by David Kennedy

and Leaf for Life

1993

ABOUT THIS MANUAL

It is the purpose of this manual to help people interested in health, nutrition, agriculture
and environmental is1sues to be able to begin making and using leaf concentrate in towns
and villages in developing countries. This manual is an ongoing work that will be
periodically updated. It deals almost exclusively with small or village scale production
systems. There is very little information on industrial scale production. This manual
should be useful to anyone involved in a small leaf concentrate program, but is not
intended to substitute for hands on training. Eventually, the manual will be matched with
a training film on videocassette and a 3 - 5 day training course offered at least once a
year. You may want to photocopy some of the information and charts in this manual for
people who need to refer to one aspect of leaf concentrate work, but who do not need the
entire manual.
Throughout the manual I use the terms "leaf concentrate", "LC", or occasionally "leaf
curd" to describe a food made from coagulating green plant leaf juice. This food has also
been called "leaf protein" and "leaf protein concentrate". Most of the references relate to
projects linked with or run by a small voluntary organization called Find Your Feet in
Great Britain and Leaf for Life in the USA.
Information and ideas for this manual came from a lot of people, most importantly Walt
Bray, Glyn Davys, and Boone Guyton. Drawings and help with layout also came from
several people, including Beth Rosdatter, Alison Craig, Susan Lynn, Therese and Sherri
Hildebrand, Jose Leon and Danne Lakin. You are most cordially invited to join in the
development of this exciting 'Food for the Future'. Leaf For Life appreciates any
criticisms or suggestions that may help to improve this course. We also like to hear of
problems, solutions, recipes, or good ideas that people run into while working with leaf
concentrate.
Thank you and the best of luck.

INTRODUCTION
In the last half of the 18 th Century a Frenchman named Rouelle discovered that a
vegetable curd could be made by simply heating the juice squeezed from hemlock leaves.
Little was done with this information until World War II when the British, fearing that
their food supplies could be cut off, began searching for alternative sources of protein.
N.W. Pirie led a team of scientists in the development of equipment to extract protein
from green leaves. Using alfalfa, wheat leaves, mustard greens, and other plants, the
team did a great deal of research on the use of these leaf concentrates. While this team
and a few other individuals continued working on leaf concentrates, it wasn't until the
1960's that interest in making curd from leaves picked up again. Work began advancing
on two quite different fronts.

In several highly developed countries work began on using dried leaf curd to enrich
animal feeds. At the same time Find Your Feet ( LEAF FO R LIFE), a small voluntary
organization based in London, England, began promoting the use of leaf concentrate to
counter malnutrition in children living in tropical villages and towns.
Several studies were undertaken to establish the safety and nutritional value of the leaf
concentrate in the diets of children. Find Your Feet ( LEAF FOR LIFE) has since started
programs to teach women how to prepare leaf concentrate for malnourished children in
Mexico, India, Bolivia, Sri Lanka, Ghana, Nicaragua and Bangladesh.* These programs
have received financial support from the United Nations, the European Economic
Community, Mexico's DIF, the British Overseas Development Agency, the Rotary Club
International, employee programs from Delta Airlines and Sun Microsystems, as well as
many private trusts and individual supporters.
In all of its projects Leaf For Life has worked to train women to make high quality leaf
concentrate from local leaves, with the aim of improving the diet of members of their
communities who are vulnerable to malnutrition. Usually this means children, pregnant
and nursing mothers, and the elderly. Through the work done in these projects and work
done in England, the U.S., India and Sweden the process of making and using leaf
concentrate is gradually becoming easier and more economical
Machinery is constantly being improved and new recipes are tried every year The
workshops where leaf concentrate is made are becoming more efficiently organized and
the cost of starting a program is dropping.

* We know of two other organizations using leaf concentrate in small nutrition

programs. Leaf Nutrient Program has begun a project in Coahuila, Mexico and the
Pakistan Council for Scientific and Industrial Research did the same type of work at an
orphanage near Lahore, Pakistan. Their addresses, along with those of other sources of
information on subjects related to leaf concentrate are listed in the back of this manual.

WHAT IS LEAF CONCENTRATE?

Leaf concentrate is an extremely nutritious food made by mechanically separating
indigestible fiber and soluble anti-nutrients from much of the protein, vitamins, and
minerals in certain fresh green plant leaves. Because it is so rich in beta-carotene, iron,
and high quality protein, leaf concentrate is very effective in combating malnutrition,
especially the anemia and vitamin A deficiency which are prevalent among children and
pregnant women in most developing countries. It is easily combined with a variety of
inexpensive foods to make culturally acceptable dishes.
Because it takes more direct advantage of solar energy, a leaf crop can produce more
nutrients per hectare than any other agricultural system. Leaf crops can usually be

produced with less environmental impact than grains. The simple technology of making
leaf concentrate offers a means of capturing a much greater part of the leaf harvest for
direct human consumption. The fiber that is separated can be used to feed animals, and
the left over liquid, or "whey" can be used to fertilize plants, so nothing is lost.

WHY LEAF CONCENTRATE WORKS

Agriculture is basically a biological system for collecting the energy of the sun in ways
that are useful to humans. Green leaves are the solar energy collectors. The more surface
area of green leaves exposed to the sun's light, the more energy can be captured from a
given parcel of land.
Chlorophyll, the pigment that makes leaves (and leaf concentrate) so green, converts
carbon dioxide from the air, water and sunlight into simple carbohydrates. These
combine with each other to make sugars and starches, which supply our bodies with
energy. They also combine to make fibers like cellulose and lignin that make useful
things like paper, cotton cloth, and wood possible. These simple carbohydrates formed in
the plant's green leaves also combine with nitrates from the soil to make proteins, which
are often called the building blocks of life.
The basic foods that we eat are almost all created in the green leaves of plants. They are
then translocated to be stored in seeds, tubers, and fruits. When we eat a tortilla, a sweet
potato, or a banana we are eating food made by the green leaves of the corn plant, the
sweet potato plant, and the banana plant. Moving the food from the leaf to the seed or the
tuber or the fruit costs the plant energy. This reduces the amount of available food
because the plants burn their own sugars and starches to get this energy. Of course, much
more of this food becomes unavailable when the seeds or tubers are fed to animals. This
explains why animal products like meat, milk, and eggs are usually more expensive than
plant products.
When we grow wheat or other basic grains the young leaves of the plant are relatively
efficient at converting the sun's energy to food. However, for much of the time that the
grain occupies our best farmland it is producing very little food. As the leaves turn
yellow and brown they stop producing food and the plant is simply drying the seed so
that it will be a very compact food storage container. These grains are certainly
convenient food. Because the grains have far less water and fiber than the green leaves,
as well as generally milder flavor, they have been a more useful and popular food.
The leaf concentrate technology offers a simple means of removing much of the water
and almost all of the fiber from the green leaves. This can make green leaves a much
more attractive food. While leaf concentrate will never replace grains, it does offer a
major new source of food in the human diet. Combining inexpensive easily grown
starchy crops like cassava, bananas, and breadfruit with leaf concentrate could provide
superior nutrition to a grain based diet for millions of people in the tropics. By more

directly tapping the tremendous productivity of leaf crops, leaf concentrate can produce
more protein and most other important nutrients per hectare than other agricultural
systems.
How quickly this food technology is put into widespread practice will depend mainly on
economics. The economics of leaf concentrate production is closely tied to the scale of
operation and how well the fiber that remains when the concentrate is separated from the
leaves is utilized. Usually the most economical use of this fiber is to feed it to cows,
goats, sheep, horses, rabbits, or guinea pigs.. Because the fiber is so finely chopped up
animals can absorb the nutrients in it more readily than they can from hay or forage crop.
In a sense, the grinding of the leaves for making leaf concentrate acts in the same way as
the animals chewing the leaves for a long time. This residual fiber is also lower in
moisture than the original leaf crop so it is easier to dry for hay or to preserve as silage.
Ultimately what makes leaf concentrate work is that is it based on the careful observation
of some of the biological processes that are fundamental to understanding the nature of
food. How well it works will be determined by how well people like yourself can apply
these observations to create practical systems of leaf concentrate production.

ADVANTAGES OF LEAF CONCENTRATE

1. Leaf concentrate is an extremely nutritious food. It is richer in vitamin A and iron
than any commonly available foods. Deficiencies of these two nutrients are two of the
most serious and prevalent health problems in the world today. Leaf concentrate is also a
very good source of high quality protein and calcium, as well as several other important
nutrients.
2. It is a very efficient way of using land to produce food, yielding roughly three times as
much protein per hectare as grain crops and five to ten times as much per hectare as
animal raising.
3. While the green color of leaf concentrate foods is unfamiliar, the acceptance of these
foods by children in a dozen different countries has been excellent. As most parents
know, many children all over the world do not like to eat dark green leafy vegetables.
We do not have this problem when these leaf crops are converted into leaf concentrate
foods.
4. Leaf concentrate is relatively easy to make. People with little training or education
can make it in rural villages.

5. It offers a very nutritious food at prices below what foods like meat, cheese, eggs, or
powdered milk cost. It is usually the cheapest dietary source of vitamin A and iron
wherever it is made.

6. It is an environmentally sound agricultural technique. Leaf crops protect the soil from
the erosion that has been destroying grain production land. Pesticides are not needed to
protect leaf concentrate crops from cosmetic insect damage since the leaves are ground to
a pulp immediately after harvest.
7. Nothing is wasted in leaf concentrate production. The residual fiber makes an
excellent feed for cows, goats, sheep, horses, rabbits, or guinea pigs. It can also be used
to enrich the soil or in production of bio-gas for cooking. The left over liquid is rich in
nitrogen and potassium, and makes a good fertilizer. It has been used to produce ethanol
as well.
8. Unlike dark green vegetables, leaf concentrate is easy to preserve. It can be dried,
converted to pasta, made into drink mixes or syrups, salted or pickled.
9. Many of the anti-nutrients found in leafy foods are removed through the leaf
concentrate process. The hydrocyanic acid, nitrates, goitrgens and free oxalic acid that
limit the usefulness of many leaf crops in the human diet are almost completely removed
when the leaves are converted to leaf concentrate.
10. Leaf concentrate uses far less fuel to prepare than beans, the main high protein food
of the world's poor.
11. There have been no known cases of allergic reaction to leaf concentrate since 1975
when the standard processing heat was raised to a minimum of 90 C (195 F).
However, many children are intolerant of other nutrient dense foods like fish or cheese,
and genetic lactose intolerance makes milk a less than ideal food for children in some
regions.

DISADVANTAGES OF LEAF CONCENTRATE

1. Good leaf yields require a steady supply of water. In many locations there are long
dry seasons and irrigated land is at a premium. In arid lands the water requirements of
lush leaf crops are usually excessive and focusing on improving water thrifty crops like
sorghum, millet, buffalo gourd, tepary beans, and acacias is a more realistic strategy.
2. Most people are not accustomed to eating many dark green foods.
3. Fresh leaves are very perishable. They must be processed soon after they are harvested
or the quality and yield of leaf concentrate goes down.
4. Fresh leaves are heavy as is the residual fiber and 'whey'. These means transportation
costs will be high unless processing can be done very close to the leaf crop field.
5. While domestic scale production can be done with inexpensive commercial grinders
and blenders, larger scale equipment is not currently available commercially and must be
custom built.
6. The vitamin C in fresh leaves is lost during processing.

SECTION I

HOW TO MAKE LEAF CONCENTRATE

EIGHT BASIC STEPS
1. Harvest fresh green leaves from plants known to be good sources for leaf concentrate.
(More information on choosing the right plants is in the section on growing leaf
concentrate crops in this manual).

2. Wash the leaves well in clean water to remove dust and dirt.
3. If the leaves are large or there are a lot of tough stems cut or tear the leaves into pieces
the length of a finger. (This step is unnecessary with some of the leaf grinders like the
impact macerator)

4. Grind the leaves to a pulp.

5. Press as much juice as possible from the pulped leaves.
6. Heat the juice rapidly to the boiling point.
7. Separate the curd that forms in the heated juice in a tightly woven cloth.
8. Press as much liquid as possible out of this curd.
What remains in the cloth is LEAF CONCENTRATE

1. Cut fresh green leaves

HARVESTING LEAVES
Normally we prefer to harvest leaves early in the morning and take them immediately to
the leaf concentrate workshop where they are washed in clean water then ground up as
soon as possible. Any long delays in processing from the time the leaves are cut until the
leaf concentrate is finished will lower the quantity or quality of the final product.
The leaves are cut off as low on the plant as will allow for rapid regrowth. It is very
important not to cut too low, especially with plants like cowpeas, as they will die rather
than produce more foliage. Cutting cowpeas at 5 cm rather than 20 cm (2 rather than 8
inches) will mean that the crop needs to be reseeded at least twice as often and the annual
leaf production will be several tons less per hectare. The ideal height for cutting leaf
crops varies from crop to crop and even among varieties of the same crop. It is relatively
easy to test regrowth at a few different heights to see what works best with the crop you
are using.
Perhaps more important than the height at which a
crop is cut, is the time. Leaves are best for making leaf
concentrate when their content of protein is highest
and their moisture content is between 75-85%. As a
very general rule, for most crops their leaves are at
peak moisture content early in the morning and a peak
protein content just before flowering. A schedule of
harvesting can be worked out that takes into account
seasonal fluctuations of leaf production as well as any
changes in the processing capacity or end use of leaf
concentrate that take place during the year.
Equipment for harvesting leaf concentrate for small
scale projects is very simple. A Nicaraguan leaf
concentrate worker developed a handy cutting system
using a sharp machete and a special stick with a
curved metal hook on the end. He uses the hooked
stick to hold the plants erect to cut with his machete
and then to toss the cut plants into piles. Generally two handed scythes or swing blades
are more effective for cutting alfalfa and most other leaf crops than machetes or knives.
Cowpeas tend to get too tangled to cut with a scythe, but with a little practice this is a
much faster method for cowpeas as well. European scythes are often made with better
blades and better balance than cheaper stamped steel ones available in the US and many
other countries.
On a slightly larger scale a sickle bar or reciprocating mower could be used to cut the
crop. Several implement companies make sickle bar mowers that will slice the leaves off
cleanly at an even height. This height may be lower than optimal for some crops and may
need to be adjusted. Some of these are designed to be used with tractors or horses, but

there are also some designed for use with

"walking tractors" like the BCS or the Gravely,
that are smaller, cheaper, and more flexible in
use than larger tractors.
One type of leaf cutter that doesn't work for
leaf concentrate is a rotary lawn mower. These
have high-speed rotary blades that chop the
leaves too finely before they can be washed.
The rotary motion also tends to suck up dirt and dust that are very hard to wash out of the
cut leaves. Some early tests of leaf concentrate showed very high levels of ash because
the leaves were cut with a rotary lawn mower and the dust was never adequately
removed.
Strimmers or Weed Eaters can also be useful for leaf harvest. There is a wide range of
these tools available with different cutting heads and we have not tested them thoroughly.
Michael Cole in England uses a strimmer with a metal cutter for alfalfa. We are trying to
employ a Strimmer fastened to small bicycle wheels for wet weather weeding in
Nicaragua, and it is possible that this technique can be employed in leaf harvest as well.

Transporting Leaves
After the leaves are cut they are usually tossed into piles. Using light leaf rakes to pull
the harvested crop into windrows and hayforks to load them onto carts is much faster
than packing the leaves into sacks by hand. The piles are then picked up and loaded into
sacks or piled directly into a cart or wagon or truck. Whatever is most convenient for
your project to haul the leaves is probably fine.
We have had some problems with bicycles and with trucks. The bicycles don't have the
hauling capacity needed and sometimes the amount of leaf concentrate we could make
was limited by what could be hauled on one bike trip. The three wheel bikes designed for
hauling could be better, but they are made for paved streets and won't do well getting in
and out of muddy fields. We found that trucks tend to be too valuable and have many
other competing uses. The use of trucks may be freely offered at the beginning of a new
project when enthusiasm is high, but they can become much less available after the
novelty of the program or the presence of foreigners passes. They are frequently broken
down, even if otherwise available.
Wheelbarrows and simple two wheel pushcarts may work well if the amount of leaves is
not great and the distance between the leaf field and processing workshop is only a
couple hundred meters. For greater weights or greater distances carts drawn by horse,
donkey or ox may be more appropriate. The cost of transporting leaves should definitely
be figured y be able to offset some of the cost by offering some of the residual fiber to the
owner of the animals for feed. If fiber and "whey" need to be hauled somewhere, it may
be reasonable to arrange for them to be hauled away by the same cart that delivers the
fresh leaves.

In wet weather carts can bog down in the mud and leaves may need to be packed into
sacks and hauled to the road on workers' shoulders. Wider tires such as automobile tires
don't bog as easily as bicycle tires, but they add a lot more weight and friction to the load.
Motorcycle tires may be a good compromise in areas where inexpensive used ones are
available.
Transportation of leaves is one of the most commonly underestimated expenses in leaf
concentrate projects, and it is well worth giving some thought to this at the initial
planning stage.

Weighing Leaves
After the leaves are brought into the workshop they
should be weighed. The leaves can be weighed with
a bathroom scale, a fishhook type scale, or a scale
used for weighing grain and feed. Weighing leaves
and recording the weight every day may seem like
an unnecessary bother, but it provides projects with
important information. If the leaves and the leaf
concentrate are weighed every day it becomes
possible to analyze labor costs, processing efficiency
and other aspects of production critical to an
economically healthy program.
If you are buying leaves, it is normally better to buy
them by weight than volume as it relates more
directly to yield. Don't pay extra for leaves that a
farmer has hosed down, as the water will not yield
any LC . By correlating leaf weight with LC weight,
you may be able to see that a certain type of leaf
crop is more economical, or that leaves from one
farmer are a better buy than those from another.
Changes in the ratio of LC produced to the weight of
the leaves may alert you to problems with
machinery, processing, or agricultural technique.

