon Germany. The victor participants lacked sincerity of purpose. France was
out to settle an old score-its 1871 defeat and humiliation at the hands of Germany.
Normal courtesies expected by the representatives of a sovereign country were not
extended to Germany. The peace conference had begun in January 1919. The treaty of
peace was drafted by Allies without any negotiation with the defeated Germany. On
May 7, 1919 Germany was given the draft treaty for its suggestions to be given in
writing within three weeks. The announcement of terms of the treaty resulted in a fierce
outburst of resentment in Germany. Germany denied that it alone was responsible for
the war. Germany raised many objections and suggested modifications but, except for
one madification, all the objections were brushed aside and finally, Germany was made
to sign the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919. Germans called it a "diktat", and
could not bear this insult and humiliation.
Germaqy was deprived of all her overseas colonies, and even in Europe her size stood
substantially reduced. Poland, France, Belgium had others gained at her cost. Her army
and navy were severely curtailed. She was told not to have any air force. Germany was
declared guilty of war crimes and made to promise to pay a massive amount of
reparation to the victors. Treaty of Versailles mutilated and humiliated Germany. Twenty
years later, it was the turn of Germany to take revenge. Hitler had came on the centre
stage, led his proud people to avenge their humiliation and thus paved the way for the
Stcond World War.
that in case of an aggression, members of the League, by their collective action, would
compel the aggressor to withdraw. This collective action could either he in the form of
economic sanctions against the aggressor, or military support to the victim of aggression
or both.
During the inter-war years it was, however, proved that the League was an ineffective
organisation in respect of a big power if the latter decided to wage of a war against, or
annex, a small country. In 1931, Japan committed an aggression against China and by
early 1932, managed to conquer Manchuria province of that country. Japan very cleverly
kept on telling the League that her action in Manchuria was in self-defence i.e.
(protecting life and property of the Japanese in Manchuria, and only a police action not
aggression). Japan, a permanent member of the League, forged ahead to establish a
puppet Manchukuo regime in Manchuria. When the League asked member nations not
to recognise Manchukuo, Japan left the League but retained control on the conquered
territory.
Later, in 1935 Italy waged a war against Abyssinia, defeated her, and in May 1936
formally annexed that country into Italian Empire. The League tried to enforce
collective security system, declared Italy an aggressor and clamped economic sanctions.
All this was of no avail as no military action was taken against Italy who was also a
big power and permanent member of the League Council. Similarly, no action was
taken by a weak League of Nations against Germany when she repudiated the military
clauses of the Versailles Treaty (1935) and the freely negotiated Locarno Pact
remilitarised Rhineland (1936), when annexed Austria (1938) and dismembered
Czechoslovakia (1938-39). Thus, failure of the collective security system turned out to
be a major cause of the World War-11.
Failure of Disarmament
It was agreed at the Paris Peace Conference that world peace could be ensured only if
nations reduced their armaments to a point consistent with their domestic safety or
defence. That means all weapons of offensive nature were to be destroyed. The task of
preparing a plan for reduction of armaments was entrusted to the League of Nations.
The League appointed Temporary Mixed Commission in 1920 which however could not
do any substantial work because France insisted on, security before disarmament. In
1925 Preparatory Commission was instituted. Due to divergent views of nations that
mattered, it could not identify offensive weapons. Finally, without much preparatory
work a Disarmament Conference met at Geneva in Februry 1932. Once against mutual
distrust and suspicion led to the failure of Conference, after protracted negotiations.
Germany had been disarmed by the Treaty of Versailles. Victor nations were to disarm
later. They, however, never really wanted to disarm. Therefore, in October 1933
Germany declared that she was leaving both the Disarmament Conference and the
League of Nations. Later in 1935 Germany formally declared that she was no more
bound by the military or disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. Other
countries were already in possession of large quantities of armaments and big armed
forces. German decision heralded a massive armament race which led to an armed
conflict. The failure of disarmament became yet another major cause of Second World
war.
Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis
On the eve of the First World War, Europe was divided into two hostile camps. The
same process was once again repeated with the formation of an alliance of Germany,
Japan and Italy. It was concluded through-the Anti-Comintern pact during 1936-37. This
combination of facist powers generally called Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was aimed at
imperialist expansion. They glorified war, and openly denounced peaceful settlement of
disputes. They bullied western countries and victimised weaker nations like China,
Ausuia, Czechoslovakia, Albani and Poland. Their war-like acts and aggressions though
noticed, yet went unpunished. Alarmed at the conduct of Axis powers, England and
France came closer to each other and an unsuccessful attempt was made at the
formation of an Anglo-French-Soviet Front. Although France and Soviet Union had an
alliance, yet in their desire to appease Hitler, France and England ignored Soviet Union
and when Stalin wanted a military pact between three non-Fascist powers they took it
easy. Soviet Union became suspicious and suvrised the world by signing the nonaggression pact with Germany. This directly cleared the way for German attack on
Poland which led to the outbreak of the Second World War. While Soviet Union also
invaded Poland, England and France declared war on Germany.
rl
i
Ir
out, the pact was called by its critics as "simple aggression pact against Poland". In a
secret pact, which emerged only in 1945, the two countries had resolved to divide
Eastern Europe into their spheres on September 1, 1939. As you know, England and
France and already assured Poland of their help in case of an invasion. They kept their
word and declared war on Germany. While Germany invaded Poland in the west, Soviet
troops moved into Poland from the east on September 17-18, 1939. Poland was divided
between Germany and Soviet Union by the Soviet-German Frontier and Friendship
treaty of 28 September 1939. Meanwhile, many other countries had also declared war
on Germany, though these were symbolic declarations as even France and Britain were
still busy making preparations for war, while Poland was being destroyed.
Soviet Union had also dictated terms to Rumania and recovered Bessarabia and
Bukovina from it. Thus, by mid-1941 Soviet Union was busy collecting war gains
.without being in the war.
''
Hitler had secured French surrender in June 1940. But Hitler was not so lucky where
Spain was concerned. General Franco keeps his country out of war. Since it was being
fought by Hitler in association with Stalin, Spain remained neutral throughout the war.
Public opinion in the United States was overwhelmingly opposed to being drawn into
the war. In 1937, US Congress had passed the Neutrality Act which also prohibited sale
of armaments in a future war. When the war actually broke out and Germany started
bombing and destroying western democracies, Americans began weakening their
neutrality stance. Cash and Carry Act was passed in November 1939, permitting
countries at war to buy American weapons provided they paid cash and carried them in
their own ships. When the war reached a crucial stage, Lend-Lease Act was passed in
March 1941. It allowed the President to sell, exchange, end lease or otherwise dispose
off any defence article. Thus, US began supplying armaments to friendly countries such
as Britain and China. Three months later when Soviet Union was attacked by Germany
she was also covered by the Lend-Lease Act.
'The Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact signed in 1939 had been designed by Hitler to
keep Soviet Union in the dark about his actual intentions. As soon as Germany had
defeated her enemies on the European continent, it began preparing for invasion of the
Soviet Union itself. But, Stalin remained convinced that Hitler would not attack Soviet
Union. Everyone had warned Stalin of Nazi attack-Churchill, American Embassy and
Stalin's o:.n men in Tokyo. But Stalin refused to listen till 22 June 1941 when Germany
actually launb,.,d the attack on Soviet Union. Stalin was stunned at this and Soviet
Union sought allied assistance. Britain accepted Soviet Union into the Allied camp. In
July, London and Moscow signed a military pact.
When Soviet Union was facing a devastating war, United States was forced to enter the
war in December 1941, when Japan attacked its naval base in Pearl Harbour. American
relations with Japan were never cordial. Japanese assets in America were already frozen.
In August 1941 the United States had announced that any Japanese action against
Thailand would cause her grave concern. Unsuccessful attempts were made for a
meeting between us President Roosevelt and Japanese Prime Minister Kono in
September. In October Kono resigned and General Tojo became the Prime Minister of
Japan. He openly encouraged conflict. In November, Britain had promised to declare
war on Japan if United States became involved in a war with that country. Tension was
building up rapidly and war appeared imminent. On 6 December 1941 President
Roosevelt made a personal request to the Japanese Emperor for help in maintaining
peace. Rather than peace, America got Japanese bombardment next day. On December
7, 1941 early in the morning large American navel fleet based at Pearl Harbour (Hawaii
Islands) was heavily bombed by the Japanese. A few hours later, Japan declared war
"on the United Staes of America and the British Empire". On December 11, both
Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. The war thus became global.
