Nigerian Journal of Soil Science Vol 25 2015 PDF
Nigerian Journal of Soil Science Vol 25 2015 PDF
Nigerian Journal of Soil Science Vol 25 2015 PDF
OF
SOIL SCIENCE
VOLUME 25
2015
Prof. S. O. Ojeniyi
Deputy, Editor-in-Chief
Prof. T. A. Okusami
Deputy, Editor-in-Chief
Prof. D. O. Asawalam
Editor
Dr. J. A. Odofin
Business Manager
Other members
Prof. U. C. Amalu
Dr (Mrs) F. I. Oluwatoyinbo
Prof. J. D. Kwari
Prof. A. S. Fasina
Editorial Assistant/ICT
Dr. B. S. Ewulo
Prof. V. O. Chude
Vice President
Prof. O. O. Agbede
General Secretary
Prof. J. A. Adediran
Prof. D. O. Asawalam
Treasurer
Prof. B. A. Raji
Financial Secretary
Prof. M. A. N. Anikwe
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. S. O. Ojeniyi
Business Manager
Ex-officio Members
Prof. I. E. Esu
Chief C. O. Ezendu
Dr. (Mrs.) O. T. Ande
The Soil Science of Nigeria, founded in 1968, is a registered member of the International Union of
Soil Science.
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Membership of the society is open to all persons (ordinary), institutions, private firms and
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Manuscripts should be sent to The Editor-in-Chief, Nigerian Journal of Soil Prof. S. O. Ojeniyi, ,
Department of Crop Soil and Pest Management, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.
ii
GUIDE TO CONTRIBUTORS
Contributors are invited from all parts of the world in any field of Soil Science and should be
original works which have not been published, accepted or submitted for publication in any other
journal.
Manuscripts should be written and typeset (in Ms Word) in English, typed in quarto-size paper,
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The major headings to use when preparing the manuscript should be Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, (or Results and Discussion) and Acknowledgment, if any
Abstracts should be fully intelligible without reference to the body of text and should not exceed
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Each should be given in the following form: authors name, year of publication, title of paper, title
of journal in full, volume number, first and last page e.g.
Braimah, A.K. (2000). Land evaluation for sorghum. Nigerian Journal of Soil Science 12:4-11.
Kilmer V. J. (1990). Handbook of Soils and Climate in Agriculture. CRC Press, Boca Ratio. In
the text, reference should be given by the name of the author followed by the year of publication
in brackets.
The letters, a, b, etc. should be used to distinguish between papers published by the same author
in a single year
Authors are advised to consult latest issue of Nigerian Journal of Soil Science.
As a result of high cost of printing, cost of publications of articles is borne by contributors.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Members of the Editorial Board.....................................................................................
ii
Guide to contributors.....................................................................................................
iii
Table of contents............................................................................................................
iv
Aknowledgement...........................................................................................................
vi
Yield decline of major crops induced by erosion on the ultisols of Owerri, Southeastern Nigeria: Maize response to natural erosion............................................................
20
31
Heavy metal status in soils and Amaranthus cruentus from farmland on the bank
of Orogodo River, Agbor, Delta State, Nigeria.................................................................. 38
Fertility baseline study of major cocoa growing soils of Nigeria and implication for
cocoa production in Nigeria...........................................................................................
45
58
iv
80
Impact of open cast mine land use on soil physical properties in Enyigba, Southeastern Nigeria and the implication for sustainable land use management.........................
95
102
108
Effects of variation in N:K ratio in soils on the growth, nutrient availability and yield
of maize (Zea mays L.)....................................................................................................
116
125
135
Combined application of urea and sawdust ash in okra production effects on yield
and nutrients availability................................................................................................
146
155
180
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Editor-in-Chief acknowledges the contributions of the following colleagues, researchers and
scientists who reviewed papers submitted to the Nigerian Journal of Soil Science.
Prof. M. T. Adetunji UNAAB
Prof. F. K. Salako UNAAB
Dr. J. K. Adesodun UNAAB
Dr. J. O. Azeez UNAAB
Dr. G. A. Ajiboye UNAAB
Prof. O. O. Ajayi FUTA
Prof. M. A. K. Smith FUTA
Dr. S. O. Agele FUTA
Prof. M. O. Alatise FUTA
Dr. O. P. Aiyelari FUTA
Prof. L. L. Lajide FUTA
Dr. Ayodele Ajayi FUTA
Dr. B. S. Ewulo FUTA
Dr. M. A. Awodun FUTA
Prof. A. O. Ogunkunle UI
Dr. S. O. Oshunsanya UI
Prof.A. S. Fasina UNAAD
Dr. B. Osundare UNAAD
Dr. O. J. Ayodele UNAAD
Dr. L. B. Taiwo IART Ibadan
Prof. T. Ibia Uni Uyo
Dr. P. Ogban Uni Uyo
Prof. O. O. Agbede Landmark University
Prof. V. O. Chude NPFS, Abuja
Prof. A. Olayinka OAU
Prof. J. A. Adediran IART, Ibadan
Prof. O. Osonubi UI
Dr. A. J. Odofin FUT Minna
vi
Nine (9) profiles chosen from limestone deposits area in Cross River State with (Latitude
4O27and 6O45N and Longitudes 7O15 and
7O28E), were dug. Three profiles were dug in
each of the following locations (Fig. 1) Oduk1
pani (Od-1, Od-2 and Od-3); Mfamosing (Mf4, Mf-5 and Mf-6); and Abini (Ab-7, ab-8 and
Ab-9). These sites constitute areas with extensive limestone deposits in Southern Cross River
State. The mean annual rainfall of the study
area ranged between 1,300-3000mm, with uniformity of temperature throughout the year with
monthly temperature ranges between 210-320OC
(Okonkwo and Mbajioru, 2010). The study areas
fall into forest eco-climatic region and contain
LABORATORY STUDIES
Soil samples brought from the field were airdried and sieved through a 2.00mm sieve for the
following analyses. Particles size analysis was
determined by methods described by Soil Survey Staff (2002) using sodium hexametaphosphate (Calgon) as a dispersant. The percentage
sand, silt and clay were determined by using the
Bouyoucos hydrometer by allowing progressive
sedimentation of the various separates within
intervals.
Porosity
Particle density
CONCLUSION
The soilsoverlying limestone parent materials are texturally sandy loam to sandy clay loam
and would be very suitable for cultivation of varieties of arable crops and tree crops, because of
their good structure and abundant pores. Based
on physiography of soils of this kind, the soils
may be suitable for all year round farming. Irrigation may offer tremendous advantage and soil
erodibility may be reduced by the incorporation
of the organic matter.
REFERENCES
Ahn, P. M. (1993). Tropical soils and fertilizer
use. United Kingdom: Longman Scientific
Technical.
Akpan, E. B. (1990). Trace fossils and the depositional environments of the Mfamosing
limestone, Calabar, flank, S. E. Nigeria. In C.
O. Ofoegbu (ed.). The Benue Trough, Structure and Evolution. Friedr. Viewg and Sohn,
Braunschweig.
Publishers.
Engineering International. The CIGR Electronic Journal. Manuscript 1304. Vol. 12; Pp
1-15.
Lal, R. (1994). Methods and guidelines for assessing sustainability use of soil and water
resources in the tropics. Soil Management
Support Services Technical Monograph No.
21: 1-78.
Petters, S. W. (1982). Central West African Cretaceous Tertiary benthic foraminifera and
stratigraphic paleontography. American petroleum Geology Bulletin, 199:104-113.
Soil Survey Staff (2002). Field Book for describing and sampling soils. Version 2.0 National
Soil Survey Center, Natural Resources Conservation Service, USDA Lincoln Nebraska,
1-1: 9-13.
Webster, C. C. and Wilson, P. N. (1980). Agriculture in the tropics. England: ECBS Longman Group, UK Ltd.
Nnenna Oti
Tenge et al. (1998), reported increasing reductions of maize yield as the severity of erosion increased, Mokma et al., (1992) observed
maize yield decline of 21% between slightly and
severely eroded phases. In fact a comprehensive
review of the global impact of soil erosion on
productivity published by den Biggelaar et al.,
(2004) confirmed that erosion not only leads to
yield declines of major crops, but its impact is
magnified by four to five orders in soils of the
tropics (Africa, Asia, Latin America). They also
established that very little work has been done
in these regions to quantify erosions impact
on the yield of major crops like maize. Without
such data, economic loss estimates arising from
erosion cannot be authenticated. This study was
conducted with these specific objectives:
(2) To establish the cause and effect relationship between erosion severity and maize
yield decline.
Severely eroded (Sv): lower slopes of selected toposequences. These sites were characterized by surface stoniness/sandiness, runoff tracks, sparse vegetation and exposure of
subsoils at some portions, steep slopes of 4.12
8.82% terminated at the Otamiri River. Average A horizon depths 8-10 cm (about 78% of A
horizon lost to past erosion).
10
Nnenna Oti
The statistical design was a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with four replications.
The CRD was chosen despite some of its shortcomings. It is the preferred experimental design
employed by researchers who study erosion
crop production relations using the erosion
phases approach (Ebeid et al, 1995; Fahnestock
et al, 1995; Arriaga and Lowery, 2003). All plots
were treated the same way with regards to all
agronomic practices associated with maize cultivation like weeding, minimum tillage, etc.
Data analysis
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to
evaluate erosion effect on maize performance
and mean separation of significant effects was
based on Least Significant Difference (LSD)
at 5% probability level (Steel and Torrie, 1980)
medium range, and so was available water capacity (AWC). Aluminium Saturation (Al+++)
increased in 1999, after just one cropping cycle
of maize, Relatively the Non eroded (NE) sites
were more fertile than the eroded plots and details of these differences in soil chemical and
12
Nnenna Oti
1998 Cropping
Corporation, yield records, 1998). However, average yield value for all the sites combined (1401 kg/
ha) was lower. The implication of these trends is
that the soil plant system is greatly traumatized
by the initiation of erosion. For instance, the initial
loss of 10 cm of the A horizon between the non and
slightly eroded sites led to a 50% loss in leaf dry
matter yield, whereas the loss of about 30cm of the
same A horizon in the severely eroded soil site led
to 72% loss in leaf dry matter production, an additional impact of only 22%.
The leaf/stem ratio, an indicator of dry matter
partitioning in plants was a rather stable parameter, not influenced by soil degradation. It was
more a function of plant age.
13
1999 Cropping.
Table 4 shows the performance of maize in
1999. In general dry matter yields were in the
order of non eroded>slight>moderate>severe
erosion for all plant components. Trends were
similar to the 1998 maize crop. Significant differences were observed only between the non
eroded sites and all the other three erosion
phases. Among the eroded plots, differences in
maize performance were only marginal. Despite
the application of a blanket dose of 120 kg/ha of
NPK fertilizer to all plots, plants in the eroded
phases had stunted growth. However, as compared to the 1998 maize crop when no fertilizer
was used, yield levels in 1999 were much better.
This increased yield was a result of higher grain
Nnenna Oti
1.
2.
3.
