APA 6 th Edition:

An Overview of the Basics

John P. Dugan
Loyola University Chicago
2009

Please note that this guidebook is not designed to be exhaustive, but a practical guide to basic rules
associated with the APA 6th Edition writing style. Users are encouraged to consult the full APA 6th
Edition manual for additional questions. Please share any comments, inaccuracies, or suggestions with
me via email ([email protected]). Feel free to share widely, but credit appropriately.

FORMATTING BASICS
(pp. 228-229)
Margins: Page set-up should reflect 1 margins on all sides.
Font: Use a serif font, preferably Times New Roman, with size set at 12-point. Use a sans
serif font (e.g., Arial or Helvetica) at 12-point for all wording in figures.
Indentation & Alignment: The first line of each paragraph should be indented five spaces
(use tab key). Exceptions to this include: abstracts and block quotes. Left align all text
except for particular heading titles. Do not right and left justify or hyphenate words.
Spacing: The entire paper should be double-spaced including the reference list, figures,
tables, quotations, titles, and headings. Do not add an extra line after a paragraph or before
new headings.
Punctuation Spacing: Place two spaces after sentence terminators (e.g., periods, question
marks, exclamation marks). Place one space after commas, colons, and semicolons; periods
as part of a reference citation; periods of initials in personal names. EXCEPTION: No
spaces are used in abbreviations such as i.e., e.g., a.m., and colons used in ratios.
Title Page: Your title page should include three components: title of the paper, author and
institutional affiliation, and running head. See page 41 in the manual and page 4 of this
guidebook for examples.
o Running head: A running head should be included in all papers and appears in the
header of the document. It is traditionally a shortened version of your paper title.
Typically, people will use the first part of a title when it includes a colon. The
running head should be no more than 50 characters. Note that this is characters and
not words. All punctuation, letters, and spaces count as characters. The name of your
running head appears in all uppercase letters, is left justified, and preceded by the
term Running head. Note that the word head is not capitalized. See the sample
title page for a clear example.
Page Numbers: Begin numbering your paper with the title page serving as page one. All
page numbers should appear in the upper right hand corner within the document header. Use
the view > headers and footers function in word processing programs to set this.
Headings (pp. 62-63): There are a total of five heading categories, although most papers will
use only three to four levels. Heading levels provide a hierarchical organization to your
paper. Topics of equal importance should have the same level. Additionally, sub-sections
must have at least two headings for each section. The title of your paper always appears
centered in upper and lower case at the top of the first page, but does not count as a level in
your paper. Always begin with the first level and work towards the higher levels.
Additionally, you should never use a heading titled Introduction as it is assumed that the first
part of your paper is just that. See the next page for further details.

Level 1

Centered, Bold, Upper and Lower Case Heading

Left Justified, Bold, Upper and Lower Case Heading

Level 2

Indented, bold, lower case, paragraph heading ending with a period.

Indented, bold, italics, lower case paragraph heading ending with a period.
Indented, italics, lower case paragraph heading ending with a period.
EXAMPLES
SHORT PAPER (ONE LEVEL)
Student Athletes: An Overview of Population Specific Needs (Title)
Historical Issues (Level 1)
Developmental Concerns (Level 1)
Future Trends (Level 1)
MEDIUM LENGTH PAPER (TWO LEVELS)
Student Athletes: An Overview of Population Specific Needs (Title)
Historical Issues (Level 1)
Developmental Concerns (Level 1)
Cognitive Development (Level 2)
Identity Development (Level 2)
LONG PAPER (THREE LEVELS)
Student Athletes: An Overview of Population Specific Needs (Title)
Historical Issues (Level 1)
Developmental Concerns (Level 1)
Cognitive Development (Level 2)
Identity Development (Level 2)
Racial identity. (Level 3)
Gender identity. (Level 3)
Future Trends (Level 1)
THESIS OR DISSERTATION LENGTH (FOUR LEVELS OR MORE)
Student Athletes: An Overview of Population Specific Needs (Title)
Historical Issues (Level 1)
Developmental Concerns (Level 1)
Cognitive Development (Level 2)
Identity Development (Level 2)
Racial identity. (Level 3)
Asian American college students. (Level 4)
Latino college students. (Level 4)