2. Wash the leaves

Once weighed, the leaves should be

inspected for pieces of stick, roots, and
rock. It is usually not necessary to
remove weeds, grass, or dead leaves.
Only when there are a lot of weeds
known to be poisonous or very bitter
tasting is it worth the trouble of
picking out every one. In several
projects the extremely careful picking
out of stray weeds and bits of grass
was taking more time than grinding
and pressing the leaves, and providing
no benefit.
After inspection the leaves should be
immersed in clean water to remove
dirt and dust. This can be done in
large washtubs or in specially
designed wash tanks. Small amounts
of leaves can be washed by hand then
shaken out to remove excess water before cutting and grinding. For larger quantities of
leaves you will probably want to use a special tank and handle the leaves with clean
pitchforks or rakes. In either case you want to remove the leaves from the tank rather
than drain the water and then remove the leaves. When the water is drained much of the
dirt gets caught in the leaves on its way out. If you can't grind the leaves right away for
any reason, try to leave them in the wash tank, as this will delay wilting which lowers
leaf concentrate yield.
Where water is in short supply you may want to use this water at least once more. It can
be used for the initial rising out of pots, filter cloth and processing equipment. Ideally it
could then be used to water crops. If a crop field, orchard or garden is downhill from the
processing site it may be worth running a tube or a ditch to carry this wash water to
plants. It is important that the wash water not be repeatedly drained very near the
workshop or the soil will quickly become waterlogged and foul smells will follow. It
could also become a breeding ground for mosquitoes that can spread malaria, dengue
fever and other diseases in tropical areas.

3. Cut or tear the leaves into pieces

Depending on the crop and the type of pulping equipment used, it may be necessary to
cut or tear the leaves into smaller pieces before pulping them. This step reduces the work
that the pulper must do and may eliminate long fibers wrapping around machine parts.
Pre-cutting leaves also makes feeding the crop into leaf pulpers easier. Vine crops
especially are difficult to feed into leaf pulpers if they are not cut to shorter length first.
Some tropical legumes have vines several meters long that tend to get very tangled.

Precutting the leaf crop can be done with a forage chopper. These can be treadle
powered, bicycle powered or motor driven. Relatively small amounts of leaves (up to
about 200 kg can be cut on a table with a machete or cutlass. This is tiring work, and the
likelihood of accidents increases as people become fatigued from heavy exertion. Very
small quantities of leaves can be stripped from their vines by hand. This is very slow, but
worthwhile on a domestic scale where leaves are pulped with manually operated
equipment.
Precutting leaves adds a time and energy-consuming step to the leaf concentrate process.
This step often takes longer than pulping. It may also require additional machinery, such
as forage choppers. Whenever possible it is advantageous to avoid this step. The impact
macerator is a leaf-pulping machine that can handle fairly long fibrous leaf stems (alfalfa
up to 70 cm [28"]) without precutting. This is one of the main reasons we are currently
advocating use of the impact macerator for small leaf concentrate programs.

4. Grind the leaves to a pulp.

Perhaps the most critical aspect of economic leaf concentrate production is the pulping of
the fresh leaves. In order for juice to be squeezed easily from the leaves they must be well
ground . There are a number of ways to do this, several of which will be briefly
described in this section. However one goes about pulping the leaves, the object is to
break open as many of the leaf 's fibrous cell walls as possible. When these walls are
broken open the nutrient rich contents of the cells can pass into the juice and later be
recovered as curd.
When leaves wilt, the pressure inside the cells is reduced and the amount of force
required before rupturing the cell wall increases; just as it is easier to pop a fully inflated
balloon. The yield of LC from most crops will decline 4-15% in 4 hours and by 50% after
9 hours. Even with ideal circumstances, it is impossible to rupture all the cell walls, but
some techniques work far better than others. If clearly recognizable pieces of leaf remain
after pulping, cell rupture is inadequate.
Generally smashing leaves works better than cutting them repeatedly. Pulping the leaves
takes several times more energy than pressing the juice out. It is usually uneconomical in
terms of energy to try to squeeze juice from leaves that have not been ground up first.
Several studies on industrial scale leaf fractionation have shown extrusion, or the driving
of leaf crop through small openings, to be the most energy efficient means of rupturing
leaf cells. Smaller scale extruders have not performed as well. Probably extrusion is
superior to other methods of cell rupture only when over one ton per hour of leaves is
being processed. On the other extreme leaf crop can be pulped with hand operated
grinders. We do not normally recommend this because it dooms the operator to a very
low hourly productivity.
There is currently no off-the-shelf machine that is designed specifically to make leaf
concentrate. There are some machines like hammer mills and meat grinders that can be

fairly easily adapted to the purpose. In choosing a machine to pulp leaves it is worth
considering at least the following:
- cost and availability
- throughput (how many kilograms of leaves can be processed per hour)
- clean up time required (this can be a significant hidden labor cost)
- dependability and ease of maintenance (a 100 kg per hour machine that has a
lot of down time may produce less per month than a more dependable 50 kg per
hour machine.)
- energy use (what is the cost of energy per kg of LC produced? Does it use a
form of energy readily available? 3 phase electric motors are generally more
efficient than single phase, but only if 3 phase current is available where you are
working)
- safety and noise level
A number of different leaf pulping machines have been tried in village programs. Some
of these are discussed in the chapter on Other Leaf Concentrate Processing Equipment on
page 149. Below is some information on the leaf-pulping machine that we currently
recommend using in projects that process over 100 kg and less than 1000 kg of leaf
crop per day. Drawings are on page 175

The Impact Macerator

The main pulper that we use is a
modification of a tool developed at
the University of Wisconsin in the
US by Richard Koegel and Hjalmar
Bruhn. It is basically a vertical axis
hammermill with a single fixed
hammer. Leaves are dropped into a
large feed hopper that directs them
to the center of the blades. They
spin at approximately 3450 RPM
inside a 350 mm (14")* cylinder
made of steel or very heavy gauge
PVC. (* Measurements are mostly
approximate metric equivalents of
work done in the English system).
The leaves are smashed by the blunt
blades and fall through to a 58 X 35
cm (23 " X 14") plastic washtub
sitting below the cylinder. The
cylinder sits on a frame of 50 mm
(2) square steel tube. A two
horsepower high-speed motor is
mounted vertically between the legs
of the frame.

In the original design the macerator was driven directly from the motor shaft. Driving the
macerator with a pulley instead allows the placement of the motor outside the cylinder so
that only the belts and pulleys need to be covered. It also allows for the macerator to use
a greater variety of motors that may be less expensive, and to use gasoline or diesel
motors where electricity is not available. A pulley driven macerator has to have bearings
on the shaft the blades are attached to and some means of preventing pulp from piling up
on the belt shroud. One advantage of the direct drive is that the motor bearings are the
only ones needed. It is quite possible that the motor bearings would last longer, however,
if the shaft had its own set of bearings. In addition we can use nickel-plated food grade
top bearing, which makes for a more hygienic process. The external powered macerator
is quite a bit quieter.
The power is transferred from the motor by way of a set of pulleys and a fan belt to a 250
mm (1") stainless steel shaft. The shaft passes through two bearings separated by about
125 mm (5") of steel support. The top bearing is of sealed nickel-plated food grade
materials since it comes in contact with the leaf crop. About 95 mm (3 3/4 ") above the
top bearing a blade is mounted on a stainless steel hub that is fixed to the shaft with 2
Allen screws set at 90 from each other.
The blunt blades or hammers are a cross of high density nylon (Nylamid) 37.5 mm wide
X 12.5 thick mm X 338 mm long; (1 " , ", and 13 ") . The hitting surface of the
blades is covered with stainless steel of 16 gauge. This cover is bolted through the top of
the blade with 6.25 mm (1/4") stainless steel bolts with lock or pressure washers. The
stainless steel cover gives much greater abrasion resistance to the blades without the
weight of solid stainless steel blades.
The PVC cylinder sits on the very inside edge of the frame, and is held in place by four
4" angles extending from the corners of the frame. Two 7.75 mm (5/16") bolts with wing
nuts prevented the cylinder from vibrating. We use a cylindrical galvanized sheet metal
feed hopper. It is a 425 mm (17") in diameter, and 400 mm (16") high; with a shallow
cone attached that ends with an 200 mm (8") opening about 100 mm (4") over the center
of the blades.
It is necessary to pass the leaves through the macerator twice in order to achieve adequate
cell rupture. Tests in Mexico using alfalfa indicate that with two passes the
macerator grinds the leaves about as well as a 5 gallon liquidizer, and it does so in
considerably less time. The macerator doesn't require precutting the leaf crop, a time
consuming step that is necessary with many small-scale leaf pulpers. Alfalfa 70 cm (28")
long passed through without problem. The macerator also eliminates the handling of
liquid that is necessary with the 5-gallon liquidizer.
This macerator can pulp over 100 kg of leaves per hour even with two passes. A bit of
experience is needed before workers can match the flow of leaf crop into the macerator
with the machine's capacity for maximum throughput. This is especially true on the

second pass where big clumps of pulp can overload the motor. A third pass improved the
yield of LC further, but is probably justified only where leaf crop is very expensive.
We are still testing this machine and it is quite likely that the exact configuration of the
blades, blade speed, cylinder size, feed hopper, and motor capacity that we recommend
will be adjusted as we learn more about this machine. However, a few patterns emerged
that were quite consistent. Adding water to the pulp always improved yield, though it
doubled cooking time and fuel consumption. This is a technique where water equivalent
to of the volume of the leaf pulp is mixed with the pulp and allowed to sit for about ten
minutes before pressing The higher the blade speed and the slower the feed rate, the
higher the yield was. Very high blade speeds led to unacceptable vibration and noise.

5. Press as much juice as possible from the pulped

leaves
After the fresh leaves are ground up or pulped the juice must be separated from the
indigestible fiber. This is usually accomplished by pushing the pulp against a fine screen
or a filter cloth that allows most of the juice to pass through but holds back the pieces of
fiber. A thin layer of pulp (less than 4 cm [1"] works far better than a thicker layer.
When a thicker layer of pulp is pressed much of the juice from the center of the layer
tends to be reabsorbed by the drier pulp at the edge of the layer. Some of the large protein
molecules are also filtered out when the leaf juice must pass through a thick layer of
compacted pulp to escape. This lowers the yield of leaf concentrate. Very high pressure
is unnecessary and can complicate things by clogging filters. A pressure of 2 kg per cm
(30 lb. per inch) applied over a layer of leaf pulp that is initially 2.5 cm (1") thick for ten
seconds is usually adequate. Pressures as low as one third of this can be effective if the
pulp is reoriented and pressed a second time. After pressing it should not be possible to
get more than a drop or two of liquid from the fiber when it is squeezed in your fist.
Below is some information on the juice press that we currently recommend using in
projects that process between 100 kg and less than 500 kg of leaf crop per day. Some of
the other machines that have been used to press leaf juice are described in the section on
other processing equipment, page 153. Drawings of several of the presses described are
in the appendix.

The Hydraulic Jack Press Table

The hydraulic jack press table works by spreading a layer of pulped leaves over 60 X 60
cm (24" X 24") surface, 3-5 cm (1-2") deep and applying pressure over that area with a
12 - 20 ton hydraulic truck jack. After the juice is pressed out, the jack and the wooden
press plate it sits on are returned to their original position with 2 stout springs. It is worth
trying to get the jack set for the minimum return that will allow the pulped leaves to slide
underneath. This will reduce the time consuming effort of using the jack handle to bring

the press plate into contact with the leaf pulp. The press plate should be covered with thin
stainless steel or galvanized sheet metal.
A table is built with 2" thick
wood under a galvanized tray that
has 2 - 4 layers of rabbit cage wire
fence or some plastic fencing
material on top to allow the leaf
juice to run off freely. It is worth
having a good jack that can be
easily rebuilt. Enerjac, HeinWerner, and Lincoln make
professional quality 12-ton bottle
jacks that are available in the US.
Jacks may need to have air bled
out of them every three months.
Most jacks have a rubber nipple
that can be removed for this
purpose.
The galvanized tray is large enough to hold two 60 X 60 cm (24" X 24") wooden frames
that have 62 mm (1/4") woven wire mesh (hardware cloth) fixed to their bottom side.
This allows the press operator to fill one tray while the other is being pressed. The tray
needs to be inclined enough for the juice to flow freely into a bucket.
The complete press table cost about $350-400 US built in Mexico. With a little practice it
does a good job pressing loads of 6 kg of leaves. It has a capacity of about 50 - 75 kg per
hour. For projects processing over 200 kg of leaf per day a motorized version of this
press, described on page 155 may be more appropriate.

Strain the Leaf Juice

The leaf juice should be strained through a screen or cloth before heating to remove
particles of fiber. If a significant amount of fiber is left in the leaf juice the appearance
and the nutritional composition of the concentrate will be somewhat altered. Small
amounts of fiber are usually not a problem in the diets of adults. For children in
developing countries whose diet is already high in fiber, however, fiber can aggravate
diarrhea and make some nutrients more difficult to absorb.

6. Heat the juice rapidly to the boiling point.

Leaf concentrate is separated from the leaf juice by coagulating the protein. When the
protein coagulates many other nutrients are pulled together in this curd. The most
effective way to coagulate the protein in leaf juice is to heat it rapidly. While the leaf
curd or concentrate will form by the time the leaf juice reaches 65 C (147 F), it is very

important to continue heating the juice to the boiling point. This serves several purposes,
including:
- pasteurization of the leaf concentrate to kill most harmful microorganisms that
may have been on the leaves from the soil or from handling.
- destruction of enzymes in leaf juice that can lead to off flavors, and more rapid
deterioration of the concentrate, as well as to the formation of pheophorbides. These
substances can cause sensitivity to light and allergic reactions in some people.
- formation of a firmer curd that is much easier to separate from the leaf juice
than the soft curd that forms in juice that is not heated to boiling.
Heating should be as rapid as possible. Heating slowly will cause a reduction in yield. It
also causes the curd to be soft and fine textured. This type of curd is undesirable because
it seals up filter cloths that are used to separate the curd from the remaining liquid
("whey"). Slow heating also results in greater fuel costs, as more heat is lost to the air. It
is not necessary to keep the leaf juice at a boiling temperature. Holding the juice at the
boiling point for more than a few seconds will cause some loss of vitamins as well as
greater fuel costs, without providing any benefits.
The simplest way to heat leaf
juice, and the method we use
most often in small projects, is
to put it in a large shallow pan
over a hot flame. This is a very
familiar process to peasant
women who generally bring
liquids to a boil over fires
several times a week. The pot
should have a top to conserve
heat.
Heavy gauge stainless steel is
the best material for the cook
pots to be made from in terms of
cleaning and not contaminating the juice. Aluminum pots are generally much cheaper and
more readily available than stainless steel. Light gauge pots of any material should be
avoided because there will be more problems with curd burning on the bottom of the pot.
Burning of curd can be greatly reduced by gently scraping across the bottom of the cook
pot a few times just before the juice reaches the boiling point. It may be helpful to use the
same amount of juice each time you heat so that you can time how long it takes to come
to a boil. For example in Mexico we have been heating about 18 liters in a 30-liter pot. It
takes about 13 minutes to come to a boil using a high-pressure gas burner. We can use an
inexpensive kitchen timer set at 11 minutes so that we don't have to constantly watch the
pot. When the timer buzzes someone will take off the lid and begin gently scraping the
bottom of the pot. This prevents boiling over, and reduces burning curd and unnecessary
fuel use.

Gas fires are sometimes not hot enough for efficient curd formation. This may be due to
a regulator keeping the pressure too low or to low quality gas. A local person
experienced in gas fittings should be consulted to make sure the fittings, hose and burners
are all compatible with high pressure gas. Heating time can sometimes be shortened and
fuel use lowered by protecting the flame from breezes with a metal skirt. This is
especially true if heating is being done in a partially open workshop. It is important to
make sure the flame is well distributed over the bottom of the pot, not concentrated in
one small circle. Raising or lowering the pot relative to the flame can insure that the
maximum heat is reaching the cook pot. If the gas flame is yellow the air intake setting
needs to be adjusted for more efficient burning.
Wood fires frequently burn at too low a temperature for good coagulation of leaf juice. If
you are using wood fires and the juice is taking a long time to come to a boil or the curd
is very soft and fine textured, the flame may not be hot enough. The heat of wood fires
can often be increased by:
- using drier wood
- splitting the wood into smaller pieces
- increasing the air flow through the combustion area. This can be done by
enlarging the air opening or by using a small fan to bring air to the fire.
Whenever the heating of the leaf juice is done inside it is important that the room be well
ventilated. Smoke and carbon monoxide can build up from burning in an enclosed area.
Wood stoves need to have a vent pipe or chimney of some type to draw the smoke out of
the room.
Two other techniques have been employed in heating leaf juice. These are steam injection
and trickling the leaf juice into water held near the boiling point. Steam injection is used
on larger scale operations such as the France Lucerne plant that handles many tons of
alfalfa per hour. It is probably not worthwhile on village scale operations. Some workers
for small-scale leaf concentrate production have advocated trickling juice into a pot of
water.
The idea is to trickle leaf juice in at a rate that will never lower the water temperature
below 80 C. A curd forms almost immediately and floats to the surface. It can then be
floated down an overflow into a container below. The advantages of this system over
heating in a pot are that it is continuous and that the curd never burns because it doesn't
stay in contact with the bottom of the pan. The drawbacks are that it is more difficult to
arrange and coordinate and that the juice is not heated as conclusively to the boiling
point, thus pasteurization is not as thorough.
Curd can be obtained from leaf juice without using heat in a number of ways. These
include centrifuging, ultra-filtration, fermentation, and acidification. None of these
techniques appears to be superior to heat except in specific laboratory circumstances. In
village leaf concentrate program heat is clearly the preferred way to coagulate leaf juice.

7. Separate the curd that forms in the heated juice in a

tightly woven cloth.
After the leaf juice reaches the boiling point it should be removed from the heat and
allowed to stand for a few minutes to cool. Leaving the curd a few minutes in the hot
liquid assures better pasteurization with no further fuel costs. Letting the liquid cool a bit
before separating the curd reduces the chances of workers being scalded from hot liquid.
The cook pot should never be filled completely, especially if it is going to be moved
while there is hot liquid in it. If the quantity of juice heated at one time is fairly small
(under 20 liters) it can be handled by two workers pouring the entire contents of the cook
pot through a filter cloth of tergel type material. This cloth can be supported by a 60 X 60
cm (2' X 2') wooden frame that has 62mm (1/4") woven wire mesh (hardware cloth) fixed
to its bottom side. This can be identical to, and serve as a backup for the tray used in the
hydraulic jack press. This frame can be set on a washtub so that the "whey" will pass
through the cloth and be collected in the tub. The relatively large surface area and open
weave of the cloth will allow the "whey" to drain freely from the curd. The curd is then
placed in a more tightly woven cloth, like the cotton-polyester twill below, and pressed to
remove as much "whey" as possible.
If more than 20 liters of leaf juice is being heated at a time it will be necessary to use a
custom built cook pot with a valve that can allow the "whey" to be drained off after the
curd is scooped out. It has been easier for us to use rectangular than round pots for larger
quantities of liquid.
A rectangular scoop similar to those used for removing foods from deep fryer can be
used to remove the curd. It should be covered with a metal screening material about as
finely woven as normal insect screen. The scoop can be made to barely fit inside the
narrow dimension of the cook pot, so that almost all the curd can be removed by dragging
the scoop the length of the pot then raising it. You may want two handles rather than one
for easier handling. You can arrange for the scoop to drain for a few minutes above the
cook pot after the curd has been removed. This type of arrangement is common for
draining grease from deep fried foods. The valve for this type of a cook pot must be at
least one inch in diameter and easy to clean. The curd from the scoop can be then put into
the twill type cloth for thorough pressing.
By far the easiest way we have found to press the "whey" from the curd is to spread it in
a layer not more than 2.5 cm (1") deep on the twill cloth and press it in the hydraulic
press table. The process is the same as the pressing of the juice from the fiber except that
twill is used instead of tergel cloth and the pressure must be applied a bit slower and held
for a bit longer. After being pressed the curd should be crumbly and contain about 60%
moisture.