We therefore, predict that without conservation efforts, the bare soils of study environment
Y = Ax B (Tengberg et al., 1998) where, A
have a half-life of 6 years that is time taken
represents the relative rate of erosion and B the
for yields to decrease to 50% of their values on
time lag for the onset of erosion.
non eroded lands. The average half-life of the
In traditional farming systems, fallows (soil cultivated lands, under the current traditional
protection and reconstitution phase with mini- farming systems 18 to 25 years.
mal soil loss rates approaching zero) are punctub. Correlation relationships between
ated by land clearing/cultivation activities (perimaize yield and soil properties.
ods of maximum perturbation and very intense
Simple and multiple correlation and regressoil loss rates equivalent to the maximum values
from bare plots). On fallow plots, the best fit re- sion equations derived from step-wise regression analysis, between maize grain and dry matlationship is one that takes a logarithm form.
ter yields and selected soil properties are shown
A wholistic approach to assessing erosion dein Tables 6 and 7. Dry grain yield and TDMY
cline rates should take into account the cyclic
were significantly correlated with soil organic
oscillations of erosion rates around a steady
16
Nnenna Oti
CONCLUSION
The emphasis of this study was to qualify the
effects of accelerated erosion on maize yield
declines of the major agricultural soils found in
Owerri, on maize yield and to establish empirical relationships between altered soil factors and
yield loss. Erosion led to significant reductions
REFERENCES
Andraski, B.J, and Lowery, B. (1992). Erosion effects on soil water uptake and corn growth. Soil
Science Society Annaul J. 56:1911-1919.
Boers, T. M., H.O Maduakor, and D.P Tee,
(1998). Controlling erosion in southeastern
Nigeria. Courier119:38-40.
den Biggelaar, C.D., Lal, R., Wiebe, K and V.
Breneman. 2004. The Global Impact of Soil
17
Nnenna Oti
Agric. 7: 85 100.
tropical ultisols. Int. J. Agric. And Rural Development. 10; 183 187
Soil Survey Staff, (1975). Soil taxonomy, a basic system of soil classification for making
and interpreting soil surveys. 754P. Agriculture Handbook No. 436. Washington, DC.
Tegene, B. (1992). Effects of erosion on properties and productivity of eutric nitisols in Gunumo area, Southern Ethiopia. In: H. Hurni
and K. Tati (eds.), Erosion conservation and
small scale farming. Geographica Bernensia, Berne, Switzerland, 229 242.
Nnenna Oti
Nnenna Oti
water and soil/0.1kcl ratio of 1:2:5, using a Beckman pH meter. The soil was extracted with neutral
M NH4OAC and exchangeable Ca, Mg, K, Na
and other cations determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Cation exchange capacity
(CEC) was obtained by summation of NH4OAC
exchangeable bases plus KCL exchangeable acidity. Potassium Chloride acidity (H+ and AL+++)
was determined by titration with 0.05N NaOH. Total
nitrogen (N%) was determined by the Kjeldahl digestion method, soil organic carbon content by the
method of wet combustion (Walkley Black, 1934).
Available P was measured by the Bray II method
(Bray and Kurtz, 1945). The analytical procedures
used followed the guidelines of Daye et al. (1982),
methods of Soil Analysis Part II.
Chemical properties: All samples were airdried, and passed through a 2 mm sieve. Soil pH
was measured in a soil suspension with a soil/
24
Nnenna Oti
Maize crops sown in 1999 performed much better than the 1998 crops in all variables evaluated
due mostly to the compensating effects of fertilizer
application. In sites where 2.5 cm of soil depth was
removed for instance dry matter yields in 1998
were only about 20% of the 1999 data.
26
Nnenna Oti
(ii) Improved residue management and the application of fertilizer in the second season crop led
to better plant populations, growth performance,
higher biomass production, and greater grain and
cob yields in all the treatments. These improvements partially compensated for the loss of topsoil,
without completely ameliorating the loss,
The linear functions of maize yield decline (Table 5) for each centimeter of topsoil
removed mechanically was very high (1.26 t/
ha/cm); in 1999, in fact four times higher than
the rate for naturally eroded soils (0.29 t/ha/cm).
The upper 2 cm of topsoil is the most critical
soil layer influencing the overall productivity of
these soil systems.
Comparative Analysis of natural versus
simulated erosion approach to erosion-induced productivity decline studies.
CONCLUSION
Topsoil removal, led to drastic reductions in maize
yield and yield variables, which improved manage27
Nnenna Oti
REFERENCES
Kemper, W. D. and R. C. Roseneau. (1986). Aggregate stability and size distribution. In: Methods of
Soil analysis. Part I. Physical and Mineralogical
Methods. 2nd ed. ASA SSSA. Madison, Wisc.
Klute, A. and C. Dirksen. (1986). Hydraulic conductivity and diffusivity: laboratory methods.
In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part II. Physical and Mineralogical methods. 2nd ed. ASA
SSSA. Madison. Wisc.
den Biggelaar, C.D., Lal, R., Wiebe, K and V. Breneman. (2004). The Global Impact of Soil Erosion
on Productivity. Advances in Agronomy, Vol. 81.
Academic Press DOI
Lal, R. (ed.). (1979b). Soil tillage and crop production Proc.. Series 2.Int. Inst. Tropical Agr.,
Ibadan, Nigeria. p361.
Lal, R. (1985a). Soil erosion and sediment transport research in tropical Africa. Hydrological
Sci. J. 30:239-242.
tropical ultisols. Int. J. Agric. And Rural Development. 10; 183 187
Page, A. L., Miller, R. H. and D. R. Keeney. (eds.)
(1982). Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2
Chemical and Microbiological properties 2nd
Ed. ASA SSSA. Agron. No. 9.
Stocking, M. (1984). Erosion and soil productivity. A review. Soil Conservation Program, Land
and Water Development Division. AGLS,
FAO. Consultants Working Paper No. 1.
Thompson, A. L., C. J. Gantzer, and S. H. Anderson. (1991). Topsoil depth, fertility, water
management, and weather influences on yield.
Soc.Sci. Am. J.55: 1085- 1091.
Van Bavel, C. H. M. (1949). Mean weight diameter of soil aggregates as a statistical index of
aggregation. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 14: 20
23.Walkley Black, 1934
Yoder, R. E. 1937. The significance of soil structure in relation to the tilth problem. Soil Sci. 36
Soc. Am. Proc. 2: 21 23.
Youker, R. E. and J. L. McGuiness. (1956). A
short method of obtaining mean weight diameter values of aggregate analyses of soils. J. Soil
Sci. 83: 291 - 294.
Orhue et al
Laboratory Analysis
The soil samples collected were air-dried at
room temperature for about a week, crushed
to pass through a sieve of 2 mm. The particle
size distribution was determined by methods of
Gee and Or (2002). The pH was determined in
KCl solution at a ratio of 1: 2 (Soil:KCl) using
a glass electrode meter. The organic carbon was
Orhue et al
The organic carbon content of the soils indicated a decrease with increased soil depth and
ranged from 1.86to 3.15 gkg-1. The highest organic carbon component was obtained at Sobe
basement complex 0-15 cm surface soil compared to other locations. The organic matter
component the soils decreased with increased
soil depth in all the locations.The organic matter
ranged from 5.52 to 9.40 gkg-1 with the highest
organic matter component recorded at Sobe.
Orhue et al
CONCLUSION
The trial reveals that the P forms and distribution varies with parent materials and also decreased with increased soil depth. The total P in
this trial was however below the critical limit
suggesting that fertilizer could be used to boost
the level of P in the soils under investigation.
The result further showed that organic matter has
greater influence on the P component of the soils
and that higher available P could be extracted
from the soils using the Bray P-2 extractant.
REFERENCES
Adegbenro, R. O., Ojetade, J. O. and Amusan,
A. A. 2011. Effect of topography on phosphorus
forms and distribution in soils formed in schist
in Ife area. Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary
Sciences 5 (1): 86-105
Ohaeri, J. E. and Eshett, E. T. 2011. Phosphorus forms and distribution in selected soils
formed over different parent materials in Abia
State of Nigeria. Agro ScienceVol 10 (3): 28-37
Bray, R. H. and Kurtz, L. T. 1945. Determination of total organic and available forms of
phosphorus in soils.Soil Science 59: 39-45
Gee, G. W and Or, D. 2002. Particle size distribution: In Dane J.H., Topp G.C. (eds). Methods of soil analysis Part 4 Physical methods.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am Book series No. 5 ASA and
SSSA, Madison WI 225-293
land) soils in AkwaIbom State. Journal of Tropical Agriculture, Food, Environment and ExtensionVol 8 (1): 14-19
western Nigeria soils.Prceedings of the 29th annual Conference of the Soil Science Society of
Nigeria, Abeokuta, Nigeria 121-130
Ulen, B. and Snall, S. 2007. Forms and retention of phosphorus in an illite-clay soil profile
with a history of fertilisation with pig manure
and mineral fertilisers Geoderma 137: 455-465
37
Orogodo River is the major river that transverses the entire Agbor community and agricultural activities in the area are carried out along
the bank of the river. Agricultural wastes, fertilizers, pesticides including sewage are discharged
directly into the river as a run-off (Rim-Rukeh
et al, 2006). Water from this river especially in
38
Orhue et al
organs leading to unwanted side effects (Sathawara et al 2004).The excess content of these
metals in food is associated with etiology of a
number of diseases especially with cardiovascular, kidney, nervous as well as bone diseases
(Eslamic et al 2007).One of the ways these heavy
metals can enter the food chain is via the consumption of the vegetables irrigated or treated with the
water containing these metals.
bank and control soils significantly increased with increase soil depth. The N in the top soil of river bank
soil fall within the critical level of 1.5 gkg-1-2.0 gkg1
(Sobulo and Osiname, 1981) while P of both soils
at various depths represented deficiency considering
10-16 mgkg-1 being the critical level for crop production (Adeoye and Agboola, 1985). The textural class
revealed sandy loam for both soils at the sites.
Heavy metal content of the studied soils
Table 2 reveals the heavy metal content of the
study soils. The Cd of the river bank soil decreased
significantly with the soil depth while that of the
control soil was fairly stable with increased soil
depth. The Cr and Pb in both soils decreased with
increased depth of the soil while the Cu, Fe and
Mn increased with corresponding increase in soil
depth in both sites. The value of these heavy metals in the river bank soils were significantly (P<
0.05) higher than those of the control sites. The
occurrence of heavy metals in the river bank soils
showed that Cu > Fe >Pb>Mn> Cr > Cd whereas
in the control site, the trend was in order of Fe > Cu
>Mn>Pb>Cr > Cd. The presence of these metals
in both the river and control sites showed common
sources of these metals which could be related to
known geochemical association between the metals as earlier reported by Orhue and Izunwanne
(2013). The values of these metals when compared to values reported by international regulatory body, the mean of the Cu and Pb were above
the permissible level of 0.27 mgkg-1 and 0.006
mgkg-1 respectively (WHO/FAO, 2001) while the
Fe and Cd components were below the permissible limits of 100 mgkg-1 (USEPA, 1986) and 3
mgkg-1 (MAFF,1992) respectively. The mean Cr
content at the river bank soil was above the 0.3
mgkg-1 permissible limit reported by WHO(1984)
but at the control sites, the mean value of Cr was
discovered to be below the permissible level of
WHO(1984). The mean values of Mn in both the
Orhue et al
river bank and the control soils were above the 0.3
mgkg-1 permissible level of WHO(1984). The persistent level of those heavy metals below the critical limit could result in high accumulation in the
soil with time and this high accumulation could
lead to higher concentration in plants cultivated on
the soil. This result further confirms that of Orhue
and Izunwanne(2013) who recorded accumulation
of heavy metals in fluted pumpkin cultivated on
Ikpoba River bank in Benin City.
