Teach Yourself Trigonometry

Contents
Introduction
I
Geometrical Foundations
The nature of geometry. Plane surfaces. Angles and
their measurement. Geometrical theorems; lines
and triangles. Quadrilaterals. The circle. Solid
geometry. Angles of elevation and depression.
2 Using your Calculator
Arithmetic and algebraic calculators. Rounding or
truncating calculators. Differing calculator displays.
Using your calculator for simple calculations. The
clear keys. Handling minus signs and negative
numbers. Calculations involving brackets. Using the
memory. Using other mathematical functions.
Functions and their inverses. Changing degrees to
degrees, minutes and seconds. Changing degrees to
radians. Finding trigonometrical functions. Finding
inverse trigonometrical functions.
3 The Trigonometrical Ratios
The tangent. Changes of tangents in the first
quadrant. Tables of tangents. Uses of tangents. The
sine and cosine. Changes of sines and cosines in the
first quadrant. Uses of sines and cosines. The
cosecant, secant and cotangent. Using your
calculator for other trigonometncal ratios. Graphs
of trigonometrical ratios. Uses of other
trigonometrical ratios. Solution of right-angled
triangles. Slope and gradient. Projections.
viii
1
28
39
VI
Contents
Relations between the Trigonometrical Ratios
tan
sin e
e = -cos e
tarr'
sur'
e+
e+1=
cos~
sec'
e=
cor' 0 + I = cosec2 0
s Ratios of Angles in the Second Quadrant
Posinve and negative Imes
Direcnon of rotation of angle
The sign convention for the hypotenuse
To find the ratio of angles m the second quadrant
from the tables
To find an angle when a ratio rs given
The inverse notation
Graphs of the sine, cosine and tangent between 0
and 360
6 Trigonometrical Ratios of Compound Angles
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sm B, etc
sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B, etc
tan (A + B) and tan (A - B) Multiple and submultiple formulae Product formulae
7 Relations between the Sides and Angles of a Triangle
The sme rule The cosine rule The half-angle
formulae Formula for sin
72
15
87
100
A
2 m terms of the sides
Formula for cos
A
2 m terms of the sides
Formula for tan
A
2 in terms of the sides
Formula for sm A m terms of the sides

B-C
b-c
A
tan --2- = b + c cot 2 a = b cos C + c cos B
I The Solution of Triangles
Case I Three sides known Case II Two sides and
contained angle known Case III Two angles and a
side known Case IV The arnbiguou-, case The
area of a tnangle
9 Practical problems involving the Solution of
Triangles
Deten.nmuon of the height of a distant object
11~
127
Contents
v11
Distance of an inaccessible object Distance

between two visible but maccessible Objects
Tnangulation Worked examples
10 Circular Measure
141
Rat10 of circumference of a circle to its diameter

The radian To find the circular measure of an
angle The length of an arc
11
Trigonometrical Ratios of Angles of any Magnitude

Angles m the 3rd and 4th quadrants
147
Vanations m the sine between 0 and 360

Vanations in the cosine between 0 and 360
Vanations tn the tangent between 0 and 360
Ratios of angles greater than 360
Ratios of (- 0)
Ratios of 0 and (180 + 0)
Ranos of 0 and (360 - 0)
Angles with given tngonometncal ratios
12
164
Trigonometrical Equations
Types of equations
The form a cos 0 - b sin 0
Summary of Trigonometrical Formulae

T~~
171
Answers
186
lN
Introduction
Two major difficulties present themselves when a book of this kind
is planned.
In the first place those who use it may desire to apply it in a
variety of ways and will be concerned with widely different
problems to which trigonometry supplies the solution.
In the second instance the previous mathematical training of its
readers will vary considerably.
To the first of these difficulties there can be but one solution.
The book can do no more than include those parts which are
fundamental and common to the needs of all who require
trigonometry to solve their problems. To attempt to deal with the
technical applications of the subject in so many different directions
would be impossible within the limits of a small volume.
Moreover, students of all kinds would find the book overloaded
by the inclusion of matter which, while useful to some, would be
unwanted by others.
Where it has been possible and desirable, the bearing of certain
sections of the subject upon technical problems has been indicated, but, in general, the book aims at putting the student in a
position to apply to individual problems the principles, rules and
formulae which form the necessary basis for practical applications.
The second difficulty has been to decide what preliminary
mathematics should be included in the volume so that it may be
intelligible to those students whose previous mathematical equipment is slight. The general aim of the volumes in the series is that,
as far as possible, they shall be self-contained. But in this volume
it is obviously necessary to assume some previous mathematical
training. The study of trigonometry cannot be begun without a
knowledge of arithmetic, a certain amount of algebra, and some
acquaintance with the fundamentals of geometry.
Introduction ix
It may safely be assumed that all who use this book will have a
sufficient knowledge of arithmetic. In algebra the student is
expected to have studied at least as much as is contained in the
volume in this series called Teach Yourself Algebra.
The use of an electronic calculator is essential and there can be
no progress in the application of trigonometry without having
access to a calculating aid. Accordingly chapter 2 is devoted to
using a calculator and unless you are reasonably proficient you
should not proceed with the rest of the book until you have
covered this work. Ideally a scientific calculator is required, but
since trigonometric tables are included at the end of the book, it
is in fact possible to cover the work using a simple four rule
calculator.
No explanation of graphs has been attempted in this volume. In
these days, however, when graphical illustrations enter so generally into our daily life, there can be few who are without some
knowledge of them, even if no study has been made of the
underlying mathematical principles. But, although graphs of
trigonometrical functions are included, they are not essential in
general to a working knowledge of the subject.
A certain amount of geometrical knowledge is necessary as a
foundation for the study of trigonometry, and possibly many who
use this book will have no previous acquaintance with geometry.
For them chapter 1 has been included. This chapter is in no sense
a course of geometry, or of geometrical reasoning, but merely a
brief descriptive account of geometrical terms and of certain
fundamental geometrical theorems which will make the succeeding chapters more easily understood. It is not suggested that a
great deal of time should be spent on this part of the book, and
no exercises are included. It is desirable, however, that you make
yourself well acquainted with the subject-matter of it, so that you
are thoroughly familiar with the meanings of the terms employed
and acquire something of a working knowledge of the geometrical
theorems which are stated.
The real study of trigonometry begins with chapter 3, and from
that point until the end of chapter 9 there is very little that can be
omitted by any student. Perhaps the only exception is the 'product
formulae' in sections 86- 88. This section is necessary, however,
for the proof of the important formula of section 98, but a student
who is pressed for time and finds this part of the work
troublesome, may be content to assume the truth of it when
studying section 98. In chapter 9 you will reach what you may
x Introduction
consider the goal of elementary trigonometry. the 'solution of the
triangle' and its many applications, and there you may be content
to stop.
Chapters 10. 11 and 12 are not essential for all practical
applications of the subject, but some students, such as electrical
engineers and, of course, all who intend to proceed to more
advanced work, cannot afford to omit them. It may be noted that
previous to chapter 9 only angles which are not greater than 180
have been considered, and these have been taken in two stages in
chapters 3 and 5, so that the approach may be easier. Chapter 11
continues the work of these two chapters and generalises with a
treatment of angles of any magnitude.
The exercises throughout have been carefully graded and
selected in such a way as to provide the necessary amount of
manipulation. Most of them are straightforward and purposeful;
examples of academic interest or requiring special skill in
manipulation have, generally speaking, been excluded.
Trigonometry employs a comparatively large number of formulae. The more important of these have been collected and printed
on pp. 171-173 in a convenient form for easy reference.
Trigonometry and Geometry
The name trigonometry is derived from the Greek words meaning

'triangle' and 'to measure'. It was so called because in its
beginnings it was mainly concerned with the problem of 'solving
a triangle'. By this is meant the problem of finding all the sides
and angles of a triangle, when some of these are known.
Before beginning the study of trigonometry it is desirable, in
order to reach an intelligent understanding of it, to acquire some
knowledge of the fundamental geometrical ideas upon which the
subject is built. Indeed, geometry itself is thought to have had its
origins in practical problems which are now solved by trigonometry. This is indicated in certain fragments of Egyptian mathematics which are available for our study. We learn from them that,
from early times, Egyptian mathematicians were concerned with
the solution of problems arising out of certain geographical
phenomena peculiar to that country. Every year the Nile floods
destroyed landmarks and boundaries of property. To re-establish
them, methods of surveying were developed, and these were
dependent upon principles which came to be studied under the
name of 'geometry'. The word 'geometry', a Greek one, means
'Earth measurement', and this serves as an indication of the
origins of the subject.
We shall therefore begin by a brief consideration of certain
geometrical principles and theorems, the applications of which we
shall subsequently employ. It will not be possible, however, within
this small book to attempt mathematical proofs of the various
2 Trigonometry
theorems which will be stated. The student who has not previously
approached the subject of geometry. and who desires to acquire
a more complete knowledge of it, should turn to any good modern
treatise on this branch of mathematics.
The Nature of Geometry
Geometry has been called 'the science of space'. It deals with

solids, their forms and sizes. By a 'solid' we mean a portion of
space bounded by surfaces, and in geometry we deal only with
what are called regular solids. As a simple example consider that
familiar solid, the cube. We are not concerned with the material
of which it is composed, but merely the shape of the portion of
space which it occupies. We note that it is bounded by six surfaces,
which are squares. Each square is said to be at right angles to
adjoining squares. Where two squares intersect straightlines are
formed; three adjoining squares meet in a point. These are
examples of some of the matters that geometry considers in
connection with this particular solid.
For the purpose of examining the geometrical properties of the
solid we employ a conventional representation of the cube, such
as is shown in Fig. 1. In this, all the faces are shown, as though
the body were made of transparent material, those edges which could not otherwise
be seen being indicated by dotted lines. The
student can follow from this figure the
properties mentioned above.
Fig. 1.
3 Plane surfaces
The surfaces which form the boundaries of

the cube are level or flat surfaces, or in geometrical terms plane
surfaces. It is important that the student should have a clear idea
of what is meant by a plane surface. It may be described as a level
surface, a term that everybody understands although they may be
unable to give a mathematical definition of it. Perhaps the best
example in nature of a level surface or plane surface is that of still
water. A water surface is also a horizontal surface.
The following definition will present no difficulty to the student.
A plane surface is such that the straight line which joins any two
points on it lies wholly in the surface.
Geometrical
Foundations
It should further be noted that

A plane surface is determined uniquely. by
(a) Three points not in the same straight line,
(b) Two intersecting straight lines.
By this we mean that one plane, and one only, can include
(a) three given points, or (b) two given intersecting straight lines.
It will be observed that we have spoken of surfaces, points and
straight lines without defining them. Every student probably
understands what the terms mean, and we shall not consider them
further here, but those who desire more precise knowledge of
them should consult a geometrical treatise. We shall now consider
theorems connected with points and lines on a plane surface. This
is the part of geometry called plane geometry. The study of the
shapes and geometrical properties of solids is the function of solid
geometry, which we will touch on later.
Angles
Angles are of the utmost importance in trigonometry, and the

student must therefore have a clear understanding of them from
the outset. Everybody knows that an angle is formed when two
straight lines of two surfaces meet. This has been assumed in
section 2. But a precise mathematical definition is helpful. Before
proceeding to that, however, we will consider some elementary
notions and terms connected with an angle.
Fig. 2(a), (b), (c) show three examples of angles.
D
Fig. 2.
(1) In Fig. 2(a) two straight lines OA, OB, called the arms of the
angle, meet at 0 to form the angle denoted by AOB.
0 is termed the vertex of the angle.
The arms may be of any length, and the size of the angle is
not altered by increasing or decreasing them.
.+
Trigonometry
The 'angle AOB' can be denoted by LAOB or AOB. It
should be noted that the middle letter. in this case 0, always
indicates the vertex of the angle.
(2) In Fig. 2(b) the straight line AO is said to meet the straight
line CB at 0. Two angles are formed, AOB and AOC, with
a common vertex 0.
(3) In Fig. 2(c) two straight lines AB and CD cut one another at
0. Thus there are formed four angles COB, AOC, DOA,
DOB.
The pair of angles COB, AOD are termed vertically
opposite angles. The angles AOC, BOD are also vertically
opposite.
Adjacent angles
Angles which have a common vertex and also one common arm
are called adjacent angles. Thus in Fig. 2(b) AOB, AOC arc
adjacent, in Fig. 2(c) COB, BOD are adjacent, etc.
Angles formed by rotation
We must now consider a mathematical conception of an angle.

Imagine a straight line, starting from a fixed position on OA
(Fig. 3) rotating about a point 0 in the direction indicated by an
arrow.
I
I
A'
Fig. 3.
e:
A
Fig. 4.
Let it take up the position indicated by OB.

In rotating from OA to OB an angle AOB is described.
Thus we have the conception of an angle as formed by the
rotation of a straight line about a fixed point, the vertex of the
angle.
If any point C be taken on the rotating arm, it will clearly mark
out an arc of a circle, CD.
'
I
'
A'
' ~ ...
.._
1
I
- - - .,..
Fig. 5.
There is no limit to the amount of rotation of OA, and

consequently angles of any size can be formed by a straight line
rotating in this way.
A half rotation
Let us next suppose that the rotation from OA to OB is continued
until the position OA' is reached (Fig. 4), in which OA' and OA
are in the same straight line. The point C will have marked out a
semi-circle and the angle formed AOA' is sometimes called a
straight angle.
A complete rotation
Now let the rotating arm continue to rotate, in the same direction
as before, until it arrives back at its original position on OA. It
has then made a complete rotation. The point C, on the rotating
arm, will have marked out the circumference of a circle, as
indicated by the dotted line.
Measurement of angles
(a) Sexagesimal measure

The conception of formation of an angle by rotation leads us to a
convenient method of measuring angles. We imagine the complete
rotation to be divided into 360 equal divisions; thus we get 360
small equal angles, each of these is called a degree, and is denoted
by 1.
Since any point on the rotating arm marks out the circumference
of a circle, there will be 360 equal divisions of this circumference,
Trigonometry
D
...
)'
I
A'
'
'
E'
'
"' ...
',C
,,
Fig. 6.
corresponding to the 360 degrees (see Theorem 17). If these

divisions are marked on the circumference we could, by joining
the points of division to the centre, show the 360 equal angles.
These could be numbered, and thus the figure could be used for
measuring any given angle. In practice the divisions and the angles
are very small, and it would be difficult to draw them accurately.
This, however, is the principle of the circular protractor, which is
an instrument devised for the purpose of measuring angles. Every
student of trigonometry should be equipped with a protractor for
this purpose.
Right angles
Fig. 6 represents a complete rotation, such as was shown in Fig. 5.
Let the points D and F be taken half-way between C and E in
each semi-circle.
The circumference is thus divided into four equal parts.
The straight line OF will pass through 0.
The angles COD, DOE, EOF, FOC, each one quarter of a
complete rotation, are termed right angles, and each contains 90.
The circle is divided into four equal parts called quadrants, and
numbered the first, second, third and fourth quadrants in the order
of their formation.
Also when the rotating line has made a half rotation, the angle
formed - the straight angle - must contain 180.
Each degree is divided into 60 minutes, shown by '.
Each minute is divided into 60 seconds, shown by".
Thus 37 15' 27" means an angle of
37 degrees, 15 minutes, 27 seconds.

or 37.2575 degrees, correct to 4 decimal places
Note. 30' = 0.5, l ' = 1/60 = 0.01667,
l" = 1/(60 x 60) = 0.0002778
0
This division into so many small parts is very important in

navigation, surveying, gunnery, etc., where great accuracy is
essential.
For the purpose of this book we shall give results correct to the
nearest 1/lOOth of a degree, i.e. correct to 2 decimal places.
Historical note. The student may wonder why the number 360
has been chosen for the division of a complete rotation to obtain
the degree. The selection of this number was made in very early
days in the history of the world, and we know, for example, from
inscriptions that it was employed in ancient Babylon. The number
probably arose from the division of the heavens by ancient
astronomers into 360 parts, corresponding to what was reputed to
be the number of days in the year. The number 60 was possibly
used as having a large number of factors and so capable of being
used for easy fractions.
(b) Centesimal measure

When the French adopted the metric system they abandoned the
method of dividing the circle into 360 parts. To make the system
of measuring angles consistent with other metric measures, it was
decided to divide the right angle into 100 equal parts, and
consequently the whole circle into 400 parts. The angles thus
obtained were called grades.
Consequently 1 right angle
1 grade
1 minute
=
=
100 grades.
100 minutes.
100 seconds.
(c) Circular measure

There is a third method of measuring angles which is an absolute ,
one, that is, it does not depend upon dividing the right angle into
any arbitrary number of equal parts, such as 360 or 400.
The unit is obtained as follows:
In a circle, centre 0 (see Fig. 7), let a radius OA rotate to a
position OB, such that the length of the arc AB is equal to that
of the radius.
Trigonometry
In doing this an angle AOB is formed which is the unit of
measurement. It is called a radian. The size of this angle will be
the same whatever radius is taken. It is absolute in magnitude.
In degrees I radian = 57' 17' 44.8" (approx.) or 57.29578. This
method of measuring angles will be dealt with more fully in
chapter 10. It is very important and is always used in the higher
branches of mathematics.
8
Fig. 7.
Terms used to decribe angles
An acute angle is an angle which is less than a right angle.

An obtuse angle is one which is greater than a right angle.
Reflex or re-entrant angles are angles between 180 and 360.
Complementary angles. When the sum of two angles is equal to
a right angle, each is called the complement of the other. Thus the
complement of 38 is 90 - 38 = 52.
Supplementary angles. When the sum of two angles is equal to
180, each angle is called the supplement of the other. Thus the
supplement of 38 is 180 - 38 = 142.
Geometrical Theorems
We will now state, without proof, some of the more important

geometrical theorems.
Theorem 1
Intersecting straight lines
If two straight lines intersect, the vertically opposite angles are

equal. (See section 4.)
Geometrical
Foundations
D
Fig. 8.
In Fig. 8, AB and CD are two straight lines intersecting at 0.

Then
LAOC = LBOD
and
LCOB = LAOD
The student will probably see the truth of this on noticing that
LAOC and LBOD are each supplementary to the same angle,
COB.
Parallel straight lines
Take a set square PRQ (Fig. 9) and slide it along the edge of a
ruler.
Let P1R1Q1 be a second position which it takes up.
p
P1
B
Fig. 9.
It is evident that the inclination of PQ to AB is the same as that

of P 101 to AB, since there has been no change in direction.
:. LPQB
LP101B
If PO and P101 were produced to any distance they would not

meet.
The straight lines PO and P101 are said to be parallel.
Similarly PR and P 1R1 are parallel.
Hence the following definition.
Straight lines in the same plane which will not meet however far
they may be produced are said to be parallel.
10
Trigonometry
Direction
Parallel straight lines in a plane have the same direction.
If a number of ships. all sailing north in a convoy are ordered
to change direction by turning through the same angle they will
then follow parallel courses.
Terms connected with parallel lines
In Fig. 10 AB, CD represent two parallel straight lines.
Transversal
A straight line such as PQ which cuts them is called a transversal.
p
Fig.10.
Corresponding angles
On each side of the transversal are two pairs of angles, one pair
of which is shaded in the figure. These are called corresponding
angles.
Alternate angles
Two angles such as AEF, EFD on opposite sides of the transversal
are called alternate angles.
Theorem 2
If a pair of parallel straight lines be cut by a transversal
(a) alternate angles are equal,
(b) corresponding angles on the same side of the transversal are
equal,
(c) the two interior angles on the same side of the transversal are
equal to two right angles.
Thus in Fig. 10:
Alternate angles: LAEF
LEFD; LBEF
LEFC.
11
Corresponding angles: LPEB = LEFD; LBEF = LDFQ.

Similarly on the other side of the transversal:
Interior angles: LAEF + LEFD = 2 right angles,
also
LAEF + LEFC = 2 right angles.
10
Triangles
Kinds of triangles
A right-angled triangle has one of its angles a
right angle. The side opposite to the right angle
is called the hypotenuse.
An acute-angled triangle has all its angles
acute angles (see section 7).
An obtuse-angled triangle has one of its angles

obtuse (see section 7).
An isosceles triangle has two of its sides equal.
An equilateral triangle has all its sides equal.

Fig. 11.
Lines connected with a triangle

The following terms are used for certain lines connected with a
triangle.
In L ABC, Fig. 12,
(1) AP is the perpendicular from A to BC. It is called the altitude

from the vertex A.
(2) AQ is the bisector of the vertical angle at A.
Trigonometry
12
Fig. 12.
(3) AR bisects BC. It is called a median. If each of the points B

and C be taken as a vertex, there are two other corresponding
medians. Thus a triangle may have three medians.
11
Theorem 3
Isoscelesand equilateral triangles
In an isosceles triangle
(a) The sides opposite to the equal angles are equal,
( b) A straight line drawn from the vertex perpendicular to the
opposite side bisects that side and the vertical angle.
A
A
B~
Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.
In Fig. 13, ABC is an isosceles 6. and AO is drawn perpendicular to the base from the vertex A.
Then by the above LABC = LACB
BO= OC
LBAO
= LCAO.
Equilateral triangle
The above is true for an equilateral triangle, and since all its sides
are equal, all its angles are equal.
Note, in an isosceles 6. the altitude, median and bisector of the
vertical angle (see section 10) coincide when the point of intersec-
13
tion of the two equal sides is the vertex. If the !::::. is equilateral
they coincide for all three vertices.
12
Angle properties of a triangle
Theorem 4
If one side of a triangle be produced, the exterior angle so formed
is equal to the sum of the two interior opposite angles.
Thus in Fig. 14 one side BC of the !::::. ABC is produced to D.
LACD is called an exterior angle.
Then by the above
LACD
LABC
+ LBAC
Notes
(1) Since the exterior angle is equal to the sum of the opposite
interior angles, it must be greater than either of them.
(2) As each side of the triangle may be produced in turn, there
are three exterior angles.
Theorem 5
The sum of the angles of any triangle is equal to two right angles.
Notes
It follows that:
(1) each of the angles of an equilateral triangle is 60,

(2) in a right-angled triangle the two acute angles are complementary (see section 7),
(3) the sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is 360 since it can be
divided into two triangles by joining two opposite points.
13 Congruency of triangles
Triangles which are equal in all respects are said to be congruent.
Such triangles have corresponding sides and angles equal, and
are exact copies of one another.
If two triangles ABC and DEF are congruent we may express
this by the notation !::::. ABC = !::::. DEF.
Conditions of congruency
Two triangles are congruent when
Theorem 6
Three sides of one are respectively equal to the three sides of the
other.
14
Trigonometry
Theorem 7
Two sides of one and the angle they contain are equal to two sides
and the contained angle of the other.
Theorem 8
Two angles and a side of one are equal to two angles and the
corresponding side of the other.
These conditions in which triangles are congruent are very
important. The student can test the truth of them practically by
constructing triangles which fulfil the conditions stated above.
The ambiguous case

The case of constructing a triangle when two sides and an angle
opposite to one of them are given, not contained by them as in
Theorem 7, requires special consideration.
Example. Construct a triangle in which two sides are 35 mm and
25 mm and the angle opposite the smaller of these is 30.
The construction is as follows:
Draw a straight line AX of indefinite length (Fig. 15).
At A construct LBAX = 30 and make AB = 35 mm.
With B as centre and radius 25 mm construct an arc of a circle
to cut AX.
This it will do in two points, C and C'.
Consequently if we join BC or BC' we shall complete two
triangles ABC, ABC' each of which will fulfil the given conditions.
There being thus two solutions the case is called ambiguous.
B
Fig.15.
Geometrical
Foundations
15
14 Right-angled triangles
Theorem of Pythagoras (Theorem 9)
In every right-angled triangle the square on the hypotenuse is equal
to the sum of the squares on the sides containing the right angle.
In Fig. 16 ABC is a right-angled triangle, AB being the
hypotenuse. On the three sides squares have been constructed.
Then the area of the square described on AB is equal to the sum
of the areas of the squares on the other two sides.
This we can write in the form
AB2
AC2
+ BC2
If we represent the length of AB by c, AC by b and BC by a,

then c2 = a2 + b2.
It should be noted that by using this result, if any two sides of
a right-angled triangle are known, we can find the other side for
a2 = c2 - b2
b2 = c2 - a2.
Note This theorem is named after Pythagoras, the Greek

mathematician and philosopher who was born about 569 BC. It is
one of the most important and most used of all geometrical
theorems.
//\\
\
c
a
B
A
b
Fig. 16.
15 Similar triangles
Definition. If the angles of one triangle are respectively equal to the
angles of another triangle the two triangles are said to be similar.
Trigonometry
The sides of similar triangles which are opposite to equal angles
in each are called corresponding sides.
16
Fig. 17.
In Fig. 17 the triangles ABC, DEF are equiangular

LABC
LBAC
LACB
=
=
=
LDEF,
LEDF,
LDFE.
The sides AB, DE are two corresponding sides.

So also are AC and DF, BC and EF.
Fig 18 shows another example of interest later.
AB, CD EF are parallel.
Then by the properties of parallel lines (see section 9)
LOAB
LOBA
also
LOCD
LODC
=
=
LOEF
LOFE.
:. the triangles OAB, OCD, OEF are similar.
Property of similar triangles

Theorem 10
If two triangles are similar, the corresponding sides are proportional.
Fig.18.
Thus in Fig. 17:

AB
DE AB
DE AC
DF
BC = EF ' AC = DF ' CB = FE
Geometrical
Foundations
17
Similarly in Fig. 18:

AB
CD
EF
BO - DO - FO'
AB
OA
CD
OC
EF
OE ' etc.
These results are of great importance in trigonometry.

Note A similar relation holds between the sides of quadrilaterals
and other rectilinear figures which are equiangular.
16
Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is a plane figure with four sides, and a straight line

joining two opposite angles is called a diagonal.
The following are among the principal quadrilaterals, with some
of their properties:
(1) The square (a) has all its sides equal
and all its angles right angles, (b) its
diagonals are equal, bisect each other at
right angles and also bisect the opposite
angles.
(2) The rhombus (a) has all its sides equal,
(b) its diagonals bisect each other at
right angles and bisect the opposite
angles.
(3) The rectangle (a) has opposite sides
equal and all its angles are right angles,
(b) its diagonals are equal and bisect
each other.
(4) The parallelogram (a) has opposite
sides equal and parallel, (b) its opposite
angles are equal, (c) its diagonals bisect
each other.
(5) The trapezium has two opposite sides
parallel.
Fig.19.
18
Trigonometry
17
The Circle
It has already been assumed that the student understands what a

circle is. but we now give a geometrical definition.
A circle is a plane figure bounded by one line which is called the
circumference and is such that all straight lines drawn to the
circumference from a point within the circle, called the centre, are
equal.
These straight lines are called radii.
An arc is a part of the circumference.
A chord is a straight line joining two points on the circumference and dividing the circle into two parts.
A diameter is a chord which passes through the centre of the
circle. It divides the circle into two equal parts called semi-circles.
A segment is a part of a circle bounded by a chord and the arc
which it cuts off. Thus in Fig. 20 the chord PQ divides the circle
into two segments. The larger of these PCQ is called a major
segment and the smaller, PBQ, is called a minor segment.
A sector of a circle is that part of the circle which is bounded
by two radii and the arc intercepted between them.
Thus in Fig. 21 the figure OPBQ is a sector bounded by the radii
OP, OQ and the arc PBQ.
An angle in a segment is the angle formed by joining the ends
of a chord or arc to a point on the arc of the segment.
c
0
__,a
P ,.__
B
Fig. 20.
Fig. 21.
Thus in Fig. 22, the ends of the chord AB are joined to D a

point on the arc of the segment. The angle ADB is the angle in
the segment ABCD.
If we join A and B to any point D' in the minor segment, then
LAD'B is the angle in the minor segment.
If A and B are joined to the centre 0, the angle OB is called
the angle at the centre.
19
The angle ADB is also said to subtend the arc AB and the LAOB
is said to be the angle subtended at the centre by the arc AB of
the chord AB.
Concentric Circles are circles which have the same centre.
18
Theorems relating to the circle
Theorem 11
If a diameter bisects a chord, which is not a diameter, it is
perpendicular to the chord.
Theorem 12
Equal chords in a circle are equidistant from the centre.
Theorem 13
The angle which is subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc is
double the angle subtended at the circumference.
In Fig. 23 LAOB is the angle subtended at 0 the centre of the
circle by the arc AB, and LADB is an angle at the circumference
(see section 17) as also is LACB.
Then
and
LAOB
LAOB
=
=
2LADB
2LACB.
Theorem 14
Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal to one another.
In Fig. 23
LACB = LADB.
This follows at once from Theorem 13.
D'
Fig. 22.
Fig.23.
20 Trigonometry
Theorem 15
The opposite angles of a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle are
together equal to two right angles.
They are therefore supplementary (see section 7).
Note A quadrilateral
concyclic quadrilateral.
inscribed in a circle is called a cyclic or
In Fig. 24, ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral.

LABC
LBAD
Then
+ LADC
+ LBCD
= 2 right angles
= 2 right angles.
Theorem 16
The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
In Fig. 25 AOB is a diameter.
The LACB is an angle in one of the semi-circles so formed.
LACB is a right angle.
Theorem 17
Angles at the centre of a circle are proportional to~
they stand.
In Fig. 26,
LPOQ
LQOR
ll1'CS
on which
arc PQ
arc QR.
It follows from this that equal angles stand on equal arcs.

This is assumed in the method of measuring angles described in
section 6(a).
Fig. 24.
Fig. 25.
Geometrical
Foundations
21
Tangent to a circle
A tangent to a circle is a straight line which meets the circumference
of the circle but which when produced does not cut it.
In Fig. 27 PQ represents a tangent to the circle at a point A on
the circumference.
Q
p
Fig. 26.
Fig. 27.
Theorem 18
A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn from the
point of contact.
Thus in Fig. 27 PQ is at right angles to OA.
19
Solid geometry
We have so far confined ourselves to the consideration of some of

the properties of figures drawn on plane surfaces. In many of the
practical applications of geometry we are concerned also with
solids to which we referred in section 2. In addition to these, in
surveying and navigation problems for example, we need to make
observations and calculations in different planes which are not
specifically the surfaces of solids. Examples of these, together with
a brief classification of the different kinds of regular solids, will be
given later.
20 Angle between two planes

Take a piece of fairly stout paper and fold it in two. Let AB,
Fig. 28, be the line of the fold. Draw this straight line. Let BCDA,
BEF A represent the two parts of the paper.
These can be regarded as two separate planes. Starting with the
two parts folded together, keeping one part fixed the other part
22
Trigonometry
Fig. 28.
can be rotated about AB into the position indicated by ABEF. In

this process the one plane has moved through an angle relative to
the fixed plane. This is analogous to that of the rotation of a line
as described in section 5. We must now consider how this angle
can be definitely fixed and measured. Flattening out the whole
paper again take any point Pon the line of the fold, i.e. AB, and
draw RPQ at right angles to AB. If you fold again PR will coincide
with PQ. Now rotate again and the line PR will mark out an angle
relative to PQ as we saw in section 5. The angle RPQ is thus the
angle which measures the amount of rotation, and is called the
angle between the planes.
Definition. The angle between two planes is the angle between
two straight lines which are drawn, one in each plane, at right angles
to the line of intersection of the plane and from the same point on it.
When this angle becomes a right angle the planes are perpendicular to one another.
As a particular case a plane which is perpendicular to a
horizontal plane is called a vertical plane (see section 3).
If you examine a corner of the cube shown in Fig. 1 you will see
that it is formed by three planes at right angles to one another. A
similar instance may be observed in the corner of a room which is
rectangular in shape.
21
A straight line perpendicular to a plane
Take a piece of cardboard AB (Fig. 29), and on it draw a number

of straight lines intersecting at a point 0. At 0 fix a pin OP so
that it is perpendicular to all of these lines. Then OP is said to be
perpendicular to the plane AB.
23
A
Fig. 29.
Definition. A straight line is said to be perpendicular to a plane

when it is perpendicular to any straight line which it meets in the
plane.
Plumb line and vertical
Builders use what is called a plumb line to obtain a vertical line.
It consists of a small weight fixed to a fine line. This vertical line
is perpendicular to a horizontal plane.
22 Angle between a straight line and a plane

Take a piece of cardboard ABCD, Fig. 30, and at a point 0 in it
fix a needle ON at any angle. At any point P on the needle stick
another needle PO into the board, and perpendicular to it.
N
Ag.30.
Trigonometry
Draw the line OQR on the board.
OQ is called the projection of OP on the plane ABCD.
The angle POQ between OP and its projection on the plane is
called the angle between OP and the plane.
If you were to experiment by drawing other lines from 0 on the
plane you will see that you will get angles of different sizes
between ON and such lines. But the angle POQ is the smallest of
all the angles which can be formed in this way.
Definition. The angle between a straight line and a plane is the
angle between the straight line and its projection on the plane.
24
'
'
______.
,. ,.
(b}
(a}
..__"' _
I
I
Fig. 31.
23 Some regular solids

(1) Prisms
In Fig. 31 (a), (b), (c) are shown three typical prisms.