8. What remains in the cloth is LEAF

CONCENTRATE

Filter Cloth
Pressing the juice from the pulped leaves and pressing the "whey" from the curd require
a mesh or filter of some type to keep the solids on one side and allow the liquids to pass
through. We have found cloth to be the cheapest and easiest way to do this. We
generally use a synthetic cloth like polyester Tergel for separating juice from leaf pulp
and finely woven cotton - polyester blend twill for separating "whey" from curd. The
Tergel also works for the initial straining of curd from "whey" and for drying trays.

PRESERVING LEAF CONCENTRATE

Washing the Curd
Washing leaf concentrate is sometimes recommended as a means of reducing strong
flavors and slowing down the growth of molds. Often a strong unpleasant flavor in leaf
curd is due to soluble compounds that have not been adequately pressed out. To wash
fresh LC it should well mixed in ten times its volume of clean water. It is next stirred
well and allowed to stand for 10-15 minutes. It is then separated and pressed in exactly
the same way, as it was when the curd was separated from the heated leaf juice. The
stability of the curd may be improved by adding 5% salt to the water used to wash the
curd or by adding enough acid to lower the water pH to around 4. Washing adds an
additional step in the process, plus the expense of salt or acid if they are used. It also can
reduce the B vitamins that are available in the curd. Where strong flavors are not a
problem and the leaf curd is used or preserved soon after being made, this step is usually
not recommended. If you are having trouble with strong flavored curd or rapid molding,
try washing the curd.

Why Preserve Curd?

There are numerous reasons for wanting to preserve leaf concentrate. In most locations
production of leaf crop is greater at some times of the year than others. In the tropics
there is often a wet season with good leaf production and a dry season with poor leaf
growth. In cooler climates there is frequently a season when cold weather severely limits
leaf growth. Preserving leaf concentrate from the periods of maximum growth allows
you to continue with child feeding programs or sales of products throughout the offseason. Sometimes you may want to use preserved leaf concentrate when repairs are
being made on machinery, changes being made at the workshop, or workers unable to
work for whatever reason. Having some preserved leaf concentrate on hand is good
insurance against such short term problems as running out of gas or the electric being out
for a couple of days. If your program can continue to deliver leaf concentrate despite

these inevitable problems, people who may have been suspicious of the program's value,
will often come to respect your dependability. Where several small nutrition intervention
programs are linked, it may make economic sense to produce all the concentrate at the
site with the best conditions and to distribute preserved LC from there to the other sites.
This will often mean lower costs for feeding programs than running several very small
LC production sites using fresh leaf curd.

How To Preserve Leaf Curd

Fortunately, there are easy ways to preserve leaf concentrate. A few basic principles
apply to all of these methods. The leaf concentrate should be preserved as soon as
possible after it is made because bacterial action will begin quickly. Remember that the
rich nutrient content that makes leaf concentrate so beneficial for humans also promotes
rapid growth of many microorganisms. Leaf concentrate should be stored in a container
that is as airtight as possible, and it should always be stored in a location that is cool, dry,
and out of direct sunlight.
A system of marking the dates that the leaf concentrate was preserved will help you to
rotate your stock. This way you will use older leaf concentrate first and avoid having
some go to waste because it is stored for too long. How long it can be stored is not an
exact science. It will depend on the methods used and the percentage of moisture in the
curd, as well as the condition in which it is stored.
No matter how long leaf concentrate has been stored it is a good idea to smell it and
examine it closely before using it. If it smells of rotted vegetation or has any visible signs
of mold on it don't use it.
Below are some easy formulas for preserving leaf concentrate that are possible without
expensive equipment. For each kilogram of fresh leaf concentrate (at 60% moisture) you
wish to preserve, mix with:

2 kg sugar + 1 liter lemon

juice
(blend leaf curd and juice together
at high speed then add sugar to
make a lemonade syrup that will
keep)
OR

2 kg sugar + 1 liter water

+ 40 grams salt
(salt helps preserve LC and
reduces settling when syrup is
mixed with water)

OR

2 kg sugar + 1 liter water + 40 grams salt

(salt helps preserve LC and reduces settling when syrup is mixed with water)
OR

2 kg sugar + 1 liter water + 40 grams salt + 1600 mg vitamin C

(This is a syrup formula we've used succesfully in Nicaragua. Vitamin C, or ascorbic
acid, is an antioxidant that helps preserve LC; it also makes the iron in LC easier for the
body to utilize. This will provide about 25 mg vitamin C per 15 grams of LC)

OR

2 kg sugar
(to make a paste that can be added to many sweet foods and drinks.)
The rule of thumb: for each kg of water you need 3 kgs of sugar. So 1 kg of LC at 60%
moisture contains 600 grams of water and needs to have 1800 grams of sugar added to
preserve it
OR

200 grams salt

(This can be mixed and stored in airtight plastic bag, or layered and store in brine like
sauerkraut. The salt needs to be washed off before it is eaten). It is important to note
that while salt can be a fairly easy and inexpensive means of preserving leaf concentrate,
that much of the beta-carotene can be destroyed if the mixture of LC and salt is exposed
to air for any length of time. The very thin polyethylene bags available in many
developing countries are generally not an adequate barrier for keeping out air. Heavier
plastic bags (1.75 mil and thicker) will work better but are much more expensive, and not
widely available. The beta-carotene is important because it is converted to vitamin A in
the body.
OR

50 grams pure acetic or propionic acid

(these are harder to find and handle and usually more expensive)
OR

2-4 kg wheat, corn, millet or rice flour

(then dry to less than 10% moisture)
OR

Leaf concentrate can be dried alone

Drying LC has been a discouraging business and we have not encouraged
some projects to work in that direction. In much of the tropics peak leaf yields coincide
with very wet weather, which makes drying in outdoor trays very difficult. Drying leaf
concentrate can be tricky. The drawbacks of drying are that it tends to case harden, so
there are particles of leaf concentrate that are very dry on the outside but still moist on the
inside. These appear to be dry but can gradually wick moisture to the surface and mold in
storage. Dried leaf concentrate can be a difficult food to work into recipes. It is often like
adding sand into foods. If it is dried at too high a temperature the protein quality can be
damaged. If it is dried too slowly, there is more chance of bacterial contamination or
mold. It can turn an unappealing greenish black color when dried, and a grassy flavor
can become stronger.
On the positive side, it is possible to make a good quality dried leaf concentrate
with an inexpensive drying setup and a little extra care. There are a few things that make
successful drying of leaf concentrate much easier. The most important is starting with
very well pressed curd. Leaf curd that is well pressed in a closely woven cloth should be
crumbly. If you can take a pinch of leaf concentrate and smear it on the palm of your
hand like finger paint it is not well enough pressed. It should roll up and leave your hand
clean. Well-pressed curd will dry more quickly with less case hardening than wetter curd.

Granulating the Pressed Curd

One of the important factors in drying LC is how finely broken up it is
beforehand. We had some problem with case hardening and mold in Nicaragua. We were
just crumbling up the curd in our hands and some of the particles were larger than others.
Granulating the LC by pushing it through an insect screen gives a uniform finely divided
curd that grinds up easily when dried. The screen needs to be backed by hardware cloth
or some kind of stronger wire mesh or the screen will pull loose from rubbing the curd
through it. It is a fairly time consuming process that would need to be modified for 10-25
kg per day LC production. Pushing the curd through 1/4" hardware cloth is very fast but
leaves pieces of curd large enough for case hardening.
Passing the curd into a 5 gallon blender twice for a few seconds each time, breaks most of
the curd up as finely as granulating, but a few bigger pieces need to be sifted out and re-

blended. Workers at the University of Wisconsin reported better drying rates when the
curd is driven through 3/16" holes in a dieplate on a meat grinder before drying. We have
not tried this technique yet. It may be useful when drying curd that is quite moist (70%
moisture) or when more than a thin layer is put on a tray or rack.
We tried granulating the curd with the macerator as well. It required two passes and we
needed a plastic skirt to prevent the granulated curd from bouncing and blowing out of
the washtub below the macerator. It was dramatically faster and easier than the manual
granulator. The curd needs to be well pressed for this to work. In Mexico, we are
recommending that the curd from the previous day be granulated in the macerator first
thing in the morning when the machine is clean and dry, and then the maximum sunshine
would be available for drying during the day.
There are many different types of food dryers that could be used to dry leaf concentrate.
Described below are the simplest, least expensive ones that we've had success with in
Mexico and Nicaragua. Some other types of food dryers are described in the chapter on
"Other Leaf Concentrate Processing Equipment".

Tray or Rack Dryers

We have been using large trays or racks covered with finely woven synthetic fiber for
drying LC in a few locations. Cloth such as nylon curtain material that is open enough to
allow the passage of air is ideal for making drying racks. The dried curd comes off
synthetic cloth more cleanly than it does from cotton. This cloth can be stretched tightly
over wooden frames. The corners of the frames should be braced to maintain rigidity.
The leaf concentrate is spread in a thin even layer on the frames at a rate of one to two
kilograms per square meter (1/4 - 1/2 pound per square foot). Trays of under 1 meter (39
X 39") on each side can be loaded, moved and emptied fairly easily by a single person.
Our larger trays 180 X 85 cm (72 X 34") were difficult to handle. The worst trays were
this size with a cross brace across the middle that made them almost impossible to empty
without spilling some of the dried LC.

Simple Solar
The simplest way to use these racks is to put them outside where the sun shines all day.
They can be set up on bricks or blocks to allow the free movement of air underneath. It is
essential that the racks be covered in such a way that the heat from the sun reaches the
drying curd but the light from the sun does not. Direct sunlight will quickly destroy the
beta-carotene (pro-vitamin A) in leaf concentrate. It is possible to stack drying racks on
top of each other in such a way that each provides shading for rack below. Then only the
top rack needs a cover. Of course, this gives the trays less exposure to the sun's heat than
if they are spread out only one tray deep. Tightly woven black cotton cloth works well for
blocking the ultraviolet rays while absorbing the solar heat.

A somewhat more
expensive dryer can be
built in place. A light
wooden frame box roughly
2 meters X 2 meters (c. 78
X 78") is inclined from c.
50 cm to 20 cm (20 to 8")
to shed water. It is covered
with 4 mil clear
polyethylene supported
with wire poultry netting.
Trays with granulated leaf
concentrate spread at
approximately 2 kg per m
(c. lb per square foot) were slid into frames about 10 cm (4") below the polyethylene.
The same trays were used but they were covered with black cotton cloth to protect the
leaf curd from sunlight. The sides had removable sheet metal panels that allowed the
trays to be slid in or out. It was not airtight and the only airflow was what came through
small incidental openings in the box.
This was a very effective dryer. It quickly reached temperatures of 50 -55C. In a
comparison test we dried 2 kg per meter granulated LC (64% moisture) for 2 hours at
28 C air temperature on each of the dryers. On this dryer the LC was 13% moisture after
2 hours. Ultraviolet resistant polyethylene film would be good as the more common
film that we used photo degrades in less than one year. UV resistant film would probably
have to be imported.
We used the same principle of letting the sun pass through the clear plastic film to heat
up black cotton cloth stretched over the curd, but in a much simpler and cheaper
arrangement. Plastic film was attached to one side of a wooden frame 180 X 85 cm (72 X
34") and black cloth stretched across the other side. This frame was simply placed over a
drying tray (which was made with fine weave tergel polyester cloth) loaded with
granulated LC and supported by bricks at the corners. After 2 hours the LC was 21%
moisture. It heated up to 40 - 45. The airflow below the drying tray was significantly
greater than in the box and may have been partly responsible for the lower temperatures
and slower drying. These frames are simple, cheap, and mobile, and stackable.

Grinding and Storing Dried Leaf Concentrate

For leaf concentrate to store well it should be dried to less than 10% moisture then sealed
in an airtight container out of sunlight. Thin plastic bags will allow too much oxygen to
pass through to the dried curd. Without a moisture meter it is somewhat difficult to tell if
your concentrate is dry enough. You can do a rough moisture test on a small amount by
putting 100 grams of the air dried concentrate in a very low oven (100 C [220 F]) for
12 hours and weighing the difference. For rough tests I dry a sample until it seems to be
very dry then weigh it. Then I dry it for another 15 minutes and put it back on the

balance. If there is no measurable difference in weight, this can be considered to be the

dry weight. You will need a fairly accurate gram balance to do this.
The dried leaf concentrate is far easier to use later if you can grind it to a very fine
powder. It will have a lighter green color and incorporate much better in recipes if it is
ground nearly as fine as flour. Dried LC that is not ground very finely will leaves foods
with an unpleasant gritty texture. The high protein content of LC makes for very hard
particles when it is dried. If dried LC is not ground very finely some of it may pass
through the body as particles without being fully digested and absorbed. So fine grinding
will also make it easier for the body to utilize the nutrients in dried leaf concentrate.
You may need to sift it through a fine cloth to make sure it is all finely ground. We have
found that it is difficult to grind dried LC finely enough with the inexpensive hand
operated flour mills available in many developing countries. Commercial grinders are
reluctant to grind LC because some of it will remain in the mill and give flour a greenish
hue for a while. The most effective tool I have found for grinding dried LC is an electric
mill with stainless steel heads made in the US. It is called MagicMill and retails for
about $240 US. Their address is in the resource section in the rear of this manual. Be
sure to specify whether you want a 60 HZ (US and Central America) or 50 HZ (most of
the rest of the world) motor. They are very loud and quite slow. These mills will grind a
kilogram of dried LC in about 20 minutes. However you grind dried LC, try to avoid
breathing the fine green dust that is made in the process. Putting the grinder inside a
plastic washtub with a wooden top and a cloth airvent made the grinder far quieter and
eliminated the dust problem. We are still looking for a better solution to the problem of
grinding dried LC.
Finely ground dried LC works well in most recipes. Generally if you use one third as
much dried LC as fresh and add two parts of water you have approximated the fresh LC.
So that 1 kg dried LC plus 2 liters water is roughly equivalent to 3 kg fresh LC. Dried
LC has not worked well in drink mixes. It settles too quickly even when finely ground.
Most drinks are sweet enough so that sugar preservation of the fresh LC is a better
option.

The Basics of Drying LC

1. Start with very well pressed curd (c. 60% moisture)
2. Granulate the curd to get small uniform sized particles
and increase the ratio of surface area to weight
3. Expose the granulated curd to heat . 50 C [120 F] is
ideal, 60C [140F]) is the maximum
4. Expose the granulated curd to moving air to remove the
moisture that evaporates from the surface of the LC
5. Dry the LC as quickly as possible after it is made
6. Protect the drying LC from sunlight, blowing dust, insects,
and rodents
7. Dry to below 10% moisture. If you're not sure, finish
drying it in an oven at a very low temperature
8. Grind as finely as possible
9. Store in thick, well sealed plastic bags, with as much air
removed as possible; in a cool dark place

SECTION II

NUTRITION
People whose diet provides their body with a regular and adequate supply of the 40
nutrients essential for growth and health are said to be well-nourished. Those whose
diets fall short on one or more of these essential nutrients are malnourished. Malnutrition
is the biggest health problem in the world. The World Health Organization estimates that
730,000,000 children in the world are currently malnourished. In Mexico it is estimated
that 1 child in 3 is malnourished.
Malnourished children are smaller and weaker than their peers. They have more frequent
and more severe intestinal and respiratory infections, and they take longer to recover
from them. Their attention span is shorter and their ability to concentrate or remember
things is less than that of well nourished children. Their life expectancy is shorter. In
severe cases, they suffer permanent mental and physical damage in their first tender years
of life from a lack of enough food. In a world where the struggle to succeed can be very
tough, they begin life at a tremendous disadvantage, through no fault of their own.
The suffering and loss of human potential from malnutrition is unnecessary. Malnutrition
is preventable in much the same way that smallpox and polio are. While there is no
vaccine against malnutrition, the same creative forces that developed the vaccines and the
same determination that makes sure children are vaccinated against crippling diseases can
free our children from the plague of malnutrition. Leaf concentrate can be a powerful
tool in the effort to defeat malnutrition.
While a lack of any one of 40 essential nutrients can cause a specific deficiency disease,
malnutrition almost always involves an under supply of many nutrients, chief among
them:

protein
energy or calories
iron
vitamin A
calcium
iodine
folic acid
vitamin E
Lets take a closer look at these nutrients and the role they play in the human body, and at
what foods supply them best.

PROTEIN:
Proteins are the basic building blocks of life. They are needed daily to build and repair
muscles, maintain healthy brain cells, and for a wide range of enzymes and hormones that
are involved in everything from digestion to sexual response and emotions. Proteins are
especially important to young children and pregnant and lactating mothers. Children
under 14 months can suffer permanent mental retardation from an inadequate supply of
protein. Proteins are also very important when recovering from an illness or injury. Other
nutrients, especially vitamin A, will not be fully utilized if the diet doesn't have sufficient
protein.
Below several common foods are grouped by how much protein they contain.

Highest

High

Good

Fair

Poor

Soy

Leaf
Concentrate
Chicken
Fish
Pork

Beans

Wheat

Cassava

Milk

Corn
Rice
Millet

Plantains
Potatoes
Sweet
Potatoes
Yams
Taro
Fruit

Beef
Cheese
Eggs
-

Not only is the amount of protein important to us, but also the quality of that protein. The
form of protein in some foods like milk and eggs is in a form that is more useful to us
than the protein in corn or beans. This means we need to eat more grams of protein from
corn or beans to have the same benefit to the body as the protein from milk or eggs.

Below several common foods are grouped according to the quality of their
protein.