Orhue et al
REFERENCES
Gee, G. W and Or, D. (2002). Particle size distribution: In Dane J.H., Topp G.C. (eds). Methods of soil analysis Part 4 Physical methods.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am Book series No. 5 ASA and
SSSA, Madison WI 225-293
heavy metals and transport of metals in terrestrial food chain in changing metal cycles and
human health report of Dahlem Workshop
on changing metal cycles and human health,
Berlin, Germany. (Ed Nriagu, J. O.) SprngerVerlag, Berlin. 113-141
WHO (World Health Organization) (1984).Guidelines for soil, water and plant quality.Vol. 1
Recommendation W.H.O. Geneva 130p.
44
Ajiboye et al
RESULTS
Soils of Etung LGA, Cross River State
The soils of Etung local government in Cross
46
lowish colour. This is likely to translate to differences in their iron oxide mineralogy.
Ajiboye et al
48
< 10 to >50%.
For the soils of Agbokim series, apart from
the Na content and ESP, the mean values of all
the other soil chemical properties at 31 60
cm depth were lower than the values of these
properties at 0-30 cm depth. And as observed
in the soils of Ajassor series, the differences in
the mean values of these properties at 0-30 cm
and 3160 cm depth ranged in most cases from
<10 >50%
Soils of Atakumosa West LGA, Osun State
In Atakumosa West LGA of Osun State, the
three soil series identified in the cocoa producing areas were Itagunmodi, Owena and Araromi
series.
The soils have sandy loam to sandy clay loam
texture on the surface (0 30 cm depth). The
soils of Itagunmodi series had 69.00 81.00%
sand, 7.40 11.40% silt and 11.60 21.60%
clay. Similarly owena soil series had sand content that ranged from 63.00 75.00%; 7.40
13.40% silt and 13.60 23.60% clay while the
particle size composition of the soils of Araromi
series was 69.00 72.40% sand, 7.40 8.80%
silt and 18.80 23.60% clay (Table 3).
Itagunmodi soil series had pHw that ranged
from extremely acid to neutral (4.40 6.90) and
pHc that ranged from extremely acid to slightly
acid (3.85 6.30). For the soils of Owena series,
the soil reaction in water (pHw) ranged from
very slightly acid to slightly acid (4.85 6.25)
while the pH in CaCl2 (pHc) was slightly acid
(5.05 5.40). The pHw of the soils of Araromi
series ranged from moderately acid to slightly
acid (5.65 6.25) whiles the pHc ranged from
slightly acid to moderately acid (5.40 5.60).
Ajiboye et al
to 0.16%, 0.08 to 0.12% and 0.04 to 0.13% respectively for Itagunmodi, Owena and Araromi
series respectively.
Ajiboye et al
The soils of IDLGA were deficient in available-P (Bray-1). The P content of the soils ranged
from 1.28 to 1.84 mg kg-1 in the soils of Fagbo,
1.59 to 2.21 mg kg-1 in Ondo and 1.28 to 1.73
mg kg-1 in Oba series.
The micronutrient content of the soils of Fagbo ranged from 167.10 to 172.60 mg kg-1 for
iron (Fe), 372.60 to 429.90 mg kg-1 for manganese (Mn), 2.61 to 23.31 mg kg-1 for copper
(Cu), 0.12 to 0.43 mg kg-1 for zinc (Zn) and
1.28 to 2.07 mg kg-1 for boron (B). Similarly
the soils of Ondo series had Fe that ranged from
148.90 to 194.60 mg kg-1, Mn that ranged from
432.60 to 492.00 mg kg-1, Cu that ranged from
2.87 to 30.12 mg kg-1, Zn which ranged from
0.19 to 0.36 mg kg-1
Ajiboye et al
54
55
Ajiboye et al
REFERENCES
Murphy J, Riley, J. P. (1962). A modified single solution method for the determination of
phosphate in natural waters. Anal Chemical
Acta. 27:3136.
Olaiya, A. O. (2006). Effects of Boron, Naphthalene acetic acid and Gibberellic acid spray on
pod development and yield of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L). Submitted to the department
of Agronomy in the Faculty of Agriculture
and Forestry, University of Ibadan. For the
award of Ph.D in Agronomy.
57
Wilson (2004) defined weathering as the processes responsible for the formation of soils and
playing a central role in controlling the inher58
Ajiboye et al
In Nigeria, Ogunkunle and Onasanya (1992) indicated the crystalline form of iron and aluminum
oxides as the dominant oxyhyroxides in the basement complex soils of southwestern Nigeria. They
concluded that the predominance of the crystalline
form of the sesquioxide represent a more advanced
stage of soil development than the presence of the
amorphous forms that are mobile in the soil and
could be associated with organic matter.
Ojanuga (1985) reported that the crystalline
forms of Fe were goethite and hematite and occurs
either singly or in association within the hard nodules and concretions in the soil environment. The
level of the crystalline form of Fe can thus serve
as an estimate of the degree of soil development
and formation of hard nodules and concretions.
Obi et al., (2009) concluded that the dominance or
higher proportion of the crystalline form of Fe will
lead to structural distortions with implications for
anion retention which affects the surface area and
leads to hardness of the soil. Higher crystalline Fe
content of the soil will affect both the physical and
chemical properties of the soils as well as its management and land use. This study is specifically
important because the study area covers a large
proportion of the irrigable land of Kampe-Omi irrigation project.
profile distribution of both Dithionite-CitrateBicarbonate (DCB) and Acid Oxalate (Ox) extractable Iron and Aluminum in soils developed
over talc; evaluate the stage of development of
the soils using the calculated ratios of Feo/ Fed,
silt: clay and silt: silt + clay and to determine the
relationships between the different forms of Fe
and the level of Fe-Mn concretions of the soils.
RESULTS
The colours of the soils were very dark grayish brown (10YR) to very dark gray (5YR) in the
surface, but had different shades of gray, brown
and red colours in the subsurface horizons. In most
of the somewhat poorly drained profiles, mottling
occurred right from the second horizon through to
the last horizon (Table 1). The mottles ranged in
colour from yellowish red (5YR 4/6) to yellowish
brown (10YR 6/8) while the colour of the horizons
varied from gray (2.5 Y) to light olive gray (5 Y).
The well-drained pedons, however, had subsurface
colour in the red range (2.5YR). Where mottling
occurred in the well-drained pedon, the mottles
were brownish in colour.
Ajiboye et al
61
soils is high sand and low silt contents. The textures of these soils were largely determined by
the relative proportion of sand and clay. Thus,
the soils had textural classes that ranged from
sand to sandy clay loam. The soils had structures that ranged from granular (GR) and finesub-angular blocky (FI, SB) in the surface hori-
Ajiboye et al
The Fed/clay ratios were calculated to determine whether the Fed was associated with the
clay fraction (Blume and Schwertmann, 1969;
Rebertus and Buol, 1985). This ratio ranged from
0.01 0.27, with a mean of 0.08, stand error of
0.01 and decreased with increasing soil depth in
pedons EJ1, EJ2, EJ6 at Ejiba and pedon OD3 at
Odo-Ogbe. In pedons OD1, OD2 and OD4 the
values of the Fed/clay ratio were highest in the
B horizon but lowest either at the surface horizon (OD4) or at the last horizons (OD1 and
OD2). In pedon EJ4 however, Fed/clay ratio increased irregularly down the profile, appearing
as if two profiles were combined to make up the
profile. Pedon EJ3 on the other hand had a constant value of Fed/clay throughout the profile.
64
Ajiboye et al
profile did not follow any specific pattern. The values of silt: clay ratios were lowest in the horizons
with some evidence of clay accumulation. Similarly, Odo-Ogbe soils had silt: clay ratios ranging
between 0.49 and 2.82. Also, the surface horizons
had higher values of silt: clay ratio than the subsurface horizons and there was irregular decrease
in these values down the profile with the last horizon in most cases having the lowest value of silt:
clay ratio. The observed silt: clay ratio pattern may
be due to the absence of clay illuviation in most
pedons in Odo-Ogbe.
The second weathering ratio (silt: silt + clay ratio) ranged in value between 0.20 and 0.76 in Ejiba
soils. The highest value of 0.76 was recorded in
the surface horizon (Ao) of profile EJ6 while the
lowest value was recorded in the subsurface soils
of profile EJ1. In Odo-Ogbe, the values of this
index ranged between 0.31 and 0.73. The values
of silt:silt + clay ratio of these soils were < 0.7,
except in the surface horizon of pedons EJ6 and
65
DISCUSSION
The subsurface colours of these soils reflected
their drainage conditions. The grayish subsurface colours were associated with mottling and
occur in profiles that were imperfectly drained
or laid close to seasonal rivulets and at the lowest portion of the toposequence (valley bottom).
The values of Fed and Ald that was found to be
higher than those of Feo and Alo indicates that a
considerable fraction of the Fe and Al were present
in crystalline form. The quantity of Fed in the soil
provides an estimate of the degree of soil development, since Fed represents the total pedogenic
Fe (Blume and Schwertmann, 1969; Birkeland,
1999), an increase in the concentration of free
Fed invariably corresponds with increased in situ
weathering (Buol et al., 1997; Allen, 2005). Active
Fe ratios (Feo/Fed) which constitute an index of
the proportion of the amorphous and crystalline
iron content of the soils (Allen, 2005; Obi et al.,
2009) were low ( 0.4). Since this ratio is used as
a relative measure of the degree of crystallinity of
free Fe oxides (Blume and Schwertmann, 1969),
the ratios confirmed that most of the Fe in these
soils was crystalline. The values of Fed and Feo
obtained in this study further suggests that the degree of crystallinity of the Fe and Al fraction of
these soils is higher than those reported by Obi et
Ajiboye et al
67
REFERENCES
Adegbite, K. A. and Ogunwale, J. A. (1994). Morphological, chemical and mineralogical properties of the soils of Abugi, Nigeria and their agricultural potential. Pertanlka Journal of Tropical
Agricultural Sciences, 17 (3): 191-196
Agbenin, J. O. (2003). Extractable iron and aluminum effects on phosphate sorption in a savanna
Alfisol. Soil Science Society of America Journal.
67: 569 593.
Allen, C. E. ( 2005). Physical and chemical characteristics of soils forming on Boulder Tops, Krkevagge, Sweden. Soil Science Society of America
Journal. 69:148-158.
Hao Qingzhen and Guo Zhengtang (2001). Quantitative measure on Paleo-weathering intensity of
Loess-soil sequence and implication on Paleomonsoon. Science in China, Series D; 44(6): 566576
Kronberg, B. L. and Nesbitt, H. W. (1981). Quantification of weathering, soil geochemistry and soil
Ajiboye et al
Rebertus, R.A., and S.W. Buol. 1985. Iron distribution in a developmental sequence of soils from
mica gneiss and schist. Soil Science Society of
America Journal 49:713720.
NGSA (2004) Geologic map of Nigeria, Nigeria Geological Survey Agency. 2004 edition
Ogunkunle, A.O. and Onasanya, O.S. (1992). Soil landscape relationship in a forest zone in southwestern Nigeria. Samaru Journal of Agricultural
Research. 9: 19 33.