Level 3

Level 4
Level 5

identity. (Level
3)
RunningGender
head: RETHINKING
MENTORING
Future Trends (Level 1)

Rethinking Mentoring: Developmental Relationships as Opportunities for Leadership Learning

John P. Dugan
Loyola University Chicago

CONSIDERATIONS FOR MECHANICS, STRUCTURE, & STYLE

The following is a collection of additional APA 6th Edition rules that should be taken into
account as you write. APA 6th Edition has an extensive front section that provides excellent
insights into common grammatical and stylistic issues (e.g., economy of expression, passive
voice) in the writing process (pp. 65-86).
Biased Language (pp. 71): APA 6th Edition calls for the reduction of biased language in
writing. This section of the book also provides substantial information on language issues.
In general, avoid use of loaded terms (e.g., at risk) as they are not specific and open to
misinterpretation.
o Gender: Never use he as a generic pronoun. Writing should be done in such a
way that gender-specific pronouns are not needed. Avoid use of he or she or he/
she as it becomes distracting to the reader. Additionally, authors are advised that
gender is cultural and sex is biological. Accurate use of these terms in writing is
encouraged.
o Racial/ Ethnic Groups: Capitalize names of racial/ ethnic groups, including
Black and White. Do not use hyphens in designations such as Asian American or
African American. Avoid language that reifies race or situates one group as
normative (e.g., minority when meaning non-White).
o Sexual Orientation: Do not use the term homosexual. Instead, use the terms
lesbian, gay or gay man, bisexual. ** NOTE: APA 6th Edition does not call for
these terms to be capitalized. However, many authors do so in publication as a
means to advocate for the legitimacy of the population.
o Disabilities: Use the term handicap only to refer to the source of limitation.
When referring to people, use the terms: person with ______; person living with
_____; person who has _____.
o Age: As a general reference, boy and girl are used for people of high school age
and younger, while man and woman are used for people 18 and older. The term
older person is preferable to elderly.
AND versus &: Only use the ampersand (&) in the reference list and in parentheses.
Otherwise you should always use the word and spelled out.
Commas in Series (p. 88): Although it is grammatically correct to either use or omit a
common before the words and/ or in a series of three or more, APA requires use of the
comma to increase readability.
Parentheses (p. 94): Do not use back to back parentheses. Include everything in a single set
of parentheses separated by a semicolon.
Incorrect: various leadership theories (e.g., chaos, relational) (Northouse, 2006).
Correct: various leadership theories (e.g., chaos, relational; Northouse, 2006).
Numbers (pp. 111-114): You should spell out the word for numbers between one and nine.
Numbers 10 and up can be typed in their numerical form. If a number begins a sentence,
title, or heading it should be capitalized. However, it is better to reword the sentence and
avoid using a number as the first word. Always use numerals for: representation of
percentages (e.g., 7%), grouped comparison (e.g., 3 of 9 students completed the survey),
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statistical functions (e.g., multiplied by 7, 5 times as many), or denoting a specific place (e.g.,
chapter 5, row 9, page 196).
o Decimal Fractions (p. 113): Use a zero before the decimal point with numbers
that are less than 1 when the statistic can exceed 1 (e.g., Cohens d, centimeters,
inches).
o Plural of Numbers (p. 114): When writing the plural of numbers you should not
add apostrophes. The correct format would be: 1950s, sixes.
Latin Abbreviations (p. 108):
o e.g.,: this translates to for example. It is always written in the lower case with a
period after each letter and followed by a comma, and it is used only in
parentheses:
The comparison sample will be used to examine specific student
populations (e.g., athletes, resident assistants, orientation leaders) on
campus.
o i.e.,: this translates to that is. It is always written in the lower case with a
period after each letter and followed by a comma, and it is used only in
parentheses:
Researchers found that involvement in a positional leadership role (i.e.,
election to a particular office) was the strongest co-curricular predictor.
o et al.,: this translates to and others. It is always written in the lower case and
there is no period after et.
Statistical Abbreviations and Symbols (pp. 117-123): Most statistical symbols are
written in italics. See the above pages for further details.
Models, Theories, & Instruments (p. 102): The names of models and theories should
not be capitalized in papers. However, the names of instrument, tests, or scales, which
are often named after model or theories, are capitalized. The words test or scale are
not capitalized when referring to subscales of tests of an overall instrument. See
examples below:
o social change model of leadership
o Astins theory of involvement
o social learning theory
o Socially Responsible Leadership Scale
o MMPI Depression scale
o Leadership Practices Inventory
When describing anchors in scales (i.e., the naming conventions describing opposite
ends of a coding spectrum) do not use quotation marks. Instead, put the names of the
anchors in italics (p. 105).
o Response options ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Passive Voice (p. 77): Avoid using the passive voice in your writing. For more
information on how to reduce use of passive voice and for a more detailed explanation of
what it is see: http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/passive.htm