(a) is rectangular, (b) is triangular and ( c) is hexagonal.
They have two identically equal ends or bases and a rectangle,
triangle and regular hexagon respectively.
The sides are rectangles in all three figures and their planes are
perpendicular to the bases.
Such prisms are called right prisms.
If sections are made parallel to the bases, all such sections are
identically equal to the bases. A prism is a solid with a uniform
cross section.
Similarly other prisms can be constructed with other geometrical
figures as bases.
(a}
(b)
(c)
Fig. 32.
25
(2) Pyramids
In Fig. 32 (a). (b), (c), are shown three typical pyramids.
(a) is a square pyramid, (b) is a
triangular pyramid, (c) is a hexagonal
0
pyramid.
Pyramids have one base only, which,
as was the case with prisms, is some
geometrical figure.
The sides, however, are isosceles
triangles, and they meet at a point
called the vertex.
The angle between each side and the
base can be determined as follows for a
D square pyramid.
In Fig. 33, let P be the intersection of
Fig. 33.
the diagonals of the base.
Join P to the vertex 0.
When OP is prependicular to the base the pyramid is a right
pyramid and OP is its axis.
Let Q be the mid-point of one of the sides of the base AB.
Join PQ and OQ.
Then PQ and OQ are perpendicular to AB (Theorem 11).
It will be noticed that OPQ represents a plane, imagined within
the pyramid but not necessarily the surface of a solid.
Then by the definition in section 20, the angle OQP represents
the angle between the plane of the base and the plane of the side
OAB.
Clearly the angles between the other sides and the base will be
equal to this angle.
Note This angle must not be confused with angle OBP which
students sometimes take to be the angle between a side and the
base.
Sections of right pyramids
If sections are made parallel to the base, and therefore at right
angles to the axis, they are of the same shape as the base, but of
course smaller and similar.
(3) Solids with curved surfaces

The surfaces of all the solids considered above are plane surfaces.
There are many solids whose surfaces are either entirely curved
26 Trigonometry
or partly plane and partly curved. Three well-known ones can be
mentioned here. the cylinder. the cone and the sphere. Sketches
of two of these are shown below in fig. 34(a) and (b ).
----
(a) - - - - -
(b)
Fig. 34.
(a) The cylinder (Fig. 34(a) ). This has two bases which are equal
circles and a curved surface at right angles to these. A cylinder

can be easily made by taking a rectangular piece of paper and
rolling it round until two ends meet. This is sometimes called
a circular prism.
(b) The cone (Fig. 34(b) ). This is in reality a pyramid with a
circular base.
(c) The sphere. A sphere is a solid such that any point on its
surface is the same distance from a point within, called the
centre. Any section of a sphere is a circle.
24 Angles of elevation and depression

The following terms are used in practical applications of geometry
and trigonometry.
(a) Angle of elevation