Ogunsola, O. A.; Omueti, J. A., Olade, O. and Udo,
J. E. (1989). Free oxide status and distribution in
soils overlying limestone area in Nigeria. Soil Science. 147 (4): 425 251.
Wilson, M.J. (2004). Weathering of the primary rockforming minerals: Processes, products and rates.
Clay Minerals. 39: 233-266.
CHANGES IN A TROPICAL ULTISOL UNDER DIFFERENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA: 1. SOIL PHYSICAL
AND HYDROLOGICAL PROPERTIES
Omenihu A.A and Opara-Nadi O.A.
Department of Soil Science,
Abia State University, Umuahia, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
Five soil management practices were compared to evaluate their effects on soil physical and hydrological properties in a cassava/maize intercrop. The management practices compared over four years
(2003 2006) at Umudike in the rainforest zone of southeastern Nigeria were fallow-grazing-cropping
(FGC), traditional farming (TF), no-tillage (NT), minimum tillage (MT) and conventional tillage (CT).
The FGC practice involved one year establishment of grass-legume fallow followed by one year grazing by goats followed by two years cropping using traditional tillage system. The TF treatment involved
clearing, burning of the thrash and planting on flats using hoe; NT treatment involved no disturbance of
any form on the land, while MT treatment involved ploughing the soil once. The CT treatment involved
disc ploughing followed by harrowing. Management practices did not affect the soil texture. The highest sand contents of 81.8% and 80.8% were obtained in the 0 0 cm and 10 20 cm depths of the CT
treatment respectively. The highest clay loss of 8.8% (compared to the initial clay content) also occurred
in the 0 10 cm depth of the same treatment. Bulk density averaged over the study period showed that
FGC treatment produced the lowest value of 1.51 Mg m-3, while CT treatment had the highest value of
1.57 Mg m-3 for the 0 10 cm depth. Highest mean total porosity of 41.7% was obtained in the FGC
treatment, while CT treatment had the lowest value of 37.6%. Soil total porosity averaged over the four
years and three depths was of the order FGC>MT=NT=TF>CT. While soil water suction at 15cm depth
started rising by the first week of November, the rise in suction was by the third week of November for
30 cm and 60 cm depths for all the management practices.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the Southeastern Nigeria, food production environment is fragile, as most of the soils of this area
developed from unconsolidated materials, necessitating careful management of the resource. Ecophysical perturbation associated with land preparation in this region when not properly handled often
leads to irreversible environmental degradation.
Appropriate soil management practices generally
Changes of Ultisols
thereafter mixed for chemical analysis. Three undisturbed core samples were also collected from
the same depths from each plot with core cylinders
measuring 5 cm long and 5 cm internal diameter
for the determination of bulk density. Particle size
analysis was done by hydrometer method (Juo,
1979). Bulk density determination was by the core
method (Blake, 1965). Tensiometric measurements of soil-water were made for 15, 30 and 60
cm depths using suction-gauge tensiometers.
Total porosity was calculated from the bulk
density and an assumed average particle density
of 2.65 kg m-3 using the equation below
P = (1 Bd/Bp) x 100%
Where P = total porosity (%) (m3 m-3)
Bd = bulk density (Mg m-3)
Bp = Particle density (2.65 Mg m-3)
2.2 Physico-chemical properties of soil of the
experimental Site
The physical and Chemical properties of 0
10, 10 20 and 20 40 cm depths of the soil of
the experimental site are shown in Table 1. The
texture of the soil ranged from sandy loam to
sandy clay loam, with the sand content decreasing with depth. Soil bulk density was 1.52, 1.59
and 1.64 Mg m-3 in the 0 10, 10 20 and 20
40 cm depths respectively. The soil was acid
in reaction with an average pH of 5.2. Organic
carbon was 1.47, 1.36 and 1.04 % for the 0
10, 10 20 and 20 40 cm depths respectively.
Total N was low with values ranging between
0.10 and 0.06 %. Effective cation exchange capacity and exchangeable acidity averaged 3.56
and 2.72 c mol kg-1 respectively.
3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Changes of Ultisols
for the three depths was obtained in the conventional tillage (CT) treatment, while the lowest
sand content in the 0 - 10 cm depth was ob-
73
zone of influence of grazing animal on compaction, as measured by bulk density, was shallow as
statistically significant difference in bulk density
had been found only in the 0 5 cm depth interval
and not at all below 10 cm.
3.1.3 Soil Total Porosity
Effect of soil management practices on soil total
porosity at 0 10, 10 20 and 20 40 cm depths
for 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006 is shown in Table
4. Significant (p 0.5) differences in total porosity
were observed for the three depths and within the
years relative to the different management practices. In 2003 for the 0 10 cm depth, total porosity was of the order MT > FGC > CT > NT > TF;
while in 2004 for the same depth, total porosity
followed the order FGC > MT = TF > NT = CT.
In 2005 and for the same depth, total porosity was
in the order MT > TF > FGC > NT > CT, while in
74
Changes of Ultisols
content for all three depth was of the order FGC >
NT = MT > TF > CT, while in 2005 and 2006 the
order was FGC > NT > TF > MT > CT. The higher moisture content under the FGC management
practice in comparison with other practices indicate the improved moisture storage capacity under
this management system as a result of improved
soil physical properties such as bulk density and
75
total porosity. On the other hand, the CT management practice gave the lowest volumetric moisture
content indicating the reduced moisture storage capacity in the crop rooting zone (0 40 cm depth)
as a result of increased bulk density and reduced
total porosity.
1, 2 and 3. Generally, for all three depths and management practices, soil water suction increased
rapidly as water depletion occurred from the beginning of September to the end of December. Soil
water suction for all management practices at the
three depths was between 80 and 100 cm until the
middle of November when water suction started
rising and got to about 800 cm at 15 cm depth, 600
to 700 cm at 30 cm depth and 500 cm at 60 cm
depth. Characteristically, water suction at 0 to 60
4.0 CONCLUSION
Changes of Ultisols
77
Changes of Ultisols
Africa: Needs and Challenges. FAO Soils Bulletin 69, FAO, Rome, Chapter 8 pp. 83 - 93.
Sainju, U.M., Lessen. A., Caesar, Tonthat, T., Waddel, Jed. (2006). Tillage and crop rotation effects on dryland soil and residue carbon and
nitrogen. Soil Soc. Am. J. 668 678.
Juo, A.S.R. and Lal, R. (1977). The effect of fallow and continuous cultivation on an Alfisol in
western Nigeria. Plant and Soil. 47: 567 - 584.
Shirani, H., Hajabbasi, M.A., Afyuni, C. and Hemmat, A. (2002). Effect of farmyard manure and
tillage systems on soil physical properties and
corn yield in central Iran. Soil Till. Res. 68: 101
108.
Ovie et al
tion in soil organic matter and nutrient (Owinoet al., 2006). To increase soil productivity and
crop yields farmers now apply mineral fertilizer.
However, continuous usage of these mineral fertilizers has been found to decrease base saturation, increase acidification and physical degradation (Isherwood, 2008).
The West Africa oil palm (ElaeisguinensisJaeq) is perennial monocotyledons which belong to the family Arecacena (Hartley, 1988).
The fruit pulp and nut provide palm and kernel
oil, respectively (Coley and Tinker, 2009). The
oil palm industry constitutes a significant sector of the Nigerian economy providing food and
raw materials for the confectionery, and oleochemical industry. As a result of the intensive
nature of its cultivation, oil palm provides gainful employment for many Nigerians. At present,
palm oil production is second to that of soybean
oil in terms of world vegetable oil production
and the demand for palm oil is expected to increase in future (Yusuf, 2007; Coley, 2009).To
ensure self-sufficiency in palm produce, con-
Pre-nursery establishment of oil palm seedlings: Pre nursery polybag measuring 12.5x
25cm were filled with sieved topsoil and presprouted oil palm seeds sourced from the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR),
Benin City were planted out. A shed was erected
for the pre-nursery to prevent the seeds from
desiccation, and cultural practices such as weeding, watering and disease control were observed.
Main-nursery establishment: At three leaf
stage, i.e. after 10 weeks of growth at the prenursery, all healthy seedlings of uniform growth
were selected and transplanted singly into each
prepared main nursery poly bag measuring 40cm
X 45cm. The main nursery polybags contained a
mixture of 7kg sieved topsoil and the composted
oil palm waste according to the treatment levels.
They were carefully arranged in the greenhouse
and watered uniformly for a period of three
weeks in order to obtain good plant establish-
Ovie et al
LABORATORY METHODS
Physical properties: Particle size distribution
was determined by hydrometer method (Gee
and Bander 1996). Bulk density was measured
by the core method, as described by Blake and
Hartge (1986). The distribution of water stable aggregate was estimated by the wet sieving
technique described in detail by Kemper and
Rosenau (1986). Mean weight diameter was
calculated using the method of Van Bavel as
modified by Kemper and Rosenau (1986). The
dispersion ratio (DR) of Middleton as described
by Mbagwu (1990) was used as an index to determine micro-aggregate stability
RESULTS
Table 1 shows the properties of the soil before
treatment application. The soil was sandy loam
with a high percentage of sand, low percentages
of clay and silt. The textural class may negatively affect plant growth by exhibiting low water
and nutrient retention capacities. The soil was
low in pH, total nitogen, available phosphorus,
exchangeable (potassium, calcium, magnesium,
sodium) and organic matter respectively.Table 2
showed the chemical properties of the materials used during the nursery media composting
and composted oil palm bunch waste. Chemical
83
Ovie et al
seedlings at 5, 8 and 12 MAP. At 5MAP, highest (P>0.05) value was obtained at irrigation in85
Ovie et al
87
88
Ovie et al
89
at 300gcompost/seedling/polybag gave the lowest values relative to control (0gCOBW/polybag/seedlings). The interactions between irrigation intervals and compost had significant effect
on dispersion ratio and lowest values were observed at 300g compost/seedlings under 14 days
irrigation intervals throughout the sampling period (Table 10).
Fig 17: Main effect of irrigation intervals on soil organic matter at 6 and 12MAP
90
Ovie et al
intervals and compost showed significant differences only at 12 MAP having the highest value
at 300gcompost/ polybagat 14 days irrigation
intervals (Table 11).
DISCUSSION
The relative high sand content of soil used for
the study is a reflection of a sandy parent material. The parent materials of the soils of eastern
Nigeria have been noted to influence the texture of
the native soils (Akamigbo and Asadu, 1983). The
relatively low pH, total N, available P, exchangeable K, Ca, Mg and soil organic matter content of
the experimental soil confirmed the soil to be low
in fertility (Ibeawuchiet al., 2006). The observed
improvements in nutrient composition of the composted material relative to the raw materials may
be adduced to increased organic matter mineralization and humification brought about by the action of micro-organisms. Brady and Weil (2002)
reported that finished compost is generally more
concentrated in nutrients than the initial combination of raw material used. The improvements in
growth parameters of oil palm seedlings that were
observed under irrigation intervals of 14 days
throughout the sampling periods may be adduced
to the improved soil physical properties and organic matter content that were observed under 14
day intervals of irrigation. However, organic matter is known to ameliorate soil physical properties
by reducing bulk density, increase porosities, saturated hydraulic conductivity, enhancing aggregation, and water holding capacity of soils (Mbagwu
and Picolo, 1990; Adesodunat al., 2005). The improved soil physical properties may result in greater root distribution and proliferation and hence
greater nutrient and water uptake (Dexter, 1988)
and may result in increasing plant growth. On the
other hand, the poorer growth of oil palm seedlings
observed under 7 days irrigation intervals may be
The improvements in growth of oil palm seedling that were observed with composted oil palm
bunch waste relative to the control may be attributed to the enhanced soil physical properties
brought about by the improved soil organic matter content as a result of the amendments. This is
further supported by Singh et al. (2007) who reported that soil organic carbon content increased
by manuring, which in turn improved its aggregate
stability, infiltration rates, decreased bulk density,
dispersion ratio and soil strength correspondingly.