Highest

High

Good

Fair

Poor

Eggs

Leaf
Concentrate
Meat
Fish
Seafood

Soy

Wheat

Corn

Rice

Beans

Gelatin
Peanuts

Milk

Generally speaking the protein from animal sources, i.e. meat, milk, or eggs, is of higher
quality than the protein from plants, i.e. beans, grains, or vegetables. One can improve
the quality of protein from plants by mixing them. For example, the traditional Mexican
mixture of corn and beans has a higher quality protein than either corn or beans alone.
The same is true with the traditional Indian meal of chapatis (wheat) and dahl (beans), or
the Chinese rice and soybeans, or the African millet and cowpeas. The protein in leaf
concentrate is an excellent complement to the protein found in corn, wheat, rice, or
millet.
Many people think that it is necessary to eat meat to receive an adequate supply of
protein. This is not true, as many studies of vegetarians have shown. People who eat
very little meat or other animal products like milk, eggs, or cheese, need to eat more
grams of protein and remember to mix them. Because meat ordinarily takes more land to
produce than grains or beans or vegetables, meat price will continue to be too high for
meat to play a major role in the diet of billions of people. Because of this it is very
important that we learn more about using vegetable proteins wisely.
Diets that are extremely rich in protein, especially protein from meat, have been strongly
linked to osteoporosis, a disease in which the bones becomes brittle from losing calcium
through the urine. Osteoporosis is prevalent among post-menopausal women, as the
female hormone estrogen, which protects the bodys calcium, is no longer produced in
sufficient quantity. Excessive protein in the diet is rarely a problem among low-income
groups in the developing world, as most protein sources are much more expensive than
foods rich in carbohydrates.

ENERGY:
Calories are a way to measure the energy in foods that power all human activity. Starches
and sugars are the most important sources of energy, followed by fats and oils, then by
alcohol. Carbohydrates and proteins have an energy value of about 4 Calories per gram,
while fats have about 9 Calories per gram. Fats are said to be denser in energy.
Sometimes weaning foods and foods for young children are too bulky for the energy that
they provide the child. A child will become full before he has eaten enough to meet his
energy needs. Water and fiber take up room in a child's stomach but do not supply
energy. Sometimes traditional coarse porridges will have too much water and fiber to be
adequate weaning foods.
The energy density of these foods can be improved by adding a small amount of oil or
fat. Vegetable oils are generally considered to be better for us than lard or other animal
fats like butter. These animal fats contain a lot of saturated fats and cholesterol, which
have been tied to hardening of the arteries and heart disease. Coconut oil is also
sometimes avoided because it is chemically more like animal fats than oils pressed from
soy, sesame, safflower, cottonseed, rape seed (canola) and olives. Palm oil, although rich
in saturated fats has been found to act more like vegetable oils that are rich in monounsaturated fats, such as soy and cottonseed oil. There is more information on porridges
as weaning foods in the recipe section of this manual.
Complex carbohydrates like corn, wheat, beans, potatoes or fruit are considered to be
healthier than refined sugar as energy sources for people. This is because they contain a
range of other nutrients and they burn more slowly, which delivers energy to the body at
a more consistent rate. Foods high in refined sugars, for example soft drinks, are
sometimes said to contain "empty Calories". In some parts of the developing world, like
urban Mexico, refined carbohydrates are making up a rapidly growing percentage of the
Calorie intake. When this happens a person will meet his Calorie requirement long before
reaching recommended intakes for several other nutrients. He must then either over
consume Calories to meet his other needs and become obese, or become deficient in one
or more essential nutrients.
A child who is not getting enough Calories in his diet will typically sit quietly and be
apathetic while other children play. His body is trying to conserve the limited supply of
fuel for more essential activities like breathing and pumping blood. A child who is not
getting enough Calories from carbohydrates, fats and oils will burn up valuable proteins
for fuel. Fresh leaf concentrate has about the same number of calories as an equal weight
of chicken or eggs, but because it is usually eaten in rather small portions, it is not an
important source of Calories.

IRON:
Iron deficiency anemia is the most common nutritional disease in the world. Especially
at risk are women of childbearing age, who need extra iron for menstruation, pregnancies,
and lactation; and young children, who need extra iron for rapid growth. UNICEF
estimates 50% of the children in developing countries (c.500 million children) and 60%
of the pregnant women in these countries suffer from iron deficiency anemia. The World
Health Organization considers young children with hemoglobin counts below 11.0 g/dl or
older children and adults with values below 12.0 g/dl to be anemic. Whenever blood is
lost, as with wounds, hookworm, malaria, internal bleeding as with ulcers, menstruation
or childbirth, iron needs go up significantly.
The body needs iron to make hemoglobin, which enables our blood to carry oxygen to
every part of our bodies. When the supply of iron is low we can't carry enough oxygen to
our cells to burn the fuel efficiently. When this happens we feel tired. Anemic children
are smaller and grow more slowly than those with normal hemoglobin levels. They have
less energy for playing or learning. Their mental development may be retarded and their
attention span reduced. Their immune response is depressed, which leaves them more
vulnerable to infections.
When women are anemic during their pregnancies,
as the majority in developing countries are, their
babies are more likely to be born prematurely or
underweight. A woman whose diet is marginal in
iron intake who has children closely spaced will
often suffer from severe anemia. This can make her
lethargic and apathetic and less able to care for her
children. These babies are born with low iron stores
in their livers and often become very anemic
themselves before they are old enough to absorb
adequate iron from the food they eat. These
families have a high risk of severe health problems
and should be a top priority in leaf concentrate
programs.
As with protein, we must consider both the quantity
and the quality of iron in the diet. Much the same as
protein, animal based foods tend to be richer in both
the quantity and quality of iron than plant based
foods. However, as is the case with protein, it is
very possible to get an excellent supply of iron from
plant sources if one has a little information on the subject. Almost all diets contain more
iron than the body needs. The problem is that most of the iron is poorly absorbed. Some
of the iron in meat, fish, and poultry (heme iron) is quite well utilized, but the iron in
grains, beans, and vegetables, and the remaining iron in animal based foods (non-heme
iron) is very poorly absorbed. Because meat production yields less food per hectare than

grains, beans, and vegetables; meat products are usually too expensive for poor families
in developing countries to buy. As a result the women and young families in these
families suffer from very high rates of iron deficiency.
A chart in the appendix summarizes a study of anemic children in Bolivia that were given
six grams of dried leaf concentrate five days a week for five months. The leaf
concentrate costs about 5 cents per serving or about 5 dollars per child for the entire time.
The leaf concentrate is especially effective when combined with a source of vitamin C,
such as citrus fruit.
Anemia in adults lowers productivity and capacity to do work. This, of course, affects
their ability to earn an adequate income and increases the likelihood that their children
will be malnourished. Increasingly we see that anemia is implicated in a vicious cycle of
malnutrition and poverty. Reversing anemia is a sound investment. A study in Indonesia,
reported in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, showed than an iron supplement
to anemic workers improved productivity an average of 15-25%. This meant a return of
$260 for each $1 spent on the supplements.
Below are some common foods grouped by iron content.

Highest

High

Good

Fair

Poor

Leaf Concentrate
Liver

Beef
Pork
Eggs

Fish
Chicken
Greens
Beans

Corn
Mangoes

Rice
Milk

* Please note that milk, while an animal product, contains almost no iron.
In some areas certain products are enriched with iron. Flour, bread, macaroni, and baby
formulas are often fortified with iron. Find out if any common foods are fortified where
you live and if low-income families regularly eat these products.
The absorption of non-heme (plant) iron is even worse when a meal contains a lot of
bran, the fibrous part of grains. Tannin, which is found in tea, also makes non-heme iron
more difficult to absorb. Deficiencies of other nutrients can aggravate anemia. Most
Folic Acid
important of these are:
Protein
Vitamin A
Vitamin B-6
Riboflavin
Copper

The presence of meat in a meal makes the non-heme iron much more usable; but as was
pointed out earlier meat is usually too expensive to be eaten by the poor. Ascorbic acid
or Vitamin C also makes non-heme iron more useful to the human body. The study from
Bolivia shows this relationship. Basically, the absorption of non-heme iron is considered
to be four times as great in a diet containing 90 grams of meat or 75 mg of Vitamin C, as
in a diet with less than 30 grams of meat or 25 mg of Vitamin C.
This is a very important consideration. It is often easier, cheaper, and more effective to
add vitamin C, than to add more iron to the diet. Roughly speaking, a woman consuming
over 75 mg of vitamin C will need only 1/4 as much iron as a woman consuming less
than 30 mg of vitamin C; if the iron is from non-animal sources. Unfortunately the
vitamin C in leaf juice is destroyed when it is heated, so leaf concentrate contains very
little of this vitamin. We can compensate for this, however, by adding lemon juice or
other sources of vitamin C. Leaf concentrate lemonade is therefore an extremely useful
food for women and children suffering from anemia. Other good sources of vitamin C
are guavas, other citrus fruits, fresh tomatoes, dark green vegetables, and other fruits and
fruit juices.

Vitamin C Content of some

Tropical Fruits

Fruit

mgs. Vitamin C
per 100 grams
1,677
183
136
129
98
81
77
69
61
61
56
53
53
42
38
37
36
30
30
27
21
15
15
14
10
10
10
10
9
4

Acerola
Guava
Orange Peel
Lemon Peel
Kiwi
Longans
Lemon (whole with peel)
Jujube
Papaya
Pummelo
Strawberry
Orange
Lemon (without peel)
Cantaloup
Grapefruit
Kumquats
Mulberries
Tangarine
Passionfruit
Mangos*
Starfruit (Carambola)
Pineapple
Sapodillar (Manilkar zapota)
Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.)
Apricots
Grapes
Watermelon
Cooked Plaintains
Bananas
Tamarinds

* Mangoes are considerably richer in vitamin C when slightly unripe.

Some vegetables are also good sources of vitamin C. For example, 100 grams of fresh
kale contains about as much vitamin C as an equal weight of guavas. Part of the vitamin
C is lost when vegetables are cooked. A study of leafy vegetables in Sri Lanka showed
that on average the vegetables lost 32% of their vitamin C in five minutes of boiling and
54% in ten minutes. Steaming resulted in losses of 15% in five minutes and 39% in ten.

Small amounts of meat, especially organ meats, also help the body to absorb iron from
non-animal sources. To be effective the vitamin C or meat must be eaten in the same
meal as the iron source. The small amount of iron that enters our food from steel or iron
food processing equipment is generally beneficial. A small amount of rust from iron
cook pots may also be somewhat beneficial where iron deficiency anemia is prevalent.
Recent studies from Scandinavia have indicated that high levels of iron, especially in
adult men may be a factor in heart disease. Men who are heavy meat eaters are more
likely to be at risk. These studies will need further confirmation before they are used for
general dietary recommendations.

VITAMIN A:
Vitamin A is essential for good vision and for the body's protection against disease
organisms. People with low vitamin A intakes are more susceptible to several forms of
cancer. Vitamin A is essential to the health of the mucous membranes that line the
digestive and respiratory systems. This is the body's first line of defense against
infection. Studies in Indonesia have shown children with low levels of vitamin A to be
about 4 times as likely to suffer from diarrhea and respiratory infections as are children
with adequate vitamin A levels.
The classic symptom of serious vitamin A deficiency is night blindness. Any children
that have trouble seeing toys at dusk are probably somewhat deficient in vitamin A, and
should receive immediate vitamin A in some form. About 500,000 children under 5 years
of age go permanently blind from vitamin A deficiency in the world each year. Most of
these children die from infections within a few years of going blind. Leaf concentrate,
even in very small amounts, is extremely effective in combating vitamin A deficiency.
Actually, the vitamin A from plant sources is in the form of beta-carotene, which is
converted in our bodies to vitamin A. Vitamin A is stored in our livers so we don't need
to eat it every day. Food scientists have come to believe that the amount of vitamin A the
human body requires for optimum health is much greater than it was previously thought
to be. The new US Recommended Dietary Allowances have thus been greatly increased.
Leaf concentrate is so rich in beta-carotene that only 10 grams will meet the new higher
USRDA for vitamin A in a 4-6 year old child.

Some foods are grouped below according to their content of vitamin A.

Highest

High

Good

Fair

Poor

Leaf Concentrate

Dark Green
Vegetables
Carrots
Mangoes

Winter Squash

Meat

Rice

Eggs
Papaya

Fish

Milk*
Potatoes

Liver

* In some areas milk is fortified with Vitamin A.

CALCIUM:
Calcium is needed for strong bones and teeth. Low levels of calcium in the diet can lead
to brittle, poorly formed bones and easily decayed teeth. Calcium is very important in the
diets of older women, who often suffer from osteoporosis, or brittle bones. Osteoporosis
can determine whether a slip and fall causes a few bruises or crippling broken bones and
long periods of immobility.
Several foods are grouped below as sources of calcium.

Highest

High

Fair

Poor

Leaf Concentrate
Cheese

Dark Green Vegetables

Sesame Seeds
Milk**

Tortillas*
Beans
Meat

Rice
Corn
Fruit

* In Mexico and some parts of Central America corn tortillas and other corn products
make up a very large part of the peoples' diet. Traditionally, the corn is prepared by first
soaking it overnight in limewater. This process, called Nixtamalization, adds substantial
quantities of calcium to the diet.
** The majority of the adults in the world are, at least somewhat, lactose intolerant. This
means they are not able to digest lactose, the sugar in milk. There is more on this subject
in the "Discussion Topics" chapter.

IODINE
Iodine and folic acid are two other essential nutrients that are frequently deficient in the
diets of low-income people in developing countries. Iodine is needed to help us regulate
our metabolism, that is, how fast our engine runs and how quickly we burn up fuel. It is
abundant in fish, seafood, and seaweed. Whether plants contain adequate iodine depends
very much on how much iodine is in the soil. Many regions have soils that are depleted
in iodine. In these regions iodized salt, if available, is good protection against this
deficiency.
Plants from the cabbage family, including kale, collards, broccoli, and turnip greens
contain goitrogens, or substances that block the absorption of iodine. Cooking deactivates
these. Cows that are fed large quantities of forage kale can pass the goitrens on in their
milk, and children drinking this milk can become iodine deficient.

FOLIC ACID
Folic acid, sometimes referred to as folacin, helps us to use iron. It is often in short
supply in anemic people. Fresh green vegetables and wheat germ are excellent sources of
folic acid. Whole grains and leaf concentrate are good sources. Folic acid is sometimes
prescribed for pregnant women, as they are especially prone to the deficiency. Some
caution should be exercised in using folic acid supplements, however, because high levels
of folic acid can mask the symptoms of pernicious anemia, which is an inability to absorb
or utilize vitamin B-12 or cyanocobalamin. This is a fairly rare disorder.

VITAMIN E
Vitamin E is an antioxidant that protects the body from lipid peroxidation, an oxygen
reaction that turns cholesterol into more toxic forms implicated in hardening of the
arteries. It has also been shown to offer protection against some forms of cancer and to
improve general functioning of the immune system. The exact mechanisms by which
vitamin E works are not yet fully understood, but there is widespread agreement among
nutritional scientists that it is far more important to maintaining good health than was
previously thought.
Six grams of dried LC provides about 20% of the USRDA (United States Recommended
Daily Allowance) of vitamin E. Sunflower seeds, nuts, wheat germ, and vegetable oils,
such as soy, corn, and safflower are other excellent sources of vitamin E. This vitamin
does not occur in animal products.

SECTION III
AGRICULTURE
A successful leaf concentrate program will usually have three components of roughly
equal importance:
- producing the leaf crop
- processing the crop into leaf concentrate
- marketing or distributing the products
This section will address the first of these. In many projects the cost of the leaf crop
represents one half of the total cost of producing leaf concentrate. It is usually the
biggest single expense, and the most obvious place to look for ways to reduce production
costs. Insufficient supply of fresh leaf crop in top condition is a persistent problem at
most leaf concentrate projects.

WHO SHOULD GROW THE LEAF CROPS?

Often it has been assumed that local farmers would be producing forage crops that could
be used by projects, and the project would be able to purchase leaf crop from a
dependable local market. This has been the exception for several reasons. Even where a
suitable forage crop, such as alfalfa, is commercially grown, it may not be harvested in
such a way as to be available on a daily basis. In northern Mexico we have a project in an
area of large irrigated alfalfa fields that yield very well. However, almost all of the crop is
cut for hay. This means that 100 hectares may be available for leaf concentrate
production today and it will all be mowed for hay tomorrow. In some locations where
leaf concentrate could have a major benefit on malnutrition, there is no suitable forage
crop currently under commercial cultivation. This is the case in Nicaragua.
In Bareilly, India farmers had several concerns that dampened their enthusiasm for
growing leaf concentrate crops. Among these were the perception that the crops needed
to be weeded more often than other crops; that cutting a relatively small amount of leaves
each morning would ruin a small farmer's chance of securing day labor; and that
unfenced animal could eat the leaf crop.
Small leaf concentrate projects will rarely purchase enough crop to entice many farmers
to alter their normal growing and harvesting techniques. A project may decide the most
economical and dependable way to supply adequate leaf crop is to grow it themselves. Or
it may be possible to contract with a few farmers to supply the crop. Both approaches
have their pitfalls.
A group that is undertaking a leaf concentrate project will usually have its hands full with
processing and distribution of the leaf concentrate. Growing leaf crops brings in a new set
of work conditions and problems and may spread the project management too thinly.
Agricultural experience and skills are not quickly acquired and several groups have failed
miserably at producing their own leaf crops because they were not farmers by trade.
Ownership of land can be very expensive and renting or leasing it may not provide much

security. Agricultural equipment can also be an expensive and complicated arena for a
small leaf concentrate to enter. If irrigation is being used the cost can be daunting and
management of irrigation systems can be complex.
Contracting a few farmers to supply your project with fresh leaf crop can leave you
completely dependent on one individual. The farmers may try to take advantage of this
dependency by overcharging for leaves, or by wetting the leaves beforehand if they are
sold by weight. Contracting more farmers can spread out your dependency, but it also
means that you have to deal with several people. You may have to coordinate a schedule
of sales among the several farmers. If you are buying 200 kg per day from one farmer,
that may represent a very important source of income for him that he will protect by
meeting your expectations as a buyer. On the other hand if you spread your purchase of
leaf crop among 5 farmers, the sales may not be important enough to any of them to
assure that you get priority treatment as a consumer.
There is no easy answer to this dilemma. Any solution will have to take into account the
many specific conditions of your project and the agricultural realities in the area. A
couple things that may be useful are to select a member of your group or cooperative to
take primary responsibility for making sure the leaf crop arrives on time and in good
condition. This person could be someone who already has agricultural experience, or you
could try to recruit a person with farming skills into your group to widen your base. It
may make sense to send a member to some type of agricultural training course. Both
regional and foreign agricultural schools and universities often have programs to give
students hands on experience by working with charitable organizations. This can be a
great source of free or nearly free specialized help, but it best not to have unrealistic
expectations of what students will accomplish. If you are contracting a farmer or several
farmers it will probably be useful to have them observe the leaf concentrate process and
the feeding of malnourished children. This will help the farmers identify with the project
and to understand its importance to their community.