Suppose that a surveyor, standing at 0 (Fig. 35) wishes to
determine the height of a distant tower and spire. His first step
would be to place a telescope (in a theodolite) horizontally at 0.
He would then rotate it in a vertical plane until it pointed to the
top of the spire. The angle through which he rotates it, the angle
POQ, in Fig. 35 is called the angle of elevation or the altitude of P.
Sometimes this is said to be the angle subtended by the building
at 0.
Altitude of the sun
The altitude of the sun is in reality the angle of elevation of the
sun. It is the angle made by the sun's rays, considered parallel,
with the horizontal at any given spot at a given time.
p
27
~;-7\-/ ~;
~~~I~
Depression
///
/
0
Fig. 35.
(b) Angle of depression

If at the top of the tower shown in Fig. 35, a telescope were to be
rotated from the horizontal until it pointed to an object at 0, the
angle so formed is called the angle of depression.
2
Using your Calculator
25 Introduction
It is assumed in this book that you have access to a calculator. If
this is not the case then you will need to be able to use logarithms
or a slide rule instead.
Ideally you need a scientific calculator, that is one which has
keys labelled sin, cos and tan, but it is possible to complete the
work in this book even if you only have the simplest calculator.
The first thing that you must be aware of is that not all
calculators work in the same way. In fact two different calculators
can give different results for the same calculation! This can be
disconcerting unless you realise what is happening. The two main
differences are explained in the next section.
26 Arithmetic or algebraic calculators

Calculators are either designed to use arithmeticlogic or algebraic
logic.
Example: 2 + 3 x 4 could equal 20 or 14 depending what rules
you use to decide the order of doing the addition and the
multiplication.
If you carry out the sum as it is written, you would do the 2 + 3
first to give 5 and then multiply this by 4 to give 20 as the result.
This is known as using everyday or arithmeticlogic.
On the other hand you have probably been brought up to use
the rule: do multiplications and divisions before additions and
subtractions in which case you would do 3 x 4 first giving 12 and
29
then add the 2 to give 14 as the result. This is known as using
algebraic logic.
Most scientific calculators are designed to use algebraic logic.
Where brackets are not used a definite order of priority is given
to the various operations. Firstly powers are carried out. then
divisions followed by multiplications. subtractions and finally
additions.
Example: Using algebraic logic 4 x 5
+6
-i-
= 20 + 3 = 23
Many of the simpler four rule calculators are designed to use

everyday logic. The operations are carried out in the order that
you press the keys.
Example: Using everyday logic
4 x 5 + 6-:- 2 = 20 + 6-:- 2
26-:- 2
13
It is therefore vitally important to establish whether your

calculator uses everyday or algebraic logic.
27
Rounding or truncating calculators
The second major difference between calculators is whether they

are designed to round up any unseen figures or whether these are
simply ignored.
Most calculators can display up to eight figures, although some
of the more expensive ones may have ten or even twelve. However
the actual calculations may be carried out using more than this
number of figures.
Example: The result for 2 -:- 3 could be shown as 0.6666666 or
0.6666667.
In the first case, although 2 -:- 3 is 0.6666666666666 ... , the
calculator has simply cut off or truncated the result using the first
eight figures only. In the second case the calculator has looked at
the ninth figure and because this was five or more has rounded the
previous 6 up to 7.
The majority of scientific calculators do round up whereas many
of the cheaper four rule calculators simply ignore any figures which
cannot be displayed.
Exercise: What does your calculator show for 1 -:- 3 x 3?
On a calculator which rounds the result will be shown as 1 which
is what we would have expected. However on a calculator which
30
Trigonometry
truncates the result will be shown as 0.9999999, since l -:- 3 =

0.3333333 and when this is multiplied by 3 it becomes 0.9999999.
28 Differing calculator displays

Most calculators display the numbers from the right-hand end of
the display. However when the result is a negative number the sign may be separated from the number and appear at the left
hand end of the display, or be immediately after the number at
the right hand end of the display. On some calculators it will
appear immediately in front of the number which is where we
would have expected it to be.
On many scientific calculators very small numbers and very
large numbers will be displayed using standard form or scientific
notation. In these cases a number such as 0.000237, which in
standard form can be written as 2.37 x 10-4, will actually appear
on the display as I 2.37 - 4 J .
29 Using your calculator for simple calculations

For straightforward arithmetic calculations you simply type in the
calculation as it is written but you will need to remember to press
the equals key to see the result.
Examples: Find 3 + 4, 3 - 4, 3 x 4, and 3
Type 3 + 4 = and you should
Type 3 - 4 = and you should
Type 3 x 4 = and you should
Type 3 -i- 4 = and you should
4
find 7 is displayed.
get - 1 or 1 get 12
get 0. 75.
-i-
Note that providing that you finished your sequence of key presses
with the = sign there was no need to clear away the last result
before starting the next calculation.
30 The clear keys

Many calculators have designated keys for ON and OFF. The ON
key often incorporates a clear function which will be shown as
ON/C. When in addition there is a CE key to clear the last entry,
the ON/C key usually clears the whole machine including the
memories. If there is no CE key the ON/C key only acts as a clear
last entry key. On some calculators these two keys are called AC
for clear all and just C for clear last entry.
31
The CE key is used if you make a mistake in keying in a number.

For example if you type 34 + 21 when you meant 34 + 12 you will
need to press the CE key to get rid of the 21 before retyping
the 12.
Example: Find 34 + 12
Switch on by pressing ON/C or AC. The 0 should
appear.
Type 34 + 21, now press the CE key to remove the
21
Type 12 = and you should find that the result is 46.
Note if you press the wrong operation key you may be able to
correct it by simply retyping the correct key immediately, but
beware with some calculators both operations may well be used.
Example: Find 41 x 12
Type 41 + x 12 = and you will usually get 492.
Note if you had tried to press the CE key to clear the incorrect
sign you are likely to have got rid of the 41 as well.
It is always a good idea to precede any calculation by pressing

the ON/C or all clear key and to remember to finish a calculation
or part calculation by pressing the = key.
31
Handling minus signs and negative numbers
On a calculator it is necessary to distinguish between the operation

of subtraction and the use of a - sign to indicate a negative
number. The latter is usually done by having a change sign or+/key.
When you want to enter a negative number you have to key in
the number first and then press the +/- key to make it negative.
Example: Find - 3 x - 4
Type 3 I+/- I x 4 I+/- I = and you should get 12.
Note if you had used the subtraction key and tried - 3 x - 4 =
you would probably have got - 7. This is because the second overrides the x sign, and the - 3 was taken as 0 - 3, so the
calculation was actually - 3 - 4 = - 7.
If your calculator does not have a +l= key then you may have
some difficulty in doing calculations involving negative numbers.
Most are possible by using the memory, see later in this chapter,
or by doing some of the calculations on paper.
32
Trigonometry
32 Calculations involving brackets

Many scientific calculators allow the direct use of brackets. If you
have this facility most calculations can be entered exactly as they
are written.
Example: Find (34 + 42) x (25 - 17)
Type (34 + 42) x (25 - 17)
and you should get 7.
If you do not have brackets on your calculator then you will

either need to work out each bracket separately, noting down the
result each time, and then combine the two separate results, or
you will have to use the memory facility.
Example: Find (43 - 28) x (51
Find 43 - 28 = i.e.
Find 51 + 73 = i.e.
Find 19 + 43 = i.e.
Now type 15 x 124 -:the result.
+ 67)
-i- (19 + 43)

15 and note the result.
62 = and you should get 30 as
When the calculations do not involve brackets it is important

that you know whether your calculator uses algebraic logic or not.
In 24 + 17 x 53 the normal convention is to do the multiplication
first. With an algebraic calculator this is done automatically. With
a non algebraic calculator it will be necessary to find 17 x 53 first
and then add the 24.
33 Using the memory

Most calculators including many of the cheapest have some form
of store or memory facility. These vary from one calculator to
another. In some it is simply a store (STO or Min) which can be
used to hold or recall (RCL or MR) one number, or be updated
with a different number. In others it is possible to add (M +) or
subtract (M - ) additional numbers and then to recall the sum.
Some calculators have more than one store which allow several
numbers to be stored simultaneously.
To put a number into the store or memory you simply type in
the number followed by pressing the STO or M + key. With STO
the new number replaces the old number, whereas with M + the
new number is added to the number which is already in the
memory.
With M + it is therefore important to know whether the
memory was originally empty or not. This can be done by using
33
the ON/C key. if it clears the memory, or by using the CM key or

R.CM key twice. The R on the R.CM key recalls the number in
the memory and pressing it a second time then clears the memory.
Where a calculator has both an M +and an Min (or STO) key,
but no clear memory facility, typing 0 followed by Min has the
same effect as clearing the memory.
Example 1: Find 72 -:- (23 + 13)
First make sure the memory is empty.
Check by pressing MR (or RCL) which should
give 0.
Type 23 + 13 = followed by M + (or STO)
Type 72 -:- MR (or RCL) =and the result should
be 2.
The advantage of using the memory with long numbers, rather
than writing down intermediate results, means that you are less
likely to make errors transcribing the figures.
Example 2a: Find 6 x 54 + 3 x 27 + 8 x 19
Clear the memory.
Type 6 x 54 = and then M +
3 x 27 = and then M +
8 x 19 = and then M +
Then press MR to give the result 557.
Note it is important to remember to press the = key after each
separate calculation otherwise only the second figure in each case
will be added to the memory.
Where the calculator only has a store (STO) key the key presses
in Example 2a are a little more complicated. The corresponding
set of key presses is shown in Example 2b below.
Example 2b: Find 6 x 54 + 3 x 27 + 8 x 19
Clear the memory.
Type 6 x 54 = and then STO
Type 3 x 27 + RCL = and the STO
Type 8 x 19 + RCL = and this gives 557 as
before.
Using the memory facility on a calculator efficiently takes quite
a lot of practice. The instructions which come with your calculator
usually give a number of examples and illustrate a variety of
possibilities.
34
Trigonometry
34 Using other mathematical functions

Even the simplest calculator often has at least a square root ( Y-)
key. Scientific calculators will also have a reciprocal ( l/X) key. a
y or x} key for finding powers and roots of numbers, keys for
finding the trigonometric functions of SIN, COS and TAN and
their inverses together with a natural logarithm (LN) key and a
base 10 logarithm (LOG) key.
The examples which follow show how some of the keys are used.
If you look carefully at the keyboard of your calculator you will
find that some of the above mathematical symbols are on the key
itself, some are in a second colour on the key, and some are
directly above the key. When the symbol is the only one on the
key you simply press that key.
Example I: Find the square root of 625, where Y- is the only
function.
Type 625V- which will give the result 25
directly.
Where there are two symbols on, or two symbols above, or one
on and one above the key, you will find that your calculator has
a special key (usually in the top left hand corner) called the INV
or 2ND FN key. Pressing this key before the required key will
activate the second function.
Example 2: Find the reciprocal of 25, where l/X is the second
function.
Type 25 INV l/X which should give the result
0.04
Example 3: Find 25 where there is a y (or a xY) key.
Type 2 y 5 = which should give the result 32.
For a full explanation of all the keys on your particular
calculator you will need to consult the maker's handbook supplied
with your machine.
35 Functions and their inverses

If your calculator has an INV (or 2nd Function) key then many of
the keys will have two distinct uses. The first is obtained by simply
pressing the particular key, whilst the second is obtained by
pressing the INV (or 2nd function) key first and then pressing the
key. Often, but not always, the two functions are related. For
example, if pressing the key gives the square root of the number
35
on display then pressing INV first and then the square root key is
likely to give the square of the number on the display. Squaring
is the opposite or the inverse of finding a square root.
Example: Find the V16 and then show that 42 is 16.

Type 16 and press the V key. The result should
be 4.
Now press the INV key followed by the V key
again.
You should have 16 on the display again.
Now press the INV key followed by the V key
again.
You should now have 256 (i.e. the square of 16).
You may have come across the fact that Iog103 = 0.4771 ...
We can write the inverse of this statement as: 10 4771 = 3
In other words the inverse of finding the log of a number is raising
the result to the power of 10.
Example: Find the log 102 and then show that 10 3010 is 2.
Type 2 and press the LOG key.
The result should be 0.3010 ...
Now press the INV key followed by the LOG key
again.
You should have 2 on the display again.
On some of the keys the two functions are unrelated. For
example pressing the key might give 1/X, whereas pressing INV
and then the key might give you x! (factorial x).
36 Changing degrees to degrees, minutes and seconds

We saw, on pages 6- 7, that in ancient times each degree was
subdivided into 60 minutes and each minute was further subdivided into 60 seconds. For many calculations, and especially with
the introduction of the calculator, it is often more convenient to
work with angles in degrees and decimals of a degree rather than
with degrees, minutes and seconds. You may be lucky and have a
calculator which has a OMS~ DD (
key. This will allow
you to do this conversion using a single key press.
0
'
"~)
Example 1: Change 24 30' to an angle using decimals of a

degree.
Type in 24.30 and pres the OMS ~ DD key.
The display should show 24.5
Note, 30' is 0.5 of a degree.
38
Trigonometry
39 Finding inverse trigonometric functions

Here we are trying to find the angle which corresponds to a
particular trigonometric ratio.
Example I: Find inverse sin 0.5, also written as sin-10.5
Type 0.5, press the INV key, then the SIN key.
The display should show 30.
Example 2: Find inverse cos 0.5, also written as cos-10.5s
Type 0.5, press the INV key, then the COS key.
The display should show 60.
Example 3: Find inverse tan 1.35 also written as tan- 11.35
Type 1.35, press the INV key, then the TAN key.
The display should show 53.471145.
3
The Trigonometrical Ratios
40 The tangent
One of the earliest examples that we know in history of the
practical applications of geometry was the problem of finding the
height of one of the Egyptian pyramids. This was solved by Thales,
the Greek philosopher and mathematician who lived about 640 BC
to 550 BC. For this purpose he used the property of similar
triangles which is stated in section 15 and he did it in this way.
Fig.36.
He observed the length of the shadow of the pyramid and, at

the same time, that of a stick, AB, placed vertically into the
ground at the end of the shadow of the pyramid (Fig. 36). QB
Trigonometry
represents the length of the shadow of the pyramid, and BC that
of the stick. Then he said The height of the pyramid is to the
length of the stick, as the length of the shadow of the pyramid is
to the length of the shadow of the stick.'
40
i.e. in Fig. 36,

Then QB, AB, and BC being known we can find PQ.
We are told that the king, Amasis, was amazed at this
application of an abstract geometrical principle to the solution of
such a problem.
The principle involved is practically the same as that employed
in modern methods of solving the same problem. It is therefore
worth examining more closely.
We note first that it is assumed that the sun's rays are parallel
over the limited area involved; this assumption is justified by the
great distance of the sun.
In Fig. 36 it follows that the straight lines RC and PB which
represent the rays falling on the tops of the objects are parallel.
Consequently, from Theorem 2(a), section 9,
LPBQ
LACB
These angles each represent the altitude of the sun (section 24).
As Ls PQB and ABC are right angles
L,s PQB, ABC are similar.
PQ
AB
QB - BC
or as written above
PQ
AB
QB
BC.
The solution is independent of the length of the stick AB

because if this be changed the length of its shadow will be changed
proportionally.
We therefore can make this important general deduction.
For the given angle ACB the ratio~~
remains constant what-
ever the length of AB.

This ratio can therefore be calculated beforehand whatever the
size of the angle ACB. If this be done there is no necessity to use
the stick, because knowing the angle and the value of the ratio,
when we have measurred the length of QB we can easily calculate
The Trigonometrical Ratios 41

PO. Thus if the altitude were found to be 64 and the value of the
ratio for this angle had been previously calculated to be 2.05, then
we have
PO
QB= 2.05
and
41
PO
QB x 2.05.
Tangent of an angle
The idea of a constant ratio for every angle is vital, so we will

examine it in greater detail.
Let POQ (Fig. 37) be any acute angle. From points A, B, Con
one arm draw perpendiculars AD, BE, CF to the other arm. These
being parallel,
Ls OAD, OBE, OCF are equal (Theorem 2(a))
and
Ls ODA, OEB, OFC are right-Ls.

L.s AOD, BOE, COF are similar.
AD
OD
BE
OE
CF
OF
.
(Theorem 10, section 15)
Similar results follow, no matter how many points are taken on

OQ .
. . for the angle POQ the ratio of the perpendicular drawn from
a point on one arm of the angle to the distance intercepted on the
other arm is constant.
Fig. 37.
This is true for any angle; each angle has its own particular ratio
and can be identified by it.
This constant ratio is called the tangent of the angle.
The name is abbreviated in use to tan.
42
Trigonometry
Thus for LPOQ above we can write
AD
tan POQ =OD
42 Right-angled triangles
Before proceeding further we will consider formally by means of
the tangent, the relations which exist
A between the sides and angles of a
right-angled triangle.
b
Let ABC (Fig. 38) be a right-angled
triangle.
Let the sides opposite the angles be
B-"----a----'C
denoted by
Fig. 38.
a (opp. A), b (opp. B), c (opp. C).
(This is a general method of denoting sides of a right-angled L. .)

Then, as shown in section 41:
AC
tan B =BC=
ab
a tan B = b
and
b
a = tan B
Thus any one of the three quantities a, b, tan B can be

determined when the other two are known.
43 Notation for angles

(a) As indicated above we sometimes, for brevity, refer to an
angle by using only the middle letter of the three which define
the angle.
Thus we use tan B for tan ABC.
This must not be used when there is any ambiguity as, for
example, when there is more than one angle with its vertex at
the same point.
(b) When we refer to angles in general we frequently use a Greek
letter, usually 0 (pronounced 'theta') or e (pronounced 'phi')
or ex, ~ or "I (alpha, beta, gamma).
43
44 Changes in the tangent in the first quadrant

In Fig. 39 let OA a straight line of unit length rotate from a fixed
position on OX until it reaches OY, a straight line perpendicular
to OX.
From 0 draw radiating lines to mark 10, 20, 30, etc.
From A draw a straight line AM perpendicular to OX and let
the radiating lines be produced to meet this.
Let OB be any one of these lines.
y
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
50
1.2
1 .1
1.0
0.9
40
0.8
0.7
0.6
30
0.5
0.4
20
0.3
0.2
10
0.1
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 A

Fig. 39.
44
Trigonometry
Then
tan BOA= BA
OA
Since OA is of unit length. then the length of BA, on the scale

selected. will give the actual value of tan BOA.
Similarly the tangents of other angles 10. 20, etc. can be read
off by measuring the corresponding intercept on AM.
If the line OC corresponding to 45 be drawn then LACO is also
45 and AC equals OA (Theorem 3, section 11 ).
AC= 1
tan 45 = 1
At the initial position, when OA is on OX the angle is 0, the
length of the perpendicular from A is zero, and the tangent is also
zero.
From an examination of the values of the tangents as marked
on AM, we may conclude that:
( 1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
tan 0 is 0;
as the angle increases, tan 0 increases;
tan45= 1;
for angles greater than 45, the tangent is greater than I;
as the angle approaches 90 the tangent increases very rapidly.
When it is almost 90 it is clear that the radiating line will meet
AM at a very great distance, and when it coincides with OY
and 90 is reached, we say that the tangent has become
infinitely great.
This can be expressed by saying that as () approaches 9(1',
tan () approaches infinity.
This may be expressed formally by the notation
when
0 ~ 90, tan 0 ~
oo ,
The symbol oo, commonly called infinity, means a number

greater than any conceivable number.
45 A table of tangents
Before use can be made of tangents in practical applications and
calculations, it is necessary to have a table which will give with
great accuracy the tangents of all angles which may be required.
It must also be possible from it to obtain the angle corresponding
to a known tangent.
A rough table could be constructed by such a practical method

as is indicated in the previous paragraph. But results obtained in
this way would not be very accurate.
Bv the methods of more advanced mathematics, however. these
values can be calculated to any required degree of accuracy. For
elementary work it is customary to use tangents calculated
correctly to four places of decimals. Such a table can be found at
the end of this book.
A small portion of this table, giving the tangents of angles from
25 to 29 inclusive is given below, and this will serve for an
explanation as to how to use it.
Natural Tangents
J
1:"
ec
O'
6'
0.1
12'
0.2
18'
0.3
24'
0.4'
30'
0.5
36'
0.6
42'
0.7
48'
0.8
54'
0.9
25
26
27
28
29
0.4663
0.4877
0.5095
0.5317
0.5543
4684
4899
5117
5340
5566
4706
4921
5139
5362
5589
4727
4942
5161
5384
5612
4748
4964
5184
5407
5635
4770
4986
5206
5430
5658
4791
5008
5228
5452
5681
4813
5029
5250
5475
5704
4834
5051
5272
5498
5727
4856
5073
5295
5520
5750
c"
Mean Differences
1
4
4
4
4
4
7
7
7
8
8
11
11
11
11
12
14
15
15
15
15
18
18
18
18
19
(1) The first column indicates the angle in degrees.

(2) The second column states the corresponding tangent.
Thus
tan 27 = 0.5095
(3) If the angle includes minutes we must use the remaining
columns.
(a) If the number of minutes is a multiple of 6 the figures in
the corresponding column give the decimal part of the
tangent. Thus tan 25 24' will be found under the column
marked 24'. From this we see
tan 25 24'
0.4748.
On your calculator check that tan25.4 is 0.4748 correct

to 4 decimal places, i.e. enter 25.4, and press the TAN
key.
If you are given the value of the tan and you want to
obtain the angle, you should enter 0.4748, press the INV
key and then press the TAN key, giving 25.40 as the
result correct to 2 decimal places.
(b) If the number of minutes is not an exact multiple of 6, we
use the columns headed 'mean differences' for angles
which are 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 minutes more than the multiple
of 6.
46
Trigonometry
Thus if we want tan 26 38', this being 2' more than
26 36'. we look under the column headed 2 in the line of
26. The difference is 7. This is added to tan 26 36', i.e.
0.5008.
Thus
tan 26 38' = 0.5008 + .0007

= 0.5015.
An examination of the first column in the table of tangents will

show you that as the angles increase and approach 90 the tangents
increase very rapidly. Consequently for angles greater than 45 the
whole number part is given as well as the decimal part. For angles
greater than 74 the mean differences become so large and
increase so rapidly that they cannot be given with any degree of
accuracy.
46 Examples of the uses of tangents

We will now consider a few examples illustrating practical
applications of tangents. The first is suggested by the problem
mentioned in section 24.
Example 1: At a point 168 m horizontally distant from the foot
of a church tower, the angle of elevation of the top of the tower
is 38 15'.
Find the height above the ground of the top of the tower.
In Fig. 40 PQ represents the height of P above the ground.
We will assume that the distance from 0 is represented by OQ.
Then LPOQ is the angle of elevation and equals 38.25.
bg
= tan 38.25
PQ = OQ x tan 38.25
= 168 x tan 38.25
= 168 x 0.7883364
= 132.44052
PQ = 132 m approx.
On your calculator the sequence of key presses should be:
38.25 TAN x 168 =,giving 132.44052, or 132.44 mas the result.
Example 2: A man, who is 168 cm in height, noticed that the
length of his shadow in the sun was 154 cm. What was the altitude
of the sun?
47
In Fig . .+I let PQ represent the man and QR represent the

shadow.
Then PR represents the sun's ray and L PRO represents the
sun's altitude.
,,
,
,,
,
,,
,
,,
, p
R------'Q
Fig. 40.
Now
t an
Fig. 41.
PQ = 168 cm
PRO = QR
154 cm
= 1.0909 (approx.)
= tan 47.49
the sun's altitude is 47.49 or 47 29'
Example 3: Fig. 42 represents a section of a symmetrical roof in
which AB is the span, and OP the rise. (Pis the mid-point of AB.)
If the span is 22 m and the rise 7 m find the slope of the roof (i.e.
the angle OBA).
Fig. 42.
OAB is an isosceles triangle, since the roof is symmetrical.

OP is perpendicular to AB (Theorem 3, section 11)
OP
tan OBP =PB
48
Trigonometry
n = 0.6364 (approx.)
= tan 32.47 (approx.)

LOBP
32.47 or 32 28'

7 -;.. 11 = INV TAN, giving 32.471192, or 32.47 as the result.
Exercise I
In Fig. 43 ABC is a right-angled triangle with C the right
angle.
A
Draw CD perpendicular to AB and DQ
perpendicular to CB.
Write down the tangents of ABC and CAB
in as many ways as possible, using lines of the
figure.
2 In Fig. 43, if AB is 15 cm and AC 12 cm in
length, find the values of tan ABC and tan
CAB.
3 From the tables write down the tangents of
Fig. 43.
the following angles:
(1) 18
(4) 73
(2) 43
(5) 14 18'
(3) 56
(6) 34 48'
Check your results on your calculator, i.e. enter the angle and
press the TAN key.
4 Write down the tangents of:
(1) 9 17'
(4) 52.45
S
(2) 31.75
(5) 64 40'
(3) 39 5'
From the tables find the angles whose tangents are:

(1) 0.5452
(4) 1.3001
(2) 1.8265
(5) 0.6707
(3) 2.8239
(6) 0.2542
Check your results on your calculator, i.e. enter the number,

press the INV key and then the TAN key.
6 When the altitude of the sun is 48 24', find the height of a
flagstaff whose shadow is 7 .42 m long.
7 The base of an isosceles triangle is 10 mm and each of the
equal sides is 13 mm. Find the angles of the triangle.
8 A ladder rests against the top of the wall of a house and makes
an angle of 69 with the ground. If the foot is 7.5 m from the
wall, what is the height of the house?
49
9 From the top window of a house which is 1.5 km away from a

tower it is observed that the angle of elevation of the top of
the tower is 36 and the angle of depression of the bottom is
12. What is the height of the tower?
IO From the top of a cliff 32 m high it is noted that the angles of
depression of two boats lying in the line due east of the cliff
are 21 and 17. How far are the boats apart?
11 Two adjacent sides of a rectangle are 15.8 ems and 11.9 ems.
Find the angles which a diagonal of the rectangle makes with
the sides.
12 P and Q are two points directly opposite to one another on
the banks of a river. A distance of 80 m is measured along
one bank at right angles to PQ. From the end of this line the
angle subtended by PO is 61. Find the width of the river.
47 Sines and cosines

In Fig. 44 from a point A on one arm of the angle ABC, a
perpendicular is drawn to the other arm.
We have seen that the ratio~~
tan ABC.
Now let us consider the ratios of each of the

to the hypotenuse AB.
liries AC and BC
Fig. 44.
(1) The ratio
1ii , i.e. the ratio of the side opposite to the angle
to the hypotenuse.
This ratio is also constant, as was the tangent, for the angle
ABC, i.e. wherever the point A is taken, the ratio of AC to
AB remains constant.
50
Trigonometry
This ratio is called the sine ol the angle and is denoted by
sin ABC.
BLl B~:
a
(a)
(b)
Sin 0
Cose
Fig.&
(2) The ratio
!~ ,
i.e. the ratio of the intercept to the hypote-
nuse.
This ratio is also constant for the angle and is called the
cosine. It is denoted by cos ABC.
Be careful not to confuse these two ratios. The way in which
they are depicted by the use of thick lines in Fig. 45 may help you.
If the sides of the 6ABC are denoted by a, b, c in the usual way
and the angle ABC by 0 (pronounced theta) .
Then in 45(a)
.
sm
= -b
c
(1)
45(b)
cos
= ~
c
(2)
From (1) we get

From (2) we get
b = c sine
a= c cos e
Since in the fractions representing sin e and cos e above, the

denominator is the hypotenuse, which is the greatest side of the
triangle, then sin ()and cos B cannot be greater than unity.
48 Ratios of complementary angles

In Fig. 45, since LC is a right angle .
: .
Also
.'. LA + LB = 90
LA and LB are complementary (see section
sin A=~
7).
51
cos B = ~
c
and
sin A= cos B.
The sine of an angle is equal to the cosine of its complement,
and vice versa.
This may be expressed in the form:
sin 0 = cos (90 - 0)
cos 0 =sin (90 - 0).
49 Changes in the sines of angles in the first quadrant

Let a line, OA, a unit in length, rotate from a fixed position
(Fig. 46) until it describes a quadrant, that is the LDOA is a right
angle.
From 0 draw a series of radii to the circumference corresponding to the angles 10, 20, 30, ...
From the points where they meet the circumference draw lines
perpendicular to OA.
Considering any one of these, say BC, corresponding to 40.
90
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
80
--I
-:70
r--..
60
<,
<,
I I I/
I I I/ /
I /
I I II / /
/ /
II
I I I /// -:
1/1 ~ / ...-- ...--...-/
-/
~
;.....-
-- --
80
8'40
~I\
\30
\
,,_/
//
......
0.1
50
)""
70
60
Fig.46.
-"'
...--
_.........
--c --
50
---- 29
\J
__ 1
40 30 2010
52
Trigonometry
Then
sin BOC=
g~
But OB is of unit length.

BC represents the value of sin BOC, in the scale in which
0 A represents unity.
Consequently the various perpendiculars which have been
drawn represent the sines of the corresponding angles.
Examining these perpendiculars we see that as the angles
increase from O" to 9()" the sines continually increase.
At 90 the perpendicular coincides with the radius
sin 90 =
At 0 the perpendicular vanishes
sin 0 = 0
Summarising these results:
In the first quadrant
(1) sin 0 = 0,
(2) as 0 increases from 0 to 90", sin
(3) sin 90 = 1.
e increases,
50 Changes in the cosines of angles in the first

quadrant
Referring again to Fig. 46 and considering the cosines of the
angles formed as OA rotates, we have as an example
oc
cos BOC= OB
As before, OB is of unit length.

OC represents in the scale taken, cos BOC.
Consequently the lengths of these intercepts on OA represent
the cosines of the corresponding angles.
These decrease as the angle increases.
When 90 is reached this intercept becomes zero and at 0 it
coincides with OA and is unity.
Hence in the first quadrant
(1) cos 0 = 1
(2) As 0 increases from 0 to 90, cos 8 decreases,
(3) cos 90 = 0.
The Trigonometrical
51
Ratios
53
Tables of sines and cosines
As in the case of the tangent ratio, it is necessary to compile tables

giving the values of these ratios for all angles if we are to use sines
and cosines for practical purposes. These have been calculated and
arranged by methods similar to the tangent tables, and the general
directions given in section 45 for their use will also apply to those
for sines and cosines.
The table for cosines is not really essential when we have the
tables of sines, for since cos 0 = sin (90 - 0) (see section 48) we
can find cosines of angles from the sine table.
For example, if we require cos 47, we know that