Similarly, Razziet al. (2004) reported that compost
can help in the formation of a larger number of water stable aggregate through links between smaller
91
Under moisture stress conditions, the application of composted oil palm bunch waste showed
excellent improvements in soil properties and
growth parameters of oil palm seedlings compared
to the control. These unique attributes may be in
connection with the fact that the applied composted oil palm bunch waste enhanced the organic
matter and other soil physical, chemical and biological properties (El-bady and Asaad, 1983). This
further collaborates the findings of Woomeret al.
(1994), Hossner and Juo (1999) who reported that
compost material improves soil structure, increases water holding capacity of soils, increases cation
exchange capacity (CEC) and increase the capacity of low activity clays to buffer changes in pH.
REFERENCE
Adesodun, J.K., Mbagwu, J.S.C. and Oti, W.
(2005). Distribution of carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus in water stable aggregates of an organic wastes amended utisol in Southern
Nigeria. Bioresource Technology. 96:509-516.
Akamigbo, F.O.R. (1983). The accuracy of field
textures in a humid tropical environment. Soil
Survey and Land Evaluation. 4(3):63-70.
Akamigbo, F.O.R., and Igwe C.A. (1990).Morphology, genesis and taxonomy of three soil
series in Eastern Nigeria.SamaruJournal of Agricultural Research. 7:33-48.
CONCLUSION
The study has demonstrated the effectiveness
of using composted oil palm bunch waste for improvements of some soil physical properties, organic matter content and growth of oil palm seedlings
relative to the unamended soil under soil moisture
deficit conditions. However, result showed that
irrigating at 14-day intervals significant (P<0.05)
gave the lowest bulk density, dispersion ratio, as
well as highest aggregate stability, mean weight diameter and organic matter followed by 7-day and
then to 21-day intervals. Similarly, 14-day irrigation intervals showed highest (P<0.05) effect on all
growth parameters of oil palm seedlings throughout the growth period. Moreover, lowest (P<0.05)
bulk density, dispersion ratio as well as highest
(P<0.05) aggregate stability, mean weight diameter and soil organic matter were observed with
the use of 300 g compost/polybag compared to
other compost rates. The application of 300gcompost/seedlings gave highest (P<0.05) effect on all
growth parameters studied relative to other com-
Ovie et al
Gee, G.W. and Or, J.W. (1986). Paticle size analysis.In Arnold Klute (Editor).Methods of Soil
Analysis, Part 1 Physical and Mineralogical
Methods, Soil Science Society of American
Book Series 5, Madison, Wisconsin, USA. Pp.
383-412..
Bray, R.H., and Kurtz (1945). Determination of total organic and available forms of phosphorus
in soils. Soil Science.59:39-45.
160:431-441.
Isherwood K.F. (2008). Fertilizer use and the environment, international Fertilizer
Industry
Association.Revised Edition Pairs, FRANCE,
February 2000.
Olayinka, A. (2009). Soil microorganisms, wastes
and national food security.Inaugural Series 222.
Kemper, D.W. and Rosenau, B. (1986).Aggregate
ObafemiAwolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
stability and size distribution. In methods of soil
analysis part I. (Ed. A. Klute) (American Society
of Agronomy Madison WI). 9:425-442.
Razzi, L., Petruzzezzi, O., Poggio, G. and VignaGuldi, G. (2004). Soil physical changes
and plant availability of Zn and Pb in a treatability test of phyto-stabilization. Chemosphere.57:1039 1046.
Singh, G.S.K., Jalota and Singh, Y. (2007).Manuring and residue management effects on physical properties of a soil under the rice-wheat
system in Punjab, India.Soil Tillage Research.
94:232-238.
Yusuf, B. (2007). Palm importation through sustainable plantations. European Journal Lipid
Science Technology. 109:289-295
Okolo et al
With respect to the foregoing and equally owing to the fact that there has been no study of
this kind in the area, it is very pertinent that this
study is conducted, especially now that large
scale mechanized mining is about resuming in
the area.
The major objective of this study was to investigate the present status of soil physical properties deterioration in the vicinity of Enyigba
mine as impacts of solid minerals mining. The
expected output of this research aims to address
the paucity of information in the study area with
regards to changes in soil physical properties
and especially to aid relevant stakeholders in
agricultural land use planning and sustainable
land use management to ensure soil productivity
optimization.
Land use
The main form of land use is arable cropping
of yams, sweet potatoes, maize, cassava and vegetable crops. The major combinations of crops
are cassava (Manihot esculanta)/maize (Zea
mays)/yam(Dioscorea spp), cassava (Manihot
esculanta)/maize (Zea mays), sweet potato (Ipomea batata)/maize(Zea mays) and maize (Zea
mays)/vegetables (Telferia occidentalis, Ptero96
Field sampling
Fig. 1: The physiographic map of Enyigba Pb Zn Province with the location of sample points (modified from Orajaka, 1965).
97
Okolo et al
follows:
Tp = 1- bd X 100
Pd
Two core samples were collected from the surface and subsurface soil (one from each depth)
giving 10 samples per sampling line. There were
therefore 20 core samples per mine site, giving
80 core samples for the four mining sites. Additional two core samples were collected from the
surface (0 15 cm) and subsurface (15 30 cm)
soil of the control site (one from each depth).
Altogether there were 82 core samples. Auger
sampling was done in a similar manner, but in
duplicates. There were therefore 164 auger samples. The core samples were used for soil bulk
density and total porosity determination while
the auger soil samples were air-dried and passed
through 2 mm sieve and used for routine analyses.
Plate 1: Dry mine pit with exposed rock surface and sharp cut edges, evidence of manual extraction processes giving rise to dispersed aggregates of galena, sphalerite and other associated minerals.
99
Okolo et al
CONCLUSION
Results of the study showed high bulk density in mine area compared to the control. The
high bulk density value at the mine area was as
a result of massive structural deterioration aris-
100
REFERENCES
Lal, R (1994). Methods and Guidelines for Assessing Sustainability use of Soil and Water
Resources in The Tropics. Soil Management
Support Services Technical Monograph #
21: 1-78.
Ezeaku, P.I and Anikwe, M.A.N (2005). A Obi, I.U (2002). Statistical methods of detecting differences between treatment means and
Model for Description of Water and Solute
research methodology issues in laboratory
Movement in Soil-water Restrictive Horiand field experiments. Second edition. AP
zons across Two Landscapes in South East
Express publisher Limited. Nsukka Nigeria.
Nigeria. J. Res. Agric., 2 (2): 47-53.
Federal Department of Agriculture Land Resources (FDALR) (1985). Reconnaissance
Soil Survey of Anambra State of Nigeria.
Soil Reports 1985. (FDALR) Lagos, Nigeria.
Gee, G. W., and Bauder, J. W (1986). Particle size
analysis. P. 383-411. In: Klute, A. (Ed.). Methods of soil Analysis part I. Physical and Mineralogical Methods. Agronomy Monograph No.
101
Information on soil total boron and available forms generally abound for developed agriculture, because of wide spread report of boron deficiency and/or toxicity symptoms for a
wide range of arable crops and pastures (Maas,
1984). However, soil testing is considered the
best method for determining the presence of boron deficiency and/or toxicity as critical limits
in plant cannot be easily determined partly due
to uneven accumulation of boron in plant tissue.
For Nigeria soil and even in most crops, information on total boron, its availability and
plant tissue concentration respectively is very
scarce. The Raphia palm is native to the humic
tropics (Tuley & Russell, 1966). Twenty species
102
Aghimien
103
104
Aghimien
Soil Boron
overall basis, the mean total soil boron level is 39.16mg/kg. The highest levels were in
Coastal alluvium (46.1 Omg/kg) and Freshwater swamps (40.64mg/kg), while lower levels
were obtained for the other locations. However,
the highest mean available boron level was recorded for Coastal plain sand (0.7mg/kg) and
soils on crystalline metamorphic igneous basement complex rocks (0.65mg/kg) and the least
amount (0.16mg/kg) recorded for Freshwater
swamps soils.
The soil parent materials and sample locations are given in Table 1. The ecology of the
areas range from moist savannah with rainfall
of about 1186mm in the northern fringe to humid forest with rainfall of over 2105mm in the
southern end, (Greenland 1981). A summary of
the overall physic-chemical properties of the
soils is given in Table 2.
105
(3.4mglkg to 10.0mg/kg (Jayasekara & Loganathan 1988); 7.0 mg/kg to 15.8mglkg (Broschat
2011) at different ages and leaflet portions. Plant
boron did not correlate significantly with either
soil total boron or water extractable boron and/
or any of the soil indices. A similar observation
was made by Chude, (1988) for Cocoa and Cocoa growing soils in south-western Nigeria.
Reisenauer et al. (1973) classified hot water
soluble boron availability as follows:
1.0ppm: Soil may not supply sufficient B to
support normal plant growth
1.0 - 5.0ppm: usually allow normal plant
growth
>5.0ppm: soils may supply toxic concentrations.
CONCLUSION
From this study, there is wide spread boron
deficiency in these soils most especially in areas
that are inherently low in boron, such as those
derived from acid granite and other similar
rocks and fresh water sedimentary deposit that
are predominantly sand. No location fell within
the toxicity range.
REFERENCES
Broschat T.K. (2011). Uptake and distribution of
boron III coconut and paurotis palms. Hort.
Science 46 (12: 1683 - 1686).
Chude Victor (1988). The profile distribution of
total and extractable Boron in Cocoa growing soils of South- Western Nigeria. J Plant
and soil 107, 293 - 295.
Carley R.H.V. and Tinker P.B.H (2003). The Oil
palm - 4th Edition, Wiley C.D.A., Oxford:
Blackwell publishing.
Cottenie A., Kang B.T., Kieken L. and Saj-
106
Aghimien
107
108
Aghimien et al
109
110
Aghimien et al
111
Table 3: Relationship between phosphorus sorption index (PSI) and soil chemical properties
112
Aghimien et al
Phosphorus Sorption
The relationships between the amounts of
phosphorus sorbed and phosphorus concentrations of the hydromorphic soil samples are
shown in Figure 1. It was observed that the
amount of P sorbed increased with an increase
113
114
Aghimien et al
biologia.253:1-16.
Frossard, F, M. Brossard, M.J. Hedley, and A.
Metherell. 1995. Reactions controlling the
cycling of P in soils. p. 107-137. In H. Tiessen (ed.) Phosphorus in the global environment: Transfers, cycles and management.
John Wiley & Sons, NY.
IITA, (1982) Automated and semi-automated
methods for soil and plant analysis
Murphy, J., and J.R. Riley. 1962. A modified
single solution method for the determination
of phosphate in natural waters. Anal. Chim.