CHOOSING LEAF CROPS

Not all leaves are suitable for making leaf concentrate. There are an estimated 350,000
species of flowering plants in the world and it is unlikely that as many as 500 of them
have been evaluated as possible leaf concentrate source plants. While hundreds of species
of plants have been evaluated for making leaf concentrate; in any region there are usually
2 or 3 that are the most productive or the most economical. It is important that more
plants be tested. Leaf For Life and a few other groups, notably TRIADES in Hawaii, as
well as several more academically oriented institutes, continue evaluating crops for their
potential to make leaf concentrate. The following information should help you to
understand the process of selecting crops better and to give you a sense of what has
already been done.
While we'd like to avoid the dissipated energy from continually reinventing the wheel; it
is worth noting that a good many improvements in wheel technology have taken place

since the original invention was made. We have found on many occasions that our field
test results differed from a published report on a crop, sometimes for better and
sometimes for worse. If you are planning to do some testing of possible leaf concentrate
crops, it is worth remembering a few things that might make your work more useful to
other people working in this field. Use scientific, in addition to local names for crops.
Local names like Chinese Spinach or quelite may refer to several different plants in
different location. Everyone in southern India may know what Patsam or Makchari is, but
it is impossible for a Latin American worker to find out without the scientific name. Use
the metric system of measurement. Record as much information as possible. The age of
the plants at harvest, the cultivar or variety of a plant if it is known, the method of
processing, are all-important if we are trying to compare the performance of different
plants. The moisture content of the plant leaves and the leaf concentrate are probably the
most important. Field reports of very high yields for LC without identifying the moisture
content are meaningless. I've read a detailed analysis of leaf concentrate from Bolivia
that was 83 % moisture. Others are as low as 55 %. There is a difference between the
weight of dried LC (which is usually around 10% moisture) and the dry weight of LC
(0% moisture). The chart on yields at the end of the agricultural section will give you a
good idea what constitutes a good yield. It is calculated from the dry weight of the leaves
to the dry weight of the LC. Both should be dried for 12-16 hours at about 100 C, to
determine dry weight.

GENERAL NOTES ABOUT SELECTING CROPS

FOR LEAF CONCENTRATE PRODUCTION
Three great divides separate potential leaf crops quickly into functional blocks:
1. Tropical vs. Temperate and Subtropical plants
2. Perennial vs. annual plants
3. Legumes vs. Non-legume plants
4.
Tropical plants normally thrive in hot climates and don't tolerate frost. Temperate plants
are adapted to areas with a cold winter and warm summer. Subtropical plants are best
suited to the edge between the tropical and temperate zone or to higher elevations within
the tropics. Most of the research that has been done on leaf concentrate has been done in
temperate zones in Europe and the United States and more information is available on
temperate crops as sources of leaf concentrate. Medicago sativa (alfalfa or lucerne) is a
temperate, perennial legume that has been studied extensively and is used in commercial
leaf concentrate production for animal feed. It is the benchmark crop against which leaf
concentrate crops must be compared. In addition to alfalfa, temperate and subtropical leaf
concentrate candidates include clovers (especially berseem); members of the cabbage or
mustard family, small grains such as wheat and oats, and chenopods, including beet
greens, lambsquarters, Swiss chard, orach, and quinoa.
Many of the temperate zone candidates are commonly eaten as vegetables and have been
bred for centuries to reduce the levels of toxic or bitter components. Economically, it is
difficult to compete with alfalfa which can yield up to 120 tons of green matter per
hectare, fixes its own nitrogen from the air, can be cut many times a year, and only needs

to be replanted every 4-8 years. Some mixes of annuals, for example wheat and mustard,
may give even greater yields and have milder flavored curd than alfalfa, though they
would require more labor and energy inputs as well as nitrogen fertilizer.
One area of interest is by-product leaves of commercial vegetables, such as beets,
cauliflower, radish, and sugar beet. A leaf concentrate operation near a packing plant
could potentially improve the economics of growing these vegetables by making a high
value product from leaves that are currently low value or a disposal problem.
Tropical plants must receive more of our attention for several reasons. As stated above,
there are already good LC crops in the temperate zones. Even more basic is the fact that
LC is much more needed in the tropics. The humid tropics have a large number of people,
the fastest growing populations, the greatest prevalence of malnutrition, and the fewest
technical and financial resources with which to meet the food requirements of its people
of any region on earth. Compared to the temperate zones, the tropics have a longer
growing season but generally more problems with insects, viruses, fungus, nematodes
and noxious weeds. Tropical soils tend to be more fragile and less fertile. Soil moisture
and nitrogen are lost much more quickly to the air because of the high temperatures.
Generally far less systematic breeding has been done with tropical leaf crops and they
often exhibit tremendous genetic differences from one variety to another.
If alfalfa is the benchmark crop for the temperate zones, I would suggest, for the time
being that Vigna unguiculata (cowpeas) is the tropical plant against which all candidates
be compared. Cowpeas are not as strong an LC crop as alfalfa, but they are eaten as a
leaf crop in many countries, thrive in hot humid conditions, come up quickly, and
produce good yields of mild flavored leaf curd. They are well suited to a variety of
intercropping schemes, are capable of fixing large amounts of atmospheric nitrogen, and
make a good green manure crop. The humid tropics have much greater diversity of plant
life than the rest of the planet, and as a result there are thousands of plants that may have
potential as leaf concentrate sources.
Although the great majority of plant species have never actually been processed for leaf
concentrate, we can narrow the search very quickly by applying a set of criteria for plants
we hope to use to make leaf concentrate, by looking for plants that maximize the positive
characteristics given below and minimize the negative ones.

Positive Plant Characteristics in Potential Leaf Concentrate Sources

- known to be edible by humans in the area where it would be used
- palatable to animals

- consistently yields large amount of green forage (30 tons per hectare per year or
more)
- produces green forage over most of the year
- moisture content of fresh leaves above 75 % and below 90 %
- protein content in fresh leaves at least 2.5 %
- can fix atmospheric nitrogen (leguminous plants like beans, peas, clovers, alfalfa
and many tropical trees have nodules on their roots that can turn the nitrogen in the air
into nitrates that can be absorbed by plants)
- can be used as a green manure or be intercropped with local commercial crops
- erect, non-twining growth habit for ease of harvest
- resistance to common tropical virus, insect, fungus and nematode problems
- establishes quickly enough to compete with weeds
- leaves will regrow after harvest for repeated cuttings
- seed or cuttings for propagation readily obtainable
- can withstand drought
- can tolerate low fertility, aluminum, and acidity in soil
- can tolerate salinity and high pH
- has multiple purposes (i.e. edible seeds or roots, green manure, useful for
industrial purposes such as medicine, paper or textile manufacture)
Negative Plant Characteristics in Potential Leaf Concentrate Sources

- high concentrations of toxins, especially toxic amino acids in plant leaves

- high levels of tannins or phenolic compounds that can bind with proteins and
make them difficult to absorb (this can often be determined by leaf juices spontaneously
coagulating at room temperature)
- leaf juice forms bitter or unpleasant tasting curd
- leaf juice that doesn't coagulate readily when heated to boiling
- mucilaginous leaf juice that is difficult to separate from fiber, A simple rule of
thumb is to rub a few tender leaves from the plant in question between your fingers; the
juice released should be thin and watery not thick or sticky.
- acidic leaf juice
- leaf juice that forms a very fine soft curd that is difficult to separate from whey
- leaves that are difficult to harvest (how long will it realistically take to harvest
200 kg of fresh leaves from this plant? This is usually a minimum daily amount for an

economical production site. An experienced Mexican farm worker can cut 200 kg of
alfalfa in 15 minutes with a scythe.)

SUGGESTED POTENTIAL LEAF CROPS

As of April 1993 I would recommend one of the following leaf crops to people who
would like to begin working with leaf concentrate and who do not want to get involved
with any crop testing:
Medicago sativa (alfalfa or lucerne)
Vigna unguiculata (cowpea)
Trifolium alexandrium (berseem clover)
Dolichos lablab (lablab or hyacinth bean)
Clitoria ternatea (butterfly or Kordofan pea)
Brassica oleracea (collards or kale)
Brassica juncea (mustard)
Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Swiss chard, acelgas)
Atriplex hortensis (orach, mountain spinach
Triticum x aestivum (wheat, trigo)
Manihot esculenta (cassava, manioc)

Below is a more extensive listing of plant species that have been recommended by
various workers as sources of leaf concentrate. I've tried to give some of the pros and
cons of each along with some other notes and sources of seed. Addresses of listed seed
companies are at the end of this section. There is not a lot of information available on
some of the crops, and some of these may prove to be unsuitable after further studies are
done. We will try to keep this list updated to include information as it comes to us. Please
send us any relevant information you might have gathered on any of these crops or on
others that you feel should be included in this list. Thanks!

LEGUMES (ANNUALS)

Canavalia ensiformis - Jack Bean

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: grew very well in trials at San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua
both jackbean and swordbean (C. gladiata) leaves are eaten as potherbs in Asia
easily established
withstood long dry season well
Cons: possibility of toxicity; green beans are reportedly toxic
no information on how well it coagulates or processes
Notes: closely related to C. gladiata (swordbean) another useful tropical legume used as a
green manure but with strong possibility of toxicity problems
Seeds:- ECHO; Banana Tree; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; B &T Associates; Kumar
International; Phoenix Seeds; Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd; Setropa Seeds

Crotalaria juncea - (C. ochroleuca) Sunnhemp, Sun Hemp

Pros: top performer for weight and speed of growth in Muniguda trials in India
processed easily
yielded over 5% LC and tasted good
very high dry matter yields reported (8-20 ton/ha)

Cons: somewhat poisonous to livestock, should not be fed at over 10 % of fodder ration
not well known as a food crop
can't recommend until toxicity questions are resolved
Notes: most of the work on sunnhemp has been relative to its value as a bast fiber
much used as a green manure, less as hay or fodder,
seeded at 50- 240 kg/ha; but heavy seed rate is to insure upright stems for long
fibers and may be negative factor to leaf yield
yields 25% lower without weeding
2 cuts can be taken if first is at height of 30-35 cm from ground
Seeds: - ECHO; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Hurov's Tropical Seeds; Peaceful Valley
Farm Supply; Setropa Seeds; Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd

Cyamopsis tetragolonobus - Guar, or Cluster bean

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: did well in trials at Muniguda in India
reported good yield when closely planted and good tasting curd
leaves eaten in Africa, young pods, and immature as well as mature seeds also
eaten
seeds contain powerful thickening agent with commercial value

81 % moisture in leaves
extremely tolerant of salinity (second only to Atriplex)
uses cowpea EL type inoculant
N fixation similar to cowpeas
Cons: green crop yield considerably lower than cowpeas and other tropical legumes
requires high levels of phosphate in soil (200-250 kg/ha) though his increases
yield of following crops
Notes: bushy plant to 3 meters tall
needs 400- 500 mm annual rainfall, 900 mm optimum
high rainfall and heat best for green crop, but lowers quality and yield of seed
prefers pH 7.5-8.0
seed planted 2.5-3 cm deep at 8-15 kg/ha
didn't break down as quickly as Crotalaria juncea in green manure trial in India;
may need at least two months before following crop is planted
best forage yields at 51 cm between rows
Seeds: - ECHO; Banana Tree ; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Peaceful Valley Farm Supply
; B &T Associates; Kumar Internationa; Setropa Seeds

Dolichos lablab (Lablab purpureus)- Lablab Bean, Hyacinth, Bonavist,

Jacinto, Gallinita, Poroto de Egipto, Frijol de Adorno, Tonga Bean.
Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: leaves eaten both fresh and dried
one of top selections from Puerto Rico LC trials of tropical plants
large seeds good for drilling
retains foliage longer than cowpeas
drought tolerant
grew very well in trials in San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua
good nitrogen fixation even without inoculant
recommended by Ram Joshi in India and by Telek in Puerto Rico
fodder yields of 5-10 ton/ha dry matter have been reported
succesfully intercropped with corn
young pods and mature seeds have commercial value in many countries; used as
vegetable, tofu, tempeh, sprouts. also has large starchy edible root. good multi-purpose
crop
Cons: slow early growth
yielded poor curd and small quantity in Nicaraguan field test
lablab forage has reportedly affected the flavor of milk from cows
high percentage of vines and stems may make pre-chopping necessary
reportedly very sensitive to flooding
Notes: very poor regrowth when cut below 25 cm

benefits greatly from superphosphate application (250 kg/ha)

Highworth and Rongai good forage varieties
89 % moisture in leaves ; 86 % in stems
400 mm minimum rainfall, 750 - 1000 mm is optimum, over 2500 mm
unacceptable
with dense growth lower leaves are shed,; they are lost for LC but make good
mulch
can cause bloat in cattle
makes good silage with 2 parts sorghum; protein is 8.1% vs. 4.5 % for plain
sorghum forage.
often takes four days for cattle to accept lablab forage
75% germination of seeds
some damage from leaf-eating insects and nematodes reported
seeding rates reported at 20-70 kgs/ha seed for dense stand
needs water for 10 weeks then very drought resistant
sometimes seeded between coffee trees, after 2 months further weeding is
unnecessary
fresh seeds may contain dangerous levels of hydrocyanic acid, darker colored
seeds contain more; need very thorough cooking and change of water
Seeds:- ECHO; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Hurov's Tropical Seeds; B &T Associates;
Setropa Seeds; Queensland Agricultural Seeds Pty.,Ltd; Primac Seeds; Phoenix Seeds1

Mucuna deerianga or Mucuna spp - Velvetbean, Terciopelo

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: grew very well in trials at San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua
widely promoted throughout Central America by International Clearing House on
Cover Crops
good nitrogen fixation (up to 200 kg/ha
easily established
withstood long dry season well
Cons: likelihood of toxicity. Even the Clearing House cautions against using velvetbean
in quantities equal to other pulses. Most of the participants in a velvetbean demonstration
in Nicaragua experienced nausea and headache. Too little is known about the chemistry
of the leaves and the variation in their composition from variety to variety and under
different agricultural conditions. It also appears that sensitivity to toxins from
velvetbeans varies greatly from person to person.
it can be extremely tangled and presumably difficult to harvest as a result
Notes: a commercial source of L-Dopa used in treatment of Parkinson's Disease
sometimes called M. pruriens
seeds usually sowed 15-90 cm apart in rows 90 -180 cm apart; broadcast doesn't
work well
c. 35- 45 kg/ha; or 15 kg/ha when intercropped with corn

2-3 cultivations usually necessary to control weeds until plants start vining
cowpea inoculant can be used
dense plantings don't produce good seed yields because of poor air circulation
Seeds:- ECHO; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Hurov's Tropical Seeds; B &T Associates;
Setropa
Peace Seeds; Glendale Enterprises,Inc.; Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd

Phaseolus lunatus L - Tropical Lima Bean, Madagascar Bean

Tropical
Pros: well suited to leached low fertility soils common to humid tropics
shows great promise in African rainforest, a difficult environment for pulses
leaves eaten as a minor potherb when young and tender in parts of Latin America
and Africa
green and dried beans have commercial food value
successful intercrop trials with corn in Columbia
Cons: most of the breeding has been for seed yield, bushy growth habit, and adaptability
to temperate zone; none of which serves our purpose
not well tested as LC source
seeds require longer cooking time than other pulses and may contain dangerous
amounts of HCN. White seeds usually safe; dark seeds need to be boiled very thoroughly
and have water thrown out
Notes: has perennial as well as annual forms
viny unselected varieties performed better than improved bush type in African
trials
indigenous to South, and Central America and the Caribbean
seed harvest varies from 3-9 months with 5 months typical
Seeds:- ECHO;

Eden Seeds

Phaseolus vulgaris - Common Bean, Frijol.

Temperate/Sub-

Tropical
Pros: leaves eaten as a vegetable in much of Africa and Asia
very well known and accepted
seeds widely available
seeds and immature pods have strong commercial market
Cons: slower starting than cowpeas
seeds normally selected for seed yield at expense of foliage
usually do poorly in very wet tropics
most cultivars can't tolerate standing water even for a few hours
Notes: prefer cooler subtropics, 800 -2000 meters, usually cowpeas will do better in
humid lowlands

cultivation must be shallow, especially in closely planted rows to avoid root

damage.
usually planted in rows 70 - 80 cm apart, 5-10 cm between seeds, and 5 - 8 cm
deep
in Nicaragua are normally planted in rows 80-90 apart. This is tied to the space
needed to cultivate with oxen. We are testing a system of planting beans in rows 16"
apart with the wheel seeder and cultivating them with the wheel hoe. When they get too
crowded we harvest every other row to make leaf concentrate. This system could
potentially produce far more nutrients per acre with less work. By having an extra row of
beans between the wide rows, weeding would be easier, the soil would be improved and
the land would yield leaf concentrate and fiber for animals as well as beans.
c. 87 % moisture; 3.6% protein in fresh leaves
bean leaf yield usually improves markedly with added phosphorus in the soil
small seeded pole types should produce more foliage than bush types, half runners
are intermediate
many varieties used for centuries as intercrop with corn; 70 % of beans in Latin
America are intercropped
over 14,000 cultivars worldwide with very large variety of characteristics
seeding rate of 100 kg/ha probably good for foliage; as low as 25 kg/ha for beans;
with lower seeding rates for pole types than bush types
bush beans are normally planted 5-8 cm deep; in rows 50 cm apart; with 5-10 cm
between seeds
inoculation of seeds usually not necessary

Vigna aconitifolia - Moth Bean or Mat Bean

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: relatively well known bean crop
forage 75% moisture;
7.5 - 10 tons/ha dry matter
excellent forage and green manure crop
very drought resistant
adapted to very hot climates
Cons: low creeping growth habit could make this crop difficult to harvest and to clean
not well tested as LC crops
not eaten as potherb
Notes: prefers dry sandy soils
prefers 500 -7500 mm rainfall
sea level to 1300 meters
Seeds: - J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Hurov's Tropical Seeds; Seeds of Change

Vigna unguiculata - (Vigna sinensis) Cowpeas, Frijol de Vaca

Pros: well known to be edible, leaves
eaten as vegetable in many African and
Asian countries.
seeds easily available
commercially and very easy to
propagate
germinates well
grows very quickly compared
to many tropical legumes enabling it to
get over weeds with one cultivation
good yield of mild flavored leaf
curd
Cons: Somewhat prone to virus
Sensitive to frost and flooding
Annual that won't take repeated
cuttings, needs replanting at least every
12 weeks
Notes: moisture content 85-89%; protein much higher at 89% than 85%
huge number of cultivars are commercially available including California
blackeye #5, Magnolia, Mississippi, and Vining Purple Hull that have been bred for
resistance to fusarium, root knot nematodes, wilt and other viruses
most of the breeding for resistance has been done with bush type heavy seed
yielding varieties, whereas the best foliage varieties like Iron and Clay, and Whippoorwill
have not been bred much for resistance. Disease has not been a big problem in Nicaragua
over 4 years.
March 1993 report from Nicaragua shows harvests of irrigated cowpea forage at
about 550 grams per square meter. estimated 57 tons/ha green crop per year
Dry LC is about 2-2.25 % of fresh crop or c. 1.4 tons dry LC per ha per year or
enough LC for about 930 children to receive a 6 gram portion M-F all year.
- research on cowpeas is being done at International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture N.Q. Ng Head OYO Road PMB 5320 Ibadan, NIGERIA tel:
400300 400314 whose European contact is: IITA c/o Ms. Maureen Larkin, Carolyn
House 26 Dingwall Rd. Croydon CR9 3EE UK fax 44 81 681 8583. They may be
willing to provide test packets of cowpea varieties.
Seeds: widely available. Iron and Clay, and China Red are the most widely available
forage types in the US. Inoculant from Peaceful Valley Farm Supply~~P.O. Box
2209~Grass Valley~CA 95945, USA tel:= 916 272 GROW
FAX= 916 272 4794 or
Liphatech 3101 W. Custer Ave. Milwaukee, WI 53209 USA tel: 414 462 7600 or
from many larger seed dealers. Typical price $20 US for 50 lb (c.23 kg) sack.