cos 47 = sin (90 - 47)
=sin 43.
to find cos 47 we read the value of sin 43 in the sine table.
In practice this process takes longer and is more likely to lead
to inaccuracies than finding the cosine direct from a table.
Consequently separate tables for cosines are included at the end
of this book.
There is one difference between the sine and cosine tables which
you need to remember when you are using them.
We saw in section 50, that as angles in the first quadrant
increase, sines increase but cosines decrease. Therefore when using
the columns of mean differences for cosines these differences must
be subtracted.
On your calculator check that sin 43 is 0.6820 correct to 4
decimal places, i.e. enter 43, and press the SIN key.
On your calculator check that cos 47 is also 0.6820 correct to 4
decimal places, i.e. enter 47, and press the COS key.
If you are given the value of the sin (or cos) and you want to
obtain the angle, you should enter the number, 0.6820, press the
INV key and then press the SIN (or COS) key, giving 43.00 (or
47.00) as the result correct to 2 decimal places.
52 Examples of the use of sines and cosines

Example I: The length of each of the legs of a pair of ladders is
2.5 m. The legs are opened out so that the distance between the
feet is 2 rn. What is the angle between the legs?
In Fig. 47, let AB, AC represent the legs of the ladders.
These being equal, BAC is an isosceles triangle.
Trigonometry
: . AO the perpendicular to the base BC, from the vertex
bisects the vertical angle BAC, and also the base.
54
:.
BO= OC = 1 m
We need to find the angle BAC.

A
c
Fig. 48.
Fig. 47.
Now'
sin BAO=~~
1
= 2.5 = 0.4
= sin 23.58 (from the tables)
But
LBAO = 23.58
LBAC = 2 x LBAO
LBAC = 2 x 23.58
=47.16
1 -:- 2.5 = INV SIN x 2, giving 47.156357, or 47.16 as the
result.
Example 2: A 30 m ladder on a fire engine has to reach a window
26 m from the ground which is horizontal and level. What angle,
to the nearest degree, must it make with the ground and how far
from the building must it be placed?
Let AB (Fig. 48) represent the height of the window at A above
the ground.
Let AP represent the ladder.
To find LAPB we may use its sine for
.
AB
26
Sm APB = AP = 30
55
0.8667
= sin 60.07 (from the tables)
APB= 60.07
= 60 (to nearest degree).
26 -:- 30 = INV SIN. giving 60.073565, or 60.07 as the result.
To find PB we use the cosine of APB
PB
cos APB= AP
for
PB = AP cos APB
= 30 x cos 60.07
= 30 x 0.4989
= 14.97
PB = 15 m (approx.)
30 x 60.07 COS=, giving 14.968247, or 14.97 mas the result.
Example 3: The height of a cone is 18 cm and the angle at the
vertex is 88. Find the slant height.
.:.:.:::.J-_-_-_-_- __ C
p
B
Fig. 49.
Now
Let OABC (Fig. 49) represent the

cone, the vertex being 0 and ABC
the base.
Let the l::.OAC represent a section
through the vertex 0 and perpendicular to the base.
It will be an isosceles triangle and
P the centre of its base will be the
foot of the perpendicular from 0 to
the base.
OP will also bisect the vertical
angle AOC (Theorem 3).
OP represents the height of the
cone and is equal to 18 cm.
OC represents the slant height.
OP
cos POC = OC
OP= OC cos POC
OC = OP-:- cos POC
= 18 -:- cos 44
56
Trigonometry
18-:- 0.7193
== 25.02
OC == 25 cm (approx.).
18-:- 44 COS=. giving 25.022945, or 25.02 cm as the result.
Example 4: Fig. 50 represents a section of a symmetrical roof
frame. PA = 28 m, AB = 6 m, LOPA = 21; find OP and OA.
(1) We can get OP if we find LOPB. To do this we must first find

LAPB.
sin APB ==
:.
1~ = 2~ = 0.2143 = sin 12.37
LOPB == LOPA + LAPB

= 21 + 12.37 = 33.37
Next find PB, which divided by OP gives cos OPB.

PB = AP cos APB = 28 cos 12.37
= 28 x 0.9768
= 27.35 (approx.)
Note
We could also use the Theorem of Pythagoras.
Fig. 50.
Now
PB
OP= cos OPB
OP = PB -i- cos OPB

OP= 27.35 -:- cos 33.38
= 27.35 -i- 0.8350
= 32.75
OP= 32.75 m.
27.35 -:- 33.38 COS =, giving 32. 752923, or 35. 75 m as the
result.
57
(2) To find OA. This is equal to OB - AB. We must therefore

find OB.
Now
g~
=sin
OPB
OB = OP sin OPB
= 32. 75 x sin 33.38"
= 32.75 x 0.5502
= 18.02
OA =OB - AB
= 18.02 - 6
= 12.02 m.
and

32.75 x 33.38 SIN - 6 =,giving 12.018699, or 12.02 mas
the result.
Exercise 2
1
4
5
Using the triangle of Fig. 43 write down in as many ways as

possible (1) the sines, (2) the cosines, of LABC and LCAB,
using the lines of the figure.
Draw a circle with radius 45 mm. Draw a chord of length
60 mm. Find the sine and cosine of the angle subtended by
this chord at the centre.
In a circle of 4 cm radius a chord is drawn subtending an angle
of 80 at the centre. Find the length of the chord and its
distance from the centre.
The sides of a triangle are 135 mm, 180 mm, and 225 mm.
Draw the triangle, and find the sines and cosines of the angles.
From the tables write down the sines of the following angles:
(1) 14 36'
(3) 69 17'
Check your results on your calculator,

i.e. enter the angle and press the SIN key.
From the tables write down the angles whose sines
(1) 0.4970
(2) 47.43
(2) 0.5115
are:
(3) 0.7906

i.e. enter the number, press the INV key and then the SIN
key.
From the tables write down the cosines of the following
angles:
(1) 20 46'
(2) 44 22'
(3) 62 39'
Trigonometry
58
(.+) 38.83
(5) 79.27
(6) 57.38

i.e. enter the angle and press the COS key.
From the tables write down the angles whose cosines are:
(1) 0.5332
(4) 0.2172
(3) 0.3546
(6) 0.5140
(2) 0.9358
(5) 0.7910

i.e. enter the number, press the INV key and then the COS
key.
9 A certain uniform incline rises 10.5 km in a length of 60 km
along the incline. Find the angle between the incline and the
horizontal.
10 In a right-angled triangle the sides containing the right angle
are 4.6 m and 5.8 m. Find the angles and the length of the
hypotenuse.
11 In the diagram of a roof frame shown in Fig. 42, find the angle
at which the roof is sloped to the horizontal when OP = 1.3 m
and OB = 5.4 m.
12 A rope 65 m long is stretched out from the top of a flagstaff
48 m high to a point on the ground which is level. What angle
does it make with the ground and how far is this point from
the foot of the flagstaff?
53
Cosecant, secant and cotangent
From the reciprocals of the sine, cosine and tangent we can obtain
three other ratios connected with an angle, and problems
frequently arise where it is more convenient to employ these
instead of using the reciprocals of the original ratios.
These reciprocals are called the cosecant, secant, and cotangent
respectively, abbreviated to cosec, sec and cot.
Thus
cosec e = -.-e
sm
sec
1
e = -cos e
cote=
1
-tan
These can be expressed in terms of the sides of a right-angled
59
triangle with the usual construction (Fig. 51) as follows:

AC
. e AB
AB = sm . AC = cosec
BC
AB
AB = cos e. BC = sec e
AC
BC
BC = tan 0, AC= cote
Fig. 51.
Ratios of complementary angles

In continuation of section 48 we note that:
since
AC
tan ABC= BC
and
AC
cot BAC = BC
tan e
cot (90 - 0)
or the tangent of an angle is equal to the cotangent of its

complement.
54 Changes in the reciprocal ratios of angles in the

first quadrant
The changes in the values of these ratios can best be examined by
reference to the corresponding changes in the values of their
reciprocals (see sections 44, 49 and 50 in this chapter).
The following general relations between a ratio and its reciprocal should be noted:
(a) When the ratio is increasing its reciprocal is decreasing, and
vice versa.
60
Trigonometry
(b) When a ratio ts a maximum us reciprocal will be a minimum,

and vice versa
Consequently since the maximum value of the sine and
cosine m the first quadrant 1i; unity. the minimum value of the
cosecant and secant must be unity
(c) The case when a ratio rs zero needs special exarrunauon
If a number rs very large, its reciprocal rs very small.
Conversely if it is very small its reciprocal rs very large
Thu-; the reciprocal of
1 000 000
is 1 000 000
When a ratio such as a cosine is decreasing until rt finally

becomes zero, as it does when the angle reaches 90, the
secant approaches infinity With the notation employed m
section 44 this can be expressed as follows
As
0 ~ 90, sec 0 ~
oo
55 Changes in the cosecant

Bearing m mind the above, and remembering the changes m the
sme m the first quadrant as given in section 49
(1) cosec 0 rs infinitely large,
(2) as e increases from 0 to 90' cosec
(3) cosec 90 = 1
e decreases'
56 Changes in the secant

Comparing with the corresponding changes m the cosine we see:
(1) sec 0 = 1,
(2) as e increases from 0 to 90, sec
(3) as e~ 90, sec e~ 00
e increases,
57 Changes in the cotangent

Comparing the corresponding changes of the tan 0 as given in
section 44 we conclude
( 1)
(2)
(3)
( 4)
as e ~ 0' cot e ~ 00'

as e increases' cot e decreases,
cot 45 = 1,
as e ~ 90, cot e ~ 0
The Tngonometncal
Ratios
61
58 Using your calculatorfor other trigonometrical

ratios
Most sciennfic calculators do not have separate keys for cosecant
(COSEC), secant (SEC) and cotangent (COT) However this rs
not necessary since each rs simply the reciprocal of the corresponding sine, cosine and tangent values
Example I Find the value of the cosecant of 30
Type 30, press the SIN key and then the l/X key
The display should show 2
Note, the cosecant of 0 does not exist since sin 0 is 0, and you
cannot divide by zero
An alternative method would be to type 1 - 30 SIN =
Example 2 Find the value of the secant of 30
Type 30, press the COS key and then the l/X key
The display should show 1 1547005
Note, the secant of 90 and 270 do not exist since cos 90 and
cos 270 are each 0, and you cannot divide by zero
An alternative method would be to type 1 - 30 COS =
Example 3 Find the value of the cotangent of 30
Type 30, press the TAN key and then the l/X key
The display should show 1 7320508
Note, the cotangent of 0 and 180 do not exist since tan 0 and
tan 180 are each 0, and you cannot divrde by zero
An alternative method would be to type 1 - 30 TAN =
59 Graphs of the trigonometrical ratios

In Figs 52, 53, 54 are shown the graphs of sin e, cos e and tan e
respectively for angles in the first quadrant You should draw them
yourvelf, if possible, on squared paper, obtaining the values either
by the graphical methods suggested m Figs 39 and 46 or from the
tables
60 Uses of other trigonometrical ratios

Worked Examples
Example I Find (1) cosec 37 5 and (11) the angle whose cotan
I~ 0 8782
Trigonometry
62
09
09
08
08
07
07
06
06
05
05
04
04
03
03
02
02
0 1
01
00
0 10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
O O O' 10 20' 30' 40 50 60 70' 80' 90
Fig. 52.
Graph of sin 0.
Fig. 53.
Graph of cos 0.
(i) cosec 37.5 = 1 -:- sin 37.5,

so type 1 -i- 37 .5 SIN =
The result should be 1.6426796
(ii) 1 -:- cotan 0 = tan 0,
so type 1 -:- 0.8782 = INV TAN
The result should be 48. 71
Example 2: From a certain point the angle of elevation of the
top of a church spire is found to be 11. The guide book tells me
that the height of the spire is 260 m. If I am on the same horizontal
level as the bottom of the tower, how far am I away from it?
In Fig. 55 let AB represent the tower and spire,
AB= 260 m
Let 0 be the point of observation.
We need to find OB.
Let
OB =x
Then
2~0 = cot 11
x
x
x
=
=
260 cot 11
260 -i- tan 11
260 -;- 0.1944
1338
1338 m (approx.).
(1)

3. 0
>-+++++++++H-+++-t-+++-+++++++t++Hc+++-+-+++++++++H
2.8mmmmmmmammm
25
s:mmammammamasnnm
2 .4 t-++-t-+H-++-t-+++++++++-+-++-t-+H-++-t++++++-11++-+-++<>-+++<
2.2 t-++-t-+H-+++-+++++++++-+-++-t-+H-+++-+++++it+++-t-+Hf-+++-1
m:amm:amm:amm:amemnm
1.8 mEMmEMWEmta:mna:emnm
2.0
1.6>-+-+-1-+Ht-+H-+++++++++-+-++-t-+H-++++.-++++++-H-Hi-+++<
1 .4 t-++-t-+H-++-t-+++++++++-+-++-t-+H-++<oH-++++++++-+-++<>-+++<
1 . 2 t-++-t-+H-+++-+++++++++-+-++-t-+H-++-+-+++++++++-t-+Hf-+++-1
1.0
s:mwm:awamwamaa:mnm
0.8 1-+H-++-t-+++++++++-t-+HH-.H-+++++++++-+++-1-+H-++-t-+++i
0.6 t-++-t-+Ht-+H-+++++++++-+-++-t-+H-+++-+++++++++-t-+Hf-+++-1
0.4 mmmmmmmmmm
02
mftmtimHmHmHmimimimi
Ott!!:tttt::ttt:tttJ::ttt:tttJ::tttttt!::tttttt!:tttttt!!:J:l
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Fig. 54.
Graph of tan 0.
o~:
Fig. 55.
63
Trigonometry
260-:- 11 TAN= (or 260 x 11 TAN l/X =)
64
b - c
A
Example 3: Find the value of b + c cot
2 , when b = 25.6.
11.2, A
57.
Since
and
:.
b=
c =
b+ c =
b- c =
25.6
11.2
36.8
14.4
~ =
57 -:- 2
Let
b - c
A
b + c cot 2
Then
14.4 cot 28 . 50
36_8
14.4 x
1
36.8
tan 28.5
=
=
0.7207
0.7207.
and
28.5
On your calculator the sequence of key prcstesshould be:

14.4-:- 36.8 + 28.5 TAN = (or 14.4 + 36.8 x 28.5 TAN 1/
x =)
Exercise 3
1
Find the following:

(1) cosec 35.4
(2) cosec 59.75
(3) sec 42.62
(4) sec 53.08

(5) cot 39.7
(6) cot 70.57
Find the angle:

( 1) When the cosecant is 1.1476
(2) When the secant is 2.3443
(3) When the cotangent is 0.3779
The height of an isosceles triangle is 38 mm and each of the

equal angles is 52. Find the length of the equal sides.
4 Construct a triangle with sides 5 cm, 12 cm and 13 cm in
The Trigonometrical
6
7
Ratios
65
length. Find the cosecant, secant and tangent of each of the

acute angles. Now use your calculator to find the angles.
A chord of a circle is 3 m long and it subtends an angle of 63
at the centre. Find the radius of the circle.
A man walks up a steep road the slope of which is 8. What
distance must he walk so as to rise 1 km?
Find the values of:
8.72 . 230
( a ) 9.83
stn
(b) cos A sin B when A = 40", B = 35

8
Find the values of:
(a) sin2 0 when 0 = 28

(b) 2 sec 0 cot 0 when 0
Note
9
= 42
sin2 0 is the usual way of writing (sin 0)2

Find the values of:
(a) tan A tan B, when A = 53, B = 29

a sinB
(b) -b-
lt
when a=
50, b = 27, B = 66
Find the values of:
(a) sec/ 43
(b) 2 cos2 28
sin 53.45
tan 68.67
11
Find the value of:
12
Find the value of cos2 0 - sin2 0

(1) When 0 = 37.42
0
239
397
(2) When 8
= 59"
x 25
x 133 find 0
13
If tan
14
. d t h e va I ue o f 2 sin
. A +2- B cos A -2- B w h en A = 57 . 23
F in
and B = 22 .48
sin 0
-tfind when
co O'.
e=
15
If
16
If A = 1 ab sin 0, find A when

0 = 56.28
10.42 and
O'.
a = 28.5,
28.12
b = 46.7
and
Trigonometry
66
61
Some applications of trigonometrical ratios
Solution of right-angled triangles

By solving a right-angled triangle we mean, if certain sides or
angles are given we require to find the remaining sides and angles.
Right-angled triangles can be solved:
(1) by using the appropriate trigonometrical ratios,
(2) By using the Theorem of Pythagoras (see Theorem 9,
section 14).
We give a few examples.
(a) Given the two sides which contain the right angle
To solve this:
(1) The other angles can be found by the tangent ratios,
(2) The hypotenuse can be found by using secants and cosecants,
or the Theorem of Pythagoras.
Example I: Solve the right-angled triangle where the sides
containing the right angle are 15.8 m and 8.9 m.
Fig. 56 illustrates the problem.
To find C, tan C =
To find A, tanA =
18
1
5~8=
i.:
0.5633 = tan 29.4
= 1.7753 = tan 60.6
These should be checked by seeing if their sum is 90.

To find AC.
(1) AC= Y15.82
(2)
+ 8.92 = 18.1 m approx., or

AC
8.9
=
cosec C
AC = 8. 9 cosec C = 89 + sin C
= 18.13
AC= 18.1 m (approx.).
(b) Given one angle and the hypotenuse
Example 2: Solve the right-angled triangle in which one angle is
27.72 and the hypotenuse is 6.85 cm.

A
89:~
B
15.Sm
B~
Fig. 56.
In Fig. 57
C
Fig. 57.
c=
A
=
=
27.72
90 - C
62.28
90 - 27. 72
To find AB and BC
AB
BC
=
=
=
=
AC sin ACB
6.85 x sin 27. 72
3.19 cm
AC cos ACB
6.85 x cos 27.72
6.06 cm
These examples will serve to indicate the methods to be adopted

in other cases.
(c) Special cases
( l) The equilateral triangle
In Fig. 58 ABC is an equilateral triangle, AD is the perpendicular bisector of the base.
It also bisects LCAB (Theorem 3, section 11).
:. LDAB = 30
and LABO = 60
Let each side of the L:. be a units of length.
a
Then DB= 2"
AD
= Y AB2
=
1~
ya- - 4
DB2
(Theorem
9)
68
Trtgonometrv
A
a
4501 __
BL--...;_;:__.__
__. C
Fig 58
Fig 59
v'3
AD
ax T
v'3
sin 600 = AB =
a
= 2
o
CO'>
BO
60 = AB =
2-
a =
tan 60 =AD = av'3_ ~ = v'3

DB
2
2
Similarly
o
BO
a
sm 30 = AB =
2-
a =
cos 30 = AD = a v'3 - a = v'3

AB
2
2
o _ DB _ a
av'3 __ 1_
tan 30 - AD - 2 - -2- - v'3
Note The ratio'> for 30 can be found from those for

the results of sections 48 and 53
flJ'
(2) The nght-angled isosceles tnangle

Fig 59 represents an isosceles triangle with AC
LACB = 90
Let each of the equal sides be a umts of length
Then
AB' = AC2
+ BC2
AB= aV2
a
= BC
and
(Theorem 9)
= a2 + a2
= 2a2
AC
sm 450 =AB=
by using
aV2 = V2
The Tngonometrtcal
cos 45
BC
AB
69
Rattos
= av'2 = v'2
tan 45 = AC = ~ = I
BC
a
It xhould be noted that LABC represents half a square of which
AB rs the diagonal
62 Slope and gradient

Fig 60 represents a side view of the section of a path AC tn which
AB represents the horizontal level and BC the vertical rise
c
A~B
Fig 60
LCAB, denoted bye, rs the angle between the plane of the path
and the horizontal
Then LCAB rs called the angle of slope of the path or more
briefly LCAB rs the slope of the path
Now
tan 0
CB
AB
This tangent is called the gradient of the path

Generally' if e IS the slope of a path, tan e IS the gradient
A gradient rs frequently given m the form 1 m 55, and in this
form can be seen by the side of railways to denote the gradient of
the rails This means that the tangent of the angle of slope 1<;
When the angle of slope rs very small, as happens m the case of
a railway and most roads, rt makes httle practical difference if
instead of the tangent (;~
) we take ;~
the sine of the
angle instead of the tangent In practice also rt I'> easier to measure

AC, and the difference between this and AB rs relatively small,
provided the angle l'i small
If you refer to the tables of tangents and sines you will see how
small is the difference between them for small angles
70
Trigonometry
63 Projections
In Chapter I, section 22, we referred to the projection of a
straight line on a plane. We will now examine this further.
Projection of a straight line on a fixed line

In Fig. 61, let PQ be a straight line of unlimited length, and AB
another straight line which, when produced to meet PQ at 0,
makes an angle 0 with it.
-~C
I
~-<
_,,,,,.""" 0 I
p __ O....::__--=---'------E-'-----...._F_
Fig. 61.
From A and B draw perpendiculars to meet PQ at E and F.

Draw AC parallel to EF.
EF is called the projection of AB on PQ (section 22).
Now
and
Also
LBAC = LBOF = 0
EF =AC
AC = AB cos 0
EF =AB cos 0
(Theorem 2)
(section 47)
.. If a straight line AB, produced if necessary, mllkes an angle 0

with another straight line, the length of its projection on that straight
line is AB cos 8.
It should be noted in Fig. 61 that
BC= AB sin 0
From which it is evident that if we draw a straight line at right
angles to PQ, the projection of AB upon such a straight line is AB
sine.

Exercise 4
71
General questions on the trigonometrical ratios.

In a right-angled triangle the two sides containing the right
angle are 2.34 m and 1.64 m. Find the angles and the
hypotenuse.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
IO
11
12
13
14
In a triangle ABC, C being a right angle, AC is 122 cm, AB

is 175 cm. Compute the angle B.
In a triangle ABC, C = 90. If A = 37.35 and c = 91.4, find
a and b.
ABC is a triangle, the angle C being a right angle. AC is
21.32 rn, BC is 12.56 m. Find the angles A and B.
In a triangle ABC, AD is the perpendicular on BC: AB is
3.25 cm, Bis 55, BC is 4.68 cm. Find the length of AD. Find
also BD, DC and AC.
ABC is a right-angled triangle, C being the right angle. If
a = 378 mm and c = 543 mm, find A and b.
A ladder 20 m long rests against a vertical wall. By means of
trigonometrical tables find the inclination of the ladder to the
horizontal when the foot of the ladder is:
(1) 7 m from the wall.
(2) 10 m from the wall.
A ship starts from a point 0 and travels 18 km h 1 in a
direction 35 north of east. How far will it be north and east
of 0 after an hour?
A pendulum of length 20 cm swings on either side of the
vertical through an angle of 15. Through what height does
the bob rise?
If the side of an equilateral triangle is x m, find the altitude
of the triangle. Hence find sin 60 and sin 30.
Two straight lines OX and OY are at right angles to one
another. A straight line 3.5 cm long makes an angle of 42
with OX. Find the lengths of its projections on OX and OY.
A man walking 1.5 km up the line of greatest slope of a hill
rises 94 m. Find the gradient of the hill.
A ship starts from a given point and sails 15.5 km in a
direction 41.25 west of north. How far has it gone west and
north respectively?
A point P is 14.5 km north of Q and Q is 9 km west of R.
Find the bearing of P from R and its distance from R.
Relations between the

Trigonometrical Ratios
64 The ratios
Since each of the trigonometrical ratios involves two of the three
sides of a right-angled triangle, it is to be expected that definite
relations exist between them. These relations are very important
and will constantly be used in further work. The most important
of them will be proved in this chapter.
asin 0
t an "cos 0
Fig. 62.
Let ABC (Fig. 62) be any acute angle (0). From

one arm draw AC perpendicular to the other arm .
Then
and
.
AC
sin 0 =AB
BC
cos 0 =AB
a point A on
Relations between the Ratios
73
sin 0 _AC..:... BC
cos 0 - AB . AB
_AC..:... AB
- AB . BC
AC
=BC
0
=tan
sin 0
t
cos 0 = an 0
(1)
.. 1 arI y we may prove t h at cot 0 = -.cos 0 0

S1m1
sm
65
sin2
e+
cos2
= 1
From Fig. 62
AC2
BC2 = AB2
(Theorem of Pythagoras, section 14)
Dividing throughout by AB2

we get
AC2
AB2
(sin 0)2
BC2
AB2 = 1
(cos 0)2 = 1
or as usually written
sin2 0
cos2 0 = 1
(2)
This very important result may be transformed and used to find

either of the ratios when the other is given.
Thus
sin2 0 = 1 - cos2 0
sin 0 =
Similarly
cos 0 =
v' 1
v' 1
- cos2 0
- sin2 0
Combining formulae (1) and (2)
becomes
tan 0 = sin 0
cos 0
sin 0
tan 0 =
sin" 0
VI -
This form expresses the tangent in terms of the sine only. It may
74 Trigonometry
similarly be expressed in terms of the cosine
thus
66
tan
1
1
e = V1 -
cos
cos2 e
e
e
+ tarr' e = sec2
+ cot" e = cosec" e
sin2 0 + cos2 0 = I
Using the formula

and dividing throughout by cos2
sin2 e
--+1--we get
cos? e
tan2 0
+ I
1
cos2
sec2 0
Again, dividing throughout by sin2 0

cos2 e
1
1+--=-we get
sirr' e
sin2
1
+ cot2 e = cosec2 e
We may Bio write these formulae in the forms

and
tan2
cot2
e = sec2 e - 1
e = cosec2 e -
Using these forms we can change tangents into secants and

cotangents into cosecants and vice versa when it is necessary in a
given problem.
Exercise 5
Find tan 0 when sin 0 = 0.5736 and cos 0 = 0.8192.
If sin e = ~ ' find cos e and tan e.
Find sin 0 when cos 0 = 0.47.
Find sec 0 when tan 0 = 1.2799.
If sec e = 1.2062 find tan e, cos e and sin e.
Find cosec 0 when cot 0 = 0.5774.
If cot e = 1.63, find cosec e, sin e and cos e.
If tan e = t, find expressions for sec e, cos 0 and sin 8 in
terms oft.
9 If cos a = 0.4695, find sin a and tan a.
10 Prove that tan e + cot e = sec e cosec 0.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
5
Trigonometrical Ratios of Angles
in the Second Quadrant
67 Extending the ratios
In chapter 3 we dealt with the trigonometrical ratios of acute
anges, or angles in the first quadrant. In chapter 1, section 5, when
considering the meaning of an angle as being formed by the
rotation of a straight line from a fixed position, we saw that there
was no limit to the amount of rotation, and consequently that
angles could be of any magnitude.
We must now consider the extension of trigonometrical ratios
to angles greater than a right angle. At the present, however, we
shall not examine the general question of angles of any magnitude,
but confine ourselves to obtuse angles, or angles in the second
quadrant, as these are necessary in many practical applications of
trigonometry.
68 Positive and negative lines

Before proceeding to deal with the trigonometrical ratios of obtuse
angles it is necessary to consider the methods by which we
distinguish between measurements made on a straight line in
opposite directions. These will be familiar to those who have
studied co-ordinates and graphs. It is desirable, however, to revise
the principles involved before applying them to trigonometry.
Let Fig. 63 represent a straight road XOX'.
_
If a man now travels 4 miles from 0 to P in the direction OX
and then turns and travels 6 miles in the opposite direction to P',
76
Trigonometry
Fig. 63.
the net result is that he has travelled (4-6) miles, i.e. - 2 miles
from 0. The significance of the negative sign is that the man is
now 2 miles in the opposite direction from that in which he
started.
In such a way as this we arrive at the convention by which we
agree to use + and - signs to indicate opposite directions.
If we now consider two straight lines at right angles to one
another, as X'OX, Y'OY, in Fig. 64, such as are used for coordinates and graphs, we can extend to these the conventions used
for one straight line
y
as indicated above.
The lines OX, OY
are called the axes of
p
co-ordinates.
OX
measures the x-coordinate, called the
y
O
x
abscissa, and OY
X measures the y-coN
ordinate, called the
ordinate. Any point
P (Fig. 64), has a
pair of co-ordinates
(x, y). Each pair
determines
a unique
Y'
point.
The area of the
Fig. 64.
diagram, Fig. 65, is
considered to be divided into four quadrants as shown. Values of
x measured to the right are + ve , and to the left are - ve. Values
of y measured upwards are + ve , and downwards are - ve. This
is a universally accepted convention.
P 1 lies in the first quadrant and N 1 is the foot of the
~
~
perpendicular from P 1 to OX. ON 1 is in the direction of OX and
~
is +ve; N1P is in the direction of OY and is +ve. Thus the coordinates of any point P 1 in the first quadrant are ( +, +).
P2 lies in the second quadrant and N2 is the foot of the
)('--------+---~----
Ratios of Angles in Second Quadrant
77
y
2nd.quad
t st. quad
P1
P2
+
N3 u N2
+
+
N4 N1
P4
P3
3rd. quad
4th. quad
Fig. 65.
---+
---+
perpendicular from P2 to OX. ON2 is in the direction of XO and

---+
---+
is - ve; N2P2 is in the direction of OY and is + ve. Thus the coordinates of any point P2 in the second quadrant are (-, + ).
Similarly the co-ordinates of P3 in the third quadrant are (-, - )
and of P4 in the fourth quadrant are ( +, - ) .
At present we shall content ourselves with considering points in
the first two quadrants. The general problem for all four quadrants
is discussed later (chapter 11).
69 Direction of rotation of angle

The direction in which the rotating line turns must be taken into
account when considering the angle itself.
Thus in Fig. 66 the angle AOB may be formed by rotation in
an anti-clockwise direction or by rotation in a clockwise direction.
By convention an anti-clockwise rotation is positive and a
clockwise rotation is negative.
Negative angles will be considered further in chapter 11. In the
meantime, we shall use positive angles formed by anti-clockwise
rotation.
78
Trigonometry
B
,
.- - - - - + ve direction
''
'
'
'
'
'----~-'------A
I
I
I
'
-----
, ,, ' - ve direction
Fig. 66.
70 The sign convention for the hypotenuse

Consider a point A in the first quadrant. Draw AD perpendicular
to X'OX meeting it at D (Fig. 67).
A
Fig. 67.
OD is + ve and DA is + ve. The angle XOA

is acute.
Also
angle DOA, which
OA2 = OD2 + DA2

= ( + ve)2 + ( + ve)2 = + ve quantity
= a2 (say where a is +ve)
Now the equation OA2 = a2 has two roots OA = a or OA = - a,

so we must decide on a sign convention. We take OA as the + ve
root.
Now consider a point B in the second quadrant. Draw BE
perpendicular to X'OX meeting it at E (Fig. 68).
79
Fig. 68.
OE is -ve and EB is
EOB) is obtuse.
Also
OB2
+ ve. The angle XOB ( = 180 - angle
= OE2 + EB2
= ( - ve )2 + ( + ve )2
= ( + ve) + ( + ve) = + ve quantity
We have already decided on a sign convention for the root, so OB

is +ve.
Now the sides required to give the ratios of LXOB are the same
as those needed for its supplement LEOB. The only change which
may have taken place is in the sign prefixed to the length of a side.
OD ( + ve in Fig. 67) has become OE (- ve in Fig. 68).
Thus we have the following rules:
RATIO
ACUTE ANGLE
OBTUSE ANGLE
SIN
+
+
+
cos
TAN
Fig. 69.
We see this at once by combining Fig. 67 and Fig. 68 into

Fig. 70.
x~~~~_._~~~~~....o.L~..__.._~~_.__~~~~~x
E
Fig. 70.
80
Trigonometry
sin XOA
DA
OA
= +V = +
sin XOB
EB
OB
= +y = +
cos XOA
OD
OA
= +V = +
cos XOB
OE
OB
= +y =
tan XOA
DA
OD
= += +
tan XOB
EB
OE
(see Note)
=+ = -
Note We use here the abbreviations + and - to stand for a

positive quantity and a negative quantity respectively
In addition, by making 60BE = 6 AOD in Fig 70 and using
the rules we see that
sine of an angle
cosine of an angle
tangent of an angle
sine of its supplement

cosine of its supplement
- tangent of its supplement
= -
These results mdy alternatively be expressed thus

sm
= sm (180 - 0)
0 = - COS (180 - 0)
tan 0 = - tan (180 - 0)
CO'>
e.g.
sin 100
cos 117
tan 147
sm 80
= = -
cos 63
tan 33
The reciprocal ratios, cosecant , secant and cotangent will have

the same signs as the ratios from which they are derived
cosecant has same sign as sine
secant has same sign as cosine
cotangent has same sign as tangent
e.g.
cosec 108 = cosec 72

sec 121
- sec 59
cot 154 = - cot 36
Ratios of Angles
in
Second Quadrant
81
71 To find the ratios of angles in the second quadrant

from the tables
As will have been seen. the tables of tngonometncal
ratios give
the rauo-, of angles in the first quadrant only But each of these is
supplementary
to an angle in the second quadrant
Consequently
if d ratio of an angle m the second quadrant is required, we find
1t'> supplement which 1<; an angle in the first quadrant, and then.
by using the relations between the two angles as shown m the
previous paragraph we can wnte down the required ratio from the
tables
Example I Find from the tables sin 137 and cos 137
We first find the supplement
of 137 which is
180 - 137
. . by section 70 sin 137
From the tables
sin 43
sm 137
Again
cos 0
cos 137
43
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
sm 43
0 6820
0 6820
- cos ( 180 - 0)
- cos ( 180 - 137)
-cos 43
-0 7314
Example 2 Find the values of tan 162 and sec 162.

From the above
Also
tan 0 = - tan (180

tan 162 = - tan (180
=-tanl8
= -0 3249
sec 0 = - sec (180
sec 162 = - sec (180
= -sec 18
= -1 0515
- 0)
- 162)
- 0)
- 162)
72 Ratios for 180

These can be found either by usmg the same arguments as were
employed m the cases of 0 and 90 or by applying the above
relation between an angle and 1t-; supplement
From these we conclude
sin 180
cos 180
tan 180
=
=
=
0
-1
0
82
Trigonometry
73 To find an angle when a ratio is given

When this com erse problem has to be solved in cases where the
angle may be in the second quadrant. difficulties arise which did
not occur when dealing with angles in the first quadrant only. The
following examples will illustrate these.
Example I: Find the angle whose cosine is - 0.5577.

The negative sign for a cosine shows that the angle is in the
second quadrant, since cos 0 = - cos (180 - 0).
From the tables we find that
cos 56.1
+ 0.5577
the angle required is the supplement of this

i.e.
180 - 56.1
= 123.9
Example 2: Find the angles whose sine is + 0. 9483.

We know that since an angle and its supplement have the same
sine, there are two angles with the sine + 0. 9483, and they are
supplementary.
From the tables
sin 71.5 = +0.9483
.. Since
sin 0 = sin (180 - 0)
sin 71.5 = sin ( 180 - 71.5)
= sin 108.5
There are therefore two answers, 71.5 and 108.5 and there are
always two angles having a given sine, one in the first and one in
the second quadrant. Which of these is the angle required when
solving some problem must be determined by the special conditions of the problem.
Example 3: Find the angle whose tangent is - 1.3764.

Since the tangent is negative, the angle required must lie in the
second quadrant.
From the tables
and since
tan 54
tan 0
- 1.3764
= + 1.3764
= - tan (180" - 9)
= tan (180 - 54)
= tan 126
83
74 Inverse notation
The sign tan :' - 1.3674 is employed to signify the angle whose
tangent is -1.3674.
And, in general
sin- 1x means the angle whose sine is x
cos=' x means the angle whose cosine is x
Three points should be noted.
(1) sin-1x stands for an angle: thus sin-1 ~ = 30.
(2) The - l ' is not an index, but merely a sign to denote inverse
notation.
(3) (sin x)': 1 is not used, because by section 31 it would mean the
reciprocal of sin x and this is cosec x.
75
Ratios of some important angles
We are now able to tabulate the values of the sine, cosine and
tangents of certain angles between 0 and 180. The table will also
state in a convenient form the ratios of a few important angles.
They are worth remembering.
oo
30
45
60
900
Increasing and Positive

Sine
1
2
v3
v'2
v3
v'2
v3
v3
150
180
v3
v'2
1
2
Decreasing and Negative

0
Increasing and Positive

Tangent
135
Decreasing and Positive
Decreasing and Positive

Cosine
120
1
2
1
v3
- v'2 -2
-I
Increasing and Negative

00
-\13
-I
-\13
84
Trigonometry
76 Graphs of sine, cosine 8nd tangentbetween 8

and 180
The changes in the ratios of angles in the first and second