 Word Choices: Be careful in your word choices and avoid some of the common errors
below:
o Affect versus Effect: Affect as a noun is emotion and feeling; as a verb it means
to influence (e.g., color affects your impression of a painting). Effect as a noun is
an outcome or consequence; as a verb it means to cause to happen (i.e., effect the
results of the study).
o While versus Although: While should only be used when you are referring to
events that are happening at the same time (e.g., John cleaned the dishes while
Erin put the food away). Although is often the word you should be using.
o Impacted: The noun impact is appropriate, but use of the verb impacted is often
incorrect. Only a tooth can be impacted. Switch to influenced or another word.
o Data: The word data is typically plural. As such, you need to make sure you
have subject verb agreement. Data are representative of
o That versus Who: That should never be used to describe a person. For example,
it is The researcher who guided, NOT, The researcher that guided.
Paragraph Length: As a general rule, paragraphs should be a minimum of three
sentences long. No paragraph should be only one sentence. On the flip side of this, be
aware of run-on paragraphs. Paragraphs should generally not fill entire pages. Divide up
the information into organized sub-sections.
Anthropomorphism: Anthropomorphism is the assignment of human forms, qualities,
or actions to non-human things. In social science writing it is easy to do this (e.g., the
research indicates, the data suggest). You want to reduce this as much as possible in your
writing.
Prepositions: Sentences cannot end with prepositions as it is grammatically incorrect.
For a list of prepositions, see: http://www.uazone.org/friends/esl4rus/prepositions.html
Contractions: Avoid using contractions (e.g., cant, wont, doesnt) in formal writing.
Etcetera: Avoid using the term. It is the written equivalent of blah, blah, blah.
Redundancy: Redundancy in writing is a common problem. Attempt to remove overuse
of the same words or redundant language such as the following:
o They were both alike
o A total of 68 participants
o Instructions, which were exactly the same as those used
o Absolutely essential
o Has been previously found
o Small in size
o Period of time