LEGUMES (PERENNIAL)

Calopogonium mucunoides - Calopo

Tropical
Pros: Native to Nicaragua, well suited to humid tropics
tolerates acid lateritic soils
yielded c. 60 ton/ha green manure in 6 months
nearly 250 kg/ha N fixation
a self-regenerating annual with good seed production
can also be propagated from stem cuttings
Cons: not known as a human food
forage not palatable to cattle
shallow rooted so doesn't withstand long drought
needs at least 850 mm rainfall, prefers 1250 mm
Notes: forms complete cover crop 60 cm thick in 5 months
often intercropped with citrus, rubber and coconuts
Seeds: - Empresa de Semillas Forrajeres

Centrosema decumbes, C. pubescens - Centro

Tropical
Pros: very leafy perennial legume
easy to establish on poor soil
Cons: not known as a human food
not very palatable to cattle
Notes: 5-7 tons/ha dry matter reported
4-8 months to form dense cover 40-50 cm high
for forage sow 8 kgs/ha in rows 90 cm apart; more if broadcast at onset of rainy
season
stems are not woody for the first 18 months
Sometimes planted with Calopogonium mucunoides or Pueraria phaseoloides for
quicker cover
Seeds:- J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Setropa Seeds; Queensland Agricultural Seeds
Pty.,Ltd; Kenya Seed Co; Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd; Dumon Agro NV

Clitoria ternatea - Butterfly or Kordofan Pea., Campanilla, Zapatilla de la

Reina,
Tropical
Pros: given top rating by Telek in terms of % protein in dry LC (59.3%) and PER or
Protein Efficiency Ratio (2.4) in Puerto Rico trials
moisture content of green crop c 79%
perennial legume
green matter yields of 80 - 100 kg/ha + recorded in Campeche, Mexico and in
Cuba
dry matter yields of 13 tons/ha have been recorded in Australia
tolerant to drought, alkalinity, slope, virus, and weeds
can use cowpea EL type inoculant
very palatable to cattle
Cons: no experience with making or using Clitoria LC on other than lab scale
much lower yield without inoculant and lower protein content
won't tolerate waterlogging
slow germination 7-15 days. We've had poor germination twice in Nicaragua
Notes: prefers full sun
twiner; stem grows to 5 meters
grows from sea level to 1800 meters
rainfall minimum of 400 mm, optimum 1500 mm; does well with irrigation
flowers cerulean blue, used to tint boiled rice, as litmus substitute, as ornamental
covers the ground in 4-6 weeks when sown 25 cm apart in rows 1 meter apart,
dense enough to smother weeds in 4-6 months
dry matter yields vary greatly from 1 ton/ha in rainfed sandy soil to 13.5 tons/ha
in irrigated clay.
grown with Sudan, elephant grass, sorghum and sunnhemp
sown 1-3 kg/ha on well prepared seedbed
nitrogen application depresses growth
virus problems under wet conditions at Turrialba, Costa Rica
some grasshopper and nematode problems in Africa
young pods eaten as green beans
Seeds: - ECHO; Banana Tree; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Chitern Seeds; Inland and
Foreign Trading Co., Ltd

Desmodium intortum; D. discolor ; D. nicaraguaense - Greenleaf

Pros: perennial legumes can go 6 years if phosphorus supplied, often 3 without
can utilize cowpea inoculant
D. nicaraguaense used as forage in Central America, called horse-fattener because
of palatability and feed value
up to 7 cutting per year in Costa Rica.
grows up to 6 meters but usually cropped back by livestock

can withstand heavy competition from grasses

Cons: not known as human food
genus contains several obscure toxins
forage reportedly high in tannins, though lower tannin Australian cultivar
"Greenleaf" is available
leaves of D. intortum stick to cloth making harvest difficult
Notes: native to South America usually above 500 meters
several closely related and frequently confused species
propagated by seed (c. 6 kg/ha) or cuttings 15-30 cm long
usually grown with a grass
frequent weed in coffee plantations
cuttings below 8 cm can destroy plants
annual dry matter yield (c. 8 tons/ha) best with 12 week harvest intervals
Seeds:-Setropa Seeds; Queensland Agricultural Seeds Pty.,Ltd; Kenya Seed Co.

Glycine wightii

(Glycine javanica) - Perennial soybean

Tropical
Pros: perennial legume
eaten as potherb in Malawi
palatable forage
tolerates acid soil and shade
yields c. 7-10 tons/ha dry matter
Cons: little done on crop as LC source
Notes: c. 89% moisture
attempts to cross with soybean have been unsuccessful
can climb over trees and shrubs like kudzu
propagated from seed; c 7-9 kgs/ha
prefers 750 - 1000 mm rain
when mixed with grasses, including sorghums and millets yielded 10 -13 tons/ha
green matter every 40 days (over 100 tons/ha green matter per year)
Seeds:-Setropa Seeds

Macroptilium atropurpurium (Phaseolus atropurpureus) - Siratro

Pros: native to Mexico and Central America
long-lived perennial
deep taproots provide drought resistance
tolerates alkaline soil and high aluminum levels
can use cowpea inoculant
Cons: disease prone in very humid regions

Notes: prefers subtropical conditions to 2000 m or drier tropics (700 cm per year)
prefers deep sandy soil
can't tolerate waterlogging
more tolerant of low fertility then Desmodium intortum or Glycine wightii, less
than Stylosanthes humilis
won't tolerate high manganese in soil as well as other legumes
plant at beginning of rainy season
typical seeding rate c. 3-5 kgs/ha
benefits greatly from phosphate fertilizer as a rule
yield increases as cutting interval is extended from 4 to 16 weeks
up to 11 tons/ha dry matter with 4 cuts; average 5-7 tons dry matter with 2 cuts
per season
70-75% moisture
Seeds:-Setropa Seeds; Queensland Agricultural Seeds Pty.,Ltd; Kenya Seed Co;
T.S.L. Ltd

Macroptilium lathyroides - Phasey bean, Wild pea bean

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: selected by Telek as one of most promising tropical LC plants in Puero Rico
high protein
good extraction
very palatable to cattle
rapid regrowth forms dense stand
could be machine harvested
good nodulation
tolerant of waterlogging
5-12 tons/ha dry matter reported; claim made of 60 tons/ha dry matter potential
with irrigation
Cons: not known as a human food
seeds difficult to gather due to shattering
sensitive to viruses
sensitive to frost
seed not readily available commercially
Notes: annual or short lived perennial
typical seeding rate 1-3 kg/ ha
protein highest at 79% moisture at 4 months; at 6 months 70% moisture and only
2/3 the protein per kg dry matter
Seeds: Zentralinstitut fur Genetik und Kulturpflanzen-forshung~Correnstrasse 3~4325
Gatersleben~GERMANY (non-commercial source; small samples to institutions)

Medicago sativa - Alfalfa (including tropical varieties)

Temperate/Subtropical
Pros: best tested of all LC plants
only plant used to make LC commercially
deep rooted perennial legume
yields up to 100 tons green crop/ha with irrigation
withstands repeated cutting (8 to 15 cuts per year in Mexico)
dense and erect growth ideal for harvest with scythe or sicklebar cutter
80 - 83 % moisture, 5 - 6 % protein
Cons: strong flavored curd due to saponins; stronger if not well pressed
attacked by virus and other diseases in hot humid climates
Notes: tropical varieties have been developed at the University of Florida and in Brazil.
these do better in heat but still have problems compared to tropical natives
In Aurangabad, India alfalfa yielded 150 t/ha fresh crop; 25 t/ha DM; (16.7%)
6t/ha CP; 3.2 (2.13% of green matter ; 12.8% of DM) t/ha extracted protein, with 14-16
harvests per year. Yields were increased by frequent irrigation, NPK, manure and
micronutrients, simazine, and closer rows (30 cm rather than 46 cm) and frequent
harvest; 8 rather than 5 in 180 days
alfalfa is a potential source of a variety of medicinal and industrial compounds.
Research has begun at the University of Wisconsin to commercially extract compounds
from genetically altered alfalfa. This could potentially be integrated into an LC
production scheme.
seeds are very hard and should be scarified or soaked in water before planting.
Fresh seed does not germinate as well as seed that is 2-3 years old.
when broadcast seed rate suggested as 12-20 kg/ha; in rows or ridges 55-72 cm
apart 10-12 kg/ha seed used. Ridges or rows facilitates weeding
usually responds to 250 kg/ha superphosphate per year or 500 kg/ha every other
year; also often responds to potassium and sometime s boron
best harvested at beginning of flowering
optimum rainfall usually 500-600 mm, where there is over 1000 mm it sometimes
grows only as an annual
in Michoacan, Mexico (c.2000 meters) yields c. 80 tons/ha green matter per year
with irrigation; which should yield 1.6 tons dry LC ; enough for 1060 children at 6 grams
daily
good alfalfa sells for $40-70 US per ton in the field in Michoacan, Mexico
low saponin varieties should be used for LC production
Seeds: normally available commercially in afalfa growing regions. Small packets of
tropical varieties from - ECHO;
non-hardy, heat resistant variety CUF 101 (grown in
California's Central Valley) is available from - Cal/West Seeds; also Ramsey Seed Co;
Gunson Seed

Psophocarpus tetragolonobus - Winged bean, Goa bean

Tropical
Pros: leaves eaten as vegetables
85% moisture, 5% protein
one of top performers in Puerto Rico LC trials; PER of 2.2; behind only Clitoria
ternatea
used as green manure, forage, cover crop, fresh and dried beans, and edible
tubers; the ultimate multi-purpose crop
tolerates heat and low pH
apparently can utilize cowpea inoculant
Cons: needs good drainage
needs lots of water 1500 mm for good growth; 2500 mm or more for top
production
little information on leaf yields as it is grown mainly for beans or tubers
difficulties in germination in Nicaraguan trials
slow starter, needs weeding until established
forms tangled mess of vines that could be difficult to harvest and pulp
Notes: perennial vine, but often grown as an annual
sea level to 2000 meters
typically planted 2.5 -7.5 cm deep c. 10 cm apart for foliage, at beginning of rainy
season
trellised plants produce twice the seed of unstaked plants
picking flowers increases tuber yield
Seeds: - ECHO; Banana Tree; KEO Entities; B &T Associates; Sutton and
Sons,(INDIA); Phoenix Seeds; Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd; .Tokita Seed
Co., Ltd.Setropa Seeds

Pueraria phaseoloides (P. javanica) - Puero or Tropical Kudzu

Pros: perennial tropical legume
considered very palatable to livestock
does well in high rainfall areas (over 1000 mm per year) if dry periods is not too
long
good at smothering weeds once established
recommended from Venezuelan trials
Cons: not used as a green for humans, little information available on its use for humans
heavy twining habit with extremely tough fibrous stems (used in ropemaking in
some places) could make it hard to harvest and to pulp
slow to establish cover
Notes: 30 - 50 tons green crop/ha possible

Tropical

Seeds: - Banana Tree; Hurov's Tropical Seeds; Primac Seeds; Setropa Seeds;
Dumon Agro NV~~715

Stylosanthes gracilis (guianensis) - Brazilian lucerne, Stylo, Tropical

alfalfa
Tropical
Pros: one of highest yielding legumes 15 tons/ha dry matter reported with irrigation and
fertilizer; 17 -21 tons/ha dry matter per year considered possible
can utilize cowpea inoculant
can accumulate calcium and phosphorus even when levels of these nutrients are
low in the soil
tolerates high aluminum in soil
Cons: not known as a human food
can't tolerate shade
susceptible to leaf spot infection
Notes: typical seeding rate 3 kg/ha broadcast or in rows 45 - 60 cm apart
benefits from 1 or 2 weedings until established (usually 3-5 months)
Seeds: -Setropa Seeds

Trifolium alexandrium - Berseem or Egyptian Clover

Subtropical
Pros: has been successfully used as LC source in Pakistan, India, and Egypt
excellent productivity (8-10 tons /ha dry matter with 3 cuts and no irrigation; and
12-18 tons /ha dry matter with 6-8 cuts and irrigation). Generally 2 tons /ha dry matter
per cut, yields up to 170 tons green fodder/ha are possible
more succulent stems than alfalfa, up to 90% moisture; therefore less energy
required for grinding
Cons: prefers warm temperate climate (12-25 C), cooler than most of the humid tropic
locations.
Notes: seed rate 22/50 kgs/ha planted early in wet season
1.3- 2.5 cm deep
needs minimum of 250 mm annual rainfall
won't tolerate frost
tolerates high pH and virus
can use commercial white clover inoculant, molasses or other sticking agent helps
inoculation
phosphorus, zinc, copper and boron can become limiting factors
Feb 93 report from India shows Berseem with 87 -91 % moisture and yielding 32
grams of fresh leaf curd per kg fresh berseem

Seeds: - ECHO; Peaceful Valley Farm Supply; Kaufman Seed, Inc.; Harmony Farm
Supply; Empresa de Semillas Forrajeres

LEGUMES (PERENNIAL TREES AND SHRUBS)

Erythrina variegata - Tiger's Claw, Indian Coral Tree
Erythrina poeppigiana - Poro
Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: used in living fencepost schemes and intercropped with coffee in Costa Rica
produced more foliage than Gliricidium sepium, though less than Leucaena in
Indian trials
lower polyphenol concentration in leaves than Cajanus cajan
goat milk production increased with E. poeppigiana leaves added to banana and
king grass rations
E.poeppigiana leaves and sugar cane juice successful feed for rabbits and
guinea pigs
Cons: foliage not known as human food
great genetic variation in quantities of alkaloids present in leaves
very little known about LC production from these plants
Notes: Tested extensively at CATIE in Costa Rica
E. indica leaves in water (5 grams to 15 ml) said to kill nematodes
Seeds:- Hurov's Tropical Seeds; Peace Seeds; J.L. Hudson Seedsman

Gliricidium sepium - Mother of Cacao

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: commonly used in agro-forestry schemes
living fence
flowers eaten as potherb or fried
Cons: leaves not known as a human food
yielded much less foliage than Erythrina in Indian trials
Notes: established more quickly than Erythrina in Nicaraguan trials, though Erythrina
caught up
within 1 year
Seeds:- Banana Tree; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; B &T Associates; Kumar
International; Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd

Sesbania grandiflora & S. sesban

- . (Gallito, Sesban)

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: extremely fast growing small tree; especially first 3-4 years; often 4 meters 1st
year; 8 meters by 3rd
one of best nitrogen fixers
widely used as green manure
seed and inoculant readily available
nodulation excellent often even without commercial inoculant
76 % moisture and 8.7 % protein
great potential in reforestation and land reclamation schemes
excellent potential for firewood in 5 year cycle
can be planted very densely (c. 3000 stems per ha)
resprouts vigorously after cutting to stay within height cattle can reach (or people)
leaves palatable to cattle
Cons: difficulties with germination
foliage quickly stripped by insects in Nicaragua trial
photoperiod sensitivity in some varieties
Notes: In Java yields of 55 ton/ha green matter in 6-7 months, far better than Crotalaria
in same experiment
S. rostrata in Senegal showed potential N fixation of 270 kg/ha in 45 days
biomass and N fixation faster with stem cuttings than seeds
Ratooning (cutting at or near base and allowing regrowth) gave top yields
Seeds: Peaceful Valley Farm Supply; ECHO; Banana Tree; J.L. Hudson Seedsman;
B &T Associates; Kumar International

AMARANTHS AND RELATIVES

Celosia argentea - Quailgrass, Soko
Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: has been used in Africa as a green pot herb
used to make leaf concentrate, called Sokotein
did well in trials in Tennessee
Cons: curd was unappealing near black color
requires high levels of nitrogen in soil for top yield
Notes: an amaranth with many attributes similar to A. tricolor
beautiful purple flowers
edible oil sometimes extracted from seeds on small scale in Africa

Seeds:- ECHO; Hurov's Tropical Seeds; B &T Associates

Alternathera sissoo (A. sessilis, A. ficoidea?) - Brazilian spinach

Pros: one of top three candidates in TRIADES LC trials in Hawaii
used as cooked vegetable
spreads to smother weeds
non-twining
Cons: propagated from cuttings
low growing, creeping plant may be difficult to harvest in economically viable
quantities (200 - 500 kgs per day) rapidly and without a lot of soil getting into the leaf
grinder
Notes: flowers sometimes eaten
member of amaranth family
not well known
Seeds:- Hurov's Tropical Seeds; Gleckler's Seedsmen; B &T Associates

Amaranthus tricolor - Bledo forajero

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: comes up quickly, can often be harvested in 3-4 weeks
large yields possible under intensive cultivation
c.85% moisture in green crop
pan-tropic
seed readily available
regrowth up to 4 harvests
protein quality excellent for leaf crop
tolerates high aluminum content in soil
Cons: often worked with in LC projects but usually yields poorly
some tests have given very fine curd that is difficult to separate
badly attacked by damping off in Rivas, Nicaragua
very dependent on nitrogen fertilizer for good yields
doesn't grow well during long periods of cloudy or rainy weather or in partial
shade
prone to bolting (premature setting of seed)
Notes: numerous amaranth species, including A.cruentus, A. hypochondriacus, A.
caudatus are grown for grain-like seeds. Often green shoots and thinnings from these
crops are eaten casually as greens.
some wild amaranths, notably A. retroflexus, A. spinosis, and A. hybridus are
often serious weeds. They are eaten as greens sometimes as well., but are not useful
sources of leaf concentrate.
leaves are high in oxalic acid, but most of the free oxalic acid will wash out with
"whey" and the crystalline oxalic acid normally passes through the body without bonding
with calcium. Free oxalic acid can bond with calcium, which makes the calcium less

available to the human body and can lead to calcium oxalate kidney stones in some
people.
leaves high in nitrates, especially in dry weather or when grown with high levels
of nitrogen fertilizer. Almost all of the nitrates will also wash out with the "whey"
sometimes transplanted at 2-3 weeks when 2-4 leaves are on plant
slugs and snails often damage young plants
vegetable amaranths have more trouble with insects as a rule than grain amaranths
c. 87 % moisture; 3.5 % protein
Seeds:- - J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Hurov's Tropical Seeds; Peace Seeds; Redwood
City Seed Co; Burpee & Co; B &T Associates

BRASSICAS
Brassica carinata - Ethiopian collards, Texsel greens
Temperate/Subtropical
Pros: Excellent flavored greens and curd
very fast growing
one of the most heat tolerant brassicas
most salt tolerant brassica
most waterlogging tolerant brassica
Cons: somewhat prone to bolting
heavy nitrogen user
least drought resistant of leafy brassicas in Indian trials
Notes: breeding program at Texas A & M was promoting this crop as Tamu TexSel
Seeds:- Texas Foundation Seed Service; ECHO; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; B &T
Associates

Brassica juncea (B. alba, B. nigra) - Mustard , Mostaza.