quadrants are made clear by drawing their graphs. This may be
~-
-~
[.;'
!'...
,,I'
.....
I/
'
"' .....
.....
I'I'\
I/
oo
goo
60
30
Fig. 71.
150
120
r-,
180
Sin 0.
done by using the values given in the above table or, more
accurately, by taking values from the tables.
An inspection of these graphs will illustrate the results reached
in section 73 (second example) .
.....
-,
I'-
"
I"
"
oo ::30
::::60
""
.t.so-~
.,-
120= 150= 18
I'-
'
I'-
"
-1
Fig. 72. Cos 0.
....
oo
85
I
I
v
J
/
I/
:/
I/
I/
'r
oo ~~30
'.:::'.:::60
I,
rr so-r
120= 150-1/ l2 1 80
I/
I,
'
II
I
-1
I/
-2
11
-3
Fig. 73.
Tan 0.
It is evident from Fig. 71, that there are two angles, one in each
quadrant with a given sine.
From Figs. 72 and 73, it will be seen that there is only one angle
between 0 and 180 corresponding to a given cosine or tangent.
86
Trigonometry
Exercise 6
Write down from the tables the sines. cosines and tangents of
the following angles:
(a) 102
(d) 145.27
(c) 109.47
(b) 149.55
(e) 154 36
Check your results on your calculator.

2
Find two values of 0 between 0 and 180 when:

(b) sin 0 = 0.9126
(d) sin 0 = 0.7122
(a) sin 0 = 0.6508

(c) sin 0 = 0.3469
3 Find the angles between 0 and 180 whose cosines are:

(a) - 0.4540
(d) -0.9354
4
(b) - 0.8131
(e) -0.7917
(c) -0.1788
(J) - 0.9154
Find 0 between 0 and 180 when:

(a) tan 0 = - 0.5543
(c) tan e = 2.4383
(e) tan e = -0.7142
(b) tan e = -1.4938

(d) tan e = - 1.7603
(J) tan e = - 1.1757
5 Find the values of:

(a) cosec 154
(c) cot 163.2
6
(b) sec 162.5
Find 0 between 0 and 180 when:

(a) sec 0 = -1.6514
(c) cosec 0 = 1.7305
(e) cot e = - 1.6643
(b) sec 0 = - 2.1301
(d) cosec 0 = 2.4586

(J) cote= -0.3819
.
tan A
Find the value of --8when A = 150, B = 163.28.
sec
Find the angles between 0 and 180 when:

(a) sin-1 0.9336
(c) tan-1 1.3764
(b) cos-1 0.4226

(d) cos- 1 - 0.3907
6
Trigonometrical Ratios of
Compound Angles
77
We often need to use the trigonometrical ratios of the sum

or difference of two angles. If A and B are any two angles,
(A + B) and (A - B) are usually called compound angles, and it
is convenient to be able to express their trigonometrical ratios in
terms of the ratios of A and B.
Beware of thinking that sin (A + B) is equal to (sin A + sin B).
You can test this by taking the values of sin A, sin B, and
sin (A + B) for some particular values of A and B from the tables
and comparing them.
78
and
We will first show that:

sin (A
cos (A
+ B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

+ B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B
To simplify the proof at this stage we will assume that A, B,

and (A + B) are all acute angles.
You may find it useful to make your own diagram step by step
with the following construction.
Construction
Let a straight line rotating from a position on a fixed line OX trace
out (1) the angle XOY, equal to A and YOZ equal to B (Fig. 74).
Then
LXOZ = (A
+ B)
88
Trigonometry
In OZ take any point P.
Draw PO perpendicular to OX and PM perpendicular to OY.
From M draw MN perpendicular to OX and MR parallel to OX.
Then
MR= ON
Proof
But
LRPM = 90 - LPMR
= RMO
LRMO = LMOZ
=A
LRPM =A
Again sin (A + B) = sin XOZ

_PO
- OP
RO+ PR
OP
=RO+
OP
PR
OP
=MN+
OP
PR
OP
= (~~ x ~~) + (;~ x ~~)

=sin A cos B +cos A sin B
z
p
Fig. 74.
Ratios of Compound
Angles
89
. o f .mtrod ucmg
. OM
N ote t h e d evice
MO an d PM
PM . eac h o f whire h .rs
unity. into the last line but one.
Again
cos (A
+ B) =cos XOZ
00
- OP
ON - NO
OP
ON
NO
=OP - OP
ON
RM
- OP - OP
g~ x ~~)
= (
- (~~ x ~~)
= cos A cos B - sin A sin B
79
We will next prove the corresponding formulae for

(A - B), viz.:
sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
Construction
Let a straight line rotating from a fixed position on OX describe
an angle XOY, equal to A, and then, rotating in an opposite
direction, describe an angle YOZ, equal to B (Fig. 75).
Then
XOZ =A - B
Take a point P on OZ.

Draw PO perpendicular to OX and PM perpendicuar to OY.
From M draw MN perpendicular to OX and MR parallel to OX
to meet PO produced in R.
Proof
LRPM = 90 - LPMR
=LRMY
=LYOX
=A
(since PM is perp. to OY)

90
Trigonometry
Fig. 75.
Now
sin (A - B) = sin XOZ
PQ
=OP
RQ- RP
=--OP
RQ
RP
=OP - OP
MN
RP
=OP - OP
'b~) - (:~ x ~~)
= (~~ x
= sin A cos B
Again
cos (A - B)
- cos A sin B
cos XOZ
OQ
=OP
=ON+ QN
OP
=ON+
OP
QN
OP
Ratios of Compound
ON
=OP+
Angles
91
RM
OP
ON
OM)
(RM
PM)
= ( OM x OP + PM x OP
cos A cos B + sin A sin B
80
These formulae have been proved for acute angles only. but
they can be shown to be true for angles of any size. They are of
great importance. We collect them for reference:
sin
cos
sin
cos
(A
(A
(A
(A
+
+
-
B)
B)
B)
B)
=
=
sin A cos B +
cos A cos B sin A cos B cos A cos B +
cos
sin
cos
sin
A
A
A
A
sin
sin
sin
sin
B
B
B
B
81
From the above we may find similar formulae

tan (A + B) and tan (A - B) as follows:
tan (A + B)
sin (A + B)
cos (A+ B)
sin A cos B + cos A sin B
cos A cos B - sin A sin B
Dividing numerator and denominator by cos A cos B

we get
tan (A + B)
sin A
cos A
cos A
cos A
cos B + cos A sin B

cos B
c?s A c.os B
cos B
sm A sm B
cos B
cos A cos B
sin A +sin B
OOsA
COsB
_ sin A sin B
1
cos A. cos B
tan (A + B)
tan A + tan B
1 - tan A tan B
tan A - tan B
1 + tan A tan B
Similarly we may show

tan (A _ B)
with similar formulae for cotangents.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
for
92
Trigonometry
82 Worked Examples
Example I: Using the values of the sines and cosines of 30 and
45 as given in the table in section 75. find sin 75.
Using
sin (A
+ B)
= vin A cos B
CO!>
A sin B
and substituting
A = 45, B = 30
sin 75 = sin 45 co!>30
we have
+ ( ~ x ~)
x ~)
= (~
+ cos 45 sin 30
= V3 +-'-
2\/2 2\/2
V3 + 1
2v'2
Example 2: If cos o: = 0.6 and cos f3 = 0.8, find the values of

sin (o: + 13) and cos (o: + 13). without using the tables.
We must first find sin o: and sin
given in section 65.
sin a
13. For these we use the results
V1= cos
Substituting the given value of cos a
= Yl - (0.6)2
= YI - 0.36
= \/0.64
= 0.8
sin f3 = 0.6.
sin
Similarly we find
et
Using sin (A + B) = sin A cos B

and substituting we have
+ 13) =
=
=
Also cos (o: + 13) =
sin (
(0.8 x 0.8)
0.64 + 0.36
1
+ cos A sin B
+ (0.6 x 0.6)
cos o cos 13 - sin o: sin B

(0.6 x 0.8) - (0.8 x 0.6)
=0
Obviously
+ ~=
Ratios of Compound Angles

90", since cos 90 = 0.
93
a and ~ are complementary.
Exercise 7
If cos A = 0.2 and cos B = 0.5, find the values of
sin (A + B) and cos (A - B).
2 Use the ratios of 45 and 30 from the table in section 75 to
find the values of sin 15 and cos 75.
3 By using the formula for sin (A - B) prove that:
sin (90 - 0)
cos 0.
4 By means of the formulae of section 80, find sin (A - B)

when sin B = 0.23 and cos A = 0.309.
5 Find sin (A + B) and tan (A + B) when sin A = 0.71 and
cos B = 0.32.
6 Use the formula of tan (A + B) to find tan 75.
7 Find tan (A + B) and tan (A - B) when tan A = 1.2 and
tan B = 0.4.
8 By using the formula for tan (A - B) prove that
tan (180 - A)
= -
tan A.

(1) sin 52 cos 18 - cos 52 sin 18.
(2) cos 73 cosl2 + sin 73 sin 12.
tan 52 + tan 16
1 - tan 52 tan 16
10 Find the values of: (a)
(
11
Prove that sin (0
12 Prove that tan (0
b)
1
tan 64 - tan 25
+ tan 64 tan 25
+ 45) =
.}z (sin 0 + cos 0)
0 + 1
+ 45) = tan
1 _ tan 0
83 Multiple and sub-multiple angle formulae

From the preceding formulae we may deduce others of great
practical importance.
From section 78 sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B.
Trigonometry
There have been no limitations of the angles.
:. let
B =A.
Substituting
94
sin 2A = sin A cos A + cos A sin A

sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
or
(1)
If 2A is replaced by 6
ei
then
sm
2.0sm
2 cos 20
(2)
We may use whichever of these formulae is more convenient in

a given problem.
Again
Let
then
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B

B =A,
cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A
(4)
This may be transformed into formulae giving cos A or sin2 A

in terms of 2 A.
Since
then
and
sin2 A + cos2 A
sin2 A
cos2 A
=
=
=
1
1 - cos2 A
1 - sin2 A
(section 65)
Substituting for cos2 A in (4)

. . f
. 2 A cos 2A = 1 - 2 si'l2 A
S u bstitunng or sm
cos 2A = 2 cos2 A -
(5)
(6)
No. 5 may be written in the form:

and No. 6 as
1 - cos 2A
1 + cos 2A
2 sin2 A
2 cos2 A
(7)
(8)
These alternative forms are very useful.

Again, if (7) be divided by (8)
1 - cos 2A
sin2 A
1 + cos 2A = cos2 A
tan" A = 1 - cos 2A
(9)
1 +cos 2A
If 2A be replaced by 0, formulae (4). (5) and (6) may be written
in the forms
or
cos 0
cos/ ; - sin2
(10)
84
cos 0
1 - 2 sin2
cos 0
2 cos2
95
(11)
(12)
~ -
Similar formulae may be found for tangents.
Since
tan (A
+ B) = tan A + tan B
1 - tan A tan B
Let B =A
Then
tan 2A
2 tan A
1 _ tan2 A
(3)
or replacing 2A by 0
2 tan
tan 0
=----
1 - tan
(14)
0
Formula (11) above may be written in the fonn:

sin2
= ~ (1
- cos 0)
It is frequently used in navigation.

(1 - cos 0) is called the versed sine of 0
and (1 - sin 0) is called the coversed sine of0.
~ (1 - cos 0) is called the haversine, i.e. half the versed sine.
85 The preceding formulae are collected here for future

reference.
sin (A + B)
sin (A - B)
cos (A + B)
cos (A - B)
=
=
=
+ B)
(6) tan (A _ B)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5) tan (A
sin A cos B + cos

sin A cos B - cos
cos A cos B - sin
cos A cos B + sin
tan A + tan B
1 - tan A tan B
1
tan A - tan B
+ tan A tan B
A
A
A
A
sin
sin
sin
sin
B
B
B
B
96 Trigonometry
(7) sin 2A
= 2 sin A cos A
(8) cos 2A
= cos2 A - sin2 A
= 1 - 2 sin2 A
= 2 cos2 A - 1
(9) tan 2A
2 tan A
1 - tan2 A
These formulae should be carefully memorised. Variations of

(7), (8), (9) in the form 0 and ~should also be remembered.
Exercise 8
1 If sin A = ~. find sin 2A, cos 2A and tan 2A.
2 Find sin 20, cos 20. tan 20, when sin 0 = 0.25.
3 Given the values of sin 45 and cos 45 deduce the values of
sin 90 and cos 90 by using the above formulae.
4 If cos B = 0.66, find sin 2B and cos 2B.
5 Find the values of (1) 2 sin 36 cos 36.
(2) 2 cos2 36 - 1.
6 If cos 2A = ~. find tan A.
(Hint Use formulae from section 83.)
Prove that
. 0_+1ft-cos0
sm 2 - - V
2
0 - + d1+cos0
cos2--v
2
If cos 0
(Hint
9 If 1 10 Prove
(Hint
= !, find sin ~ and cos ~ .
Use the rsults of the previous question.)

cos 20 = 0. 72, find sin 0 and check by using the tables.
that cos" 0 - sin4 0 = cos 20.
Factorise the left-hand side.)
Prove that (sin;+
12
.
.,,/ 1 - cos 30
Find the value of y 1 + cos 300 .
(Hint
cos
~r -
11
sin 0.
See formula from section 83.)
Ratios of Compound
Angles
97
86 Product formulae
The formulae of section 80 give rise to another set of results
involving the product of trigonometrical ratios.
We have seen that:
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B
cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
Adding (1) and (2)
sin (A + B) + sin (A - B) = 2 sin A cos B
Subtracting
sin (A + B) - sin (A - B) = 2 cos A sin B
Adding (3) and (4)
cos (A + B) + cos (A - B) = 2 cos A cos B
Subtracting
cos (A + B) - cos (A - B) = - 2 sin A sin B
These can be written in the forms
2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A - B)
2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) - sin (A - B)
2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A - B)
2 sin A sin B = cos (A - B) - cos (A + B)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Note The order on the right-hand side of (8) must be carefully

noted.
87
Let
and
Adding
Subtracting
A+B=P
A-B=Q
2A = P + Q
2B= P - Q
A=P+Q
P-Q
B=-2Substituting in (5), (6), (7) and (8)
. p + sm
. Q = sin P+Q
22.
P-Q
cos -2-
(9)
. p
. Q
P+Q.
P-Q
sm - sin
= 2 cos -2- sm -2-
(10)
sin
Trigonometry
98
P+Q
P-Q
cos p +cos Q = 2 cos -2cos -2-
(11)
. P+Q.
P-Q
cos Q - cos P = 2 sin -2- sin -2-
(12)
The formulae (5), (6), (7), (8) enable us to change the product
of two ratios into a sum.
Formulae (9), (10), (11), (12) enable us to change the sum of
two ratios into a product.
Again note carefully the order in (12).
88
Worked examples
Example 1: Express as the sum of two trigonometrical

sin 50 cos 30.
Using 2 sin A cos B = sin (A
tution
ratios
+ B) + sin (A - B) on substi-
sin 50 cos 30 =~{sin (50 + 30) + sin (50 - 30)}

= ! {sin 80 + sin 20}
Example 2: Change into a sum sin 70 sin 20.
Using
2 sin A sin B =cos (A - B) - cos (A + B)
on substitution
sin 70 sin 20 = ~ {cos (70 - 20) - cos (70
= ~ {cos 50 - cos 90}
= ~ cos 50 since cos 90 = 0
Example 3: Transform into a product sin 25
+ 20)}
+ sin 18.
Using
. p
sin
.
. Q = 2. sin -2P+Q cos -2P-Q

+ sin
.
. 25
sm 25 + sin 18 = 2 sin
+ 18 cos 25 - 18
2
2
= 2 sin 21.5 cos 3.5

Example 4: Change into a product cos 30 - cos 70.
Using
. P+Q.
P-Q
cos Q - cos P = 2 sm -2- sm -2-

on substitution
cos 30 - cos 70
+ 70 sin
. 70 - 30
2
2
. 30
2 sm
2 sin S0 sin 20
Exercise 9
Express as the sum or difference of two ratios:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
sin 30 cos 0
sin 3S cos 4S
cos S0 cos 30
cos S0 sin 30
cos (C + 20) cos (2C + 0)
cps 60 sin 30
2 sin 3A sin A
cos (3C + SO) sin (3C - SO)
0
Express as the product of two ratios:

sin 4A + sin 2A
sin SA - sin A
11 cos 40 - cos 20
12 cos A - cos SA
13 cos 47 + cos 3S
14 sin 49 - sin 23
9
10
15
sin 30 + sin 60
cos 30 - cos 60
16
sin o:
cos 0:
+ sin ~
+ cos ~
99
Relations Between the Sides and

Angles of a Triangle
89
In section 61 we considered the relations which exist

between the sides and angles of a right-angled triangle. In this
chapter we proceed to deal similarly with any triangle.
In accordance with the usual practice, the angles of a triangle
will be denoted by A, B, and C, and sides opposite to these by a,
b, and c, respectively.
A
Fig. 76(a).
Fig. 76(b).
90 The sine rule

In every triangle the sides are proportional to the sines of the
opposite angles.
There are two cases to be considered:
( 1) Acute-angled triangle (Fig. 76( a)).
(2) Obtuse-angled triangle (Fig. 76(b)).
The Sides and Angles of a Triangle

In each figure draw AD perpendicular to BC, or to
produced (Fig. 76(b)).
In
L:::.ABD. AD = c sin B
In
L:::.ACD. AD = b sin C
101
BC
(1)
(2)
In Fig. 76(b), since ACB and ACD are supplementary angles

sin ACD
sin ACB
sin C
Equating (1) and (2):

c sin B
ca
Similarly
sin B
sin C
sin A
sin B
c=
sin A
sin C
b
a
and
b sin C
These results may be combined in the one formula

sin A
sin B sin C
-a- -b- - -cThese formulae are suitable for logarithmic calculations.
Worked example If in a triangle ABC, A = 52.25, B = 70.43"
and a = 9.8, find b and c.
Using the sine rule:
b
sin B
a= sin A
b =a sin B
sin A
9.8 x sin 70.43
sin 52.25
b
=
=
11.68
11.7 (approx.)
On your calculator the sequence of key presses should be;

9.8 x 70.43 SIN + 52.25 SIN =
. 1 ar 1 y c may be f oun d b y usmg
c = sin
sin A
C
S 1m1
Trigonometry
Exercise JO
102
Solve the following problems connected with a triangle ABC.

When A = 54, B = 67, a= 13.9 rn, find band c.
2 When A = 38.25, B = 29.63, b = 16.2 m, find a and c.
3 When A = 70. C = 58.27, b = 6 mm. find a and c.

4 When A = 88, B = 36, a = 9.5 rn, find band c.
5 When B = 75, C = 42, b = 25 cm, find a and c.
91
The cosine rule
As in the case of the sine rule, there are two cases to be

considered. These are shown in Figs. 77(a) and 77(b ).
A
8-'------.._______.
D
c
Fig. 77(b).
Fig. 77(a).
Let
Then
and
In 6ABD,
BO=
CD =
CD=
AD2 =
In 6ACD,
c2 - x2
AC2 - CD2
= b2 - (a - x)2 in Fig. 77(a)
or
= b2 - (x - a)2 in Fig. 77(b)
Also
(a - x)2 = (x - a)2
equating ( 1) and (2)
b2 - (a - x )2 = c2 - x2
b2
AD2
x
a - x in Fig. 77(a)
x - a in Fig. 77(b)
AB2 - BD'1
a2
2ax - x2 = c2
:.
But
2ax
x
2ac cos B
=
=
cos B
x2
a2 - c2 - b2
c cos B
a2 + c2 - b2
a2 + c2 - b2
--2=---ac
(1)
(2)
Similarly
b2
c2 - a2
2bc
a2
b2 - c2
2ab
cos A=
cos C =
103
The formulae may also be written in the forms:
+
+
+
c2 = a2
a2 = b2
b2 = a2
b2 - 2ab cos C
c2 - 2bc cos A
c2 - 2ac cos B
These formulae enable us to find the angles of a triangle when

all the sides are known. In the second form it enables us to find
the third side when two sides and the enclosed angle are known.
Worked example
Find the angles of the triangle whose sides are
a=
Using
m, b = 9 m, c = 12 m.
cos C =
+ b2 -
a2
c2
2ab
82
+ 92 - 122
2 x 8 x 9
64
+
2
81 - 144
x 8 x 9
1
= 144
= 0.0069
whence
Again,
c = 89.6
b2
92
cos A=
2
c2 - a2
2bc
122 - 82
12
x9x
81 + 144 - 64
2 x 9 x 12
161
216
whence
= 0.7454
= 41.8
104
Trigonometry
Similarly, using
cosB=
a2
+ c2 - b2
2ac
B = 48.6
we get
Check
=
=
A+B+C
41.8 + 48.6 + 89.6
180
Exercise 11
Find the angles of the triangles in which:

a = 2 km, b = 3 km, c = 4 km.
a= 54 mm, b = 71 mm, c = 83 mm.
3 a = 24 m, b = 19 m, c = 26 m.
4 a= 2.6 km, b = 2.85 km, c = 4.7 km.
5 If a = 14 m, b = 8.5 m, c = 9 m, find the greatest angle of the
triangle.
6 When a = 64 mm, b = 57 mm, and c = 82 mm, find the
smallest angle of the triangle.
l
2
92 The half-angle formulae

The cosine formula is tedious when the numbers involved are
large: it is the basis, however, of a series of other formulae which
are easier to manipulate.
93 To express the sines of half the angles in terms of

the sides
As proved in section 91
cos A=
but
cos A
1
b2 + c2 - a2
2bc
1 - 2 sin2 ~
- 2 . 2 A - b2 + c2 - a2
sin 2 2bc
. 2 A - 1 - b2 + c2 - a2
2 sin 2 2bc
(section 83)

_ 2bc -
105
b- + c- - a2bc
0
0)
2bc - b2 - c2 + a2
2bc
_ a2
-
{b2
- 2bc + c2)
2bc
_ a2
-
(b - c)2
2bc
Factorising the numerator

. 2 A _ (a + b - c)(a - b + c)
2 sin 2 2bc
(A)
The 's' notation. To simplify this further we use the 's' notation,
as follows:
Let 2s = a
+ b + c, i.e. the perimeter of the triangle.
Then
2s - 2a = a + b + c = 2a
=b+c-a
2s - 2b = a + b + c - 2b
=a-b+c
2s - 2c = a + b - c
Again
Similarly
These may be written

2s
=a+ b + c
2(s - a) = b + c - a
2(s - b) = a - b + c
2(s - c) = a + b - c
(I)
(2)
(3)
(4)
From (A) above

. 2 A _ (a + b - c)(a - b
2 sin 2 2bc
+ c)
Replacing the factors of the numerator by their equivalents in

formulae (3) and (4)
we have
. A
2 sin 2 2
2(s - c) x 2(s - b)
2bc
(s - cb~s - b)
Cancelling the 2's.

sirr' ~
106
Trigonometry
sin A= '\/(s - b)(s - c)
2
V
be
or
. B _
sm 2 -
Similarly,
sin~
2
/(s - a)(s - c)
ac
..f(s - a)(s - b)
V
ab
94 To express the cosines of half the angles of a

triangle in terms of the sides
b2 + c2 - a2
Since
but
cos A=
Zbc
b2
1 + cos A
1 +
1 + cos A
2cos2
2 cos2
A -1+
2 -
c2 - a2
Zbc
(chapter 6, section 83)
b 2 +c-a2
2bc
_ (b2 + 2bc + c2)

2bc
_ (b
-
a2
+ c)2 - a2
2bc
_ (b + c - a)(b + c + a)
2bc
(on factorising the numerator)
but
and
b + c - a
a + b + c
2(s - a)
2s
Substituting
2 cos
and
cos
cos
A _ 2(s - a) X
2 -
2bc
A _ s(s - a)
2 -
be
A _ ds(s - a)
2 - V
be
2s

'Similarly
I 07
B _ ds(s - b)
ac
cos
2- V
cos
2 - V
C _ ds(s - c)
ab
95 To express the tangents of half the angles of a

triangle in terms of the sides
.
Since
tan
sin
2 = ----:;\
cos 2
we can substitute for sin ~ and cos ~ the expressions found above.
y(s - b)(s - c)
be
a)
be
Then
tan
vs(s -
Simplifying and cancelling

tan A = d(s - b)(s - c)
2
V s(s - a)
tan
Similarly
!! =
d(s - a)(s - c)
V s(s - b)
d(s - a)(s - b)
V s(s - c)
tan~
2
and
96 To express the sine of an angle of a triangle in

terms of the sides
Since
. A = 2 sin
. A cos 2
A
sin
substituting for sin ~ and cos ~ the values found above
sm
A _
- 2
/(s - b)(s - c) x
be
/s(s - a)
be
108
Trigonometry
:.
sin A= ~c v's(s - a)(s - b)(s - c].
on
sim-
plifying.
Similarly
sin B =
2
v's(s
ac
- a)(s - b)(s - c)
and
sin C =a~ v's(s - a)(s - b)(s - c)
97 Worked example
The working involved in the use of all these formulae is very
similar. We will give one example only: there are more in the next
chapter.
The sides of a triangle are a
greatest angle.
264, b
435, c
473. Find the
The greatest angle is opposite to the greatest side and is

therefore C.
Begin by calculating values of the 's' factors.
a= 264
b = 435
c = 473
2s
s =
s - a=
s - b =
s - c =
and
Check
2s
1172
586
322
151
113
1172
Note s + (s - a) + (s - b) + (s - c) = 4s - (a + b + c)
2s
Any of the half angle formulae may be used, but the tangent
formulae involves only the 's' factors.
Using
tan~
2
tan
2 =
d(s - c)(s - b)
V s(s - c)
322 x 151
586 x 113

= 0.8569
= tan (40.59)
and
~=
40.59
c=
81.19
109

322 x 151 + 586 + 113 = \/INV TAN x 2 =
Exercise 12
1
Using the formula for tan ~ , find the largest angle in the
triangle whose sides are 113 mm, 141 mm, 214 mm.
Using the formula for sin ~ , find the smallest angle
tn
the
triangle whose sides are 483 mm, 316 mm, and 624 mm.
3
Using the formula for cos~

b
221 m, c
find
when
a = 115 m,
286 m.
Using the half-angle formulae find the angles of the triangle

when a = 160, b = 220, c = 340.
5 Using the half-angle formulae find the angles of the triangle
whose sides are 73.5, 65.5 and 75.
6 Using the formula for the sine in section 96 find the smallest
angle of the triangle whose sides are 172 km, 208 km, and
274 km.
98 To prove that in any triangle

B-C
tan -2From section 90
b-c
A
= b + c cot 2
sin B
sin C
-b- --c-
Let each of these ratios equal k.

Then
sin B = bk
and
sin C =ck
Adding (I) and (2)
sin B + sin C = k(b
(1)
(2)
+ c)
(3)
Trigonometry
Subtracting (2) from ( 1)
sin B - sin C
Dividing (4) by (3)
110
sin B - sin C
sin B + sin C
k(b - c)
b - c
b + c
(4)
b - c
sin B - sin C
b + c - sin B + sin C
or
Applying to the numerator and denominator of the right-hand

side the formulae, 9 and 10 of section 87.
B+C
2 cos -2-
b _ c
We get
b + c - 2.
. B-C
sm -2-
B+C
B-C
. cos -2-
sm -2-
. B - C
.B+C
sm-sm-2
. .:. .
2
B-C.
B+C
cos -2cos -2B-C
tan-2
t an-2B + C
Since
(B
.
C) = 180 - A
B+C=90o_A
2
B-C
tan-2-
b+c
tan ( 90 -
b-
A)
B-C
tan-2A
cot2
...
or
B-C
tan -2cot
- b- c
+c
- b
B-C
tan -2-
b-c
A
b + c cot 2
(see section 53)
111
Similarly
A-C
tan --2-
=a+
A-B
tan --2-
=a+
a - c
c cot
a - b
b cot
2
C
On the right-hand side we have quantities which are known

when we are given two sides of a triangle and the contained angle.
B-C
Consequently we can find -2- and so B - C.
Since A is known we can find B + C for B + C = 180 - A
Let
B + C =a
Let
B - C = 13 (note a and 13 are now known)
Adding
2B = a + 13
Subtracting
2C = a - 13
B-~andC-~
2
Hence we know all the angles of the triangle.
Worked example
In a triangle A = 75.2, b = 43, c = 35. Find B and C.
Using
B-C
tan--=
2
b-c
--cotb + c
A
2
and substituting
B - C 43 - 35
tan -2- =
+
cot 37 .6
43 35
=
=
7~
7~
cot 37.6
-:- tan 37 .6
= 0.1332
= tan (7 .59)
(43 - 35) -:- (43 + 35) -:- 37.6 TAN= INV TAN
whence
and
B;
C = 7.590
B-C=15.l7
112 Trigonometry
Also
(I) Adding
and
B + C = 180 - 75.2
= 104.8
28 = 119.97
B = 59.98
B = 60 (approx.)
2C = 89.63
c = 44.86
(2) Subtracting
and
99 To prove that in any triangle

a = b cos C + c cos B
As in section 90 there are two cases.
In Fig. 78(a)
BC = BD + DC
But
BD = c cos B
and
DC = b cos C
a= BD +DC
= c cos B + b cos C
A
c
B "----a
D...___ _, C
Fig. 78(a).
In Fig.78(b)
BC=
a =
=
=
since
cos (180 - B) =
: . in each case
a =
Similarly
b =
and
c =
s~~--....._ __ _...;
a
Fig. 78(b).
BD - DC
c cos B - b cos A CD
c cos B - b cos (180 - C)
c cos B + b cos C
- cos B
(see section 70)
b cos C + c cos B
a cos C + c cos A
a cos B + b cos A
Referring to section 63 we see that BD is the projection of AB

on BC, and DC is the projection of AC on BC; in the second case
BC is produced and the projection must be regarded as negative.
Hence we may state the Theorem thus:
Any side of a triangle is equal to the projection on it of the other
two sides.
113
Exercise 13
Use the formula provided in section 98 to find the remaining
angles of the following triangles.
I
2
3
4
5
6
a =
a =
c =
a =
a =
a=
171.
786,
175,
185,
431,
759,
c
b
b
b
b
c
= 288, B =
= 854, C =
= 602, A=
= 111, C =
= 387, C =
= 567, B =
108
37.42
63.67
60
29.23
72.23
8
The Solution of Triangles
100 The formulae which have been proved in the previous

chapter are those which are used for the purpose of solving a
triangle. By this is meant that, given certain of the sides and angles
of a triangle, we proceed to find the others. The parts given must
be such as to make it possible to determine the triangle uniquely.
If, for example, all the angles are given, there is no one triangle
which has these angles, but an infinite number of such triangles,
with different lengths of corresponding sides. Such triangles are
similar, but not congruent (see section 15).
The conditions under which the solution of a triangle is possible
must be the same as those which determine when triangles are
congruent. If you need to revise these conditions turn back to
section 13.
It should be understood, of course, that we are not dealing now
with right-angled triangles, which have already been considered
(see chapter 3, section 62).
101 From the Theorems enumerated in section 13, it is clear
that a triangle can be solved when the following parts are given:
Case
Case
Case
Case
I
Three sides
II Two sides and an included angle
III Two angles and a side
IV Two sides and an angle opposite to one of them
This last case is the ambiguous case (see section 13) and under
certain conditions, which will be dealt with later, there may be two
solutions.
The Solution of Triangles 115

In the previous chapter, after proving the various formulae,
examples were considered which were, in effect, concerned with
the solution of a triangle, but we must now proceed to a systematic
consideration of the whole problem.
102
Case I To solve a triangle when three sides are

known
The problem is that of finding at least two of the angles, because

since the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180, when two are
known the third can be found by subtraction. It is better, however,
to calculate all three angles separately and check the result by
seeing if their sum is 180.
Formulae employed
(I) The cosine rule
The formula
cos A=
b2
+ c2 -
a2
2bc
will give A, and B and C can be similarly determined.

(2) The half angle formulae
A
The best of these, as previously pointed out, is the tan
formula, viz.
t an
A _ d(s - b)(s - c)
s(s - a)
2 - V
However, the formulae for sin ~ and cos ~ may be used.

(3) The sine formula
sin A
;c Vs(s - a)(s - b)(s - c)
This is longer than the half-angle formulae.
Worked example
Solve the triangle in which a = 269.8, b
235.9, c
= 264.7.
116
Trigonometry
Data
a= 269.8
b = 235.9
c = 264.7
2s
s =
s - a =
s - b =
s - c =
Check
770.4
385.2
115.4
149.3
120.5
2s = 770.4
To find A
A
y<s - b)(s - c)
Formula to be used tan - =
2
s(s - a)
= '\ /149.3 x 120.5
385.2 x 115.4
= 0.6362
= tan 32.46
~ = 32.46
and
A = 64.93

149.3 x 120.5 -i- 385.2-;- 115.4 = V INV TAN x 2 =
To find B
Formula to be used tan -B = y<s - a)(s - c)
2
s(s - b)
= '\ /115.4 x 120.5
385.2 x 149.3
= 0.4917
= tan 26.18
= 26.18
and
B = 52.37

115.4 x 120.5-;- 385.2-;- 149.3 = VINVTAN x 2 =

To find C
Formula to be used tan C
- =
2
117
y<s -s(sa)(s- c)- b)

1/115.4 x 149.3
385.2 x 120.5
0.6093
tan 31.35
=
=
= 31.35
c = 62.70
and

115.4 x 149.3 + 385.2 + 120.5 = y' INV TAN x 2 =
A = 64.93
B = 52.37
Check
c=
A+ B + C
62.70
180
Exercise 14
Solve the following triangles:
1
2
3
4
5
a=
a =
a =
a =
a =
103
252,
20,
206.5,
402.5,
95.2,
b = 342,
b = 11,
b = 177,
b = 773.5,
b = 162.4,
Case II
c
c
c
c
c
=
=
=
=
=
486.
12.
295.
1001.
117.6.
Given two sides and the contained angle
(1) The cosine rule may be used. If, for example, the given sides
are b and c and the angle A, then
a2 = b2
+ c2
2bc cos A
will give a.
Hence, since all sides are now known we can proceed as in
Case I.
(2) Use the formula
B-C
tan -2-
b-c
A
= b + c cot 2
Trigonometry
Solve the triangle when
118
294, c = 406, A = 35.4
Formula used:
C-B
tan -2Data
c-b
A
c + b cot 2
b = 294
c = 406
c + b = 700
* c - b = 112
A = 35.4
17.7
C + B = 144.6
=
=
=
112
700 x tan 17.7
0.5013
tan 26.63
26.630
C - B
C + B
2C
Cl
Also
53.25
144.6
= 197.85
c = 98.92
2B = 91.35
B = 45.68
Also
To find a
Formula used:
a
b
sin A= sin B
a=
b sin A
sin B
a = 294 x sin 35.4 + sin 45.68"

= 238.04
a
238 (approx.)
* This form is used since c > b, and therefore C > B.
119
The solution is:

B = 45.68
= 98.92
a= 238
Exercise 15
Solve the following triangles:
1 b = 189,
2 a = 94,
3 a= 39.6,
4 a=266,
5 a= 230.1,
c = 117.7,
b = 159.4,
c = 71.1,
b=175,
c = 269.5,
104 Case III
A = 60.6.
C = 80.97.
B = 65.17.
C=78.
B = 30.47.
Given two angles and a side
If two angles are known the third is also known, since the sum of
all three angles is 180. This case may therefore be stated as given
the angles and one side.
The best formula to use is the sine rule.
Worked example
Solve the triangle in which B = 71.32, C = 67.45 and b = 79.06.
Required to find, A, a and c.
Now
A = 180 - 71.32
= 41.23
+ 67.45
To find c
c
sin C
Formula used -b = --,----8
Sin
whence
b sin C
c = sin B
= 79.06 x sin 67.45 + sin 71.32
c
= 77.08
= 77.08
Trigonometry
To find a
120
Using
sin A
b - sin B
a=
b sin A
sin B
79.06 x sin 41.23 + sin 71.32"
= 55.00
55.00
The solution is
= 41.23
a = 55.00
c = 77.08
Exercise 16
Solve the triangles:
1
2
3
4
5
a = 141.4, A = 74.3, C = 24.23

b = 208.5, A = 95.68, B = 41.63
A = 29.93, C = 108, a = 112.8
B = 32.68, C = 49.63, c = 117.6
b = 11.74, A= 27.75, B = 41.37
105
Case IV Given two sides and an angle opposite

to one of them
This is the ambiguous case and you should revise chapter 1,

section 13, before proceeding further.
As we have seen if the two sides and an angle opposite one of
them are given, then the triangle is not always uniquely determined as in the previous cases, but there may be two solutions.
We will now consider from a trigonometrical point of view how
this ambiguity may arise.
A
Lf\,,
B
C ,--
-----
Fig. 79.
- - ... C'
121
In the L::.ABC (Fig. 79), let c, band B be known.

As previously shown in section 13 the side b may be drawn in
two positions AC and AC'.
Both the triangles ABC and ABC' satisfy the given conditions.
Consequently there are:
(1) Two values for a, viz. BC and BC'.
(2) Two values for LC, viz. ACB or AC'B.
(3) Two values for LA, viz. BAC or BAC'.
Now the L::. ACC' is isosceles, since AC
...
LACC'
AC'
AC'C.
But ACC' is the supplement of ACB.

:. also AC'C is the supplement of ACB.
: . the two possible values of LC, viz. ACB and AC'B are
supplementary.
Solution
Since c, b, B are known, C can be found by the sine rule.
i.e. we use
sin C
sin B
-c- --b-
whence
Sin
. C
Let us suppose that c

Then
8.7, b
c sin B
--b-
7.6, B
25
. C _ 8.7 sin 25
sm 7.6
=
0.4838
We have seen in section 73 that when the value of a sine is

given, there are two angles less than 180 which have that sine,
and the angles are supplementary. The acute angle whose sine is
0.4638 is 28.93.
Consequently there are two values for C, viz.
28.93 and 157.07
Let us examine the question further by considering the
consequences of variations relative to c in the value of b, the side
opposite to the given angle B.
As before draw BA making the given angle B meet BX, of
indefinite length. Then with centre A and radius = b draw an arc
of a circle.
Trigonometry
(1) If this arc touches BX in C, we have the minimum length of b
to make a triangle at all (Fig. 80(a) ). The triangle is then
right-angled, there is no ambiguity and
122
b
(2) If b is > c sin B but
C' (Fig. 80(b)).
nb
c sin B
< c then BX is cut in two points C and

A
~,
s~6.x
Fig. BO(a).
Fig. BO(b).
There are two 6s ABC, ABC' and the case is ambiguous.

A
\
\
,"'
,,,.""
.:
c"",---BCI
,
Fig. BO(cl.
I
I
(3) If b > c. BX is cut at two points C and C' (Fig. 80(c) ), but
one of these C' lies on BX produced in the other direction
and in the 6 so formed, there is no angle B, but only its
supplement. There is one solution and no ambiguity .
. . There are two solutions only when b, the side opposite to
the given angle B, is less than c, the side adjacent, and greater
than c sin B.
Ambiguity can therefore be ascertained by inspection.
Exercise 17
In the following cases ascertain if there is more than one solution.
Then solve the triangles:
1
2
3
4
b
b
a
a
=
=
=
=
30.4, c = 34.8, B = 25
70.25, c = 85.3, B = 40
96, c = 100, C = 66
91, c = 78, C = 29.45
106
123
Area of a triangle
From many practical points of view, e.g. surveying, the calculation

of the area of a triangle is an essential part of solving the triangle.
This can be done more readily when the sides and angles are
known. This will be apparent in the following formulae.
A
(1) The base and altitude formula
The student is probably acquainted with

this formula which is easily obtained
from elementary geometry.
Considering the triangle ABC in
B"-.......___.C Fig. 80(d).
a
D
From A, a vertex of the triangle,
draw AD perpendicular to the opposite
Fig. SO(d).
side.
Let AD = h and let 6 = the area of the triangle.
Then
6 = ~ BC x AD
=~ah
If perpendiculars are drawn from the other vertices B and C,
similar formulae may be obtained.
It will be noticed that h is not calculated directly in any of the
formulae for the solution of a triangle. It is generally more
convenient to express it in terms of the sides and angle.
Accordingly we modify this formula in (2).
(2) The sine formula

Referring to Fig. 80(d):
AD
. C
AC= sm
:.
h = b sin C
Substituting for h in formula above,
6 =~ab sin C
Similarly using other sides as bases
6 =~be sin A
= ~ ac sin B
This is a useful formula and adapted to logarithmic calculation.
Trigonometry
It may be expressed as follows:
The area of a triangle is equal to half the product of two sides