CITATIONS & REFERENCES IN TEXT

(p. 169)
The establishment of protocols for citing intellectual property and giving appropriate credit for
original ideas is a core function of APA 6th Edition. Citations are provided not only for direct
quotations, but also for any thoughts or ideas of others that you paraphrase. Whenever possible
you should use primary sources in your papers. However, this requires that you go back to the
original text and actually read it. Do not cite documents that you have not personally read.
SECONDARY SOURCES
IN TEXT: Name the original work, but give the citation for the secondary source:
McClellands study (as cited in Cotheart & Haller, 1996) examined
IN REFERENCE LIST: Cite the secondary source:
Coltheart, M., & Haller, M. (1996). Reading comprehension: Dual-route and distributedprocessing techniques. Psychological Quarterly, 9, 589-608.
doi:13.9916/c.forqua.2099.12.021
PRIMARY SOURCES
Citation of primary sources in text generally follows the author-date method. If the authors
surname is mentioned in the text, then you simply add the year of publication in parenthesis. For
direct quotes a page number must be added. For example:
(Walker, 2000)
Walker (2000) found that
(Walker, 2000, p. 82)
If the name of an author appears as part of the narrative (i.e., in text) then the year follows in
parentheses and it is not necessary to include the year again when the authors name is repeated
in the narrative of the same paragraph and cannot be confused with any other citations in the
same paragraph. Any parenthetical references (i.e., the citation appears in parentheses) in the
same paragraph should include the year.
In a recent study of reaction times, Walker (2000) found no interaction amongst variables
in the cross-sectional data. Walkers research supports the work of others studying
similar variables (James & King, 2004; Salinger, 1999). However, interactions among
variables were identified in the longitudinal data (Walker, 2000).
However, if the full citation appears in parentheses first, subsequent citations should always
present the year along with the authors last name.
In a recent study of reaction times, no interaction amongst variables in the cross-sectional
data (Walker, 2000). Walkers (2000) research supports the work of others studying
similar variables (James & King, 2004; Salinger, 1999). However, interactions among
variables were identified in the longitudinal data (Walker, 2000).

One Work, One Author

This post-industrial perspective on leadership is process-oriented and collaborative (Rost,
1993).
Rost (1993) introduced a post-industrial perspective on leadership that is process-oriented
and collaborative.
One Work, Two Authors (always use both last names)
However, research has also challenged traditionally held assumptions regarding the
transferability of leadership models across genders (Kezar & Moriarty, 2000).
Kezar and Moriarty (2000) point out that research challenges traditionally held
assumptions regarding the transferability of leadership models across gender differences.
One Work, Three Five Authors
Cite all authors the first time it appears in a manuscript. After the first time use only the first
authors surname and et al.
Additional studies examined involvement in a formalized leadership program (Cress,
Astin, Zimmerman-Oster, & Burkhardt, 2001). Results from these studies were
inconclusive (Cress et al., 2001).
Cress, Astin, Zimmerman-Oster, and Burkhardt (2001) examined involvement in a
formalized leadership program. Cress et al. found that results were inconclusive.
One Work, Six or More Authors
In the text cite only the surname of the first author followed by et al. If two references with six
or more authors shortens to the same format, including year of publication, then shorten only to
the point at which the citations can be differentiated and then insert et al.
A number of limitations of identity models are identified (Myers et al., 1991).
Myers et al. (1991) identify a number of limitations of identity models.
* Note that in this situation you will still write out the fist six authors names in the reference list
at the end of your paper. For eight or more authors the reference listing changes as described in
the reference section of this guide.
One Author, Two or More Works
Use the year of publication to distinguish between one authors multiple works. List dates
chronologically beginning with the earliest. If the author has more than one work in the same
year, assign lowercase letters to each publication by alphabetizing the titles (exclude A or The
when considering alphabetical order).
Researchers suggest that mentoring relationships follow a predictable life-cycle and are
limited in duration (Kram, 1988, 1990a, 1990b, 1996, 2004).
Kram (1988, 1990a, 1990b, 1996, 2004) suggests that mentoring relationships follow a
predictable life-cycle and are limited in duration.
9

Groups as Authors
Sometimes work is published under the name of a group or association (e.g., National
Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs, National Science Foundation, University of Pittsburgh).
The name of the organization should be spelled out in the first citation and abbreviated thereafter
if an abbreviation makes sense. You must provide the abbreviation in the first citation and spell
out the name in your reference list. Write out the name when it appears in your reference list.
The social change model advocates for leadership development grounded in social
responsibility (Higher Education Research Institute [HERI], 1996). Increasing the
individuals level of self-knowledge is a central principal (HERI, 1996).
Works with No Authors
If the author is listed as Anonymous, simply use this as the surname and follow the above
protocol. If no author is provided, you should cite the first few words of the reference list entry,
which is typically the title.
Limitations of this study include the lack of a large sample (Study Finds, 1982).
The author of Study Finds (1982) suggests that the lack of a large sample is a
limitation.
Multiple Citations Supporting the Same Information
At times you will need to list multiple authors as supporting a statement. Simply list all the
authors and publication dates separated by semicolons.
The development of students as leaders remains a central goal for institutions of higher
education (Astin & Astin, 2000; Boatman, 1999; McIntire, 1989).
Personal Communications
It is recommended to use personal communications as infrequently as possible as they provide no
direct means for the reader to access the cited information on their own. Personal
communications include telephone conversations, emails, letters, personal interviews, and
memos. Since personal communications cannot be recovered, you do not include them in the
actual reference list.
The development of a leadership identity is an integral part of a college students overall
growth (S. R. Komives, personal communication, September 5, 2005).
S. R. Komives (personal communication, September 5, 2005) suggests that leadership
identity development is an integral part of a college students overall growth.