Acta. 27:31-36.
Nair, P. S., Logan, T. J., Sharpley, A. N., Sommers, L. E., Tabatabai, M. A. and Yuan, T. L.
1984. Interlaboratory comparison of a standardized phosphorus adsorption procedure.
Journal of Environmental Quality. 13:591595.
Sharpley, A.N. 2000. Agriculture and phosphorus management: The Chesapeake Bay.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Udo, E.J. and J. A. Ogunwale, 1977. Phosphorus
fractions in selected Nigerian soils. Soil Sci.
Soc. Am. J. 41:1141-1146
Udo, E. J. and V. I. Dambo, 1979. Phosphorus
status of the Nigerian coastal plain sands. J.
Agric Sci. 93 :281-289
115
Smaling and Braun (1996) does not really enhance sustainability, crop nutrient uptake nor
significantly increase yields but tends to encourage economic waste and damage to the environment. Inadequate application, on the other hand,
can retard growth and lower yield in short term
and in the long run jeopardizes sustainability
116
through soil mining and erosion. This precarious tilt between excessive and inadequate
is the major challenge of fertilizer recommendation efforts and can only be effectively bridged
when nutrients are applied at the right ratios.
Soil nutrient leaching and low level of soil
organic matter has made nitrogen a limiting nutrient to maize production in Nigeria (Adetunji,
1991; Azeez, 2009). However, high supply of N
is frequently associated with acidification and
accumulation of ammonia in the rhizosphere
(Roem Klees and Berendse, 2002). Increases in
N availability may also lead to strong P and K
shortage which might exclude some plant species through vitality (Lawniczak, 2009).
Potassium is known to play a major role in
osmoregulation, enzyme activation and carbohydrate translocation (Zhi-Yong, et al., 2009).
The release and fixation of K is as a function of
fertilizer application rate and soil parent material (Simonsson, et al., 2007). Furthermore, K
supply might affect N uptake in leaves, photosynthetic activity and water use efficiency (Egilla, et al., 2005).
Majority of tropical soils are fragile and low
in plant nutrients (Carsky and Iwuafor, 1995;
Juo and Wilding, 1996) and with climate that
is characterised by high rainfall and insolation
which are however not evenly distributed in the
various ecological zones. Hence, variation in the
performance of crops, the soil condition and nutrient status are expected among the ecological
zones.
In this study, we performed a screenhouse
house experiment and a back up field experiment to determine the effects of Variation of
N:K Ratio in Soils on the growth, nutrient availability and Yield of Maize (Zea mays L.). To
better understand the variations in N:K ratios,
117
118
The effect of applied ratios (N:K) on dry matter yield (DMY), nutrient concentrations, and
uptake of maize plant screen house in soils of
Emaudo and RRIN are shown on Tables 6 and
7, while Correlation coefficient matrix showing
119
120
121
REFERENCES
Adeoye, G. O. and Agboola, A. A., (1985). Critical levels for Soil pH, available P, K, Zn, Mn
and maize earleaf content of P, Cu, and Mn in
sedimentary soils of south western Nigeria.
Fertilizer research 6 (1): 65-71.
Adetunji, M. T.,( 1991). An evaluation of soil
nutrient status for maize production in southwestern Nigeria. Samaru Journal. Agr. Res.
8: 101-113.
Agboola, A. A., and Corey (1973). The relationships between Soil pH, organic matter,
122
123
124
125
Ukaegbu et al
126
Laboratory Analyses: Samples were airdried and sieved with a sieve of 2mm mesh
size. The fine-earth fraction was analysed using
standard procedures. Particle size analysis was
by Bouyoucos (1951) hydrometer method, using sodium hexametaphosphate as dispersant.
Soil pH was determined using a glass electrode
pH meter in a soil-to-water ratio of 1:2.5. Organic carbon was by the Walkley and Black
(1934) method. Organic matter was then got by
multiplying the value of organic carbon with
1.724. Total nitrogen was determined by Macro-Kjeldahl method of Black (1965). Available
phosphorus was determined by Bray and Kurtz
(1945) No 11 Method. Exchangeable bases
were extracted with neutral normal ammonium
acetate solution; Ca++ and Mg+= in the extract
were determined by EDTA titration, while K+
and Na+ were determined by flame photometry.
Exchangeable acidity was determined by the
method of Mclean (1965). Total Exchangeable
Bases (TEB) was obtained by summation of the
exchangeable bases (Na, K, Ca, Mg). Effective
Cation Exchange Capacity (ECEC) was calculated as the summation of total exchangeable
bases and exchange acidity. Base saturation was
got by expressing TEB as a percentage of ECEC.
Micronutrients were extracted with IMHCL solution and their extractable contents determined
using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (Buick
Scientific Atomic Absorption/Emission Spectrometer 205).
Evaluation Procedure: Soil parameters
were rated using critical values recorded in literature. On the other hand, productivity/suitability rating indices of parameters and soils were
expressed as percentage of their optimal rates
using an adaptation of the scheme by Jasbir et al
(1988) given as:
Suitability (Productivity)
Rating Index =
Actual rating
X 100
Optimal rating
NB: Describing these as supplementary definitions of suitability classes employed for assessment in terms of individual land qualities,
127
Ukaegbu et al
128
129
Ukaegbu et al
130
87% at the surface, but 37% to 83% at the subsurface. By the standards of FAO (1987) these
are between medium and high. The parameter
131
Ukaegbu et al
132
Dent, D. andYoung,A. (1981). Soil Survey and Land Evaluation. George Allen and Unwin, London. 278pp.
Enwezor, W.O., Udo, E.J. and Sobulo, R.A. (1981).
Fertility Status and Productivity of the Acid
Sands, In: Udo, E.J. and Sobulo, R.A. (Eds).
Acid Sands of Southern Nigeria, SSSN Special
Pub. Monograph No. 1, 56-73.
Enwezor, W.O., Udo, E.J., Usoroh, N.J., Ayotade,
K.A., Adepeta, J.A., Chude, V.O. and Udegbe,
C.I. (1989). Fertilizer use and Management Practices for Crops in Nigeria. Series No 2. Fertilizer
Procurement and Distribution Division, Federal
Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources and Rural Development, Lagos, Nigeria 163pp.
FAO (1976). A Framework for Land Evaluation.
FAO Soils Bull. 32. FAO, Rome. 87pp.
F.A.O. (1987). World Soil Resources Report No. 60,
FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World, Revised
Legend. FAO, Rome, Italy.
F.A.O. (1998). World reference base for soil resources. 84 World Soil Resources Report, Int. Soc. of
Soil Science. Rome.
Ibanga, I.J. and Udo, E.J. (1996). Soil Survey and
Fertility Baseline Data Collection of Akwa Ikot
Effanga Farm, Akbabuyo L.G.A., Cross River
State, Nigeria. National Agricultural Land Development Authority, Abuja.
Ibanga, I.J. and Iren, B. (2006). Chemical properties
and management of the Acid Sands supporting
oilpalm plantations in South eastern Nigeria. In,
Asumugha, G.N., Olojede, A.O., Ikerogu, F.G.,
Ano, A.O., and Herbert U. (ed.) Repositioning
Agriculture for Sustainable Millennium Development Goals in Nigeria. Proceedings of the
40th Annual Conference of the Agricultural Soc.
of Nigeria, Held Oct. 16-20th, 2006 at NRCRI,
Umudike, Abia State.
Igbozurike, M.U. (1975). Vegetation Types. In: Ofomata, G.E.K. Nigeria in Maps: Eastern States.
133
Ukaegbu et al
134
135
Ndukwu et al
ties (Ekundayo, 2003; Kale, 2003), motor vehicles and combustion of fossil fuel (Huang,
et al., 2007; Nicholson et al, 2003). These municipal solid wastes are said to be beneficial in
soil amendment when composted but they contain and introduce some toxic substances to the
soil and reducing its quality, releasing them into
streams, lakes, rivers and ground water there by
causing heavy metal contamination (Mashi and
Alhassan, 2007). Heavy metals are dangerous
because they tend to bioaccumulate, resulting
in increase in the concentration of contaminants
over time, compared to their concentrations in
natural environments. Biotoxic metals accumulate in living things any time they are taken up
and stored faster than they are broken down or
excreted (Mashi and Alhassa, 2007).
Cadmium is a relatively rare metal. It is a biotoxic heavy metal regarded as an important environmental pollutant in agricultural soils because
of the potential adverse effects it poses to food
quality and soil health and environment (Gray
et al., 2004). The major hazard to human health
from cadmium is its chronic accumulation in the
kidney where it causes dysfunction (Thomton,
1992). Cadmium is present as an impurity in
several products, including phosphate fertilizers, detergents and refined petroleum products
(Mashi and Alhassan, 2007). In general, the major exposure pathway is through food via the addition of cadmium to agricultural soil and from
various sources (atmospheric deposition and
fertilizer application) and uptake by food and
fodder crops (Mashi and Alhassan, 2007). Additional exposure to humans arises, through cadmium in ambient air and drinking water (Mashi
and Alhassan, 2007).
The bioavailability of cadmium element depends on the concentration and form of the metal, concentration of Zn, soil pH, organic matter
136
determined by Walkley and Black wet digestion method (Nelson, and Sommers, 1982). Exchangeable bases were estimated by the neutral
ammonium acetate procedure (Thomas, 1982).
Calcium and magnesium were determined using
ethylene diaminetetracetic acid (EDTA) while
sodium and potassium were determined using
flame photometer. Exchangeable acidity (H+
and Al3+) were determined using titrimetric
method (Mclean, 1982). Total nitrogen was determined using microkjedahl digestion method
(Bremner, 1996), while available phosphorus
was estimated according to the method of Olson
and Sommers (1990). Digestion of soil samples
for cadmium concentration was carried out with
mixture of concentrated HN03 and HCIO4 at a
ratio of 2:1. Cadmium was extracted using 0.5
MHCI (Hesser, 1997). Cadmium concentration
in the supernatant was determined using Atomic
adsorption spectrophotometer.
Data Analysis
Soil data generated were subjected to statistical analysis using correlation coefficient. Correlation estimated the relationship between cadmium concentration and some soil properties.
Laboratory Analyses
The lowest value of clay was found in the unpolluted soils with a mean value of 45.4 gkg-1
while the highest value was found in the highly
polluted site having a mean value of 88.43 gkg1. The silt content was highest in moderately
137
Ndukwu et al
138
139
Ndukwu et al
low pH values. The low concentration of cadmium in the unpolluted soils is attributed to the
sandy nature of the soil. This is line with Onweremadu (2007b) who reported that sandy soil
promotes translocation of heavy metals down
the ground water. Also, Dowdy and Volk (1984);
and Smith (1991) have shown that where waste
disposal is made on sandy, acidic, low organic
matter soils receiving high rainfall or irrigation
water, the movement of heavy metals into lower
soil layers tends to be high. On the other hand,
Kuo et al., (1985) observed that cadmium retention is greater in fine textured soils with high
CEC than in coarse textured soils with lower
CEC. Cadmium concentration in both polluted
and unpolluted sites exceeded the critical limits of 0.2 mgkg-1 (Robert et al., 1994). This is
in agreement with the report of Onweremadu,
2007(a). Soils in the polluted site higher levels
of contamination of cadmium than 0.75 mgkg-1
(Jaradat and Momani, 1998) and 0.88 mgkg-1
(Bai et al., 2008). This could be as a result of
severe pollution of soils by cadmium especially
at the polluted sites thus high values of Cd in the
site. The high concentration of cadmium in the
unpolluted site is attributed to the effect of soilforming processes as well as agricultural activities in the area (Mashi and Alhassan, 2007).