and the sine of the angle contained by them.
124
(3) Area in terms of the sides

We have seen in section 96, chapter 7, that
sin A = ;c Vs(s - a)(s - b)(s - c)
Substituting this for sin A in the formula
6 =~be sin A
2
6 = ~be x bC Vs(s - a)(s - b)(s - c)

6 = Vs(s - a)(s - b)(s - c)
Worked examples
(1) Find the area of the triangle solved in section 103, viz. b
294, c = 406, A = 35.4.
Using the formula:
6 =~be sin A
6 = ~ x 294 x 406 x sin 35.4
6 = 34570 sq. units
(2) Find the area of the triangle solved in section 102, viz.
a = 269.8, b = 235.9, c = 264.7.
Using the formula and taking values of s, s - a, etc., as in
section 102:
6 = Vs(s - a)(s - b)(s - c)

= V385.2 x 115.4 x 149.3 x 120.5
= 28279.35
:.
6 = 28280 sq. units

Exercise 18
I
2
Find the area of the triangle when a = 6.2 m , b = 7.8 m,

c = 52.
Find the area of the triangle ABC when AB = 14 km,
BC= 11 km and LABC = 70.

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
125
If the area of a triangle is 100 m2 and two of its sides are 21 m

and 15 rn, find the angle between these sides.
Find the area of the triangle when a = 98.2 cm, c = 73.5 cm
and B = 135.33.
Find the area of the triangle whose sides are 28.7 cm, 35.4 cm
and 51.8 cm.
The sides of a triangle are 10 mm, 13 mm and 17 mm. Find
its area.
Find the area of the triangle whose sides are 23.22, 31.18 and
40.04 mm.
Find the area of the triangle whose sides are 325 m, 256 m
and 189 m.
A triangle whose sides are 135 urn, 324 urn and 351 m is
made of material whose density is 2.3 kg m-2. Find the
mass of the triangle in Mg.
Find the area of a quadrilateral ABCD, in which AB =
14.7 cm, BC= 9.8 cm, CD = 21.7 cm, AD = 18.9 cm and
LABC = 137.
ABC is a triangle with sides BC= 36 cm, CA = 25 cm,
AB = 29 cm. A point 0 lies inside the triangle and is distant
5 cm from BC and 10 cm from CA. Find its distance from
AB.
Exercise 19
Miscellaneous Examples
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
The least side of a triangle is 3.6 km long. Two of the angles

are 37.25 and 48.4. Find the greatest side.
The sides of a triangle are 123 m, 79 m and 97 m. Find its
angles as accurately as you can.
Given b = 532.4, c = 647.1, A = 75.23, find B, C and a.
In a triangle ABC find the angle ACB when AB = 92 mm,
BC= 50 mm and CA= 110 mm.
The length of the side BC of a triangle ABC is 14.5 m,
LABC = 71, LBAC = 57. Calculate the lengths of the sides
AC and AB.
In a quadrilateral ABCD, AB = 3 m , BC = 4 m, CD =
7.4 rn, DA = 4.4 m and the LABC is 90. Determine the
angle ADC.
When a = 25, b = 30, A = 50 determine how many such
triangles exist and complete their solution.
The length of the shortest side of a triangle is 162 m. If two
angles are 37.25 and 48.4 find the greatest side.
126
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Trigonometry
In a quadrilateral ABCD, AB = 4.3 rn, BC= 3.4 m, CD =
3.8 m, LABC = 95. LBCD = 115. Find the lengths of the
diagonals.
From a point 0 on a straight line OX, OP and OQ of lengths
5 mm and 7 mm are drawn on the same side of OX so that
LXOP = 32 and LXOQ = 55. Find the length of PQ.
Two hooks P and Q on a horizontal beam are 30 cm apart.
From P and Q strings PR and QR, 18 cm and 16 cm long
respectively, support a weight at R. Find the distance of R
from the beam and the angles which PR and QR make with
the beam.
Construct a triangle ABC whose base is 5 cm long, the angle
BAC = 55 and the angle ABC = 48. Calculate the lengths
of the sides AC and BC and the area of the triangle.
Two ships leave port at the same time. The first steams S.E.
at 18 km h-1, and the second 25 W. of S. at 15 km h-1
Calculate the time that will have elapsed when they are 86 km
apart.
AB is a base line of length 3 km, and C, D are points such
that LBAC = 32.25, LABC = 119.08, LDBC = 60.17,
LBCD = 78.75, A and D being on the same side of BC.
Prove that the length of CD is 4405 m approximately.
ABCD is a quadrilateral. If AB = 0.38 m, BC = 0.69 m,
AD = 0.42 m, LABC = 109, LBAD = 123, find the area
of the quadrilateral.
A weight was hung from a horizontal beam by two chains 8 m
and 9 m long respectively, the ends of the chains being
fastened to the same point of the weight, their other ends
being fastened to the beam at points 10 m apart. Determine
the angles which the chains make with the beam.
9
Practical Problems Involving the
Solution of Triangles
107 It is not possible within the limits of this book to deal with
the many practical applications of trigonometry. For adequate
treatment of these the student must consult the technical works
specially written for those professions in which the subject is
necessary. All that is attempted in this chapter is the consideration
of a few types of problems which embody those principles which
are common to most of the technical applications. Exercises are
provided which will provide a training in the use of the rules and
formulae which have been studied in previous chapters. In other
words, you must learn to use your tools efficiently and accurately.
108 Determination of the height of a distant object
This problem has occupied the attention of mankind throughout
the ages. Three simple forms of the problem may be considered
here.
(a) When the point vertically beneath the top of the object is
accessible
In Fig. 81 AB represents a lofty object whose height is required,
and B is the foot of it, on the same horizontal level as 0. This
being accessible, a horizontal distance represented by OB can be
measured. By the aid of a theodolite the angle of elevation of AB,
viz. LAOB, can be found.
128
Trigonometry
Fig. 81.
Then
AB == PB tan AOB
The case of the pyramid considered in chapter 3, section 40, is

an example of this. It was assumed that distance from the point
vertically below the top of the pyramid could be found.
(b) When the point on the ground vertically beneath the top of
the object is not accessible
In Fig. 82 AB represents the height to be determined and B is not
accessible. To determine AB we can proceed as follows:
From a suitable point 0, LAOB is measured by means of a
theodolite.
Fig. 82.
Then a distance PO is measured so that P and 0 are on the same

horizontal plane as B and the 6 APO and AB are in the same
vertical plane.
Then LAPO is measured.
in 6APO.
PO is known.
LAPO is known.
LAOP is known, being the supplement of LAOB.
Practical Problems
129
The .6APO can therefore be solved as in Case 3, section 104.

When AP is known.
Then
As a check
AB
AB
=
=
AP sin APB
AO sin AOB
(c) By measuring a horizontal distance in any direction

It is not always easy to obtain a distance PO as in the previous
example, so that .6APO and AB are in the same vertical plane.
The following method can then be employed.
In Fig. 83 let AB represent the height to be measured.
Taking a point P, measure a horizontal distance PO m any
suitable direction.
Q
Fig. 83.
At P measure
(1) LAPB, the angle of elevation of A,
(2) LAPO, the bearing of Q from A taken at P.
At Q measure LAOP, the bearing of P from Q, taken at O.
Then in .6APQ.
PO is known.
LAPQ is known.
LAQP is known.
6APQ can be solved as in Case III, of section 104.
Thus AP is found and LAPB is known.
:.
AB= AP sin APB
As a check LAQB can be observed and AO found as above.

Then
AB = AQ sin AQB
It should be noted that the distances PB and QB can be

determined if required.
130
Trigonometry
Alternative method.
Instead of measuring the angles APO, AQB, we may, by using a
theodolite, measure
LBPQ at P
LPQB at Q
and
Then in 6 PQB.
PQ is known.
Ls BPO, BQP are known.
6 PQB can be solved as in Case III, section 104.
Thus BP is determined.
Then LAPB being known
AB
PB tan APB
As a check, AB can be found by using BQ and LAQB.
109
Distance of an inaccessible object
Suppose that A (Fig. 84) is an inaccessible object whose distance

is required from an observer at P.
A distance PQ is measured in any suitable direction.
LAPQ, the bearing of A with regard to PO at Pis measured.
A
p
Fig. 84.
Also LAQP, the bearing of A with regard to PO at Q is

measured.
Thus in 6APO.
PQ is known.
Ls APO, AQP are known.
6APO can be solved as in Case 3, section 104.
Thus AP may be found and, if required, AQ.
Practical Problems
131
B~-------iC
Q
Fig. 85.
110
Distance between two visible but inaccessible

objects
Let A and B (Fig. 85) be two distant inaccessible objects.

Measure any convenient base line PQ.
At P observe Ls APB, BPQ.
At Q observe Ls AQP, AQB.
In 6APQ.
PQ is known.
Ls APQ, AQP are known.
6 can be solved as in Case III, section 104, and AQ can
be found.
Similarly 6BPQ can be solved and QB can be found.
Then in 6AQB.
AQ is known.
QB is known.
LAQB is known.
6AQB can be solved as in Case II, section 103.
Hence AB is found.
A check can be found by solving in a similar manner the 6APB ..
111
Triangulation
The methods employed in the last two examples are, in principle,

those which are used in triangulation. This is the name given to
Trigonometry
the method employed in surveying a district, obtaining its area,
etc. In practice there are complications such as corrections for sea
level and, over large districts, the fact that the earth is approximately a sphere necessitates the use of spherical trigonometry.
Over small areas. however, the error due to considering the
surface as a plane, instead of part of a sphere, is, in general, very
small, and approximations are obtained more readily than by using
spherical trigonometry.
The method employed is as follows:
A
132
a
Fig. 86.
A measured distance PQ (Fig. 86), called a base line, is marked

out with very great accuracy on suitable ground. Then a point A
is selected and its bearings from P and Q, i.e. Ls APQ, AQP, are
observed. PQ being known, the L".APQ can now be solved as in
Case III and its area determined.
Next, another point B is selected and the angles BPA, BAP
measured.
Hence, as PA has been found from L".APQ, L".APB can be
solved (Case III) and its area found.
Thus the area of the quadrilateral PQAB can be found.
This can be checked by joining BQ.
The L".s BPQ, ABO can now be solved and their areas
determined.
Hence we get once more the area of the quadrilateral PQAB.
A new point C can now be chosen.
Using the same methods as before L".ABC can be solved.
By repeating this process with other points and a network of
triangles a whole district can be covered.
Practical Problems
133
Not only is it essential that the base line should be measured

with minute accuracy. but an extremely accurate measurement of
the angles is necessary. Checks are used at every stage, such as
adding the angles of a triangle to see if their sum is 180, etc.
The instruments used, especially the theodolite, are provided
with verniers and microscopic attachments to secure accurate
readings.
As a further check at the end of the work, or at any convenient
stage, one of the lines whose length has been found by calculation,
founded on previous calculations, can be used as a base line, and
the whole survey worked backwards, culminating with the
calculation of the original measured base line.
112
Worked examples
We will now consider some worked examples illustrating some of

the above methods, as well as other problems solved by similar
methods.
Example I: Two points lie due W. of a stationary balloon and
are 1000 m apart. The angles of elevation at the two points are
21.25 and 18. Find the height of the balloon.
This is an example of the problem discussed under (b) in
section 108.
In Fig. 87
LAQB =
LAQP =
LAPQ =
LPAQ =
Fig. 87.
21.25
158.75
18
3.25
134
Trigonometry
D.APO is solved as in Case III.

AP
---=--sin AOP
AP
sin 158. 75
AP
whence
also
PO
sin PAO
1000
sin 3.25
= 1000 x sin 1S8.7S + sin 3.25
= 6393.02
AP= 6393
AB = PA sin 18
= 6393 sin 18
= 1975.55
AB= 1976 m
Example 2: A balloon is observed from two stations A and B at

the same horizontal level, A being 1000 m north of B. At a given
instant the balloon appears from A to be in a direction N. 32.2
E., and to have an elevation 53.42, while from Bit appears in a
direction N. 21.45 E. Find the height of the balloon.
This is an example of (c) above.
In Fig. 88 PO represents the height of the balloon at P above
the ground.
LNAO
LABO
LPAO
=
=
=
33.2
21.45
53.42
We first solve the D.ABO and so find AO.

LBAO
LAOB
180 - 33.2 = 146.8

180 - (BAO + ABO)
= 180 - 168.25
= 11.75
Fig. 88.
Practical Problems
135
The 6ABQ can now be solved as in Case 3.

Then
AQ
sin ABQ
AQ
AB
sin AQB
=
=
1000 x sin 21.45 + sin 11. 75

1795.75
AQ
1000
sin 21.45 =sin 11.75
AQ = 1796
PQ = AQ tan PAQ
PQ = 1796 tan 53.42
PQ = 2420 m
whence
Now
whence
Example 3: A man who wishes to find the width of a river

measures along a level stretch on one bank, a line AB, 150 m long.
From A he observes that a post P on the opposite bank is placed
so that LPAB == 51.33, and LPBA = 69.2. What was the width
of the river?
In Fig. 89, AB represents the measured distance, 150 m long.

P is the post on the other side of the river.
PQ, drawn perpendicular to AB, represents the width of the
river.
p
Fig. 89.
To find PO we must first solve the 6APB.

Then knowing PA or PB we can readily find PO.
6APB is solved as in Case 3,
LPAB
LAPB
51.33, LPBA
180 - 51.33
PB _ sin 51.33
AB - sin 66.47
62.2
+ 62.2 = 66.47
136
Trigonometry
PB _ 150 x sin 51.33
sin 66.47
Again
whence
PB = 127.7
PQ = PB sin 66.2
PQ = 113 m
This may be checked by finding PA in 6. PAB and then finding

PQ as above.
Example 4: A and B are two ships at sea. P and Q are two
stations, 1100 m apart, and approximately on the same horizontal
level as A and B. At P, AB subtends an angle of 49 and BQ an
angle of 31. At Q, AB subtends an angle of 60 and AP an angle
of 62. Calculate the distance between the ships.
Fig. 90 represents the given angles and the length PQ (not
drawn to scale).
AB can be found by solving either 6.PAB or 6.QAB.
To solve 6. P AB we must obtain AP and BP.
AP can be found by solving 6.APQ.
BP can be found by solving 6.PBQ.
In both 6.s we know one side and two angles .
. . the 6. can be solved as in Case Ill.
Fig. 90.
(1) To solve 6.APQ and find AP

In 6.APQ
+ LBPQ
+ 31 = 80
LPAQ = 180 - (80 + 62) = 38
LAPQ
LAPB
= 49
Practical Problems
137
AP
sin 62
Using the sine rule PO = sin 38
0
AP =
=
=
AP=
PO x sin 62 -:- sin 38

1100 X sin 62 -:- sin 38
1577.56
1578 m
(2) To solve D.BPO and find BP

LPOB = LAOB + LAOB
= 60 + 62 = 122
LPBO = 180 - (31 + 122) = 27
Using sine rule
BP
sin 122
PO = sin 27
0
BP =
=
=
BP=
PO x sin 122 -:- sin 27

1100 x sin 122 -:- sin 27
2054.79
2055 m
(3) To solve 6 APB and find AB

We know
b
c
AP = 1578 ( = c say)
BP= 2055 (= b)
LAPB = 49 (= A)
b + c = 3633
b - c = 477
B + C = 180 - 49"
Solve as in Case II, section 103.
Formula used.
B-C
tan -2-
b-c
A
b + c cot -
Substituting
B - C
477
tan -2- =
cot 24.5
3633
= 477 -:- 3633 -:- tan 24.5

= 0.2881
= tan 16.07
:.
B ; C
16.07
B-C=32.14
2055
1578
131
138
Trigonometry
Also
+ C = 131
2B = 163.14
B = 81.57
2C = 98.86
c = 49.43
LPAB = 81.57
LPBA = 49.86
(4) To find AB use the sine rule
AB
AP
sin 49
sin 49.43
AB _ 1578 x sin 49
sin 49.43
AB= 1568 m
This can be checked by solving 6AQB and so obtaining AO
and QB.
Exercise 20
A man observes that the angle of elevation of a tree is 32.
He walks 8 m in a direct line towards the tree and then finds
that the angle of elevation is 43. What is the height of the
tree?
2 From a point Q on a horizontal plane the angle of elevation
of the top of a distant mountain is 22.3. At a point P, 500 m
further away in a direct horizontal line, the angle of elevation
of the mountain is 16.6. Find the height of the mountain.
3 Two men stand on opposite sides of a church steeple and in
the same straight line with it. They are 1.5 km apart. From
one the angle of elevation of the top of the tower is 15.5 and
the other 28.67. Find the height of the steeple in metres.
4 A man wishes to find the breadth of a river. From a point on
one bank he observes the angle of elevation of a high building
on the edge of the opposite bank to be 31. He then walks
110 m away from the river to a point in the same plane as the
previous position and the building he has observed. He finds
that the angle of elevation of the building is now 20.92. What
was the breadth of the river?
5 A and Bare two points on opposite sides of swampy ground.
From a point P outside the swamp it is found that PA is
l
Practical Problems
139
882 metres and PB is 1008 metres. The angle subtended at P

by AB is 55.67. What was the distance between A and B?
A and B are two points 1.8 km apart on a level piece of
ground along the bank of a river. P is a post on the opposite
bank. It is found that LPAB = 62 and LPBA = 48. Find
the width of the river.
The angle of elevation of the top of a mountain from the
bottom of a tower 180 m high is 26.42. From the top of the
tower the angle of elevation is 25.3. Find the height of the
mountain.
Two observers 5 km apart take the bearing and elevation of
a balloon at the same instant. One finds that the bearing is
N. 41 E, and the elevation 24. The other finds that the
bearing is N. 32 E, and the elevation 26.62. Calculate the
height of the balloon.
Two landmarks A and B are observed by a man to be at the
same instant in a line due east. After he has walked 4.5 km
in a direction 30 north of east, A is observed to be due south
while B is 38 south of east. Find the distance between A and
B.
10
11
12
At a point P in a straight road PQ it is observed that two

distant objects A and B are in a straight line making an angle
of 35 at P with PQ. At a point C 2 km along the road from
Pit is observed that LACP is 50 and angle BCQ is 64. What
is the distance between A and B?
An object P is situated 345 m above a level plane. Two
persons, A and B, are standing on the plane, A in a direction
south-west of P and B due south of P. The angles of elevation
of Pas observed at A and Bare 34 and 26 respectively. Find
the distance between A and B.
P and Q are points on a straight coast line, Q being 5.3 km
east of P. A ship starting from P steams 4 km in a direction
65~0 N. of E.
Calculate:
(1) The distance the ship is now from the coast-line.
(2) The ship's bearing from Q.
(3) The distance of the ship from Q.
13
At a point A due south of a chimney stack, the angle of

elevation of the stack is 55. From B due west of A, such that
AB = 100 m, the elevation of the stack is 33. Find the height
of the stack and its horizontal distance from A.
Trigonometry
AB is a base line 0.5 km long and B is due west of A. At B
a point P bears 65. 7 north of west. The bearing of P from
AB at A is 44.25 N. of W. How far is P from A?
15 A horizontal bridge over a river is 380 m long. From one end,
A, it is observed that the angle of depression of an object, P
vertically beneath the bridge, on the surface of the water is
34. From the other end, B, the angle of depression of the
object is 62. What is the height of the bridge above the
water?
16 A straight line AB, 115 m Jong, lies in the same horizontal
plane as the foot of a church tower PQ. The angle of elevation
of the top of the tower at A is 35. LQAB is 62 and LQBA
is 48. What is the height of the tower?
17 A and B are two points 1500 metres apart on a road running
due west. A soldier at A observes that the bearing of an
enemy's battery is 25.8 north of west, and at B, 31.5 north
of west. The range of the guns in the battery is 5 km. How
far can the soldier go along the road before he is within range,
and what length of the road is within range?
140
14
10
Circular Measure
113 In chapter 1, when methods of measuring angles were
considered, a brief reference was made to 'circular measure'
(section 6(c)), in which the unit of measurement is an angle of
fixed magnitude, and not dependent upon any arbitrary division
of a right angle. We now proceed to examine this in more detail.
114
Ratio of the circumference of a circle to its

diameter
The subject of 'circular measure' frequently causes difficulties. In

order to make it as simple as possible we shall assume, without
mathematical proof, the following theorem.
The ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter is a fixed
one for all circles.
This may be expressed in the form:
Circumference
diameter
t t
a cons an
It should, of course, be noted that the ratio of the circumference

of a circle to its radius is also constant and the value of the constant
must be twice that of the circumference to the diameter.
115
The value of the constant ratio of circumference

to diameter
You can obtain a fair approximation to the value of the constant
142
Trigonometry
by various simple experiments. For example, you can wrap a

thread round a cylinder - a glass bottle will do - and so obtain the
length of the circumference. You can measure the outside
diameter by callipers. The ratio of circumference to diameter thus
found will probably give a result somewhere about 3.14.
It is also possible to obtain a much more accurate result by the
method devided by Archimedes. The perimeter of a regular
polygon inscribed in a circle can readily be calculated. The
perimeter of a corresponding escribed polygon can also be
obtained. The mean of these two results will give an approximation to the ratio. By increading the number of sides a still more
accurate value can be obtained.
This constant is denoted by the Greek letter -rr (pronounced
'pie').
circumference
diameter
Hence since
rr
circumference = rr x diameter
or
c
2-rrr
c = circumference and r = radius.
where
By methods of advanced mathematics -rr can be calculated to

any required degree of accuracy.
To seven places
1f
3.1415927
For many purposes we take

1f
which is roughly
rr
3.1416
22
=7
p
It is not possible to find any arithmetical fraction which exactly represents the value of 'TT. Hence -rr is called
'incommensurable'.
116
Fig. 91.
The unit of circular measure
As has been stated in section 6(c) the unit of circular measure is

the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc whose length
is equal to that of the radius.
Thus in Fig. 91 the length of the arc AB is equal tor, the radius
of the circle. The angle AOB is the unit by which angles are
measured, and is termed a radian.
Circular Measure
143
Definition. A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a

circle by an arc equal in length to the radius.
Note that since
the circumference is 1T times the diameter
the semicircular arc is 1T times the radius
or arc of semicircle = 1Tr.
By Theorem 17, section 18.
The angles at the centre of a circle are proportional to the arcs
on which they stand.
Now in Fig. 91 the arc of the semicircle ABC subtends two right
angles, and the arc AB subtends l radian and as semicircle arc is
1T times arc AB
. . angle subtended by the semicircular arc is ir times the angle
subtended by arc AB.
2 right angles = 1T radians
180 = 1T radians
i.e.
or
117
The number of degrees in a radian
As shown above
1T
radians = 180
.
180
1 radian= -1T
= 57.2958 (approx.)
1 radian = 57 17' 45" (approx.)
Most scientific calculators have a facility (possibly a DRG key)
which allows you to change angles in radians to degrees and viceversa. (For more details of this feature, see section 37 on page 36.)
118
The circular measure of any angle
In a circle of radius r, Fig. 92, let AOD be any angle and let
LAOB represent a radian .
. . length of arc AB = r.
Number of radians in LAOD =
~1g~
By Theorem 17 quoted above

LAOD
arc AD
LAOB - arc AB
144
Trigonometry
If 0 = number of radians in LAOD

0 =arc AD
then
Fig. 92.
119 To convert degrees to radians

Since
180 =
lo
and
1T
radians
1T
180
ra dirans
0 = ( 0 x 1~0) radians
120 Te Ind the length of an arc

Let
and
a = length of arc
0 = number of radians in angle
Then as shown in section 118

adr~
Ta !US
= number of radians in the angle the arc subtends.

~=9
r
and
(section 118)
a= r0
121 In more advanced mathematics, circular measure is always

employed except in cases in which, for practical purposes, we need
Circular Measure
145
to use degrees. Consequently when we speak of an angle 0, it is

generally understood that we are speaking of 0 radians. Thus
when referring to 'TT radians, the equivalent of two right angles,
we commonly speak of the angle 'TT. Hence we have the double
use of the symbol:
(1) as the constant ratio of the circumference of a circle to its
diameter;
(2) as short for 'TT radians, i.e. the equivalent of 180.
In accordance with this use of 'TT, angles are frequently expressed
as multiples or fractions of it.
Thus
2'TT = 360
.!!
60
'TT - 30
6'TT is not usually evaluated in such cases, except for some special
purpose.
Exercise 21
1
What is the number of degrees in each of the following angles
. ra di rans:. 'TT , 'TT , 2'

3'TT , y
2'TT , 4'
3'TT ?.
expresse d m
3, 12,
2 Write down from the tables the following ratios:
(a) sin
(d) cos
3
(b) cos
3;
'TT
8
(e) sin(}
. 'TT
(c) sm
10
i)
Express in radians the angles subtended by the following arcs:

(a) arc
(b) arc
=
=
11.4 mm, radius

5.6 cm, radius
=
=
2.4 mm
2.2 cm
146
Trigonometry
Express the following angles in degrees and minutes:
(a) 0.234 radian
(b) 1.56 radian
Express the following angles in radians, using fractions of 'Ir:

(a) 15
(b) 72
(c) 66
(d) 105
6 Find the length of the arc in each of the following cases:

(1) r
(2) r
7
=
=
2.3 cm, 0
12.5 rn, 0
=
=
2.54 radians
1.4 radians
A circular arc is 154 cm long and the radius of the arc is

252 cm. What is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle,
in radians and degrees?
8 Express a right angle in radians, not using a multiple of 'IT.
9 The angles of a triangle are in the ratio of 3: 4: 5. Express them
in radians.
11
Trigonometrical Ratios of Angles
of any Magnitude
122 In chapter 3 we dealt with the trigonometrical ratios of

acute angles, i.e. angles in the first quadrant. In chapter 5 the
definitions of these ratios were extended to obtuse angles, or
angles in the second quadrant. But in mathematics we generalise
and consequently in this chapter we proceed to consider the ratios
of angles of any magnitude.
In section 5, chapter 1, an angle was defined by the rotation of
a straight line from a fixed position and round a fixed centre, and
there was no limitation as to the amount of rotation. The rotating
line may describe any angle up to 360 or one complete rotation,
and may then proceed to two, three, four - to any number of
complete rotations in addition to the rotation made initially.
123
Angles in the thirdand fourth quadrants
We will first deal with angles in the third and fourth quadrants,
and thus include all those angles which are less than 360 or a
complete rotation.
Before proceeding to the work which follows you are advised
to revise section 68, in chapter 5, dealing with positive and
negative lines.
In section 70 it was shown that the ratios of angles in the second
quadrant were defined in the same fundamental method as those
of angles in the first quadrant, the only difference being that in
obtaining the values of the ratios we have to take into considera-
Trigonometry
tion the signs of the lines employed, i.e. whether they are positive
or negative.
It will now be seen that, with the same attention to the signs of
the lines, the same definitions of the trigonometrical ratios will
apply, whatever the quadrant in which the angle occurs.
In Fig. 93 there are shown in separate diagrams, angles in the
four quadrants. In each case from a point P on the rotating line a
perpendicular PO is drawn to the fixed line OX, produced in the
cases of the second and third quadrants.
Thus we have formed, in each case, a triangle OPO, using the
sides of which we obtain, in each quadrant, the ratios as follows,
denoting LAOP by 0.
Then, in each quadrant .
PO
sm 0 =OP
148
00
cos 0 = OP
tan 0
PO
OO
We 110w consider the signs of these lines in each quadrant.
II
111
IV
Fig. 93.
Ratios of Angles of any Magnitude
149
(1) In the first quadrant.

All the lines are + ve.
: All the ratios are + ve.
(2) In the second quadrant.
OQ is -ve
sine is + ve
cos e is -ve
tan e is -ve
(3) In the third quadrant.
OQ and PO are - ve
sine is -ve
cos e is -ve
tan e is +ve
(4) In the fourth quadrant.
PO is -ve
sine is -ve
cos e is+ ve
tan e is -ve
Note The cosecant, secant and tangent will, of course, have the
same signs as their reciprocals. These results may be summarised
as follows:
Quadrant II
sine +
{ sin, +ve
cos, - ve
tan, -ve
Quadrant III
tan +
{ sin, -ve
cos, - ve
tan, + ve
Quadrant I
sin, +ve }
cos, + ve
all +
tan, + ve
Quadrant IV
sin, -ve }
cos,+ ve
cos+
tan, -ve
124 Variations in the sine of an angle between 0 and

360
These have previously been considered for angles in the first and
second quadrants. Summarising these for completeness, we will
Trigonometry
examine the changes in the third and fourth quadrants.
Construct a circle of unit radius (Fig. 94) and centre 0. Take
on the circumference of this a series of points P., P2, Pl ...
and
draw perpendiculars to the fixed line XOX'. Then the radius being
of unit length, these perpendiculars, in the scale in which OA
represents unity, will represent the sines of the corresponding
angles.
y
150
Y'
Fig. 94.
By observing the changes in the lengths of these perpendiculars

we can see, throughout the four quadrants, the changes in the
value of the sine.
In quadrant I
sin
is
+ ve and increasing from () to 1
Ratios of Angles of any Magnitulh
151
In quadrant II
sin 0 is
+ ve and decreasing from I to 0
In quadrant III
sin 0 is -ve
Now the actual lengths of the perpendiculars is increasing, but
as they are - ve, the value of the sine is actually decreasing, and
at 270 is equal to - 1.
The sine decreases in this quadrant from 0 to - I
In quadrant IV
sin 0 is -ve
The lengths of the perpendiculars are decreasing, but as they
are -ve, their values are increasing and at 360 the sine is equal
to sin 0 and is therefore zero .
. .
125
sin 0 is increasing from - I to 0
Graphs of sin 0 and cosec 0
By using the values of sines obtained in the method shown above

(Fig. 94) or by taking the values of sines from the tables, a graph
of the sine between 0 and 360 can now be drawn. It is shown in
Fig. 95, together with that of cosec 0 (dotted line) the changes in
which through the four quadrants can be deduced from those of
the sine. You should compare the two graphs, their signs, their
maximum and minimum values, etc.
126
Variations in the cosine of an angle between 0

and 360
From Fig. 94 you will see that the distances intercepted on the
fixed line by the perpendiculars from P1, P2 , viz. 00" 002
... will represent, in the scale in which OA represents unity, the
cosines of the corresponding angles. Examining these we see
(I) In quadrant I
The cosine is
+ ve and decreases from I to 0
152
Trigonometry
4
3
2
oo
goo
13oo
270
360
-1
-2
-3
--4
Fig.95.
Graphs of sin 0 and cosec 0.
(Cosec 0 is dotted.)
(2) In quadrant II
The cosine is always-ve aad deacases from 0 to -1
(3) In quadrant III
The cosine is -ve and always increasing from -1 to 0 and
cos 270 = 0
(4) In quadrant IV
The cosine is + ve and always increasing from 0 to
cos 360 = cos 0 = 1
+ 1 since
127 Graphs of cos 0 and sec 0

In Fig. 96 is shown the graph of cos 0, which can be drawn as
directed for the sine in section 125. The curve of its reciprocal,
sec 0, is also shown by the dotted curve. Compare these two
curves.
Rlllios of Angles of any Magnilwk
153
3
2
90
11
oo
270
31
-1
-2
-3
-4
Ag.96.
Graphs of
cos 9
and sec 9 (dotted curve).
128 Variations in the tangent between 0 and 360

The changes in the value of tan 0 between 0 and 360 can be seen
in Fig. 97, which is an extension of Fig. 39.
The circle is drawn with unit radius.
From A and A' tangents are drawn to the circle and at right
angles to XOX'.
Considering any angle such as AOPi.
P1A
P1A
tan AOP1 = OA = -1- = P1A
Consequently P1A, P2A, P3A', P4A' ... represent the numerical value of the tangent of the corresponding angle.
But account must be taken of the sign.
In quadrants II and III, the denominator of the ratio is - 1 in
numerical value, while in quadrants 3 and 4 the numerator of the
fraction is - ve.
Consequently the tangent is + ve in quadrants 1 and 3 and - ve
in quadrants II and IV.
154
Trigonometry
P3
P2
II
P1
P4
X'
P5
Pa
IV
P5
Fig.17.
COnsidering a particular angle, viz. the LA'OP5 iJ1quadrant3

tan A'OP5
PA'
_~A'
tan 0 is + ve and is represented numerically by P5A'.

From such observations of the varying values of tan 0 the
changes between 0 and 360 can be determined as follows:
(1) In quadrant I
tan 0 is always + ve and increasing
It is 0 at 0 and ~ oo at 90
(2) In quadrant II
tan 0 is always - ve and increasing from -
oo
at 90 to 0 at 180
Note When 0 has increased an infinitely small amount above 90,

the tangent becomes - ve.
155
3
\
2
I
~
,
,,
,,
, ....
....
oo
Ir
180
,,
-1
27
~ 60
,,
"
v
-2
I
-3
Graph of
tan 0
Fig. 98.
and cot 0 (dotted line)
(3) In quadrant III

tan 0 is always + ve and increasing
At 180 the tangent is 0 and at 270 tan 0 ~
(4) In quadrant IV
tan 0 is always - ve and increasing from 360
129
oo
oo
at 271' to 0 at
Graphs of tan 0 and cot 0
In Fig. 98 are shown the graphs of tan 0 and cot 8 (dotted curve)
for values of angles between 0 and 360.