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DIRECT QUOTATIONS
(p. 170)
Less than 40 Words
Consider the citation as part of the sentence and put the terminal punctuation mark after the
closing parenthesis.
It is suggested that the redefinition phase is, finally, evidence of changes that occurred in
both individuals (Kram, 1998, p. 62).
Kram (1988) suggests that the redefinition phase is, finally, evidence of changes that
occurred in both individuals (p. 62).
More than 40 Words
Quotations of more than 40 words should be presented in block format with a five space
indentation on the left hand side only (use the tab key). Start the quote on a new line and place
the page reference after the terminal punctuation mark. In the event that you quote multiple
paragraphs, add an additional five spaces indentation to the first line of each paragraph. Note
that block quotes should retain the double-spaced formatting required by APA style.
Newcomb (1962) suggested that:
In so far as we are interested in what college experience does to students' attitudes we
must, because of the nature of attitude formation and change, be interested in the groups
to which students (wittingly or not) yield power over their own attitudes. (p. 479)
Additional Considerations
Quotes within Quotes: If a direct quote appears within the text that you are quoting
enclose the secondary quote with single quotation marks ( ) when in the text and with
double quotation marks ( ) when in block format.
Ellipsis Points: An ellipsis (. . .) is used to indicate that a segment of the direct quote has
been omitted. Use three periods with a space before and after each period to indicate that
something was left out of a sentence. Use four periods (one to end the sentence and three
additional) to indicate that there is an omission between sentences.
Brackets: Brackets ([ ]) can be used to insert text by someone other than the original
author of a quote. These can be useful in clarifying material that may otherwise be lost
when a quote is removed from the original text.

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REFERENCE LIST
(p. 180)
A reference list should be provided at the end of all papers to assist readers in identifying and
retrieving sources. Only include references for material cited in your paper. Note that this is
what differentiates a reference list from a bibliography.
Items in your reference list should be listed alphabetically by the first authors surname. The list
is double spaced and formatted using a hanging indent (i.e., the second line of each item is
indented five spaces). There are five core elements to each listing:
Element One = author
Element Two = year
Element Three = title of article/ chapter
Element Four = name of journal/ book
Element Five = publisher location and name
Samples of common reference formats are provided on the next page. A more expansive list can
be found in the APA 6th Edition book (p. 193).
Additional Considerations:
Publishers Locations: You are required to list the publishers city and state for all
books. If the publisher is a university you do not have to restate the name of the state if it
appears in the name of the school.
Several Works by the Same Author: Arrange the references chronologically starting
with the earliest date.
Sources by both Author Individually and with Others: In this case list the individual
reference first, followed by the group publications.
Sources with Six or More Authors: For references with six or seven authors, list all of
them in the reference citation. For references with eight or more authors, list the first six
authors, then insert three ellipses, and add the last authors name.
Engberg, M., Dugan, J. P., Haworth, J., Williams, T., Kelly, B., Johnson, W.,
Stewart, S. (2009). Navigating the complexity of higher education
preparation program administration. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Capitalization: Note that only the first word of a book or article title is capitalized. If
the title has a colon, then the first word after the colon is capitalized as well. Each word
in the title of a journal is capitalized.
Italics versus Underline: Italics are used for the names of book and journal titles in lieu
of underlining.