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2)
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The Allies were fighting hard for victory against Japan in the Far East. Hence the main
responsibility fell on the United States, who was assisted by Britain, China, the
Netherlands, Australia and New Zealand. Allied invasion of Japan was organised with
China as the base. MacArther directed these operations. Two allied campaigns were
launched in the autumn of 1944. The' one under Lord Mountbatten was aimed at
reconquest of Burma. The other, under Gen. MacArther involved liberation of Philippine
Islands. Both thc mlssions were completed by June 1945. Details of these operations are
not our concern here. The Potsdam Conference which was meeting to decide the future
of the defeated Germany and other related issues gave a call to Japan in July 1945" to
proclaim now the unconditional surrender of all Japanese armed forces .... the alternative
for Japan is prompt and utter destruction". Since the Soviet Union was not yet at war
with Japan, she did not sign this declaration. The ultimatum was ignored by the
Japanese who continued to fight. At this stage America decided to use the atom bomb
and secure Japan's unconditional surrender. On August 6, 1945 American Air force
dropped the first ever atom bomb on the important Japanese city Hiroshima and wiped
out more than half of the target area. Two days later (August 8), the Soviet Union
declared war on JapalLand began offensive in Manchuria and Southern Sakhalin (both
were then under Japanese control). Progress of the Soviet troops was swift. On August
9, 1945 a second atom bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, unleashing unprecedent
destruction. The next day, Japan sued for peace. Fighting stopped but surrender
documents were signed only on September 2, 1945 on board the US battleship Missouri.
The Second World War finally ended with Japan'coming under the American
occupatib.
The consequences of the war, thus, was the total defeat of the three Axis powers and
victory of the Allies. This also meant Victory of democracy and defeat of Fascism and
dictatorship.
ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
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The conclusion of peace treaties after the Second World War proved to be a very
difficult task. After two years of the termination of hostilities, treaties were concluded
only with five of the defeated powers. They were Italy, Rumania, Bulgaria, Hungary and
Finland. The treaty of peace with Austria could be concluded only in 1955 and with
Japan in 1952. Germany could not be reunited. It remained divided between pro-west
Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and Democratic German Republic under
the influence of the Soviet Union. Since Germany was not reunited no treaty with
Germany as such was ever concluded. Two Germanys were finally united in 1990 into
one Germany. We shall briefly deal with the Potsdam Conference and then the peace
treaties concluded with other defeated powers.
Pending the final demarcation of the western borders of Poland, South-eastern Prussia
and the areas to the e;st Rivers order and Neisse would constitute the western parts of
that country. It was also agreed that as soon as possible, free and fair democratic
elections would be held in Poland.
Potsdam Conference decided that the Allied forces would be immediately withdrawn
from Iran. Tanjier was to be declared an international area. No reparation was to be
taken from Austria.
The conference took decisions regarding the bases of surrender by Japan. Imperialistic
elements would be eliminated and Japan would be disarmed. The war criminals of Japan
would be punished. Immediately after her surrender Allied Military Control would be
established in Japan and eventually a democratic government would be set up. The
sovereigntyof Japan would be limited to her four major and a few smaller islands. All
foreign territories occupied by Japan before or during the Second World War would be
liberated and transferred to the countries where they lawfully belonged.
4
The conditions spelt out at the Potsdam Conference for the Japanese surrender were not
accepted by that country. The United States of America, without taking the Soviet
Union into confidence, dropped atom bombs on two of the Japanese cities early in
August 1945 compelling her to surrender unconditionally on August 10, 1945. Thus, the
Second World War came to an end. The fact that the United States developed and used
the atom bomb without the knowledge of the Soviet Union became one the causes that
gave birth to the cold war immediately after the hostilities ended the Second World War.
over nor
The Rumania Treaty provided for transfer of the provinces of Bessarabia, and Bukovina
from Roumania to the Soviet Union and Doubruja to Bulgaria. She was to pay
reparation to the Soviet Union and limits were imposed on the strength of its military
forces.
Hungary was made to return to Czechoslova~iasome of the villages situated to the
south of River Dandube which she had occupied in 1938. The Province of Transylvania
was returned by Hungary to Roumania. She was also required to pay reparation and was
disarmed.
Bulgaria did not loose any territory. It,actually gained the territory of Doubruja from
Roumania. But like others, Bulgaria was also asked to pay reparation and her armed
forces were curtailed.
Finland was deprived of several small territories which all went to the Soviet Union.
The area of Salla, the province of Petsamo and the Naval Base of Porkkala Udd were
given by her to the Soviet Union. Like other defeated powers, reparation was imposed
upon Finland also. Its armed forces were considerably curtailed and limited.
These five treaties gave maximum advantage to the Soviet Union. Another country who
gained sufficient territory, power and prestige was Yugoslavia who became the most
powerful nation in the Balkans and a rival of Italy.
Austria : Austria had been occupied by the German army in 1938 and ever since
continued as an occupied part of defeated Germany. Austria was treated as a "liberated
territory". This Moscow Conference of 1943 had pledged to create a sovereign state of
Austria. But, soon after the war, serious differences developed among the Allies. Soviet
Union wanted to impose severe economic restrictions on Austria. This was not
acceptable to the western powers. The deadlock remained for nearly 10 years. Finally,
Austria agreed to declare itself a "neutral" country and to pay some compensation to the
Soviet Union. Thereupon, the Soviet Union agreed to separate the Austrian question
from the problem of Germany. A peace treaty was signed by Austria on May 15, 1955
whereby it became a "neutral" country.