130 Ratios of angles greater than 360

Let LAOP (Fig. 99) be any angle, 0, which has been formed by
rotation in an anti-clockwise or positive direction from the position
OA.
Suppose now that the rotating line continues to rotate in the
same direction for a complete rotation or 360 from OP so that it
arrives in the same position, OP, as before. The total amount of
rotation from OA is now 360 + 0 or (2'TT + 0) radians.
Clearly the trigonometrical ratios of this new angle 2'TT + 0 must
156 Trigonometry
be the same as 0, so that sin (211' + 0) = sin 0, and so for the other
ratios.
Similarly if further complete rotations are made so that angles
were formed such as 411' + 0, 611' + 0, etc., it is evident that the
trigonometrical ratios of these angles will be the same at those of
0.
Fig. 99.
Turning again to Fig. 99 it is also evident that if a complete

rotation is made in a clockwise, i.e. negative, direction, from the
position OP, we should have the angle -211' + 0. The trigonometrical ratios of this angle, and also such angles as - 411' + 0,
- 611' + 0, will be the same as those of 0.
All such angles can be included in the general formula
Znsr
where n is any integer, positive or negative.

Referring to the graphs of the ratios in Figs. 95, 96 and 98, it is
clear that when the angle is increased by successive complete
rotations, the curves as shown, will be repeated either in a positive
or a negative direction, and this can be done to an infinite extent.
Each of the ratios is called a periodic function of the angle,
because the values of the ratio are repeated at intervals of
211' radians or 360, which is called the period of the function.
131
Trigonometrical ratio of - 0
In Fig. 100 let the rotating line OA rotate in a clockwise, i.e.

negative, direction to form the angle AOP. This will be a negative
angle. Let it be represented by - 0.
Let the angle AOP' be formed by rotation in an anti-clockwise
i.e. + ve direction and let it be equal to 0.
157
Then the straight line P'MP completes two triangles.

OMP and OMP'
These triangles are congruent (Theorem 7, section 13) and the
angles OMP, OMP' are equal and : . right angles.
Fig. 100.
Then
PM
P'M
sm ( - 0) = OP = - OP
PM
.
OP= sm 0
but
sin (-0) =-sin
Similarly
OM
OM
cos (-0) = OP =OP'=
Similarly
tan (- 0) = - tan 0
cos 0
Collecting these results,

sin (-0) =-sin 0
cos ( - 0) = cos 0
tan ( - 0) = - tan 0
From these results you will be able to construct the curves of
sin 0, cos 0 and tan 0 for -ve angles. You will see that the curves
for -ve angles will be repeated in the opposite direction.
132
To compare the trigonometrical ratios of e and
1so + e
0
Note If 0 is an acute angle, then 180 + 0 or

in the third quadrant.
1T
+ 0 is an angle
158
Trigonometry
In Fig. 101 with the usual construction let LPOO be any acute
angle, 0.
Let PO be produced to meet the circle again in P'.
Draw PO and P'O' perpendicular to XOX'.
Then
and
LP'OO'
LAOP'
LPOO = 0 (Theorem 1, section 8)

180 + 0
Fig. 101.
The As POQ, P'OO' are congruent

P'O'
00'
and
-PQ
-00
. 0
PQ
sm =OP
Now
and
=
=
sin (180
+ 0) = sin AOP'
P'O'
-PO
.
= OP' = OP = +sm
similarly
and
133
sin 0
cos 0
tan 0
= - sin (180 + 0)
= - cos (180 + 0)
= tan (180 + 0)
To compare the ratios of 0 and 360 - 0
Note If 0 is an acute angle, then 360 - 0 is an angle in the fourth

quadrant.
159
In Fig. 102 if the acute angle AOP represents 0 then the reentrant angle AOP, shown by the dotted line represents 360 - 0.
The trigonometrical ratios of this angle may be obtained from
the sides of the 6 OMP in the usual way and will be the same as
those of - 0 (see section 131).
using the results of section 131 we have
sin (360 - 0) = - sin 0
cos (360 - 0) = cos 0
tan (360 - 0) = - tan 0
Fig. 102.
134 It will be convenient for future reference to collect some of

the results obtained in this chapter, as follows:
sin 0 = sin ('TT - 0) = - sin ('TT + 0) = - sin (2'TT - 0)
= -sin (-0)
cos 0 =-cos ('TT - 0) =-cos ('TT+ 0) =cos (2'TT - 0)
=cos (-0)
tan 0 =-tan ('TT - 0) =tan ('TT+ 0) =-tan (2'TT - 0)
= -tan (-0)
135 It is now possible, by use of the above results and using the
tables of ratios for acute angles, to write down the trigonometrical
ratios of angles of any magnitude.
A few examples are given to illustrate the method to be
employed.
Trigonometry
Example /: Find the value of sin 245
160
We first note that this angle is in the third quadrant

. . its sine must be negative.
Next, by using the form of (180" + 0)
sin 245
sin (180
65)
Thus we can use the appropriate formula of section 134, viz.

sin 0
sin ('TT
+ 0)
Consequently
sin (180
+ 65) = - sin 65
-0.9063
Example 2: Find the value of cos 325

This angle is in the fourth quadrant and so we use the formulae
for values of 360 - 0 (see section 133).
In this quadrant the cosine is always + ve
cos 325
cos 35
(section 133)
= 0.8192
Example 3: Find the value of tan 392
This angle is greater then 360 or one whole revolution.
tan 392
=
=
=
tan (360
tan 32
0.6249
+ 32)
Example 4: Find the value of sec 253

This angle is in the third quadrant.
. . we use the formula connected with ('TT + 0) (see
section 132).
Also in this quadrant the cosine, the reciprocal of the secant is
-ve.
sec 253
=
=
=
Now
sec (180 + 73)

-sec 73
-3.4203
use your calculator to check the above results.
161
Exercise 22
I
Find the sine, cosine and tangent of each of the following

angles:
(a) 257
(c) 315.33
(b) 201.22
(d) 343.13
Find the values of:

(a) sin(-51)
(c) sin (-138)
(b) cos(-42)
( d) cos ( - 256)

(a) cosec 251
(c) cot 321
(b) sec 300

( d) sec 235)

(a) sin ('IT+ 57)
(c) tan (21T + 52)
( b) cos (21T - 42)

(d) sin (41T + 36)
136 To find the angles which have given

trigonometrical ratios
(a) To find all the angles which have a given sine (or cosecant).
We have already seen in section 73 that corresponding to a
given sine there are two angles, 0 and 180 - 0, where 0 is the
acute angle whose sine is given in the tables. Having now
considered angles of any magnitude it becomes necessary to
discover what other angles have the given sine.
An examination of the graph of sin 0 in Fig. 95 shows that only
two of the angles less than 360 have a given sine, whether it be
positive or negative, the two already mentioned above is the sine
is + ve, and two in the third and fourth quadrants if it is - ve.
But the curve may extend to an indefinite extent for angles
greater than 360, and for negative angles, and every section
corresponding to each additional 360, positive or negative, will
be similar to that shown. Therefore it follows that there will be an
infinite number of other angles, two in each section which have
the given sine. These will occur at intervals of 21T radians from
those in the first quadrant. There will thus be two sets of such
angles.
(1) 0, 21T + 0, 41T + 0, ...
(2) 1T - 0, 31T - 0, 51T - 0, ...
Trigonometry
These two sets include all the angles which have the given sines.
They can be summarised as follows:
162
(1) (any even multiple of ir) + 0

(2) (any odd multiple of ir) - 0
These can be combined together in one formula as follows:
Let n be any integer, positive or negative.
Then sets (1) and (2) are contained in
nrr
+ (-1)" 0
The introduction of ( - 1 )" is a device which ensures that when

n is even, i.e. we have an even multiple of rr, (-1)" = 1 and the
formula becomes nrr + 0. When n is odd (-1)" = -1 and the
formula becomes nrr - 0.
the general formula for all angles which have a given sine is
nrr
+ (- 1)" 0
where n is any integer + ve or -ve, and 0 is the smallest angle

having the given sine.
The same formula will clearly hold also for the cosecant.
(b) To find all the angles which have a given cosine (or secant).
Examining the graph of cos 0 (Fig. 96), it is seen that there are
two angles between 0 and 360 which have a given cosine which
is+ ve, one in the first quadrant and one in the fourth. If the given
cosine is - ve, the two angles lie in the second and third quadrants.
These two angles are expressed by 0 and 360 - 0.
or
0 and 2ir - 0 in radians
As in the case of the sine for angles greater than 360 or for
negative angles, there will be two angles with the given sine in the
section corresponding to each additional 360.
There will therefore be two sets:
(1) 0, 2ir + 0, 4ir + 0, ...
(2) Zrr - 0, 4ir - 0, 6ir - 0, ...
These can be combined in one set, viz.:
(any even multiple of rr)
or if n is any integer, positive or negative, this can be expressed by

Znrr 0
:.
Ratios of Angles of any Magnitude 163

the general formula for all angles with a given cosine is:
2n'TT 0
The formula for the secant will be the same.

(c) To find all the angles which have a given tangent
cotangent).
(or
An examination of the graph of tan 0 (Fig. 98), shows that there

are two angles less than 360 which have the same tangent, viz.:
or
0 and 180 + 0
0 and
'TT+ 0
As before, there will be other angles at intervals of 21T which

will have the same tangent. Thus there will be two sets, viz.:
0, 21T + 0, 41T + 0,
.
'TT + 0, 31T + 0, 51T + 0,
.
Combining these it is clear that all are included in the general
formula
(any multiple of 'IT) + 0
If n be any integer, positive or negative, the general
formula for all angles with a given tangent is
n'TT + 0
The same formula holds for the cotangent.
Exercises which involve the use of these formulae will occur in
the next chapter.
12
137 Trigonometrical equations are those in which the unknown
quantities, whose values we require, are the trigonometrical ratios
of angles. The angles themselves can be determined when the
values of the ratios are known.
The actual form which the answer will take depends on whether
we require only the smallest angle corresponding to the ratio,
which will be obtained from the tables, or whether we want to
include some or all of those other angles which, as we have seen
in the previous chapter, have the same ratio.
This can be shown in a very simple example.
Example: Solve the equation 2 cos 0
0.842.
(1) The smallest angle only may be required.

Since
From the tables
2 cos 0
cos 0
0
= 0.842
= 0.421
= 65 .1
(2) The angles between 0 and 360 which satisfy the equation may
be required.
As we have seen in section 136(b) there is only one other such
angle, in the fourth quadrant.
It is given by 2ir - 0 or 360 - 0
This angle = 360 - 65.1 = 294.9
: . The two solutions are 65 .1 and 294. 9
Trigonometrical Equations 165

(3) A general expression for all angles which satisfy the equation
may be required.
In this case one of the formulae obtained in the previous chapter
will be used.
Thus in section 136(b) all angles with a given cosine are included
in the formula
2n'TT e
In this example 0 = 65 .1 .
. . The solution is 2n'TT cos-1 0.421
The inverse notation (see section 74) is used to avoid the
incongruity of part of the answer 2n'TT being in radians, and the
other in degrees.
138 Some of the different types of equations will now be

considered.
(a) Equations which involve only one ratio
The example considered in the previous paragraph is the
simplest form of this type. Very little manipulation is required
unless the equation is quadratic in form.
Example: Solve the equation
6 sin2 e - 7 sin e
+ 21 = 0
for values of e between 0 and 360.

Factorising
whence
or
(3 sin e - 2)(2 sin e - 1) = 0

3 sine - 2 = O
2 sine - 1 = 0
sin e = j = 0.6667
From (1)
.
from the tables

0 = 41.82
The only other angle less than 360 with this sine is
From (2)
180 - 0 = 138.18
sin 0 = 0.5
.'. 0=30
(1)
(2)
166
Trigonometry
and the other angle with this sine is 180 - 30 =
the complete solution is
150"
41.82, 138.18' 30' 150
Note If one of the values of sin 6 or cos 6 obtained in an equation

is numerically greater than unity, such a root must be discarded
as impossible. Similarly values of the secant and cosecant less than
unity are impossible solutions from this point of view.
(b) Equations containing more than one ratio of the angle
Manipulation is necessary to replace one of the ratios by its
equivalent in terms of the other. To effect this we must use an
appropriate formula connected with the ratios such as were proved
in chapter 4.
Example 1: Obtain a complete solution of the equation

3 sin 6
2 cos2 6.
The best plan here is to change cos2 6 into its equivalent value
of sin 6. This can be done by the formula
sin2 6
whence
Substituting
cos2 6 = 1
cos2 6 = 1 - sin2 6
in the above equation
3 sin 6
= 2(1 - sin2
6)
Factorising,
whence
or
From (1)
(2 sin 6 - l)(sin 6 + 2) = 0
sin 6 + 2 = 0
2 sin 6 - 1 = 0
sin 6 = -2
This is impossible,
the given equation.
(1)
(2)
and therefore does not provide a solution of
From (2)
:.
2 sin 6 = 1
sin 6 = 0.5
The smallest angle with this sine is 30 or ~ radians.

Using the general formula for all angles with a given sine, viz.:
01T
+ (-1)" 6
16 7
The general solution of the equation is
iT
nrr + (-1)" (i
Example 2: Solve the equation

sin 20
cos2 0
giving the values of 0 between 0 and 360 which satisfy the

equation.
Since
Hence
or
From (1)
sin 20 = 2 sin 0 cos 0

2 sin 0 cos 0 = cos2 0
cos 0 = 0
2 sin 0 = cos 0
0 = 90 or 270
From (2)
(see section 83)

(1)
(2)
2 sin 0 = cos 0
2 tan 0 = l
tan 0 = 0.5
0 = 26.57
tan 0 = tan (180
and
whence
Also
0)
(see section 132)
The other angle less than 360 with this tangent is

180 + 26.57
= 206.57
The solution is
26.57 or 206.57
The required solution is 0
139
90, 270, 26.57 or 206.57
Equations of the form

a cos 0
+ b sin 0
= c
where a, b, care known constants, are important in electrical work

and other applications of trigonometry.
This could be solved by using the substitution
cos 0
= v' 1
- sin2 0
but the introduction of the square root is not satisfactory. We can

obtain a solution more readily by the following device.
168
Trigonometry
Since a and b are known it is always possible to find an angle

a, such that
tan a
= ba
as the tangent is capable of having any value (see graph, Fig. 98).
Let ABC (Fig. 103) be a right-angled 6. in which the sides
containing the right angle are a and b units in length.
A
a
B
b
Fig. 103.
Then
tan ABC=
LABC
=a
By the Theorem of Pythagoras:
Ya2
AB=
a
--;::::::==~
and
Va
+ b2
--;:===
Va2
+ b2
+ b2
.
sm a
cos
C(
in the equation
a cos
Divide throughout by
--;:===
V~+~
Ya2
cos a
sin
C(
cos
e+
e=
b sin
b2
V~+~
sm a
e+
sin
cos
C(
sin (0
a) =
---;;:::::==:::;
V~+~
Va2
Va2
+ b2
+ b2
(see section 80, No. 1)
Now
Va2
+ b2
169
can be evaluated. since a. b, c are known and
provided it is less than unity it is the sine of some angle. say 13.
0+o:=13
0 = 13 - o:
and
Thus the least value of 0 is determined.

Example
Solve the equation 3 cos 0
In this case
Ya2
+ 4 sin 8
a = 3, b =~4~-+ b2 =
+ 16
V9
= 3.5
Thus tan o: = ~ , sin o: = ~ , cos o: = ~and o: = 36.87" (from the

tables).
Dividing the given equation by 5
~. cos 0
sin o: cos 0
:.
+ ~. sin 0
35
5
+ cos o: sin 0 = 0.7

sin (0 + o:) = 0.7
But the angle whose sine is 0. 7 is 44.42

or
0 + 0: = 44.42
+ 36.87 = 44.42
0
=
=
139
44.42 - 36.87"
7.55
Variations of a cos 0 + b sin 0
This expression is an important one in its application, and the

graphical representations of its variation may have to be studied
by some students. The variations of the expression may be best
studied by using, in a modified form, the device employed above.
By means of the reasoning given in the previous paragraph, the
expression can be written in the form
Ya2
+ b2 {sin (0 + o:)}
By assigning different values to 0, the only variable in the

expression, the variations can be studied and a graph constructed.
170
Trigonometry
Exercise 23
Find the angles less than 360 which satisfy the following
equations:
(1) sin 0 = 0.8910
(3) 2 tan 0 = 0. 7
=
=
0.4179
2.375
equations:
(1) 4 cos 20 - 3
(2) cos 0
(4) sec 0
(2) 3 sin 26
1.8
equations:
(1) 6 sin 0 = tan 0
(3) 3 cos2 0 + 5 sin2 0
(2) 4 cos 0
( 4) 4 cos 0
=
=
3 tan 0
3 sec 0
4 Find the angles less than 360 which satisfy the following
equations:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
5
2 tan2 0 - 3 tan 0 + 1 = 0
5 tan2 0 - sec2 0 = 11
4 sin2 0 - 3 cos 0 = 1.5
sin 0 + sin2 0 = 0
Find general formulae for the angles which satisfy the following
equations:
(1)
(2)
(3)
( 4)
2 cos 0 - 0.6578 = 0
~sin 20 = 0.3174
cos 20 + sin 0 = 1
tan 0 + cot2 0 = 4
6 Find the smallest angles which satisfy the equations:

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
sin 0 + cos 0 = 1.2

sin 0 - cos 0 = 0.2
2 cos 20 + sin 0 = 2.1
4 cos 0 + 3 sin 0 = 5
Summary of Trigonometrical
Formulae
Complementary angles
sin 6 = cos (90 - 6)
cos 6 = sin (90 - 6)
tan 6 = cot (90 - 6)
2 Supplementary angles
sin 6 = sin (180 - 6)
cos 0 = - cos (180 - 6)
tan 6 = - tan (180 - 6)
Relations between the ratios

t an 6
sin2 6 + cos2 6
tan2 6 + 1
cot2 6 + 1
=
=
4 Compound angles
sin (A + B) =
sin
sin (A - B) = sin
cos (A + B) = cos
cos (A - B) = cos
tan (A
B) =
A
A
A
A
cos
cos
cos
cos
sin 6
cos 6
I
sec2 6
cosec2 6
B +
B B B +
cos
cos
sin
sin
tan A + tan B
1 - tan A tan B
A
A
A
A
sin
sin
sin
sin
B
B
B
B
172 Trigonometry
tan (A _ B)
. p
sin
.
sin
cos p
cos
tan A - tan B
+ tan A tan B
. Q
P+Q
+ sm
= 2. sm 2. Q
- sm
cos
P+O.
P-0
2- sin -22 cos P+O
0 = 2
0 - cos P
P-0
cos -2-
P-0
cos -2-
cos -2-
. P+O.
P-0
2 sin -2- sm -2-
S Multiple angles
sin 20
cos 20
=
=
=
=
2 sin 0 cos 0
cos2 0 - sin2 0
2 cos2 0 1 - 2 sin2
cos2 0 = ~ (1 + cos
sin2 0 = ~ (1 - cos
or
tan 20
1
0
20)
20)
2 tan 0
1 - tan2 0
Solutions of a triangle
Case 1
Three sides known

1
cos A =
tan A
b2
= ../(s
y
c2 - a2
2bc
- b)(s - c)
s(s _ a)
(if a, b, care small)

(for use with logs)
. A = '\ /(s - b)(s - c)

sin 2
V
be
A _ '\ h,(s - a)
V be
cos 2 sin A
;c Vs(s - a)(s - b)(s - c)
Summary of Formulae
173
Case 2 Two sides and contained angle known

B-C
b-c
tan -2-
= b + c cot
Case 3 Two angles and a side known

sin A
-a-
sin B
-b-
sin C
-c-
Ratios of angles between 0 and 2'ir radians

sin 0 =sin ('TT - 0) =-sin ('TT+ 0) =-sin (21T - 0)
cos =-cos ('TT - 0) = -cos ('TT+ 0) =cos (21T - 0)
tan =-tan ('TT - 0) =tan ('TT+ 0) =-tan (21T - 0)
Ratios of 0 and - 0
sin 0 = - sin ( - 0)
cos 0 = cos ( - 0)
tan 0 = - tan (- 0)
General formulae for angles with the.._

0
sine
n'TT + (-1)" 0
cosine
2n'TT 0
tangent n'TT + 0
10 Circular measure
1 radian = 57 17' 45" (approx.)= 57.2958
To convert degrees to radians

0 = ( 0 x
l~O) radians
Length of an arc
a =
re
(0 in radians)
ntlGs as
NATURAL SINES
o
er o <XXXJ
Proportional
Parts
6'
01
12'
02
18'
03
24'
04
30'
05
36'
06
42'
07
48'
08
54'
09
I'
2'
3'
4'
5'
I
2
3
4
0 0175
0 0349
0 0523
0 0698
0017
0192
0366
0541
0715
0035
0209
0384
0558
0732
0052
0227
0401
0576
0750
0070
0244
0419
0593
0767
0087
0262
0436
0610
0785
0105
0279
0454
0628
0802
0122
0297
0471
0645
0819
0140
0314
0489
0663
0837
0157
0332
0506
0680
0854
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
9
12
12
12
12
12
15
15
15
15
14
5
6
7
8
9
0
0
0
0
0
0889
1063
1236
1409
1582
0906
1080
1253
1426
1599
0924
1097
1271
1444
1616
0941
1115
1288
1461
1633
0958 0976
1132 1149
1305 1323
1478 1495
1650 1668
0993
1167
1340
1513
1685
IOI I
1184
1357
1530
1702
1028
1201
1374
1547
1719
3 6
3 6
3 6
3 (6
3 1.16
9
9
9
9
9
12
12
12
II
II
14
14
14
14
14
0872
1045
1219
1392
1564
10
II
12
13
14
0 1736
01908
0 2079
0 2250
0 2419
1754 1771 1788 1805

1925 1942 1959 1977
2096 2113 2130 2147
2267 2284 2300 2317
2436 2453 2470 2487
1822
1994
2164
2334
2504
1840
2011
2181
2351
2521
1857
2028
2198
2368
2538
1874
2045
2215
2385
2554
1891
2062
2232
2402
2571
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
8
8
II
II
II
II
II
14
14
14
14
14
15
16
17
18
19
0 2588
0 2756
0 2924
0 3090
0 3256
2605
2773
2940
3107
3272
2622
2790
2957
3123
3289
2639
2807
2974
3140
3305
2656
2823
2990
3156
3322
2672
2840
3007
3173
3338
2689
2857
3024
3190
3355
2706
2874
3040
3206
3371
2723
2890
3057
3223
3387
2740
2907
3074
3239
3404
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
6
6
5
8
8
8
8
8
II
II
II
II
II
14
14
14
14
14
20
21
22
23
24
0
0
0
0
0
3420
3584
3746
3907
4067
3437 3453
3600 3616
3762 3778
3923 3939
4083 4099
3469
3633
3795
3955
4115
3486
3649
3811
3971
4131
3502
3665
3827
3987
4147
3518
3681
3843
4003
4163
3535
3697
3859
4019
4179
3551
3714
3875
4035
4195
3567
3730
3891
4051
4210
3
3
3
3
3
5
5
5
5
5
8
8
8
8
8
II
II
II
II
II
14
14
13
13
13
25
26
27
28
29
0
0
0
0
0
4226
4384
4540
4695
4848
4242
4399
4555
4710
4863
4258
4415
4571
4726
4879
4274
4431
4586
4741
4894
4289
4446
4602
4756
4909
4305
4462
4617
4772
4924
4321
4478
4633
4787
4939
4337
4493
4648
4802
4955
4352
4509
4664
4818
4970
4368
4524
4679
4833
4985
3
3
3
3
3
5
5
5
5
5
8
8
8
8
8
II
10
10
10
10
13
13
13
13
13
30
31
32
33
34
0 5000
0 5150
0 5299
0 5446
0 5592
5015
5165
5314
5461
5606
5030
5180
5329
5476
5621
5045
5195
5344
5490
5635
5060
5210
5358
5505
5650
5075
5225
5373
5519
5664
5090
5240
5388
5534
5678
5105
5255
5402
5548
5693
5120
5270
5417
5563
5707
5135
5284
5432
5577
5721
2
2
2
2
2
5
5
5
5
5
8
7
7
7
7
10
10
10
10
10
12
12
12
12
12
35
36
37
38
39
0
0
0
0
0
5736
5878
6018
6157
6293
5750
5892
6032
6170
6307
5764
5906
6046
6184
6320
5779
5920
6060
6198
6334
5793
5934
6074
6211
6347
5807 5821
5948 5962
6088 6101
6225 6239
6361 6374
5835
5976
6115
6252
6388
5850
5990
6129
6266
6401
5864
6004
6143
6280
6414
2
2
2
2
2
5
5
5
5
4
7
7
7
7
7
9
9
9
9
9
12
12
12
II
II
40
41
42
43
44
0 6428
0 6561
0 6691
0 6820
0 6947
6441
6574
6704
6833
6959
6455
6587
6717
6845
6972
6468
6600
6730
6858
6984
6481
6613
6743
6871
6997
6494
6626
6756
6884
7009
6508
6639
6769
6896
7022
6521
6652
6782
6909
7034
6534
6665
6794
6921
7046
6547
6678
6807
6934
7059
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
7
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
8
8
II
11
II
II
10
6'
12'
18'
24'
30'
36'
42'
48'
54'
I'
2'
4'
5'
NATURAL SINES
Proportional
Parts
o:
6'
0 I
12'
02
18'
03
24'
04
30'
05
36'
06
42'
07
48'
08
54'
09
I' 2' 3' 4' 5'
45
46
47
48
49
0
0
0
0
0
7071
7193
7314
7431
7547
7083
7206
7325
7443
7559
7096
7218
7337
7455
7570
7108
7230
7349
7466
7581
7120
7242
7361
7478
7593
7133
7254
7373
7490
7604
7145
7266
7385
7501
7615
7157
7278
7396
7513
7627
7169
7290
7408
7524
7638
7181
7302
7420
7536
7649
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
6
6
6
6
6
8
8
8
8
8
10
10
10
10
9
50
51
52
53
54
07~
0 7771
0 7880
0 7986
0 8090
7672
7782
7891
7997
8100
7683
7793
7902
8007
8111
7694
7804
7912
8018
8121
7705
7815
7923
8028
8131
7716
7826
7934
8039
8141
7727
7837
7944
8049
8151
7738
7848
7955
8059
8161
7749
7859
7965
8070
8171
7760
7869
7976
8080
8181
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
3
3
6 7
5 7
5 7
5 7
5 7
9
9
9
9
8
55
56
57
58
59
0
0
0
0
0
8192
8290
8387
8480
8572
8202
8300
8396
8490
8581
8211
8310
8406
8499
8590
8221
8320
8415
8508
8599
8231
8329
8425
8517
8607
8241
8339
8434
8526
8616
8251
8348
8443
8536
8625
8261
8358
8453
8545
8634
8271
8368
8462
8554
8643
8281
8377
8471
8563
8652
2
2
2
2
I
3
3
3
3
3
5 7
5 6
5 6
5 6
4 6
8
8
8
8
7
60
61
62
63
64
08~
0 8746
0 8829
0 8910
0 8988
8669
8755
8838
8918
8996
8678
8763
8846
8926
9003
8686
8771
8854
8934
9011
8695
8780
8862
8942
9018
8704
8788
8870
8949
9026
8712
8796
8878
8957
9033
8721
8805
8886
8965
9041
8729
8813
8894
8973
9048
8738
8821
8902
8980
9056
I
I
1
I
I
3
3
3
3
2
4
4
4
4
4
6
6
5
5
5
7
7
7
6
6
65
66
67
68
69
0
0
0
0
0
9063
9135
9205
9272
9336
9070
9143
9212
9278
9342
9078
9150
9219
9285
9348
9085
9157
9225
9291
9354
9092
9164
9232
9298
9361
9100
9171
9239
9304
9367
9107
9178
9245
9311
9373
9114
9184
9252
9317
9379
9121
9191
9259
9323
9385
9128
9198
9265
9330
9391
1
I
I
I
I
2
2
2
2
2
4
3
3
3
3
5
5
4
4
4
6
6
6
5
5
70
71
72
73
74
0 9397
0 9455
0 9511
0 9563
0 9613
9403
9461
9516
9568
9617
9409
9466
9521
9573
9622
9415
9472
9527
9578
9627
9421
9478
9532
9583
9632
9426
9483
9537
9588
9636
9432
9489
9542
9593
9641
9438
9494
9548
9598
9646
9444
9500
9553
9603
9650
9449 I
9505 I
9558 1
9608 I
9655 I
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
2
2
4
4
3
3
3
5
5
4
4
4
75
76
77
78
79
0 9659
0 9703
0 9744
0 9781
0 9816
9664
9707
9748
9785
9820
9668
9711
9751
9789
9823
9673
9715
9755
9792
9826
9677
9720
9759
9796
9829
9681
9724
9763
9799
9833
9686
9728
9767
9803
9836
9690
9732
9770
9806
9839
9694
9736
9774
9810
9842
9699
9740
9778
9813
9845
I
1
1
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
2
2
2
4
3
3
3
3
80
81
82
83
84
0 9848
0 9877
0 9903
0 9925
0 9945
9851
9880
9905
9928
9947
9854
9882
9907
9930
9949
9857
9885
9910
9932
9951
9860
9888
9912
9934
9952
9863
9890
9914
9936
9954
9866
9893
9917
9938
9956
9869
9895
9919
9940
9957
9871
9898
9921
9942
9959
9874
9900
9923
9943
9960
0
0
0
0
0
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
2
2
I
1
I
2
2
2
2
I
85
86
87
88
89
0
0
0
0
0
9963
9977
9987
9995
9999
9965
9978
9988
9995
9999
9966
9979
9989
9996
9999 0
9968
9980
9990
9996
9999 I
9969
9981
9990
9997
0000
9971
9982
9991
9997
0000
9972
9983
9992
9997
0000
9973
9984
9993
9998
0000
9974
9985
9993
9998
0000
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
I I
0 I
0 I
0 0
0 0
I
I
I
0
0
6'
12'
18'
24'
30'
36'
42'
48'
54'
I'
2' 3' 4'
5'
9962
9976
9986
9994
9998
O'
Proporuonal
Pans
Subtract
NATURAL COSINES
o
er
12'
02
18'
03
24'
04
0000
9998
9993
9984
9973
0000
9997
9992
9983
9972
0000 I 0000 0 9999 9999 9999 9999

9997 9997 9996 9996 9995 9995
9991 9990 9990 9989 9988 9987
9982 9981
9980 9979 9978 9977
9971 9969 9968 9966 9965 9963
30'
05
36'
06
48'
08
6
0 I
42'
07
I
2
3
4
I 0000
0 9998
0 9994
0 9986
0 9976
0000
9998
9993
9985
9974
5
6
7
8
9
0 9962
0 9945
0 9925
0 9903
0 9877
9960 9959 9957 9956

9943 9942 9940 9938
9923 9921 9919 9917
9900 9898 9895 9893
9874 9871 9869 9866
9954
9936
9914
9890
9863
9952
9934
9912
9888
9860
9951
9932
99!0
9885
9857
9949
9930
9907
9882
9854
IO
II
12
13
14
0 9848
0 9816
0 9781
0 9744
0 9703
9845
9813
9778
9740
9699
9842
98!0
9774
9736
9694
9839
9806
9770
9732
9690
9836
9803
9767
9728
9686
9833
9799
9763
9724
9681
9829
9796
9759
9720
9677
9826
9792
9755
9715
9673
15
16
17
18
19
0 9659
0 9613
0 9563
0 9511
0 9455
9655
9608
9558
9505
9449
9650
9603
9553
9500
9444
9646
9598
9548
9494
9438
9641
9593
9542
9489
9432
9636
9588
9537
9483
9426
9632
9583
9532
9478
9421
9627
9578
9527
9472
9415
20
21
22
23
24
0 9397
0 9336
0 9272
0 9205
0 9135
9391
9330
9265
9198
9128
9385
9323
9259
9191
9121
9379
9317
9252
9184
9114
9373
9311
9245
9178
9107
9367
9304
9239
9171
9100
9361
9298
9232
9164
25
26
27
28
29
0
0
0
0
0
9063
8988
89!0
8829
8746
9056
8980
8902
8821
8738
9048
8973
8894
8813
8729
9041
8965
8886
8805
8721
9033
8957
8878
8796
8712
9026
8949
8870
8788
8704
9018
8942
8862
8780
8695
9011
8934
8854
8771
8686
30
31
32
33
34
0 8660
0 8572
0 8480
0 8387
0 8290
8652
8563
8471
8377
8281
8643
8554
8462
8368
8271
8634
8545
8453
8358
8261
8625
8536
8443
8348
8251
8616
8526
8434
8339
8241
8607
8517
8425
8329
8231
35
36
37
38
39
0
0
0
0
0
8192
8090
7986
7880
7771
8181
8171 8161
8151
7976 7965 7955 7944

7869 7859 7848 7837
7760 7749 7738 7727
8141
8039
7934
7826
7716
40
41
42
43
44
0
0
0
0
0
7660
7547
7431
7314
7193
7649
7536
7420
7302
7181
7638
7524
7408
7290
7169
7627
7513
7396
7278
7157
7615
7501
7385
7266
7145
6'
12'
18'
24'
8080 8070 8059 8049
54'
I' 2' 3' 4'
09
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 I
1 I
0
0
I
I
I
9947
9928
9905
9880
9851
0
0
0
0
0
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
2
2
I
2
2
2
2
9823
9789
9751
9711
9668
9820
9785
9748
9707
9664
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
9622
9573
9521
9466
9409
9617 1
9568 I
9516 1
9461 1
9403 I
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
9354 9348 9342 I

9291 9285 9278 I
9225 9219 9212 I
9157 9150 9143 I
9092 9085 9078 9070 I
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
9003
8926
8846
8763
8678
8996 I
8918 I
8838 I
8755 I
8669 1
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
8599
8508
8415
8320
8221
8590
8499
8406
83!0
8211
8581
8490
8396
8300
8202
I
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
7
7
8
8
8
8
8131
8028
7923
7815
7705
8121
8018
7912
7804
7694
8111
8007
7902
7793
7683
8100
7997
7891
7782
7672
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
7
7
7
7
7
8
9
9
7604
7490
7373
7254
7133
7593
7478
7361
7242
7120
7581
7466
7349
7230
7!08
7570
7455
7337
7218
7096
7559
7443
7325
7206
7083
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
6
6
6
6
6
8
8
8
8
8
9
IO
IO
IO
IO
30'
36'
42'
48'
54'
2' 3' 4'
5'
Proportional
Parts
Subtract
NATURAL COSINES
O'
6'
0 I
12'
02
18'
03
24'
04
30'
05
36'
06
42'
07
48'
08
S4'
09
I'
2'
3'
4'
5'
45'
46
47
48
49
0
0
0
0
0
7071
6947
6820
6691
6561
7059
6934
6807
6678
6547
7046
6921
6794
6665
6534
7034
6900
6782
6652
6521
7022
6896
6769
6639
6508
7009
6884
6756
6626
6494
6997
6871
6743
6613
6481
6984
6858
6730
6600
6468
6972
6845
6717
6587
6455
6959
6833
6704
6574
6441
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
6
6
6
6
7
8
8
9
9
9
10
II
II
II
II
50
51
52
53
54
0
0
0
0
0
6428
6293
6157
6018
5878
6414
6280
6143
6004
5864
6401
6266
6129
5990
5850
6388
6252
6115
5976
5835
6374
6239
6101
5962
5821
6361
6225
6088
5948
5807
6347
6211
6074
5934
5793
6334
6198
6060
5920
5779
6320
6184
6046
5906
5764
6307
6170
6032
5892
5750
2
2
2
2
2
4
5
5
5
5
7
7
7
7
7
9
9
9
9
9
II
II
12
12
12
55
56
57
58
59
0
0
0
0
0
5736
5592
5446
5299
5150
5721
5577
5432
5284
5135
5707
5563
5417
5270
5120
5693
5548
5402
5255
5105
5678
5534
5388
5240
5090
5664
5519
5373
5225
5075
5650
5505
5358
5210
5060
5635
5490
5344
5195
5045
5621
5476
5329
5180
5030
5606
5461
5314
5165
5015
2
2
2
2
2
5
5
5
5
5
7
7
7
7
8
10
10
10
10
10
12
12
12
12
12
60
61
62
63
64
0
0
0
0
0
5000
4848
4695
4450
4384
4985
4833
4679
4524
4368
4970
4818
4664
4509
4352
4955
4802
4648
4493
4337
4939
4787
4633
4478
4321
4924
4772
4617
4462
4305
4900
4756
4602
4446
4289
4894
4741
4586
4431
4274
4879
4726
4571
4415
4258
4863
4710
4555
4399
4242
3
3
3
3
3
5
5
5
5
5
8
8
8
8
8
10
10
10
10
II
13
13
13
13
13
65
66
67
68
69
0
0
0
0
0
4226
4067
3907
3746
3584
4210
4051
3891
3730
3567
4195
4035
3875
3714
3551
4179
4019
3859
3697
3535
4163
4003
3843
3681
3518
4147
3987
3827
3665
3502
4131
3971
3811
3649
4115
3955
3795
3633
3486 3469
4099
3939
3778
3616
3453
4083
3923
3762
3600
3437
3
3
3
3
3
5
5
5
5
5
8
8
8
8
8
II
11
II
II
II
13
13
13
14
14
70
71
72
73
74
0
0
0
0
0
3420
3256
3090
2924
2756
3404
3239
3074
2907
2740
3387
3223
3057
2890
2723
3371
3206
3040
2874
2706
3355
3190
3024
2857
2689
3338
3173
3007
2840
2672
3322
3156
3990
2823
2656
3305
3140
3974
2807
2639
3289
3123
3957
2790
2622
3272
3107
3940
2773
2605
3
3
3
3
3
5
6
6
6
6
8
8
8
8
8
11
II
II
II
II
14
14
14
14
14
75
76
77
78
79
0
0
0
0
0
2588
2419
2250
2079
1908
2571
2402
2232
2062
1891
2554
2385
2215
2045
1874
2538
2368
2198
2028
1857
2521
2351
2181
2011
1840
2504
2334
2164
1994
1822
2487
2317
2147
1977
1805
2470
2300
2130
1959
1788
2453
2284
2113
1942
1771
2436
2267
2096
1925
1754
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
6
6
6
8
8
9
9
9
II
11
II
II
II
14
14
14
14
14
80
81
82
83
84
0
0
0
0
0
1736
1564
1392
1219
1045
1719
1547
1374
1201
1028
1702
1530
1357
1184
1011
1685 1668
1513 1495
1340 1323
1167 1149
0993 0976
1650
1478
1305
1132
0958
1633
1461
1288
1115
0941
1616
1444
1271
1097
0924
1599
1426
1253
1080
0906
1582
1409
1236
1063
0889
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
9
11
11
12
12
12
14
14
14
14
14
85
86
87
88
89
0
0
0
0
0
0872
0698
0523
0349
0175
0854
0680
0506
0332
0157
0837
0663
0489
0314
0140
0819
0645
0471
0297
0122
0802
0628
0454
0279
0105
0085
0610
0436
0262
0087
07(.7
0593
0419
0244
0070
0750
0576
0401
0227
0052
0732
0558
0384
0209
0035
0715
0541
0366
0192
0017
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
9
12
12
12
12
12
14
15
15
15
15
12
18'
24'
30'
36'
42'
48'
54'
l'
2' 3' 4'
)'
O'
6'
Proportional
Parts
Subtract
NATURAL COSECANTS
36'
06
6'
0 I
12'
02
18'
03
24'
04
(J'
ec
1
2
3
4
57 30
28 65
19 II
14 34
573 0
52 09
27 29
18 49
13 99
~86 5
47 75
26 05
17 91
13 65
191 0
4408
24 92
17 37
13 34
143 2
40 93
23 88
16 86
13 03
5
6
7
8
9
11 474 249 11 034 JO 826 626 433

9 567 411
834
259 9 113 8 971
8 206 8 091 7 979 870 764 661
7 185
097 7 011 6 927 845 765
6 392 323 255
188 123 6 059 5
30'
05
114
38
22
16
12
6
20
93
38
75
42'
07
48'
08
54'
09
I'
2'
3'
4'
5'
95 49 81 85 71 62 63 66
35 81
22 04
15 93
12 47
33
21
15
12
71
23
50
20
31
20
15
11
84
47
09
95
248 10 068 9 895

700
571
446
561
463 368
687
611 537
996
935 875
30
19
14
11
16
77
70
71
pp cease
to be
sufficiently
accurate
728
324
276
464
816
10
II
12
13
14
5 759
5 241
4 810
4 445
4 134
702
194
771
412
105
647
148
732
379
077
593
103
694
347
049 14
540 487 436

059 5 016 14 973
657
620 584
315 284 253
021 3 994 967
386
931
549
222
941
337
890
514
192
915
288
850
479
163
889
9
7
6
5
4
15
16
17
18
19
3
3
3
3
3
864
628
420
236
072
839
606
401
219
056
814
584
382
202
041
790
563
363
185
026 13
766
542
344
168
011 12
742
521
326
152
996
719
500
307
135
981
695
480
289
119
967
673
460
271
103
952
650
440
254
087
938
4
3
3
3
2
8 12 16 20
7 10 14 17
6 9 12 15
5 8 11 14
5 7 10 12
20
21
22
23
24
2
2
2
2
2
924
790
669
559
459
910
778
658
549
449
896
765
647
538
439
882
753
635
528
430
869
741
624
518
421
855
729
613
508
411
842
716
602
498
402
829
705
591
488
393
816
693
581
478
384
803
681
570
468
375
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
3
3
7
6
6
5
5
9 II
8 10
7 9
7 8
6 8
25
26
27
28
29
2
2
2
2
2
366
281
203
130
063
357
273