Temperate
Pros: erect fast growing plants
did well with wheat in early Rothamstead trials
grew very well in San Ignacio, Nicaragua despite hot humid climate
Cons: When large amounts were ground quickly in Nicaragua, workers experienced
burning sensation on eyes and skin
90-92 % moisture and 2.4-3 % protein is marginal in terms of dry matter for
economic production
Notes: Grown in India for LC with seeding rate of 30 kg/ha
Seeds:- Banana Tree; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Burpee & Co; B &T Associates

-hundreds of varieties; seed widely available

Brassica oleracea var. acephala - Collards, Kale,Col Foragera

Temperate
Pros: 83 % moisture, 4 -6 % protein
grow quickly
well recognized as edible leaf crop
tree, thousand headed, and walking stick kale varieties produce huge leaves on
tall strong plants
Cons: very slow regrowth
sometimes a strong cooked cabbage smell to curd
need cool nights
Notes: goitregens that limit usefulness of brassicas as forage crops are destroyed by heat
in LC process; however, they may remain in the fiber in significant quantity to affect
milk. They are passed from forage to milk and can cause iodine deficiency in children
who drink this milk.
Seeds: -Burpee & Co.; Redwood City Seed Co; Chitern Seeds; B &T Associates;
Eden Seeds --numerous varieties; seed widely available

CHENOPODS
Atriplex hortensis - Orach, Mountain Spinach
Temperate
Pros: did very well in Rolf Carllson's trials in Sweden
salt tolerant
eaten as green
Cons: heavy nitrogen feeder
prefers cooler climate
Notes: in chenopodium family; some members of genus, especially A. nummalaria, are
among most salt tolerant plants known. It exudes salt onto leaf surface. Palatable and
high in protein but salt content makes livestock thirsty in low water areas. It is possible
that LC process would offer a reasonable way to wash out salt in whey and greatly
improve value of this crop in saline areas. A . HALIMUS will produce palatable forage
when irrigated with saline solution of 30 g/liter of sodium chloride.
Seeds:- J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Abundant Life Seed Foundation; Peace Seeds; B &T
Associates

Beta vulgaris - Common beetroot. Remolacha

Temperate
Pros: by-product leaves of popular root vegetable

beet greens are eaten as a vegetable in many places

Cons: very fine curd is somewhat difficult to separate
leaves may be past peak when root reach maximum weight
Notes:--numerous varieties; seed widely available

Beta vulgaris var. cicla - Swiss Chard, Acelgas

Pros: popular leaf vegetable in Mexico and India
some varieties well suited to repeated harvest including Erbette, Perpetual, and
Markin Giant
Cons: very fine curd is somewhat difficult to separate

Notes: includes leaf beets, which are beets grown for leaves as well as some Japanese
cultivars that are mid way between chards and leaf beets.
-numerous varieties; seed widely available in areas where crop is grown

Chenopodium album - Lambsquarters, Fat Hen

Temperate
Pros: did very well in Rolf Carllson's trials in Sweden
a common weed in disturbed soil
eaten in northern Mexico as Quelite, a spinach substitute
82 % moisture
Cons: prefers very rich land
Notes: related plants including C. bonus henricus (good King Henry) and C. quinoa also
can be used to make leaf concentrate.
Luis Fuentes in Bolivia reported that quinoa leaves were too dry to extract well,
but they may have a higher moisture content grown in a wetter area than the Bolivian
Altiplano
Seeds:- J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Abundant Life Seed Foundation; Bountiful Gardens;
B &T Associates

GRAINS
Avena sativa - Oats, Avena
Temperate
Pros: used in Bareilly project in India
Cons:

Temperate

Notes: similar to wheat

-numerous varieties; seed widely available in areas where crop is grown

Pennisetum glaucum (P. typhoides, P. americanum) - Pearl millet

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: very fast growing c-4 crop
good flavor to LC reported in India
adapted to sandy soils with under 300 mm rainfall
erect growth habit for easy harvest
Cons: tough and fibrous
lower yield of LC than legumes
no N fixation, needs heavy N fertilizer for good crop
foliage not known as a food
Notes: macerator appears to be well suited to tough fibrous crops, especially non-viny
ones
slender leafy Egyptian varieties better than grain type
81-86% moisture
seeding rate c.5 kgs/ha
Seeds:- ECHO; Seeds of Change
-numerous varieties; seed widely available in areas where crop is grown

Secale cereale - Rye

Temperate
Notes: similar to wheat
used as a green manure sometimes because its vigorous branching roots open up
soil and add organic matter along with the green tops
perennial ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) gave good LC yield in New Zealand
trials
-numerous varieties; seed widely available in areas where crop is grown

Triticosecale sp. - Triticale

Temperate
Pros: hardy to cold, reportedly grows well in Bolivian altiplano
erect plant 120 -200 cm tall should be easily harvested with scythe
seeds valuable grain crop
Cons: needs nitrogen fertilizer for good yield
doesn't thrive in humid tropics

Notes: a cross between wheat and rye

Seeds:- Good Seed Co.; Sharp Bros. Seed Co; Chambers Seeds

Triticum x aestivum - Wheat, Trigo

Temperate

Pros: used successfully in early trials at Rothamsted

young wheatgrass extracts easily
erect growth should be easily harvested with scythe or sickle bar cutter
fall planted wheat could give very early forage harvest in spring in temperate
zones
Cons: needs nitrogen fertilizer for good yield
doesn't thrive in humid tropics
Notes: Thinopyron intermedium (Intermediate wheatgrass) is a related species that may
have more potential as LC source. It is being tested at Rodale Research Center as a
perennial grain
-numerous varieties; seed widely available in areas where crop is grown

OTHERS (PERENNIAL TREES & SHRUBS)

Moringa olifera - Horseradish, Marango or Drumstick Tree, Benzolive,
Malungay
Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: Indigenous tree in much of Central America
leaves eaten cooked
ECHO reported success making LC from moringa
good fencepost crop
a tree crop whose roots can get water and keep foliage green when field crops are
brown
roots used as horeradish substitute
seeds reportedly yield good cooking oil (though we didn't have much success
separating it in Nicaragua)
seeds reportedly useful for purifying drinking water
does well with low rainfall
Cons: we had trouble separating mucilaginous juice in Nicaragua, though ECHO
reported good results
trees would be difficult to harvest 200 kg of leaves from compared to field crops
Notes: TRIADES reports African moringa (Moringa stenopetala) has larger and more
palatable leaves and is generally more desirable

Seeds: - ECHO; Banana Tree; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Kumar International; Pocha
Seeds Pvt. Ltd. Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd

Sauropus androgynus - Asparagus bush, Katuk. Sweet leaf bush

Pros: one of top three candidates in TRIADES LC trials in Hawaii
leaves can be eaten raw
growing tip is asparagus-like delicacy (it needs shade to be use as asparagus)
easily propagated from seeds or cuttings
adapted to wet tropics
YIELDS UP to 80 TONS GREEN LEAVES /HA reported
recommended as vegetable crop by Franklin Martin in Puerto Rico and by ECHO
leaves available year round
Cons: frequent usage reported to cause bodily pains
speed of leaf harvest on small shrubby tree?
Martin Price of ECHO reported a failure of Indonesian large plantation for shoots
because of high labor requirements
heavy N feeder
Notes: 81 % moisture
8-10 weeks to first harvest
likes about 70% of full sunlight
leaves used to color pastry, make fermented rice, and alcoholic drink
fruits used to makes sweets in Southeast Asia
needs high soil moisture for good shoot production, though shrub will survive
much lower moisture
Seeds: - Hurov's Tropical Seeds; The Borneo Collection

Spondias purpurea - Jocote

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: indigenous scrubby tree crop in Nicaragua
young leaves eaten occasionally raw or cooked, used as tea for colds
possibilities as living fence
make good yield of LC with pleasantly tangy flavor
leaves 5.5% protein; low moisture
Cons: difficult to harvest economical quantities quickly
little known about chemistry of leaves
Notes: S. mombin, S. lutin, S. mangifera, and S. dulcis all related plants whose somewhat
tart leaves are eaten either raw or cooked
Seeds: - Hurov's Tropical Seeds; B &T Associates; Kumar International

OTHERS (NON-WOODY)
Azolla pinnata
Tropical
Pros: 2nd highest in dry matter (7.8%) of 16 water plants in Calcutta trials
good quality LC
aquatic fern that grows in association with nitrogen fixing blue-green algae
may have potential as LC crop in places to wet for conventional field crops
may have potential for use in rice paddy intercrop
Cons: higher moisture content 92% and lower extractability than legumes
Notes: suggested by TRIADES

Coccinia grandis_ - Perennial cucumber, Ivy gourd, Scarlet gourd

Pros: one of top three candidates in TRIADES LC trials in Hawaii
vigorous perennial
leaves can be eaten raw or cooked
cucumber like fruits eaten young or pickled
reportedly used as living fence
Cons: wild relatives can become weed pest spread by birds, (to prevent this a sterile
cultivar is used which can only be propagated by cuttings)
Notes: Little information available on this crop as grown for leaves rather than fruit
Seeds: - Hurov's Tropical Seeds;

B &T Associates

Crassocephalum biafrae - Sierra Leone Bologi

Crassocephalum crepidioides -Ebolo
Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: well adapted to growing in light shade. Direct sunlight reported to reduce rate of
growth. This could be a valuable attribute for growing in agro-forestry or multi-storied
schemes or intercropped with coffee, banana or other large perennials.
Cons: little known about this crop as a source of LC
succulent leaves could be mucilaginous
propagated by cuttings, rarely by seeds. This makes importation of crop into
areas where it doesn't already exist difficult.
plants very sensitive to dry soil
Notes: young leaves and shoots eaten in tropical Africa

more investigation needed before it can be seriously considered

prefers soil with organic content
plants normally established 60-75 cm apart with supports up to 1.5 meters
flowering shoots removed to encourage leaf production
leaf harvest begins in 60-70 days, continues for over one year depending on plant
vigor
yields c. 15 kg fresh leaf per plant per year
Seeds: - Hurov's Tropical Seeds

Manihot esculenta - Cassava or Yuca

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: leaves high in protein
good yield of LC
pan-tropic
could be one of the biggest protein producers in the tropics
cassava LC could be mixed with starchy cassava tubers to make nutritious food
Zaire study shows that some defoliation can increase tuber yield
in Nicaragua leaves continue to be green well into dry season
Columbian study indicates acceptable digestibility of cassava LC
Cons: may not be easy to harvest in large quantities
serious questions about digestibility of protein due to binding with phenolics
not recommended by Telek in Puerto Rico
Notes: chick studies need to be done
heating juice to boiling and pressing curd very well should remove c. 95% of
hydrocyanic acid
Hydrocyanic acid content of tubers varies from c 14 mg/kg (sweet cassava) to 400
mg/kg (bitter cassava). Leaves from plants with bitter tubers have much higher HCN
than leaves from plants with sweet tubers. Taste is not a reliable indicator of HCN
activity.
added nitrogen tends to stimulate leaf production and depress tuber yield
c. 80 % moisture; 6% protein in fresh leaves (moisture content lower in older
leaves)
Seeds: - Hurov's Tropical Seeds; B &T Associates
-numerous varieties; seed and cuttings widely available in areas where crop is
grown

Sesimum indicum - Sesame, Ajonjoli.

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: produced good yield of mild flavored curd in Nicaraguan trials
leaves eaten raw in salads or as a potherb

Cons: Walt Bray reported trouble with mucilaginous juice in several trials in India and
the US.
Notes: much grown for seed; little known about production of leaves
Seeds:- Kusa Reasearch Foundation; Chitern Seeds

Silphium perfoliatum L -

Temperate

Pros: produced very heavy yield in Italian trials

harvested twice (first week of June and mid August yielded up to 200 tons/ha
green crop
a weed, should have potentia for breeding
Cons: not well known as a human food source
doesn't have easily available commercial seed
Notes: studied in several European countries

Urtica dioica - Stinging nettle

Temperate
Pros: young leaves are palatable potherb
very high in protein
used by Michael Cole in England
Cons: hairs on leaves irritate skin
Notes: leaf juice has been used as a rennet in preparing cheese
prefers rich moist soil of riverbanks
used to make herbal tea
reportedly has anti-fungal effect on plants
Seeds: - Abundant Life Seed Foundation; J.L. Hudson Seedsman

SOURCES OF SEEDS
Many of the seed sources listed here deal mainly with very small packets of seeds,
sometimes containing a dozen or fewer seeds. This may be enough to see if a plant will
grow well in your area or to make a small sample of leaf concentrate. For economic
production of LC you will need to develop much cheaper sources of bulk seed.
Sometimes these are available locally through seed companies not listed here. You may
be able to propagate your own seed from a small packet or two if teh growing conditions
for that plant are excellent. There are lots of rules restricting the movement of seeeds

between countries. You may need to get a phytosanitary document, declaring the seed to
be free of pathogens like viruses from the seed source. Find out about this before
ordering seeds, or they may be confiscated. Sources in bold type handle seed for several
crops listed.
Abundant Life Seed Foundation ~ PO Box 772 ~ Port Townsend,~ WA 98368 ~USA
tel: 206 385 7192

B &T Associates~Whitnell House~Fiddington~Bridgewater~Somerset TA5

1JE~UNITED KINGDOM tel: 278 733 209

Banana Tree~~715 Northampton St.~Easton~PA 18042~~USA~tel: 215 253-9589

The Borneo Collection~PO El Arish~QLD 4855~AUSTRALIA~tel: 70 685 263 (will
ship plants to tropical countries, not US mainland)
Bountiful Gardens~5798 Ridgewood Rd~Willits~CA 95490~USA
Burpee & Co.~300 Park Ave.~Warminster~PA 18974~USA~tel: 1 800 888 1447
Cal/West Seeds ~Po Box 1428~Woodland ~CA 95695~USA
Chambers Seeds~15 Westleigh Rd.~Barton Seagraves~Kettering~Northants NN15
5AJ~UNITED KINGDOM~tel: 0933 681 632

Chitern Seeds~Bortree Stile~Ulverston~Cumbria~England LA12 7PB~UNITED

KINGDOM~tel: 0229 581 137
Dumon Agro NV~Pathoekeweg 40~8000 Brugge~BELGIUM~tel: 32 050 315161; fax
050 315171 (large quantities only)

ECHO ~ 17430 Durrance Road ~ N. Fort Myers, FL 33917 USA tel: 813 543 3246
Eden Seeds~MS 316~Gympie 4570~AUSTRALIA~tel: 071 86 5230
Empresa de Semillas Forrajeres~Casilla 593~Tiquipaya~Cochabamba~BOLIVIA~tel:
41975
The Environmental Collaboration~ PO Box 539~Osseo~MN 55369~USA (5 tree
minimum for each species) [seedlings]
Gleckler's Seedsmen~Metamora~OH 43540~USA
Glendale Enterprises,Inc.~Rt 3 Box 77 P~Defuniak Springs~FL 32433~USA~ tel: 904
859 2141

Good Seed Co.~Star Rt. Box 73A~Oroville~WA 98844~USA~tel: 509 485 3605

Gunson Seed~Nature Rd~Zesfontein~7409~Petit 1512~REPUBLIC OF SOUTH

AFRICA
Harmony Farm Supply~PO Box 451~Graton~CA 95444~USA~tel: 707 823 9125

J.L. Hudson Seedsman~PO Box 1058~Redwood City~CA 94064~USA

Hurov's Tropical Seeds~PO Box 1596~Chula Vista~CA 92012~USA ~tel: 619 464
1017;619 426 0091

Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd.~Block 79A~Indus Rd. # 04418/420~SINGAPORE 0316~tel: 272 2711 or 278 2193
KEO Entities~ 348 Chelsea Circle~ Land O'Lakes~ FL 34639~ USA tel: 813 996 4644
Kaufman Seed, Inc. Box 398 Ashdown, AR 71822 USA tel: 501 898 3328

Kenya Seed Co.~Elgon Downs Farm Research Centre~PO Box

13~Endebess~KENYA~tel: 0325 20941 (42 & 43)

Kumar International~Ajitmal 206121~ Etawah~Uttar Pradesh, INDIA

Kusa Reasearch Foundation~PO Box 761~Ojai~CA 93023~USA
Peace Seeds~2385 SE Thompson St.~Corvallis~OR 97333~USA~tel: 503 752 0421

Peaceful Valley Farm Supply~~P.O. Box 2209~Grass Valley~CA 95945, USA

tel:= 916 272 GROW

FAX= 916 272 4794

Phoenix Seeds~PO Box 9~Stanley~Tasmania 7331~AUSTRALIA ~ tel: 00458 1105

Plants of the Southwest~930 Baca St.~Santa Fe~NM 87501~USA~ tel: 505 983 1548
Pocha Seeds Pvt. Ltd.~PO Box 55~Near Sholopur Bazaar~Poona 411 040~INDIA~ tel:
671978
Primac Seeds~PO Box 943~Murwillumbah~NSW 2484~AUSTRALIA~tel: 6166 72
1866

Queensland Agricultural Seeds Pty.,Ltd.~PO Box 1052~Toowoomba, QLD

4350~ AUSTRALIA ~tel: 61 76 30 1000
Redwood City Seed Co.~PO Box 361~Redwood City~CA 94064~USA~ tel: 415 325
7333

Seeds of Change~621 Old Sante Fe Trail #10~Santa Fe~NM 87501~USA tel: 505 983
8956

Setropa Seeds~ Troelstralaan 4~1272 JZ Huizen~HOLLAND

Sutton and Sons,(INDIA) Pvt. Ltd.~PO Box 9207~Calcutta 700 071~INDIA~tel: 91
3329 0472
T.S.L. Ltd.~PO Box 66043~Kopje~Harare~ZIMBABWE~tel: 68685 94; fax: 68698
Texas Foundation Seed Service~Texas Agricultural Experiment Station~College
Station~TX 77843-2581~USA~tel: 409 845 4051
Tokita Seed Co., Ltd.~Nakagawa~Omiya-shi~Saitama-ken 330~JAPAN~tel: 048 683
3434

AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION
For many years the work of Leaf For Life has been very focused on teaching small
groups of people, usually women, in tropical countries to make and use leaf concentrate
in order to improve the nutrition and health of their families.
It is worth
remembering, however, that our search for means of producing and distributing leaf
concentrate often leads to secondary benefits that may have lasting value for the
communities we work with.
In Nicaragua, for example, we are trying to learn how to grow abundant cowpea foliage
for leaf concentrate. Like much of the developing world, Nicaragua's agriculture has
been shaped by centuries of colonial domination. There is a highly mechanized export
sector that uses very expensive equipment to produce sugar, bananas, coffee and cotton.
Then there is the subsistence or small farm sector where peasants try to coax enough food
for their families with a machete and maybe a hoe. Between the $50,000 tractors and the
$4 machete little is available in the way of labor saving agricultural tools. Out of
necessity Leaf For Life has become involved in the introduction of appropriate scale
agricultural tools.
One of the most promising of these tools is a simple wheel seeder that costs about $75.
We introduced these because they enable us to plant cowpeas more accurately and more
quickly. They give much more evenly planted rows which has eliminated both
overplanting, which wastes valuable seed, and underplanting, which leads to low yields.
As the farmer pushes the seeder along it opens a row to the depth we select, drops in
seeds at the frequency we chose, and covers the seed with dirt. At the same time it is
marking the next row at the distance we chose.