Japan : The cold war and differences between the United States and the Soviet Union
delayed the conclusion of peace treaty with Japan. But, unlike Germany and Austria,
Japan was under occupation of only the American forces. After the Japanese surrender
on August 10, 1945 an interim military administration had been set up by the
Americans. The entire authority was vested in the hands of the Supreme Commander of
the Allied Powers. General MacArthur was appointed as a Supreme Commander and
Germany : We have said that Germany was divided into four occupation zones
immediately after its surrender. The western powers alleged that, in violation of the
understanding earlier reached, Soviet Union was converting its zone of Eastern Germany
into a communist state. This hampered not only the unification of Germany but also
conclusion of a peace treaty. Nevertheless, both Soviet Union and the Western Powers
took a number of unilateral decisions regarding Germany. The first such decision was
taken by Britain, and the United States who merged their zones into one on January 1,
1947. Later, France also allowed the merger of her zone with the Unified western zone.
Subsequently the three powers decided to set up a free, independent and democratic
government in West Germany. The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), comprising
erstwhile western zones, was formally established on September 21, 1949. The Western
Powers formally terminated the 'state of war' with the Federal Republic of Germany in
1951.
Soon after the setting up of the Federal Republic of Germany, the Soviet Union
proceeded to create an independent state of East Germany. It was designated as the
German Democratic Republic (GDR) and was organised on the Socialist pattern of the
USSR. Full sovereignty was granted to the GDR by the Soviet Union by a treaty
concluded between them in September 1955-one year after the sovereignty of West
Germany was recognised by the western powers. Thus, Germany remained divided into
two hostile countries till 1990-one was aligned with the west and had capitalist order
and had made very rapid industrial progress, and the other was aligned to the Soviet
Union and had her economy based on socialism and her political system patterned on
the Soviet Union. The two Germanies-West Germany and East Germany began process
of unification in 1989. The United Germany was born only in October 1990.
ii) Check your answer with the model'answers given at the end of the unit.
( j Mention briefly provisions of peace treaty concluded between victors and Italy in
1946.
the Pearl Harbour, Americans were engaged in an unpredented war, but the civilian lives
and property were left untouched. This gave an added advantage to the Americans
because their other Allies in the war had suffered heavy civilian losses also. Britain was
heavily bombarded, France was under occupation for four years and the Soviet Union
had been target of German invasion till the sccond front was opened against her.
Until the Soviet Union experimented her nuclear device in 1949, America had the
monopoly of nuclear power. Even after 1949, the United States continued to have
considerable technological leadership over the USSR both in military and political
spheres till 1953. America had world's strongest airforce and a leading navy. The United
States and USSR both had about 12 million men each in armed force by the end of the
war.
ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
I) Describe emergence of the United States as most powerful nation after the Second
World War.
2) In what ways did the USSR challenge the US supremacy after 1945?
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3) Analyse briefly the emergence of Super Powers after the Second World War.
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Axis
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1)
2)
U.S. entry in the war strengthened the Allies. Germany was unable to fight on two
fronts; USSR liberated east European countries, and Western Europe freed by
'Britain and U.S.A. Faced with defeat, Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945.
2)
Allied Victory in Europe left them free to fight and defeat Japan; America dropped
two Atom Bombs in August 1945 forcing Japan for unconditional surrender.
3)
Total defeat of the three Axis Powers and Victory of the Allies, which also meant
defeat of fascism and dictatorship and victory of democracy.
Territorial gains for France, Greece and Yugoslavia; Trieste became independent,
Albania and Ethiopia (Abyssina) regained independence, Armed forced reduced.
2)
The United States was the first country to have manufactured and used atom
bomb; it secured Japanese surrender; earlier U.S. role was largely responsible for
defeat of Germany and Italy. No battle was fought in US territory. In 1945, USA
had the world's strungest airforce and a leading navy.
2)
U.S.S.R. even before acquiring nuclear weapons, had become second most
powerful country. Its army established communist regimes in Poland and other
East European countries. Its ideological thrust was a challenge of U.S.A.
3)
The T.S.A. and U.S.S.R. both were much better placed than other victors. US
suffered negligible civilian losses, USSR's vast territory and ideological
commitment gave it advantage. US led capitalist world, and the USSR became the
rallying point of world communism.