195
123
056
349
265
188
116
050
340
257
180
109
043
331
249
173
103
037
323
241
166
096
031
314
233
158
089
025
306
226
151
082
018
298
218
144
076
012
289
210
137
069
006
I
I
I
1
I
3
3
2
2
2
4
4
4
3
3
6
5
5
4
4
30 2 000 I 9940 9880

31 I 9416 9360 9304
32 I 8871 8818 8766
33 1 8361 8312 8263
34 1 7883 7837 7791
9821
9249
8714
8214
7745
9762
9194
8663
8166
7700
9703
9139
8612
8118
7655
9645
9084
8561
8070
7610
9587
9031
8510
8023
7566
9530
8977
8460
7976
7522
9473 IO 19 29 39 49
8924 9 18 27 36 45
8410 8 17 26 34 42
7929 8 16 24 32 40
7478 7 15 22 30 37
35 I
36 I
37 I
38 I
39 1
7434
7013
6616
6243
5890
7391
6972
6578
6207
5856
7348
6932
6540
6171
5822
7305
6892
6502
6135
5788
7263
6852
6464
6099
5755
7221
6812
6427
6064
5721
7179
6772
6390
6029
5688
7137
6733
6353
5994
5655
7095
6694
6316
5959
5622
7054
6655
6279
5925
5590
7
7
6
6
6
40
41
42
43
44
5557
5243
4945
4663
4396
5525
5212
4916
4635
4370
5493
5182
4887
4608
4344
5461
5151
4859
4581
4318
5429
5121
4830
4554
4293
5398
5092
4802
4527
4267
5366
5062
4774
4501
4242
5335
5032
4746
4474
4217
5304
5003
4718
4448
4192
5273
4974
4690
4422
4167
5 10
5 IO
5 9
4 9
4 8
6'
12'
18'
24'
10'
36'
42'
48'
'i4'
I'
I
1
I
I
I
17
14
12
10
9
14
13
12
12
11
2'
26
22
18
16
14
21
20
19
18
17
35
29
24
21
18
43
36
30
26
22
7
7
6
6
5
28
26
25
24
22
35
33
31
2'1
28
16 21
15 20
14 19
13 18
13 17
26
25
24
22
21
,.
4'
5'
Proportional
Parts
Subtract
NATURAL COSECANTS
o
6'
0 I
12'
02
18'
03
24'
04
30'
05
36'
06
42'
07
48'
08
54'
09
I'
2'
3'
4'
5'
4~" I
46 I
47 I
48 I
49 I
4142
3902
3673
3456
3250
4118
3878
3651
3435
3230
4093
3855
3629
3414
3210
4069
3832
3607
3393
3190
4044
3809
3585
3373
3171
4020
3786
3563
3352
3151
3996
3763
3542
3331
3131
3972
3741
3520
3311
3112
3949
3718
3499
3291
3093
3925
3696
3478
3270
3073
4
4
4
3
3
8
8
7
7
7
12
II
II
IO
IO
16
15
14
14
13
20
19
18
17
16
50
51
52
53
54
I
I
I
I
I
3054
2868
2690
2521
2361
3035
2849
2673
2505
2345
3016
2831
2656
2489
2329
3997
2813
2639
2472
2314
3978
2796
2622
2456
2299
3900
2778
2605
2440
2283
3941
2760
2588
2424
2268
3923
2742
2571
2408
2253
3904
2725
2554
2392
2238
3886
2708
2538
2376
2223
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
6
5
5
9
9
8
8
8
12
12
II
II
10
15
15
14
13
13
55
56
57
58
59
I
I
I
I
I
2208
2062
1924
1792
1666
2193
2048
1910
1779
1654
2178
2034
1897
1766
1642
2163
2020
1883
1753
1630
2149
2006
1870
1741
1618
2134
1992
1857
1728
1606
2120
1978
1844
1716
1594
2l05
1964
1831
1703
1582
2091
1951
1818
1691
1570
2076
1937
1805
1679
1559
2
2
2
2
2
5
5
4
4
4
7 IO 12
7 9 12
7 9 II
6 8 10
6 8 10
60
61
62
63
64
I
I
I
I
I
1547
1434
1326
1223
1126
1535
1423
1315
1213
1117
1524
1412
1305
1203
1107
1512
1401
1294
1194
1098
1501
1390
1284
1184
I089
1490
1379
1274
1174
I079
1478
1368
1264
1164
I070
1467
1357
1253
1155
1061
1456
1347
1243
1145
1052
1445
1336
1233
1136
1043
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
3
3
3
6
5
5
5
5
8
7
7
6
6
9
9
9
8
8
65
66
67
68
69
I
I
I
I
I
0346
0946
0864
0785
0711
I025
0938
0856
0778
0704
IOl6
0929
0848
0770
0697
1007
0921
0840
0763
0690
0998
0913
0832
0755
0683
0989
0904
0824
0748
0676
0981
0896
0816
0740
0669
0972
0888
0963
0955
0880 0872
3
3
3
2
2
4
4
4
4
3
6
5
5
5
5
7
7
7
6
6
70
71
72
73
74
I
I
I
1
I
0642
0576
0515
0457
0403
0635
0570
0509
0451
0398
0628
0564
0503
0446
0393
0622
0557
0497
0440
0388
0615
0551
0491
0435
0382
0602
0539
5
5
5
75
76
77
78
79
1
1
I
I
I
0353
0306
0263
0223
0187
0348
0302
0259
0220
0184
0343
0297
0255
0216
0180
0338
0293
0251
0212
0177
80
81
82
83
84
I
I
I
I
I
0154
0125
0098
0075
0055
0151
0122
0096
0073
0053
0148
0119
0093
0071
0051
85
86
87
88
89
I
I
I
I
I
0038
0024
0014
0006
0002
0037
0023
0013
0005
0001
6'
0733
0662
0726
0655
0719
0649
I
I
I
I
I
0608
0545
0485
0429
0377
0595
0533
0480 0474
0424 0419
0372 0367
0589
0527
0468
0413
0363
0583
0521
0463
0408
0358
I
I
1
I
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
3
0334
0288
0247
0209
0174
0329
0284
0243
0205
0170
0324
0280
0239
0201
0167
0320
0276
0235
0198
0164
0315
0271
0231
0194
0161
0311
0267
0227
0191
0157
1
I
I
1
I
2
I
1
I
I
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
2
2
4
4
3
3
3
0145
0116
0091
0069
0050
0142
0114
0089
0067
0048
0139
Olli
0086
0065
0046
0136
0108
0084
0063
0045
0133
0106
0082
0061
0043
0130
OI03
0079
0059
0041
0127
OIOI
0077
0057
0040
0
0
0
0
0
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
2
2
2
I
I
2
2
2
0035
0022
0012
0005
0001
0034
0021
0011
0004
0001
0032
0020
OOIO
0004
0001
0031
0019
0010
0003
0030
0018
0009
0003
0028
0017
0027
0016
0008 0007
0003 0002
0026
0015
0007
0002
()()()()
()()()()
()()()()
()()()()
()()()()
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
I
0
0
0
0
I
I
I
0
0
I
I
I
0
0
12'
18'
24'
30'
36'
42'
48'
54'
I'
2'
3'
4'
5'
0808 0801 0793
~
I
NATURAL SECANTS
6'
01
(f
Proportional
Parts
10'
05
36'
06
42'
07
48'
08
54'
09
I'
2'
<XKlO
0003
0008 0009
0017 0018
0028 0030
IXXX)
0001
0004
0010
0020
0032
0001
0004
0011
0021
0034
0001
0005
0012
0022
0035
0001
0005
0013
0023
0037
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
I
0
0
I
I
I
0
0
I
I
I
12'
02
18'
01
<XKlO
0002
0007
0016
0027
<XKlO
0003
24'
04
1'
5'
I
2
3
4
I
I
I
I
I
<XKlO <XKlO
0002 0002
0006 0007
0014 0015
0024 0026
5
6
7
8
9
I
I
I
I
I
0038
0055
0075
0098
0125
0040 0041
0059
0079
0103
0130
0043
0061
0082
0106
0133
0045
0063
0084
0108
0136
0046
0065
0086
0111
0139
0048 0050
0057
0077
0101
0127
0067
0089
0114
0142
0069
0091
0116
0145
0051
0071
0093
0119
0148
0053
0073
0096
0122
0151
0
0
0
0
0
I
I
I
1
1
1
1
I
1
I
I
1
2
2
2
I
2
2
2
2
10
II
12
13
14
1
1
1
I
I
0154
0187
0223
0263
0306
0157
0191
0227
0267
0311
0161
0194
0231
0271
0315
0164
0198
0235
0276
0320
0167
0201
0239
0280
0324
0170
0205
0243
0284
0329
0174
0209
0247
0288
0334
0177
0212
0251
0293
0338
0180
0216
0255
0297
0343
0184
0220
0259
0302
0348
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
15
16
17
18
19
I
I
1
I
1
0353
0403
0457
0515
0576
0358
0408
0463
0521
0583
0363
0413
0468
0527
0589
0367
0419
0474
0533
0595
0372
0424
0480
0539
0602
0377
0429
0485
0545
0388
0393
0398
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
20
21
22
23
24
I
I
I
I
I
0642 0649
0711 0719
0785 0793
0864 0872
0946 0955
0655
0726
0801
0880
0963
0662
0733
0808
0888
0972
0669
0740
0816
0896
0981
0676
0748
0824
0904
0989
0683
0755
0832
0913
0998
0690
0763
25
26
27
28
29
I
I
I
1
I
1034
1126
1223
1326
1434
1043
1136
1233
1336
1445
1052
1145
1243
1347
1456
1061
1155
1253
1357
1467
1070
1164
1264
1368
1478
1079
1174
1274
1379
1490
30
31
32
33
34
1
I
I
1
I
1547
1666
1792
1924
2062
1559
1679
1805
1937
2076
1570
1691
1818
1951
2091
1582
1703
1831
1964
2105
1594
1716
1844
1978
2120
35
36
37
38
39
I
1
1
1
I
2208 2223
2361 2376
2521 2538
2690 2708
2868 2886
2238
2392
2554
2725
2904
2253
2408
2571
2742
2923
40
41
42
43
44
1
I
I
I
I
3054 3073
3250 3270
3456 3478
3673 3696
3902 3925
3093
3291
3499
3718
3949
12'
6'
0003
0010
0019
0031
0503
0564
0628
0509
0570
0635
I
I
I
I
I
0697
0770
0840 0848
0921 0929
1007 1016
0704
0778
0856
0938
1025
I
I
I
1
I
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
7
7
1089
1184
1284
1390
1501
1098
1194
1294
1401
1512
1107
1203
1305
1412
1524
1117
1213
1315
1423
1535
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
7
8
8
8
9
9
9
1606
1728
1857
1992
2134
1618
1741
1870
2006
2149
1630
1753
1883
2020
2163
1642
1766
1897
2034
2178
1654
1779
1910
2048
2193
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
5
5
6 8
6 8
7 9
7 9
7 10
10
10
11
12
12
2268
2424
2588
2760
2941
2283
2440
2605
2778
2960
2299
2456
2622
2796
2978
2314
2472
2639
2813
2997
2329
2489
2656
2831
3016
2345
2505
2673
2849
3035
3
3
3
3
3
5
5
6
6
6
8
8
8
9
9
13
13
14
1)
15
3112
3311
3520
3741
3972
3131
3331
3542
3763
3996
3151
3352
3563
3786
4020
3171
3373
3585
3809
4044
3190
3393
3607
3812
4069
3210
3414
1629
3855
4093
3230
3435
3651
3878
4118
3
3
4
4
4
7
7
7
8
8
10
10
II
II
12
13 16
14 17
14 18
15 19
16 20
18'
24'
10'
l6'
42'
48'
~4
I'
2'
3'
0382
0435
0491
0551
0608 0615
0440 0446 0451

0497
0557
0622
10
II
II
12
12
s-
NATURAL SECANTS
Proportional
Parts
O'
6'
0 I
12'
02
18'
03
24'
04
30'
05
36'
06
42'
07
48'
08
54
09
4293
4554
4830
5121
5429
I'
2'
4'
45
46
47
48
49
I
I
I
I
I
4142
4396
4663
4945
5243
4167
4422
4690
4974
5273
4192
4448
4718
5003
5304
4217
4474
4746
5032
5335
4242
4501
4774
5062
5366
4267
4527
4802
5092
5398
4318
4581
4859
5151
5461
4344
4608
4887
5182
5493
4370
4635
4916
5212
5525
4 8 13
4 9 13
5 9 14
5 10 15
5 IO 16
17
18
19
20
21
21
22
24
25
26
50
51
52
53
54
I
1
1
1
I
5557
5890
6243
6616
7013
5590
5925
6279
6655
7054
5622
5959
6316
6694
7095
5655
5994
6353
6733
7137
5688
6029
6390
6772
7179
5721 5755 5788

6064 6099 6135
6427 6464 6502
6812 6852 6892
7221 7263 7305
5822
6171
6540
6932
7348
5856
6207
6578
6972
7391
6
6
6
7
7
II
12
12
13
14
17
18
19
20
21
22
24
25
26
28
28
29
31
33
35
55 1 7434 7478 7522 7566

56 I 7883 7929 7976 8023
57 I 8361 8410 8460 8510
58 I 8871 8924 8977 9031
59 I 9416 9473 9530 9587
7610
8070
8561
9084
9645
7655
8118
8612
9139
9703
7700
8166
8663
9194
9762
7745
8214
8714
9249
9821
7791
8263
8766
9304
9880
7837 7
8312
8
8818 8
9360 9
9940 10
15
16
17
18
19
22
24
26
27
29
30
32
34
36
39
37
40
42
45
49
5
6
6
7
7
60
61
62
63
64
2 0000
2 063
2 130
2 203
2 281
006
069
137
210
289
012
076
144
218
298
018
082
151
226
306
025
089
158
233
314
031
096
166
241
323
037
103
173
249
331
043
109
180
257
340
050
116
188
265
349
056
123
195
273
357
I
I
I
I
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
6
65
66
67
68
69
2 366
2 459
2 559
2 669
2 790
375
570
681
803
384
478
581
693
816
393
488
591
705
829
402
498
602
716
842
411
508
613
729
855
421
518
624
741
869
430
528
635
753
882
439
538
647
765
896
449
549
658
778
9IO
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
6 8
7 8
7 9
8 10
9 II
70
71
72
73
74
2 924
3 072
3 236
3420
3 628
938
087
254
440
650
952
103
271
460
673
967
119
289
480
695
981 12 996 13 Oil

152
135
168
307 326 344
521
542
500
719 742 766
026
185
363
563
790
041
202
382
584
814
056
219
401
606
839
2
3
3
3
4
5 7 10
5 8 II
6 9 12
7 10 14
8 12 16
75
76
77
78
79
3
4
4
4
5
889
163
479
850
288
915
192
514
890
337
941
222
549
931
386
967 13 994
253 284
584 620
973 5 016
436 487
049
347
694
103
593
077
379
732
148
647
105
412
771
194
702
4
5
6
7
9
80
81
82
83
84
5 759
6 392
7 185
8 206
9 567
85
86
87
88
89
11 47
14 34
19 11
28 65
57 30
11 71
14 70
19 77
30 16
63 66
11 95
15 09
20 47
31 84
71 62
12 20
15 50
21 23
33 71
81 85
o:
6'
12'
18'
864
134
445
8IO
241
468
816
464
276
324
728
14
875
935 l5
537
611
368
463
446
571
9 895 IO 068
996 b 059
687 765
561
661
700
834
248 433
12
15
22
35
95
47
93
04
81
49
24'
021
315
6$7
059
540
123
188
255 323
845 6 927 7 Oil 097
764
870 7 979 8 091
971 9 113 259 411
626 IO 826 II 034 249
12 75 13
16 38 16
22 93 23
38 20 40
14 6 h43
30'
03 13
86 17
88 24
93 44
2 191
36'
48'
54'
14
16
18
22
26
18
21
24
29
35
22
26
30
36
43
pp cease
to be
sufficiently
accurate
34 13 65 13 99
37 17 91 18 49
92 26 05 27 29
08 47 75 52 09
0 t286 5 1571 0
42'
9
IO
12
14
17
12
14
15
17
20
I'
2'
1' 4'
NATURAL TANGENTS
Proportion al
Pans
6'
0 1
12'
02
18'
03
24'
04
30
05
36'
06
42'
07
48'
08
()"
1
2
3
4
0 CKXXl
0 0175
0 0349
0 0524
0 0699
0017
0192
0367
0542
0717
0035
0209
0384
0559
0734
0052
0227
0402
0577
0752
0070
0244
0419
0594
0769
0087
0262
0437
0612
0787
0105
0279
0454
0629
0805
0122
0297
0472
0647
0822
5
6
7
8
9
0
0
0
0
0
0928 0945 0963 0981

1104 1122 1139 1157
1281
1299 1317 1334
1459 1477 1495 1512
1638 1655 1673 1691
0998
1175
1352
1530
1709
0875 0892 0910

1051 1069 1086
1228 1146 1263
1405 1423 1441
1584 1602 1620
54'
09
4'
5'
9
9
9
9
9
12
12
12
12
12
15
15
15
15
15
3
3
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
9
12
12
12
12
12
15
15
15
15
15
1'
2'
0140 0157
0314 0332
0489 0507
0664 0682
0840 0857
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
6
6
6
1016
1192
1370
1548
1727
1033
1210
1388
1566
1745
3
3
l
3'
IO
11
12
13
14
0 1763
01944
0 2126
0 2309
0 2493
1781 1799 1817

1962 1980 1998
2144 2162 2180
2327 2345 2364
2512 2530 2549
1835
2016
2199
2382
2568
1853
2035
2217
2401
2586
1871
2053
2235
2419
2605
1890
2071
2254
2438
2623
1908
2089
2272
2456
2642
1926
2107
2290
2475
2661
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
9
12
12
12
12
12
15
15
15
15
16
15
16
17
18
19
0
0
0
0
0
2679
2867
3057
3249
3443
2698
2886
3076
3269
3463
2717
2905
3096
3288
3482
2736
2924
31 Vi
3307
3502
2754
2943
3134
3327
3522
2773
2962
3153
3346
3541
2792
2981
3172
3365
3561
2811
3000
3191
3385
3581
2830
3019
3211
3404
3600
2849
3038
3230
3424
3620
3
3
3
3
3
6 9
6 9
6 9
6 JO
6 JO
13
13
13
13
13
16
16
16
16
16
20
21
22
23
24
0
0
0
0
0
3640
3839
4040
4245
4452
3659
3859
4061
4265
4473
3679
3879
4081
4286
4494
3699
3899
4JO)
4307
4515
3719
3919
4122
4327
4536
3739
3939
4142
4348
4557
3759
3959
4163
4369
4578
3779
3979
4183
4390
4599
3799
4000
4204
4411
4621
3819
4020
4224
4431
4642
3
3
3
3
4
6
7
7
7
7
JO
JO
JO
JO
11
13
13
14
14
14
17
17
17
17
18
25
26
27
28
29
0
0
0
0
0
4663
4877
5095
5317
5543
4684
4899
5117
5339
5566
4706
4921
5139
5362
5589
4727
4942
5161
5384
5612
4748
4964
5184
5407
5635
4770
4986
5206
5430
5658
4791
5008
5228
5452
5681
4813
5029
5250
5475
5704
4834
5051
5272
5498
5727
4856
5073
5295
5520
5750
4
4
4
4
4
7
7
7
8
8
11
11
II
II
12
14
15
15
15
15
18
18
18
19
19
30
31
32
33
34
0
0
0
0
0
5774
6009
6249
6494
6745
5797
6032
6273
6519
6771
5820
6056
6297
6544
6796
5844
6080
6322
6569
6822
5867
6104
6346
6594
6847
5891
6128
6371
6619
6873
5914
6152
6395
6644
6899
5938
6176
6420
6669
6924
5961
6200
6445
6694
6950
5985
6224
6469
6720
6976
4
4
4
4
4
8
8
8
8
9
12
12
12
13
13
16
16
16
17
17
20
20
20
21
21
35
36
37
38
39
0
0
0
0
0
7002
7265
7536
7813
8098
7028
7292
7563
7841
8127
7054
7319
7590
7869
8156
7080
7346
7618
7898
8185
7107
7373
7646
7926
8214
7133
7400
7673
7954
8243
7159
7427
7701
7983
8273
7186
7454
7729
8012
8302
7212
7481
7757
8040
8332
7239
7508
7785
8069
8361
4
5
5
5
5
9
9
9
10
JO
13
14
14
14
15
18
18
18
19
20
22
23
23
24
24
40
41
42
43
44
0
0
0
0
0
8391
8693
9004
9325
9657
8421
8724
9036
9358
9691
8451
8754
9067
9391
9725
8481
8785
9099
9424
9759
8511
8816
9131
9457
9793
8541
8847
9163
9490
9827
8571
8878
9195
9523
9861
8601
89JO
9228
9556
9896
8632
8941
9260
9590
9910
8662 ~
8972 ~
9293 5
9623 6
9965 6
JO 15
10 16
11 16
11 17
11 17
20
21
21
22
23
25
26
26
28
29
6'
12'
18'
24'
30'
36'
42'
48'
54'
2'
4'
,.
NATURAL TANGENTS
6'
01
12'
02
18'
03
24'
04
45'
46
47
48
49
l
l
l
l
l
croJ 0035 0070

0355
0724
1106
1504
0392 0428
0761 0799
1145 1184
1544 1585
0105
0464
0837
1224
1626
0141
0501
50
51
52
53
54
l
l
l
l
l
1918
2349
2799
3270
3764
1960
2393
2846
3319
3814
2002
2437
2892
3367
3865
55
56
57
58
59
l
1
1
I
I
4281
4826
5399
6003
6643
4335
4882
5458
6066
6709
60
61
62
63
64
I
l
1
1
2
7321
8040
8807
9626
0503
65
66
67
68
69
2
2
2
2
2
30'
05
36'
06
42'
07
Proportional
Parts
54'
09
48'
08
I' 2' 3' 4' 5
126
1661
0176
0538
0913
1303
1708
0212
0575
0951
1343
1750
0247
0612
0990
1383
1792
0283
0649
1028
1423
1833
0319 6
0686 6
1067 6
1463 7
1875 7
12
12
13
13
14
18
18
19
20
21
24
25
25
27
28
30
31
32
33
34
2045
2482
2938
3416
3916
208l!
2521
2985
346'
3961!
2131
2572
3032
3514
4019
2174
2617
3079
3564
4071
2218
2662
3127
3613
4124
2261
2708
3175
3663
4176
2305
2753
3222
3713
3229
7
8
8
8
9
14
15
16
16
17
22
23
24
25
26
29
30
31
33
34
36
38
39
41
43
4383
4938
5517
6128
6775
4442
4994
5577
6191
6842
4491'
5051
5631
625'
690')
4550
5108
5697
6319
6977
4605
5166
5757
6383
7045
4659
5224
5818
6447
7113
4715
5282
5880
6512
7182
4770
5340
5941
6577
7251
9
lO
lO
II
II
18
19
20
21
23
27
29
30
32
34
36
38
40
43
45
45
48
50
53
57
7391
8115
8887
9711
0594
7461
8190
8967
9797
7675
8418
9210
2 0051
0965
7747
8495
9292
0145
0686
7532 7W
8265 8341
9047 912l'
9883 l 997(
0778 087,
taro
7820
8572
9375
0233
1155
7893
8650
9458
0323
1251
7966
8728
9542
0413
1348
12
13
14
15
16
24
26
27
29
31
3648
38 51
41 55
44 58
47 63
60
64
68
73
78
145
246
356
475
605
154
257
367
488
619
164
267
379
500
633
174
278
391
513
646
184
289
402
526
660
194
300
414
539
675
204
311
426
552
689
215
322
438
565
703
225
333
450
578
718
236
344
463
592
733
2
2
2
2
2
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
7
7
7
8
9
9
8
9
lO
II
12
70
71
72
73
74
2 747
2 904
3 078
3 271
3487
762
921
096
291
511
778
937
115
312
534
793
954
133
333
558
808
971
152
354
582
824
2 989
172
376
856
024
211
420
655
872
042
230
442
681
888
sos
840
3 006
191
398
630
251
465
706
3
3
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
8
8
9
lO
II
12
lO 13
12 14
13 16
14 18
16 20
75
76
77
78
79
3
4
4
4
5
732
Oil
331
705
145
758
041
366
745
193
785
071
402
787
242
812
102
437
829
292
839
134
474
872
343
867
165
511
915
396
895
198
548
4 959
449
923
230
586
5 005
503
952
264
625
050
558
981
297
665
097
614
5
5
6
7
9
9
l1
12
15
18
14
16
19
22
26
19
21
25
29
35
23
27
31
37
44
80
81
82
83
84
5
6
7
8
9
671
314
115
144
514 &
730
386
207
264
677 9
789
460
300
386
845 lO
850
535
396
513
019
912 5 976
612
691
495
596
777
643
0 199 lO 385
6 041
174
107
772
855 6 940 7
700
806 7 916 8
8 915 9 058
205
lO 579 lO 780 10 988 II
243
026
028
357
205
II
13
17
23
21
27
34
46
32
40
51
68
43
54
69
91
54
67
86
114
85
86
87
88
89
II
14
19
28
57
16
46
20
69
85
12
15
22
35
95
13
16
23
40
143
43
30
08
64
29
II 66
14 67
19 74
~14
~3 66
6'
II
15
20
31
71
91
06
45
82
62
12'
12
15
21
33
81
18'
087
43
89
02
80
49
24'
12
16
22
38
114
71
35
90
19
6
30'
00
83
86
92
2
36'
13
17
24
44
191
30
13
34
17
90 26
07 47
0 286
42'
48'
oeo
13
62
89 18
03 27
74 52
5 573
95
46
27
08
0
54'
pp cease
to be
sufficiently
accurate
I I I I
,. 2' 3' 4' 5'
Proportional
Parts
Subtract
NATURAL COTANGENTS
O'
er
6'
0 I
12'
02
I
2
3
4
"' 1573 0 286 5

57 29 52 08 47 74
28 64 27 27 26 03
1908 18 46 17 89
14 30 13 95 13 62
5
6
7
8
9
11
9
8
7
6
JO
II
12
13
14
18'
03
191
44
24
17
13
0
07
90
34
30
24'
04
143 2
40 92
23 86
16 83
13 00
30 11 205 10 988 10 780 10

514
357
205 9 058 8
144 8 028 7 916
806
115 7 026 6 940
855
314
243
174
J07 6
5 671
5 145
4 705
4331
4 011
614
097
665
297
3 981
588
050
625
264
952
15 3 732
16 3 487
17 3 271
18 3 078
19 2 904
706
465
251
060
888
681
442
230
042
872
655
420
211
024
856
20 2 747
21 2 605
22 2 475
23 2 356
24 2 246
733
592
463
344
236
718
578
450
333
225
25
26
27
28
29
2
2
I
I
I
1445
0503
9626
8807
8040
1348
0413
9542
8728
7966
30
31
32
33
34
1
1
I
1
1
7321
6643
6003
5399
4826
35
36
37
38
39
I
I
I
I
1
40
41
42
43
44
I
I
I
I
I
30'
05
114
38
22
16
12
6
19
90
35
71
36
06
95
35
22
15
12
49
80
02
89
43
42'
07
81
33
21
15
12
85
69
20
46
16
48'
08
71
31
20
15
II
62
82
45
06
91
54'
09
63
30
19
14
11
I'
2'
I
66
14
74
67
66
3'
I
pp cease
to be
sufficiently
accurate
579 JO 385 JO 199 JO 019 9 845 9 677

915
777
643
513
386
264 23 46 68
700
596
495
396
300 207 17 34 51
772
691
612
535
460 386 13 27 40
041 5 976
912
850
789
730 II 21 32
91
69
54
43
Ill
86
67
54
26
22
19
16
14
35
29
25
21
19
44
37
31
27
23
16
14
13
12
JO
20
18
16
14
13
396
915
511
165
867
343
872
474
134
839
292
829
427
102
812
242
787
402
071
785
193
745
366
041
758
9
7
6
5
5
630
606
398
376
172
191
006 12 989
824
840
582
354
152
071
808
558
333
133
954
793
534
312
115
937
778
511
291
096
921
762
4
4
3
3
3
8 12
7 II
6 10
6 9
5 8
703
565
438
322
215
689
552
426
311
204
675
539
414
660
526
402
289
184
646
513
391
278
174
633
500
379
267
164
619
488
367
257
154
2
2
2
2
2
5
4
4
4
3
1251
0323
9548
8650
7893
1155
0233
9375
8572
7820
1060
0145 12
9292
8495
7747
0965 0872
0057 I 9970
92JO 9128
8418 8341
7675 7603
0778
09883
9047
8265
7532
0686 0594 16 31 47 63
9797 9711 15 29 44 58
8967 8887 14 27 41 55
8190 8115 13 26 38 51
7461 7391 12 24 36 48
78
73
68
64
60
7251
6577
5941
5340
4770
7182
6512
5880
5282
4715
7113
6447
5818
5224
4659
7045
6383
5757
5166
4605
6977
6319
5697
5J08
4550
6909
6255
5637
5051
4496
6842
6191
5577
4994
4442
6775
6128
5517
4938
4388
6709
6066
5458
4882
4335
II
II
JO
JO
9
23
21
20
19
18
34
32
30
29
27
45
43
40
38
36
57
53
50
48
45
4281
3764
3270
2799
2349
4229
3713
3222
2753
2305
4176
3663
3175
2708
2261
4124
3613
3127
2662
2218
4071
3564
3079
2617
2174
4019
3514
3032
2572
2131
3968
3465
2985
2527
2088
3916
3416
2938
2482
2045
3865
3367
2892
2437
2002
3814
3319
2846
2393
1960
9
8
8
8
7
17
16
16
15
14
26
25
24
23
22
34
33
31
30
29
43
41
39
31l
3o
1918
1504
1106
0724
0355
1875
1463
1067
0686
0319
1833
1423
J028
0649
0283
1792
1383
0990
0612
0247
1750
1343
0951
0575
0212
1708
1303
0913
0538
0176
1667
1263
0875
0501
0141
1626
1224
0837
0464
OJ05
1585
1184
0799
0428
0070
1544
1145
0761
0392
0035
7
7
6
6
6
14 21
13 20
13 19
12 18
12 18
28
27
25
25
24
34
33
32
31
30
6'
18'
24'
30'
36'
42
48'
54'
I'
2'
4'
12'
449
"959
586
548
230
198
923
895
5'
4'
503
ls 005
l3
300
194
18
15
12
II
9
7
6
6
5
5
1'
9 12
9 II
8 JO
7 9
7 8
Propomonal
Parts
Subtract
NATURAL COTANGENTS
O'
6'
0 1
12'
02
18'
24'
04
30'
05
36'
06
42
07
48'
08
54'
09
1' 2'
3'
4'
5'
9861
9523
9195
8878
8571
9827
9490
9163
8847
8541
9793
9457
9131
8816
8511
9759
9424
9099
8785
8481
9725
9391
9067
8754
8451
9691
9358
9036
8724
8421
6
6
5
5
5
17
17
16
16
15
23
22
21
21
20
29
28
27
26
25
45
46
47
48
49
0
0
0
0
9657
9325
9004
8693
9623
9293
8972
8662
9590
9260
8941
8632
0 '
9896
9556
9228
8910
8601
50
51
52
53
54
0
0
0
0
0
8391
8098
7813
7536
7265
8361
8069
7785
7508
7239
8332
8040
7757
7481
7212
8302
8012
7729
7454
7186
8273
7983
7701
7427
7159
8243
7954
7673
7400
7133
8214
7926
7646
7373
7107
8185
7898
7618
7346
7080
8156
7869
7590
7319
7054
8127
7841
7563
7292
7028
5 10 15 20
5 10 14 19
5 9 14 18
5 9 14 18
4 9 13 18
24
24
23
23
22
55
56
57
58
59
0
0
0
0
0
7002
6745
6494
6249
6009
6976
6720
6469
6224
5985
6950
6694
6445
6200
5961
6924
6669
6420
6176
5938
6899
6644
6395
6152
5914
6873
6619
6371
6128
5891
6847
6594
6346
6104
5867
6822
6569
6322
6080
5844
6796
6544
6297
6056
5820
6771
6519
6273
6032
5797
4
4
4
4
4
9
8
8
8
8
13
13
12
12
12
17
17
16
16
16
21
21
20
20
20
60
61
62
63
64
0
0
0
0
0
5774
5543
5317
5095
4877
5750
5520
5295
5073
4856
5727
5498
5272
5051
4834
5704
5475
5250
5029
4813
5681
5452
5228
5008
4791
5658
5430
5206
4986
4770
5635
5407
5184
4964
4748
5612
5384
5161
4942
4727
5589
5362
5139
4921
4706
5566
5339
5117
4899
4684
4
4
4
4
4
8
8
7
7
7
12
II
11
II
II
15
15
15
15
14
19
19
18
18
18
65
66
67
68
69
0
0
0
0
0
4663
4452
4245
4040
3839
4642
4431
4224
4020
3819
4621
4411
4204
4000
3799
4599
4390
4183
3979
3779
4578
4369
4163
3959
3759
4557
4348
4142
3939
3739
4536
4327
4122
3919
3719
4515
4307
4101
3899
3699
4494
4286
4081
3879
3679
4473
4265
4061
3859
3659
4
3
3
3
3
7
7
7
7
6
II
10
10
10
10
14
14
14
13
13
18
17
17
17
17
70
71
72
73
74
0
0
0
0
0
3640
3443
3249
3057
2867
3620
1424
3230
3038
2849
3600
3404
3211
3019
2830
3581
3385
3191
3000
2811
3561
3365
3172
2981
2792
3541
3346
3153
2962
2773
3522
3327
3134
2943
2754
3502
3307
3115
2924
2736
3482
3288
3096
2905
2717
3463
3269
3076
2886
2698
3
3
3
3
3
6 10 13 16
6 10 13 16
6 9 13 16
6 9 13 16
6 9 13 16
75
76
77
78
79
02679
0 2493
0 2309
0 2126
0 1944
2661
2475
2290
2107
1926
2642
2456
2272
2089
1908
2623
2438
22S4
2071
1890
2605
2419
2235
2053
1871
2586
2401
2217
2035
1853
2568
2382
2199
2016
1835
2549
2364
2180
1998
1817
2S30
2345
2162
1980
1799
2Sl2
2327
2144
1962
1781
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
9
12
12
12
12
12
16
15
15
15
15
80
81
82
83
84
0
0
0
0
0
1763
1584
140S
1228
1051
1745
1566
1388
1210
1033
1727
1548
1370
1192
1016
1709
1530
13S2
1175
0998
1691
1512
1334
1257
0981
1673
1495
1317
1139
0963
1655
1477
1299
1122
0945
1638
1459
1281
1104
0928
1620
1441
1263
1086
0910
1602
1423
1246
1069
0892
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
9
12
12
12
12
12
15
IS
IS
Vi
15
85
86
87
88
89
0
0
0
0
0
0875
0699
0524
0349
0175
0857
0682
0507
0332
0157
0840
0664
0489
0314
0140
0822
0647
0472
0297
0122
0805
0629
0454
0279
0105
0787
0612
0437
0262
0087
0769
0594
0419
0244
0070
0752
0577
0402
0227
0052
0734
0559
0384
0209
0015
0717
0542
0367
0192
0017
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
9
12
12
12
12
12
l'i
15
15
15
15
6'
12'
18'
24'
30'
42'
48'
'i4
I 0000 0 9965 9930
11
11
11
10
10
2' 3'
4' 5'
Answers
Exercise 1 (p. 48)

1
AC
CD
CQ
DO
tan ABC= CB= DB= QD =QB=
AD
CD
CB
DB
QD
QB
CD
tan CAB = AC = CD = CQ = DO = AD
2
3
tan ABC = ~ , tan CAB = ~

(1) 0.3249
(3) 1.4826
(2) 0.9325
(4) 3.2709
4 (1) 0.1635
(3) 0.8122
(2) 0.6188
(4) 1.3009
5 (1) 28.6
(3) 70.5
(2) 61.3
(4) 52.43
6 8.36 m
7 67.38, 67.38, 45.24
9 1.41 km
10 21.3 m approx.
12 144 m
(5) 0.2549
(6) 0.6950
(5) 2.1123
(5) 33.85
(6) 14.27
8 19.54 m
11 37; 53 approx.
Exercise 2 (p. 57)

l
.
AC
DO
CD
CQ
AD
sin ABC = AB = DB = CB = CD = AC
.
srn CAB
CB
QB
DB
DO
CD
AB = DB = CB = CD = AC
CB
QB
DB
cos ABC = AB = DB = CB
DO
CD
CD = AC
AC
DO
CD
AB = DB = CB
CQ
AD
CD = AC
cos CAB
Answers
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Cosine is 0.1109, sine is 0.9939

Length is 5.14 cm approx .. distance
approx.
Sines 0.6 and 0.8. cosines 0.8 and 0.6
(I) 0.2521
(2) 0.7400
(1) 29.8
(2) 30.77
(1) 0.9350
(3) 0.4594
(2) 0.7149
(4) 0.7789
(1) 57.78
(3) 69.23
(2) 20.65
(4) 77.45
10.08
11 13.93
7.34 m; 37.8; 52.2
12 47.6; 43.8
from centre 3.06 cm

(3)
(3)
(5)
(6)
(5)
(6)
0.9353
52.23
0.1863
0.5390
37.72
59.07
m approx.
Exercise 3 (p. 64)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
(1) 1.7263
(2) 1.1576
(1) 60.62
48.2 mm
22.62, 67.38
2.87 m
7.19 m
(a) 0.3465
(b) 0.4394
(a) 0.2204
(b) 2.988
(a) 0.7357
(b) 1.691
(5) 1.2045
(3) 1.3589
(6) 0.3528
(4) 1.6649
(2) 64.75
(3) 69.3
10 (a) 1.869
(b) 1.56 approx.
11 0.5602
12 (1) 0.2616
(2) -0.4695
13 37.13
14 1.2234
15 0.09661
16 553.5
Exercise 4 (p. 71)

1 35.02, 54.98, 2.86 m
2 44.2
3 a = 55.5, b = 72.6
4 A = 30.5, B = 59.5
5 AD = 2.66 cm, BD = 1.87 cm, DC = 2.81 cm,
AC= 3.87 cm
6 A= 44.13, b = 390 mm (approx.)
7 69.52,60
8 10.3 km N., 14.7 km E.
9
0.68 cm
10
187
xv'3 . y'3 I
-2-'2'2
188
Trigonometry
11 2.60 cm; 2.34 cm (both approx.)
12 3.6
13 10.2 km W., 11.7 km N
14 31.83 W. of N; 17.1 km
Exercise 5 (p. 74)

2 ~ J
4 1.6243
6 1.1547
1 0.7002
3 0.8827
5 0.6745, 0.8290, 0.5592
7 1.9121; 0.5230; 0.8523
8
v'l+t2; cos 0
sec 0 =
9 sin o.
= 0.8829, tan
o.
v'1+t2
; sin 0 = --=t==
v'1+t2
= 1.8807
Exercise 6 (p. 85)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
sines are
(a) 0.9781
(c)
(b) 0.5068
(d)
cosinesare
(a) -0.2079 (c)
(b) - 0.8621 ( d)
tangentsare (a) -4.7046 (c)
(b) -0.5879 (d)
(a) 40.60 or 139.4
(c)
(b) 65.87 or 114.13
(d)
(a) 117
( c) 100.3
(b) 144.4
(d) 159.3
(a) 151
(c) 112.3
(b) 123.8
(d) 119.6
(a) 2.2812
(b) -1.0485
(a) 127.27
(d)
(b) 118
(e)
(c) 35.3 or 144.7
(f )
0.5530
(a) 69 or 111
(c)
(b) 65
(d)
0.9428
(e) 0.4289
0.5698
-0.3333 (e) -0.9033
- 0.8218
-2.8291 (e) -0.4748
-0.6933
20.3 or 159.7
45.42 or 134.58
( e) 142.35
(f) 156.25
(e) 144.47
(f) 130.38
c3) - 3.3122
24 or 156
149
110.9
54
113
Exercise 7 (p. 93)

1
0.6630; 0.9485
Each is
\/3- 1 {note that sin 9 = cos (90 - 9)}
2V'2
Answers
4
5
9
IO
62+V'3
7 3.0777; 0.5407
(2) 0.4848
(b) 0.8098
0.8545
0.8945; - 2
(I) 0.5592
(a) 2.4751
Exercise 8 (p. 96)

1
0.96, 0.28, 3.428

0.4838, 0.8752, 0.5528
4 0.9917, -0.1288
5 (1) 0.9511
(2) 0.3090
2
6 0.5
8 0.5; 0.8660
9 0.6001 approx.
12 0.268 approx.
Exercise 9 (p. 99)

1
1 (sin 40 + sin 20)

1 (sin 80 - sin 10)
1 (cos 80 + cos 20)
1 (sin 80 - sin 20)
3
4
5 ~{cos 3(C + D) +cos (C - D)}
6 1 (1 - sin 30) = !
7 cos 2A - cos 4A
9 2 sin 3A cos A
2 cos 3A sin 2A
11 2 sin 30 sin (- 0)
12 2 sin 3A sin 2A
13 2 cos 41 cos 6
14 2 cos 36 sin 13
15 cot 15
8 ~ (sin 6C - sin 100)
16 tan a ;
10
13
Exercise 10 (p. 102)

1 b = 15.8; c = 14.7
2 a = 20.3; c = 30.4
3 a= 7.18; c = 6.50
4
5
c = 7.88, b = 5.59
c = 17.3;a = 23.1

1 A = 28.95, B
2 A = 40.12, B
3 A= 62.18, B
4 A = 28.9, B
5 106.2
=
=
=
=
46.59,
57.9,
44.43,
32,
C
C
C
C
6
= 104.48
= 81.98
= 73.38
= 119.1
43.85

1 114.4
2 29.87
4 A = 22.3, B = 31.47, C = 126.23
3 45.45
189
Trigonometry
5 65; 52.33; 62.67 (all approx.)
6 38.87
190

1 A = 25.5; C = 46.5
2 A = 64.32; B = 78.28
3 B = 99.77; C = 16.57
4 83.42; 36.58
5 87.03; 63.73
'
65.08; 42.68"

1
2
3
4
5
A =
A=
A =
A =
A =
29.4; B
51.32;B
43.32; B
21.77; B
35.38; B
=
=
=
=
=
41.73; C
59.17;C
35.18; C
45.45; C
45.67; C
=
=
=
=
=
108.87
69.52
100.3
112.78
98.95
=
=
=
=
=
38
66.33
81.42
36.7
90.92

1 a = 166.5; B
2 c = 172;
A
3 b = 65.25; A
4 c = 286.4; A
5 b = 136.6; A
=
=
=
=
=
81.4; C
32.7; B
33.43; C
65.3; B
58.63; C

1 b = 145.2, c = 60.2,
2 a = 312, c = 213,
3 b = 151.4, c = 215,
4 a = 152.7, b = 83.4,
5 a= 8.27, c = 16.59,
B = 81.47
C = 42.68
B = 42.05
A = 97.68
C = 110.9

1
Two solutions:
2 Two solutions:
a = 4.96 or 58;
A = 126.07 or 3.93
C = 28.93 or 151.07
a = 21.44 or 109.2
A = 11.32 or 88.68
C = 128.68 or 51.32
Answers
3 One solution:
4 Two solutions:
191
b = 87.08, A = 61.3, B = 52.7

b = 143 or 15.34
A = 35 or 145
B = 115.55 or 5.55

7 361.3 mm2
8 24.17m2
9 0.503 Mg
IO 239.6 cm2
11 10 cm
1 19.05 m2
2 72.36 km2
3 39.42
4 2537 cm2
5 485 cm2
6 64.8 mm2

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
IO
11
5.94 km
A = 88.07, B = 59.93, C = 52
B = 45.2, C = 59.57, a= 726
c = 56.1
16.35 m, 13.62 m
41
Two triangles: B = 113.17or66.83
C = 16.83 or 63.17
c = 9.45 or 29.1
267 m approx.
12 4.5 cm, 6 cm; 11 ~2
6.08 m, 5.71 m
13 4~ h
3.09 mm
15 0.3052 m2
16 49.47; 58.75
7.98 cm, P = 26.33,
a = 29.93

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
15.2 m
546 m
276 m
193 m approx.
889 m approx.
1.26 km
3700 m
11 990 m
2.88 km approx.
IO
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
2.170 km
500 m approx.
3.64 km; 45 W. of N.; 5.15 km
73 m; 51 m
1246 m approx.
189 m approx.
63.7 m approx.
1970 m and 7280 m approx.
192
Trigonometry

I
2
3
4
60.
(a)
(b)
(a)
(a)
15. 270. 120, 135

0.5878
(c) 0.3090
(e) 0.9659
0.9239
(d) 0.3827
4.75
(b) 2.545
13.4
(b) 89.38
(a) ~
(b) 2;
(1) 5.842 cm
35
1.57 approx.
4; 3; TI
6
7
11'
l l rr
30
(d)
(2) 17.5 m
ti radians;
11'
()
511'

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
2 (a)
(b)
3 (a)
(b)
4 (a)
(b)
1
-9.9744;
- 0.3619;
-0.7030;
-0.2901;
-0.7771
0.7431
-1.0576
2
- 0.8387
0.7431
-0.2250; 4.3315
- 0. 9322; 0.3882
0.7112; -0.9884
0.9570; -0.3032
(c)
(d)
(c)
(d)
(c)
(d)
-0.6691
-0.2419
-1.2349
-1.7434
1.2799
0.5878

1
2
3
(1)
(2)
(1)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(1)
(2)
(3)
( 4)
63, 117
(3) 19.3, 199.3
65.3, 294.7
(4) 65.1, 294.9
20.7, 159.3
(2) 18.43' 71.57
0, 180, 80.53, 279.58
43.87' 136.13
45, 135, 225, 315
30, 150, 210, 330
26.57, 45, 206.57, 225
60, 270, 300
60, 300
0' 120, 180' 240
i;
Answers
5
(1) 2n1T
(2) n'IT
cos-1 70.8
+ (-1)" sin-1 19.7
(3) n'IT or n'IT

(4 ) n'IT
6
+ (-Ir~
1T
51T
+ 12
or nrr +TI
(1) 13.03
(2) 53.13
(3) 6.48
(4) 36.87
193

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What are the main trigonometric ratios discussed in the text?

What are the main trigonometric ratios discussed in the text?

What are some applications of trigonometric ratios mentioned?

What are some applications of trigonometric ratios mentioned?

Contents

Formula for cos

Formula for tan

Formula for sm A m terms of the sides

Distance of an inaccessible object Distance

Rat10 of circumference of a circle to its diameter

Trigonometrical Ratios of Angles of any Magnitude

Vanations m the sine between 0 and 360

Summary of Trigonometrical Formulae

Trigonometry and Geometry

The name trigonometry is derived from the Greek words meaning

The Nature of Geometry

Geometry has been called 'the science of space'. It deals with

The surfaces which form the boundaries of

It should further be noted that

Angles are of the utmost importance in trigonometry, and the

Angles formed by rotation

We must now consider a mathematical conception of an angle.

Let it take up the position indicated by OB.

There is no limit to the amount of rotation of OA, and

(a) Sexagesimal measure

corresponding to the 360 degrees (see Theorem 17). If these

37 degrees, 15 minutes, 27 seconds.

This division into so many small parts is very important in

(b) Centesimal measure

(c) Circular measure

Terms used to decribe angles

An acute angle is an angle which is less than a right angle.

We will now state, without proof, some of the more important

Intersecting straight lines

If two straight lines intersect, the vertically opposite angles are

In Fig. 8, AB and CD are two straight lines intersecting at 0.

Parallel straight lines

It is evident that the inclination of PQ to AB is the same as that

If PO and P101 were produced to any distance they would not

Corresponding angles: LPEB = LEFD; LBEF = LDFQ.

An obtuse-angled triangle has one of its angles

An isosceles triangle has two of its sides equal.

An equilateral triangle has all its sides equal.

Lines connected with a triangle

(1) AP is the perpendicular from A to BC. It is called the altitude

(3) AR bisects BC. It is called a median. If each of the points B

Isoscelesand equilateral triangles

Angle properties of a triangle

(1) each of the angles of an equilateral triangle is 60,

The ambiguous case

If we represent the length of AB by c, AC by b and BC by a,

Note This theorem is named after Pythagoras, the Greek

In Fig. 17 the triangles ABC, DEF are equiangular

The sides AB, DE are two corresponding sides.

:. the triangles OAB, OCD, OEF are similar.

Property of similar triangles

Thus in Fig. 17:

Similarly in Fig. 18:

These results are of great importance in trigonometry.