Correlation coefficients of cadmium with soil
properties in polluted and unpolluted soils are
shown in Table 4. This coefficient measures the
strength of a linear relationship between any two
variables on a scale of -1 (perfect inverse relation)
through 0 (no relation) to +1 (perfect relation).
Cadmium had a significant negative correlation with sand (r=-0.78; P<0.05) in moderately
polluted site implying that increase in sand content decreases cadmium concentration. This shows
that less heavy metals is retained on a sandy soil.
Cadmium had a good relationship with clay in
140
141
Ndukwu et al
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
142
Attah, L.E. (2010). Physicochemical characteristics of the rhizosphere Soils of some cereal
crops in Ambo Woreda, West Shoa, Ethiopia
Maejo International Journal of Science and
Technology 4 (01): 93-100.
Akinola. M.O. and Adedeji, O.A. (2007) Assessment of lead concentration in panicum
maximum growing along the Lagos-Ibadan
expressway, Nigeria. Afri. J. Sci. Technol. 8
(2) 97 -102.
Alloway, B.J. (1996). Pollution and Land contamination. :In: RM Harrison (Ed.): Pollution causes, Effects and control. 3rd Editon.
New York: Willey Press, Pp. 480-488.
Bai, J; Cui, B; Wang, Q; Gao, H; Ding, Q.
(2008). Assessment of heavy metal contamination of road side soils in Southwest China.
Stoch. Environ. Res. Risk Ass. Do/lo. 1007/
s00477-008-0219-5.
Brady, N.C and P.R. Weil, (1999). The Nature
and properties of Soils. 12th Ed., PrenticeHall Inc. New Jersey.
Bremner, J.M. (1996). Nitrogen-total. In:
Sparks, D.L (ed). Methods of Soil Analysis, part 3, Chemical method. 2nd Edition,
SSSA, Book Series No. 5, SSSA, Madison,
W.I., 1085-1121.
143
Ndukwu et al
144
jirika, G; Onyia V; Ofoh. M. (2006). Vertical distribution of heavy metals in two soils
of Isikwuato, Abia State, Southeast Nigeria.
Journal of Sustainable Tropical Agricultural
Research Vol. 18:Pg. 17-21
145
146
147
148
in N, Calcuim, Magnesium and Potassium, inadequate in P and slightly acidic (Akinrinde and
Obigbesan, 2001). Therefore the soil required
application of fertilizing and liming amendment
for enhancing crop production.
Tables 2 and 3 show data of soil analysis for
2012 and 2013 respectively. Data of 2012 indicate that SDA (Sawdust Ash) alone or combine
149
significantly increased by SDA and its combinations with urea in 2012 but the increases in
2013 were not significant relative to the control.
In both years application of urea, SDA and their
combinations significantly increased exchangeable soil Ca and Mg
Plants nutrients composition:
Data on leaf nutrients composition are shown
in table 4 and 5 respectively for 2012 and 2013.
Application of urea increased leaf N,P,K and Ca
in 2013. It was only leaf Ca that was significantly increased by SDA and combinations 3.0 t/ha
SDA +120 kg /ha U and 4.5/ha SDA + 60 kg/ha
U. The increases were significant with respect
to N, Ca and Mg. in 2012, the latter had highest
leaf N,P, and K, and the highest N in 2013.
DISCUSSION
Increase in number of okra pods and weight is
consistent with marginal levels of organic mat-
Yield Components
Effects of treatments on yield of okra are presented in Table 6. Relative to the control, urea
alone and 1.5t/ha SDA +180kg/ha U had relatively low values of number of (pods) and pods
weight in 2012 and 2013. The SDA alone, and
the combinations with low rate of urea(3.0t/ha
SDA +120kg/ha U, 4.5t/ha SDA +60kg/ha U)
increased pod weight significantly.
Relative to the control, the latter treatments
increased pods weight by 37.0 and 52.0% respectively. Therefore 4.5t/ha SDA + 60kg/ha U
is recommended.
Application of ash, and combinations of reduced rates of ash and urea enhanced yield compared with urea alone. The combination 4.5t/ha
SDA + 60kg/ha U reduced the needs for urea by
75%.
150
151
Awanlemhen, B.E. and Ojeniyi, S.O. 2012. Effects of oilpalm bunch ash on grain yield and
nutrient availability to maize. Nigerian Journal of Soil Science 22(2), 132 136
152
153
154
ABSTRACT
The physico-chemical characterization of soils derived from five parent materials in the humid
tropics of South Southern Nigeria was studied. Soil properties such as texture, drainage, effective
soil depth, nutrients status and reserves were employed for site suitability evaluation for arable
cropping (cassava, maize and groundnut). Suitability classifications were arrived at by matching
the land qualities with the requirements of the land utilization type (arable cropping). The results
indicate that soils of mapping unit (CRCI) derived from alluvium were moderately suitable (S2) for
arable cropping, soils of basalt origin (CRC2) were marginally suitable (S3) for arable cropping,
soils of sandstone-shale (CRC3) were moderately suitable (S2) for arable cropping, soils of granite
origin (CRC4) and soils of gneiss origin (CRC5) were permanently not suitable (N2) for arable
cropping on account of permanent limitation of steep slopes (7-18%) and rock outcrops (10-70%)
of total surface. The soils were classified into three orders of the USDA Soil Taxonomy as Alfisols
(soils derived from basalt, sandstone-shale, granite and gneiss), Ultisols (soils of granite origin)
and inceptisols (soils of alluvium). These classifications were appropriately correlated with FAO/
UNESCO soil map of the world reference base (WRB) legend. Limitations observed in the study
area included low pH, low nutrient status, steep slopes and gravely/rocky surface soils.
Key words: Characterization, Classification, land Suitability, Arable Cropping.
INTRODUCTION
The soils of Central Cross River State are derived from basalt, basement complex (granite,
gneiss, quartzite and schist), sandstone-shale intercalations and alluvium (Ekwueme, 2005; Ibanga
and Armond, 1992). Soils of central Cross Rivers
State are rarely formed from a single parent material. Usually intrusions and pockets of extraneous
materials may be found in areas dominated by a
particular rock type (Ekwueme, 2003). Since par-
155
Site Description
Soil samples for particle size data and chemiThe study area lies between latitudes 5020 cal analysis were air-dried, crushed and sieved
and 6020N and longitude 8000 and 9010E. The through a 2mm mesh sized sieve.
Particle size analysis was determined by the pimean annual rainfall of the area ranges from 25003500mm per annum. Mean annual temperature is pette method (Klute, 1986). Soil credibility index
always in the range 260C-310C. The relative hu- was estimated by evaluating the ratio of sand and
midity in the study area varies from 60-70% dur- silt contents to clay content. Clay dispersion ratio
ing the month of January to 70-80% in July. The was evaluated by determining the ratio of water
sun rays are almost vertical over the study area dispersible clay to total clay (clay content).
resulting in high intensity solar radiation with a
Soil pH was determined in a 1:2.5 soil: water
daily 3 -5 hours effective sunshine (Bulktrade and suspension. Organic carbon was determined by the
Investment Company Limited, 1989).
dichromate wet oxidation method of Walkley and
Sampling Design/Technique
Five mapping units (CRC 1-5) were identified
and classified on the basis of parent materials (Ekwueme, 2005). A stratified random sampling technique was adopted in the study. Two toposequences, were selected per parent material. A total of 28
profile pits were excavated. The profile pits were
positioned at the crest, middle slope and valley
bottoms of the identified toposequences, except
156
157
(1)
Where P1 productivity index. H = soil moisture,
D = drainage, P = effective depth, T= texture, S
158
85
60
<40
Degree of limitation:
none slight moderate
very severe
severe
The productivity classes 1-5 are assumed to correspond to the FAO (1976) Land suitability classes
of SI (high), S2 (moderate), S3 (marginal), N1
(currently not suitable) and N2 (permanently not
suitable).
160
161
soils.
Available phosphorus ranged from 1.1 to 33.8
mgkg-1, averaging 14.4mgkg-1 for soil derived
from alluvium, 10.5 mkg-1 for soils of granite origin and 4.1 mgkg-1 for soils derived from gneiss
parent materials (Table 2), These values were rat-
162
ed medium for soils of alluvium and basalt parent materials and very low for soils derived from
sandstone-shale, granite and gneiss. The very low
to medium values of available phosphorus in the
study area is probably due to the low phosphorus
(<1%) in all parent rocks studied as reported by
Best (1982) and complicated by the high phosphate fixing capacity of the soils (Udo, 1977).
Values of cation exchange capacity in the
study area range from 0.9 to 33.0 cmolkg-1, averaging 15.6cmolkg-1 for soils derived from alluvium, 14.6 cmolkg-1 for soils of basalt origin,
12.4cmolkg-1 for soils developed over sandstoneshale, 2.8cmolkg-1 for soils of granite origin and
2.4cmolkg-1 for soils derived from gneiss (Table
2). The high CEC values of soils derived from
alluvium and sandstone-shale is the direct consequence of their possession of medium levels of
organic matter (Foth, 1990). The low CEC in soils
of granite of gneiss parent materials is indicative
of the low levels of colloids (Clay and humus) of
these soils (Enwezor et al., 1981).
The percentage base saturation of the soils in the
study area in the range of 17.0 to 97.1%, averaging
65.7% for soils derived from alluvium, 63.9% for
soils derived from basalt, 85.1% for soils of sandstone-shale origin, 46.8% for soils derived from
granite and 54.0% for soils of gneiss origin (Table
4). These values are rated high for soils derived from
sandstone-shale, medium for soils developed on alluvium, basalt and gneiss but low for soils of granite
origin. This result indicates that the soils in the study
area will release cations to growing crops in this order
of availability, Sandstone-shale < alluvium basalt
< gneiss. < granite. These observations collaborate
the findings of Eshett (1987); Amalu (1998); and
Enwezor et al., (1981) working on soils of similar
parent materials, who observed that Ca and Mg are
the predominant cations in most soils because of their
adsorption power. Furthermore, their studies revealed
163
The occurrence of the low land soils of this mapping unit under aquic moisture regime and possession of horizons having at least 25cm thick layers
within 100cm of the mineral soil surface with recognizable bioturbation, qualifies these soils as Vermaqualfs at the great group level. These soils are
classified as Typic Vermaqualfs at the sub-group
level (Soil Survey Staff, 2010). The FAO/UNESCO equivalent of Kanhaplic Rhodustalfs and
Typic Vermaqualfs is Hapiic Luvisols and Dystric
Fluvisols respectively.
CRC 5 (Soils of gneiss origin)
The upland soils of gneiss origin were characterized with ochric surface and argillic subsurface
horizons. These soils have medium base saturation
(>50% by NH4OAc) and occur under Udic moisture regimes. These soils are thus classified under
the Alfisol order. Their possession of evidence of
plinthization, qualify their classification as typic
plinthudalfs at the sub-group level. The presence
of recognizable bioturbation in the top soils of
valley bottom pedons and their occurrence under
Aquic moisture regime, qualify the low land soils
of gneiss origin as Typic Vermaqualfs at the subgroup level. The FAO/UNESCO equivalents of
Typic Plinthudalfs and Typic Vermaqualfs is Eutric plinlhosols and Eutric Fluvisols respectively.