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EXAMPLES OF COMMON REFERENCE ITEMS

Books:
Pope, R. L., Reynolds, A. L., & Mueller, J. A. (2004). Multicultural competence in student
affairs. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Edited Book:
Gilligan, C., Lyons, N. P., & Hammer, T. J. (Eds.). (1989). Making connections: The relational
worlds of adolescent girls at Emma Willard School. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
* NOTE THAT THE NAME OF THE SCHOOL RETAINS ITS CAPITALIZATION SINCE IT IS A PROPER NOUN *
Chapter in an Edited Book:
McEwen, M. E. (2003). The nature and uses of theory. In S. R. Komives, D. B. Woodard, Jr.
(Eds.), Student services: A handbook for the profession (4th ed.; pp. 153-178). San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
* NOTE THE COMMA, RATHER THAN A PERIOD, AFTER (EDS.) *
Second or Later Edition of a Book:
Komives, S. R., & Woodard, D. B. (Eds.). (2003). Student services: A handbook for the
profession (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Book Review:
Komives, S. R. (1995). Elements of truth [Review of the book Reform in student affairs: A
critique of student development]. NASPA Journal, 32, 316-319.
Journal Article:
Boatwright, K. J., & Egidio, R. K. (2003). Psychological predictors of college womens
leadership aspirations. Journal of College Student Development, 44, 653-669.
doi:09.2219/k.;fksldj.2003.09.221
Komives, S. K., Owen Casper, J., Longerbeam, S. D., Mainella, F., & Osteen, L. (2004).
Leadership identity development. Concepts & Connections, 12(3), 1-6.
doi:05.2354/d.ldfyff.2004.54.034
* NOTE THAT BECAUSE THIS PUBLICATION BEGINS EACH ISSUE OF A VOLUME WITH PAGE ONE, YOU
ARE REQUIRED TO PUT THE ISSUE NUMBER IN PARENTHESES NEXT TO THE VOLUME NUMBER. DO
NOT PUT A SPACE BETWEEN THEM AND DO NOT PUT THE ISSUE NUMBER IN ITALICS. *
Newspaper Article:
Coughlin, E. K. (1993, March 24). Sociologists examine the complexities of racial and ethnic
identity in America. The Chronicle of Higher Education, pp. A7-A8.
Magazine Article:
Henry, W. A. (1990, April 9). Beyond the melting pot. Time, 135, 28-31.
Abstracted Doctoral Dissertation:
Tyree, T. M. (1998). Designing an instrument to measure the socially responsible leadership
using the social change model of leadership development (Doctoral dissertation).
Retrieved from Dissertation Abstracts International. (AAT 9836493)
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ELECTRONIC REFERENCE ITEMS

A key addition to APA 6th Edition is an expanded section on citing electronic sources. Central to
this in a reference list is the inclusion of digital object identifiers (DOIs). These are codes
assigned to many, but not all, electronically published sources that allow for the more accurate
retrieval of electronic documents. They are sometimes found on the actual electronic document
(e.g., PDF), but may also be listed in the retrieval system (e.g., web database listing). Any
sources that are retrieved electronically and provide a DOI should list it following the model
below:
Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the
roots of positive forms of leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 16, 315-338.
doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.001
If no doi is assigned to the online document, include the homepage URL for the periodical:
Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the
roots of positive forms of leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 16, 315-338.
Retrieved from
http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/620221/descripti
on
* NOTE THAT YOU DO NOT END THIS TYPE OF REFERENCE WITH A PERIOD. NOR SHOULD YOU LEAVE
THE HYPERLINK IN THE URL. *
Three key guidelines should inform your formatting of electronic reference items:
1) You should direct the reader as closely as possible to the item you are referencing;
2) When page numbers are not available use paragraph numbers to guide the reader to the
appropriate section; and
3) Provide URL addresses that work.
See the APA 6th Edition for a comprehensive listing of types and formatting for electronic
sources (p. 187).

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