Land Suitability Evaluation for Arabic Cropping.
All the soils in the study area were observed to
occur within zones with the ecological requirements for arable crops as was deduced from rainfall and other climatic data of the study area (Udoh
et al., 2005). The arable crops under consideration
include cassava, maize and groundnut.
The actual productivity index of soils derived
from alluvium representing about 14.1% of the
study area was 38% and rated moderately suit-
164
tations through appropriate erosion control mechanisms and proper fertilization will make the soils
moderately suitable (S2) for arable crop (Table 7).
The actual productivity of soils developed from
granite representing 3.3% of the study area was
10.81% and rated permanently not suitable (N2)
for arable crops on account of poor rooting zone
(coarse fragment contents), very steep slope (718%) and rock outcrops (10-70%) of total surface.
Only the application of fertilizer which can correct
the poor fertility status is feasible, thus it is only
possible for these soils to be improved to currently
not suitable (Nl) for arable crops (Table 7).
The soils of gneiss origin representing 21.6%
of the study area had actual productivity index
value of 3% rated permanently not suitable (N2)
on account of poor fertility and steep slope (714%). However if the fertility limitation is tackled
through adequate manuring, fertilization, and erosion control, it is possible for these soils to have a
potential productivity index of 22% and could be
165
166
167
168
Esu et cal
The objective of the present study was therefore, to truly extend the earlier limited contributions by various soil scientists to include a comprehensive characteristics of the morphological,
physicochemical and mineralogical properties
of very deep pedonsof basaltic soils exposed
along a toposequence at a quarry site in Ikom.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
StudyArea
The project site was located within the
CCECC Basalt Quarry site in Ikom, which lies
within longitude 08o 43 E and latitude 06o
13 N (Figure 1) at an elevation of 20m above
mean sea level. The area consists of gently sloping plains of 0 4% gradient. It has an udic
soil moisture regime with a mean total annual
rainfall of 2700mm and an isohyperthermic soil
temperature regime with mean annual temperature minimum of 25oC and maximum of 32oC
(Table 1). Ikom lies within the typical tropical
rainforest zone of Nigeria.
FieldStudies
Three soil profile pits were dug at the summit,
backslope and footslope positions along a gently slopingtoposequence lying adjacent to a very
deeply excavated basalt quarry site. The morphological properties of the soils were described
following the procedure specified in the Field
book for describing and sampling soils, version
3.0 (Schoenenbergeretal., 2012). Undisturbed
core samples were also collected in duplicates
from the genetic horizons of representative profiles for bulk density, water content, total porosity and macroporosity determinations.
LaboratoryStudies
Soil samples collected from the field were
air-dried, ground and sieved to remove mate-
169
Esu et cal
172
Esu et cal
174
Esu et cal
175
176
of basaltic soils of Southeastern Nigeria. Cocoa Research Institute (CRIN), pp 11, Ibadan
Publication.
Enwezor, W. O., Udo, E. J., Usoroh, N. J.,
Ayotade, K. A., Adepetu, J. A., Chude, V. O.
and Udegbe, C. I., 1989. FMARD, Lagos,
Nigeria.163 pp.
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Esu et cal
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PEDOLOGICAL STUDY OF SOILS DEVELOPED ON SCHIST IN BIASE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, CROSS RIVER STATE, NIGERIA.
*K. I. Ofem and I. E. Esu
Department of Soil Science, University of Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria
*Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Soils developed on schist in Biase LGA of Cross River State were pedologically investigated regarding
their morphology, selected physical, chemical and mineralogical properties. The soils were further classified according to the criteria of the USDA Soil Taxonomy and FAO-WRB for soil resources. The Ap
horizons were quite thin (4cm to 19cm) with an extensive B horizon (21cm to 156cm) and were of variable depths to the weathered rock (Cr) (30-160cm). The soil colour varied between dark brown (7.5YR
3/4) on the soil surface to red (2.5YR 4/6) in the underlying soils with a dominant red hue in the entire
Bt horizons with yellow (10YR 8/6) few medium and distinct mottles in the soils at the footslope. Gravelly loamy sand and sandy loam textures were underlain by gravelly clay and sandy clay loam textures.
Weak, moderate granular structures were underlain by moderate, medium subangular blocky structures
with slightly sticky, sticky and very sticky consistence. The soils have a good distribution of quartz,
roots and micaceous minerals. The particle size distribution was variable with values as follows: gravel
(1.6-76.5%), sand (350-830g/kg), silt (60-180g/kg) and clay (70-570g/kg) with the development of distinct clay bulge at the B horizons. The soil bulk density was low (1.01-1.67Mg/m3) while the air filled
porosity (20.2-39.8%) was high in the surface soils. The soils were very strongly to strongly acidic with
pH(H2O) (4.3-5.2) and pH(kCl) (4.1 4.9) in the soil surface. Moderate values of organic C (11.8-32.7g/
kg), total N (0.98-1.82g/kg), SulphateS(5.43-19.32mg/kg), and ECEC(4.16-6.82cmol/kg) occurred on
the soil surface. But values of CEC at pH7 (5.9-8.1cmol/kg), available P (5.08-9.98mg/kg), exchangeable cations;Ca(1.6-3.4cmol/kg), Mg(0.4-1.1cmol/kg), K(0.14-0.36cmol/kg) and Na(0.09-0.14cmol/kg)
were low in thesurface soils. Irrespective of the landscape position, the mineralogy obtained from XRD
showed the dominance of quartz (65.35-79.53%) followed by kaolinite (6.59-17.86%) and muscovite
(6.01-8.95%) in both the fine sand and clay fractions. Plagioclase (3.39-9.91%), microcline (2.99-4.09
%) and sepiolite (0.55-1.2%) were also detected in the soils. At the subgroup level of classification;
pedons II, III, IV, V and VI were classified as Typic Kanhapludults in the USDA Soil Taxonomy system
and Clayic Acrisol in the FAO-ISSS-ISRIC World Reference Base for Soil Resources Classification
System while pedon I was classified as Typic Paleudults (Skeletic Acrisol).
Keywords: Schist soils, Pedological properties, Mineralogy, Classification
INTRODUCTION
In modern Soil Science literature, pedology
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Fagbami, 1976; Kayode, 2006; Ajayi and Ogbedengbe, 2003; Folami, 1992 and Ajayi, 1981)
while Orimoloye et al. (2010), identifiedschist
in Northern Cross River State. However, little is
known about the soils developed on schist in Biase
LGA of Cross River State. On the other hand,the
detailed geologicalmap of Okurike and environs in
Biase LGA shows that schist occupies about 34%
of Biase Local Government Area.In other words,
the soils are reasonably extensive and important
for agricultural production in the area. The objectives of this research were therefore to:
1) Characterize the soils for the benefit of improved agricultural production.
2) Classify the soils according to the criteria
of the USDA Soil Taxonomy System (Soil Survey
Staff, 1999) and the World Reference Base for Soil
Resources Classification System (FAO, 2006).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Environment of Study Area
Biase LGA (5000N and 5047N and 80 06E
and 8011E) is located in southern Cross RiverState
and is bordered by Abia state, Akamkpa, Odukpani and Yakurr local Government Areas. It is characterized by a rainfall range between 1,963mm
and 3,143mm per annum, an annual temperature
range of between 270C and 330C while its relative humidity is between 80% and 90% (Ayoade,
2004). Based on estimation from meteorological
data, an udic soil moisture regime and an Isohyperthermic soil temperature regime are inferred.
The areais gently to steeply sloping while the toe
slope areas are nearly level. The study area falls
within the tropical rainforest zone with patches of
portions occupied by secondary forests.
Schistose parent materials constitute about 34%
of the underlying geological formation of Biase
Local Government Area. The major rock types are
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ancient rocks which are now referred to as quartzbiotite-muscovite schist (Ekwueme, 1987). Detailed geological map of the study area is shown
in Figure 1.
Field Studies
Field reconnaissance visit was carried out to areas of Biase whose underlying geology had been
mapped and identified as schist. Two toposequences
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Laboratory Studies
The soil samples were air dried, ground and
sieved through a 2mm mesh sieve. Particles larger
than 2mm were weighed and expressed as percent
gravel for all the soil samples in each horizon (Soil
Survey Staff, 2002).
The fine earth materials (<2mm) were used for
various laboratory analyses. The particle size distribution was carried out by the Bouyoucos Hy-
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similar results while Kosmas et al. (1999), described schist cultivated soils as shallow (<45cm)
to weathered residuum. The extensive B horizon
is probably due to high rate of eluviation-illuviation processes. Dominant dark brown (7.5YR 3/4)
(pedon I) and reddish brown (5YR 4/3) (pedon
VI) gravelly sandy loam to loamy sand textures
were underlain by reddish (2.5YR 4/8) gravelly
clay to sandy loam subsoils. The red and brightly coloured subsurface soils are likely due to the
well drained nature of the soils with oxidized iron
(ferric) compounds and the onset of lateritization
process. Weak to moderate medium granular structures overlie moderate medium subangular blocky
structures with soil pores, roots, ants, worms and
termites being distributed down the profiles. Angular and subangular blocky structures may be attributed to the illuviation of clay in the subsurface
horizons and further suggests the presence of argillic or kandic horizons; which is an indication of active soil development. Mica flakes and quartz were
identified in all the horizons with iron and manganese nodules being distributed at the subsurface
soils of pedons II, IV and VI. The ease of deformation of the underlying weathered rock makes root
penetration beyond the argillic horizon-weathered
rock interphase possible.
Soil Physical Properties
Bulk density values ranged between 1.01 Mg/
m3 and 1.67 Mg/m3in all the pedons studied with
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Soil Classification
Based on the criteria of the USDA Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1999), the soils meet the
requirement for placement in the soil order; Ultisols since the base saturation by NH4OAc pH 7.0
is less than 50% in the Bt horizon with argillic or
kandic diagnostic subsurfacehorizons. The soils
also occur in an environment with a udicsoil moisture regime and therefore qualify for placement
in the Suborder of Udults. The presence of kandic horizons in the soils with percent clay that decreases from its maximum amounts by more than
20% within 150cm places the soils in the great
group; Kanhapludults while pedon I is categorized
as Paleudult as the profile does not possess a kandic horizon with clay distribution of less than 20%
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from its maximum amount. At the subgroup category, the Kanhapludults and Paleudults typify their
great groups and the soils are thus classified at the
subgroup level as Typic Kanhapludults (pedons II,
III, IV, V and VI) and Typic Paleudults (pedon I).
Based on the FAO ISSS ISRIC World Reference Base for Soil Resources Classification System (FAO, 2006), pedons I and IV are Skeletic
Acrisols while pedons II, III, V and VI are Clayic
Acrisols.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The schist soils in Biase LGA of Cross River
State, Nigeria are developed on Quartz-Mica
Schist. They occur on strongly undulating landforms and are thus subjected to severe surficial
water erosion. Thus, they have very thin Ap horizons and are very gravelly to cobbly especially
in the rather extensive Bt kandic horizons. Weathered parent rock (Cr horizons) often occur within a
depth of 120 150cm and soil texture varies from
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