Keeping the rows free from weeds that compete with the cowpeas is another chore that
we've had to address. Typically small farmers use either a machete to hack the weeds
while bent over in the hot tropical sun or chop the weeds out with a heavy hoe. Both
methods are extremely tiring and time consuming. Weeding needs to be done frequently
or tough perennial weed grasses take hold and the yield of the crops drops sharply from
their competition. We are testing two different types of wheel hoes that cost between $50
and $65. These tools allow the peasant to stand upright and walk quickly down the rows
rolling a 20 cm (8") slicing hoe through the weeds. The wheel cultivator is so much
easier and faster to use that workers are encouraged to stay ahead of the tough weeds with
frequent shallow weeding. With slight modifications we can adjust the wheel seeder to
lay out rows that perfectly match the wheel cultivators. Earthway, a US. based company,
produces both seeders and wheel hoes; Coles Planet Jr. is a more expensive US. built
wheel seeder. Both are available through Peaceful Valley Farm Supply.
Normally beans in Nicaragua are planted in rows 32-36" apart. This is tied to the space
needed to cultivate with oxen. We are testing a system of planting beans in rows 16"
apart with the wheel seeder and cultivating them with the wheel hoe. When they get too
crowded we harvest every other row to make leaf concentrate. This system could
produce far more nutrients per acre with less work. By having an extra row of beans
between the wide rows, weeding would be easier, the soil would be improved and the
land would yield LC and fiber for animals as well as beans.
Preparing small plots of land for planting is another job that plagues the Nicaraguan
peasant. Often they contract wealthier farmers to prepare land with tractors. But because
they have small parcels to plow they frequently have to wait until after the optimal
planting time when the tractors are less busy. The big tractors require a substantial area at
the end of the rows in which to turn. This means much of the land in small plots is left

unprepared. We have partially resolved this problem in our small cowpea patches by
using gasoline powered roto-tillers or rotary tiller.
We have used a 5 horsepower tiller that costs about $400 and are bringing in an 8 HP and
a 14 HP tiller that costs about $1000 and $2500. These are more expensive tools, but still
cost far less than the full size tractors. The largest of these is a BCS Italian made walking
tractor. It is an amazingly versatile agricultural tool that is becoming quite popular in
parts of Latin America. It can prepare small parcels of land quickly for seeds and
cultivate weeds. In addition a sickle-bar mower can be attached that enables one to
quickly harvest forage crops at an even height. Attachments allow this tool to be used to
chop or grind crops for animal feed, pump water, and even haul up to a quarter ton on a
cart it can pull behind.

SOME GENERAL SUGGESTIONS

FOR GROWING LEAF CONCENTRATE CROPS
Information
- In most areas the farmers and gardeners who successfully grow traditional leaf crops are
the best source of information on growing them.
- Try to make connections in the forage or horticulture departments of the nearest college
level agricultural school. They can be very helpful in identifying local pests, suggesting
varieties that have done well in the area, etc. Use the library.
- Try to find out the scientific name for any serious weed, insect pest, nematode or
disease, also scientific names for any local leaf crops that are of interest. This will enable
distant workers to help find solutions or to provide useful information. Increasingly, we
will be able to use high-speed computer searches to find information quickly.

Water
- The most common limiting factor in leaf crop production is an inadequate or uneven
supply of water to the plants. Lush leaf crops require a lot of water. Don't begin a leaf
concentrate operation unless you can supply your leaf crops enough water for good
growth. Most leaf crops thrive with 2 - 4 cm of water per week throughout their growing
season. Once established, plants prefer a thorough soaking every week to ten days over a
light sprinkle more frequently. Some plants, like cowpeas, are very sensitive to flooding,
so overwatering can be as harmful as underwatering.
- It may be more economical to produce more leaf concentrate than needed during the
rainy season and preserve it for the dry season, than to try to irrigate crops through the
dry season to maintain year round production. This can be a critical economic decision
for a leaf concentrate project. It needs to be carefully thought out. Our experience with
irrigation systems in developing countries has not been very positive. Often the capacity
of the pumps or of the well or storage tanks is overestimated. Ditches may be clogged

with waterweeds that need to be cleaned out, or they may leak more water than reaches
the plants. An irrigation failure during the dry season can mean a complete crop loss.
Irrigation systems that are not carefully designed to provide adequate drainage of the
added water can lead to salinization of the soil and a serious loss of soil structure. This is
a very serious problem affecting irrigated farming.
- Always it costs more in effort or money or both to grow crops with irrigation than with
rainfall. Usually you can produce much more crop if you can control the amount of water
reaching the plants. Also plants frequently will perform better in dry season with
irrigation than during a rainy season because of greater sunshine and fewer problems with
molds, fungi, and viruses. Try to calculate the additional costs of the irrigation against its
value, and against the additional costs of preserving leaf concentrate and leaving your
workshop and workers idle through the dry season.
- Many plants respond well to irrigation directly after leaf harvests.

Soil
- Non-leguminous leaf crops are heavy nitrogen feeders. They will yield better with an
application of manure, urea, ammonium sulfate, or other nitrogen fertilizer. Some
leguminous crops will respond well to light feedings of nitrogen, but others like Clitoria
may experience reduced forage yield.
- The value of the nitrogen added to the soil from leguminous leaf concentrate crops
should be considered. We estimate that in Nicaragua $25-35 US per hectare can be saved
by growing cowpeas for leaf concentrate and incorporating the fiber, then switching to
corn production the following year.
- Leguminous leaf crops are usually heavy phosphorus feeders and will respond well to
added phosphorus. This element is frequently deficient in tropical soil and often is the
first factor limiting yields. PHOSPHORUS can improve yield of protein and biomass
from legumes significantly even at 25-30 kg per hectare.
- Have your soil analyzed if that service is available at low cost and follow the fertilizer
and lime recommendations if possible.
- If the soil structure or fertility is poor the residual fiber and whey can be incorporated
into the soil to improve it. Low organic matter in the soil can lead to many problems
including waterlogging, poor utilization of phosphorus, and poor aeration of crop roots.
Manure and crop residues help maintain organic matter in the soil. It is important that
carbon rich residues, such as straw, sawdust, or sugar cane bagasse be mixed with
nitrogen rich sources like manure and leguminous crop residues. The addition of large
quantities of carbon rich material can devastate crops until the soil microorganisms regain
a soil balance. Building up soil organic matter is a long-term undertaking, and it is
impossible to do it adequately in one year or less.

Planting
- Seeds should be planted closer together than they are normally. For crops like cowpeas,
or lablab that are normally grown for their seeds, it pays to plant at twice the normally
density for maximum forage yield. Denser planting is not normally warranted for
perennial legumes like alfalfa and pueraria.
- Plant seeds carefully. Planting too deeply is the most common cause of poor
germination. If the seeds are carefully spaced in the rows and the rows are straight, the
work of weeding will be much easier, and you won't need to thin the plants. When seeds
are planted very quickly there is a tendency to have blank stretches and clumps of plants
that are too close to each other. Both of these reduce yield.
- Inoculate legume seeds with commercial inoculant if available or with soil from a
successful field of the same legume, unless the same crop has been grown on this land
within the past three years. For some crops like Clitoria, inoculated plants will produce
25% more foliage, as well as fixing far more nitrogen from the air.
- Leaf crops can often be grown between two rows of another crop, then cut when their
leaves begin touching the other crop. This can reduce weed problems and increases the
productivity of the land.

Weeds
- It is especially important to control weed growth when leaf crop is young and just after
leaf harvest. Keeping weeds down until the leaf crop is well established is especially
important with perennial legumes, that tend to be a bit slower than annuals getting
started. While a few weeds will usually have little effect on LC yield or quality, heavy
weeds will compete strongly with your leaf crop for water, nutrients, space, and sunlight
and the LC yield per hectare can be drastically reduced.
- Annual weeds are usually best controlled by cultivation, and perennial weeds can often
be controlled by repeated cultivation as well. In small patches hand hoeing is often
effective. A study in India gave the top rating to a long handled push-pull hoe with a 1520 cm (6-8") serrated blade set at 70 to the handle. This was considered four times
faster than pulling the weeds by hand.
- By far the worst weed problem we've encountered in Nicacarua has been Cyperuses,
grasslike perennials in the nutsedge family. They are extremely difficult to get rid of
because of their extensive underground roots system.
The two essentials to
controlling nutsedges by attrition are to cultivate it before they have 5-6 leaves, at which
point they begin producing tubers; and to keep them shaded by other plants as completely
as possible. They don't compete well in the shade and density of the Cyperus tubers and
rhizomes can be gradually reduced until it is not a serious problem. Cyperus tubers can
survive up to 4 years in dry soils.
- When the ground is not too wet, a high wheel hand cultivator fitted with a slicing hoe
can be pushed quickly through the rows cutting of the Cyperus just below the ground.
Where this had been done once every two weeks, the Cyperus was already large enough

to be difficult to cut through and already forming new tubers. Running the wheel hoe
through rows just wide enough for it to pass once a week should help keep the Cyperus
from being able to photosynthesize and thus from being able to build up the reserves of
carbohydrates in its root system that make it so hard to eradicate. Perennial weed grass,
like Imperata, can be treated in much the same way as Cyperus.
- There are also wheel hoes and other simple cultivators that are set up to be drawn by
animals. In general, draft animals supply more power than humans and greater flexibility
than tractors. An ox typically delivers from 0.5 -0.75 horsepower, while a human worker
rarely has a sustained output of over 0.1 horsepower.
- We do not usually recommend the use of herbicides to control weeds. They can be an
expensive, usually imported habit. Poisoning of farm workers, contamination of ground
water, and accidentally killing desirable plants with herbicide is common, especially
where workers cannot read warning labels. Where severe infestation of perennial grasses
or sedges prevents adequate growth of leaf crops, it may be necessary to use herbicides to
gain control initially. If herbicides are needed continually to maintain normal leaf crop
yields, you should consider changing the leaf crop to one that can compete better with the
weeds, or changing the cultivation schedule to one of frequent shallow weedings until the
grasses are weakened.
- Glyphosate (Round-Up) herbicide is probably the easiest and least expensive means of
achieving control over perennial nutsedges and grasses. We used glyphosate to control
the Cyperus for about 3 months before reinfestation. The timing of the application of this
herbicide is critical to its success. It should be applied when the Cyperus is about 20 cm
high and growing rapidly. Workers at CATIE in Costa Rica suggested an application rate
of 2 liters per hectare, with 700 ml mixed with 25 liters of water and delivered through
very fine (80001 -80005) low volume nozzles. Glyphosate is a fairly safe chemical in
terms of acute toxicity to mammals with an LD 50 of 4320 mg/kg (this is the dosage that
kills 50% of laboratory mice), compared with 2,4 -D, for example, which has an LD 50 of
375 mg/kg. Glyphosate is a skin and eye irritant and care should be taken in mixing and
handling it.
- Some crops can be used to smother weeds effectively. Closely planted sweet potato
vines have been used for this purpose. Velvet beans, kudzu, and desmodium are
examples of leguminous crops sometimes planted to smother weeds. These have the
advantage of fixing nitrogen and can leave the soil enriched as well as relatively weed
free. This technique takes far more time than spraying herbicide.
- Another technique for deterring persistent weeds is called "solarizing". It is useful only
for relatively small patches. The soil is tilled or plowed then wetted, then covered with a
thin (2 mil) clear or black plastic sheet for 2 to 3 weeks. Clear plastic has been
recommended more frequently, but recent tests indicate black plastic may be slightly
more effective. Ultraviolet resistant polyethylene will hold up much longer under the
tropical sun, but is more expensive and more difficult to find in most countries. In
tropical climates the temperature will rise quickly and most grasses will be effectively
killed. Many of the weed seeds under the plastic will also be killed. Nematodes and

Pythium (the organisms that cause damping off ) will also be killed. Perennial weeds with
tubers, rhizhomes, or stolons below 10 cm (4"), such as Cyperus will usually recover
from solarizing, though they will be weakened.
- Geese have been used to control weeds succesfully in some locations. They are
especially fond of young grasses and cyperus. About 10 geese per hectare is usually
recommended. They have to be enclosed and provided with water and a small amount of
additional food. If there is not

Temperature required to destroy pests

PESTS

Nematodes
Damping Off
(Pythium)
Most Pathogenic
Bacteria and Fungi
Most Soil Insects
and Some Viruses
Most Weed Seeds
Resistant Weed
Seeds and Viruses

TEMPERAT
URE
REQUIRED
FOR 30
MINUTES
( F)

( C)

123
130

51
55

150

66

162

73

180
212

83
100

Pests
- Avoid insecticides if possible. If not use low toxicity ones like neem, rotenone, BT
(Bacillus thurengensis) sabadilla or pyrethroids. Wait at least 15 days to process leaves
after spraying and wash the leaves especially well. Try safe insect repellents, such as
garlic, onion, chilies, or tobacco soaked for two days in water. Then spray this water on
the plants, after straining it. If slight insect damage affects appearance of leaves, as they
will soon be ground to a pulp anyway.
- Neem (Azadirachta indica) is a tree from India that has been spread throughout most of
the tropics. The seeds from the Neem tree can be ground in water to make an insecticide
that is safe for mammals, doesn't persist in the environment, and can be easily produced
locally, avoiding the cost and dependency on imported insecticides. It is effective in
controlling grasshoppers, beetles, aphids, and caterpillars. Neem extract acts both as an
insecticide and as a repellant. It doesn't kill instantly, as some synthetic insecticides do
nor does it have as long lasting an effect. So it must be used as early as possible after an
insect infestation is suspected and it may need to be applied more than once to maintain

control. Neem leaves also have some insecticidal properties, though not as strong as the
seeds. They are sometimes packed with beans or other seeds to repel storage insects. The
wood from neem is very resistant to termite damage.
- If possible avoid walking through leguminous crops when they are wet from rain or
dew. This is one of the main ways that viruses are transmitted. This is not always
possible because it is advantageous to harvest leaf crop early in the morning when dew
may still be on the leaves.
- Domestic animals belonging to neighbors could be the biggest pests of all. Cows, horses
and pigs can damage a leaf crop quickly. Chickens can scratch up new seeds. Fencing in
your crop can be a major additional expense if you are working in an area where
livestock is roaming freely. Unscrupulous farmers may encourage their livestock to feed
on your leaf crops to reduce their feed bill. This is normally a serious matter in
agricultural societies, and the offending farmer will often be held liable for your losses.

Harvest
- Try to have fresh leaves year round by either adjusting a harvest schedule or by timing
the planting of more than one crop. This requires considerable forethought and
experience.
- Harvest the plant high enough to allow for rapid regrowth. For example, cowpeas cut at
20 cm above the ground will regrow quickly but those cut at 5 cm will regrow slowly if at
all.

INTERCROPPING
Intercropping is the growing of two
crops in the same field at the same
time. It is one of the oldest
agricultural practices known. An
intercrop normally produces greater
total yield than the two crops grown
separately. So two hectares of corn
and cowpeas intercropped will
usually produce about 30% more
than one hectare of corn and one
hectare of cowpeas. Some plant
combinations make more productive
intercrops than others. The
intercropping of nitrogen fixing
leguminous crop with a grain or
other heavy nitrogen feeder like
bananas is a common practice. Plants
that are tolerant to shading are often
well suited to intercropping with tree
crops or tall plants like maize. Among tropical forage legumes, Desmodium intortum

stands out for high productivity in moderate shade, followed by Pueraria phaseoloides,
and Centrosema pubescens.
These are very important in developing countries where yields are often limited because
farmers can't afford to buy nitrogen fertilizer, and grain crops often deplete agricultural
soils. Farmers are usually primarily concerned with the main crop yield. If that holds up
and there is soil improvement, lowered fertilizer costs, or additional food products (ie.
beans or LC), the farmer is likely to continue intercroppping. If there is a significant
decline in the main crop intercropping is unlikely to be continued, even if there are other
advantages.
Leaf for Life is studying various intercropping systems using cowpeas and other crops
that are suitable for leaf concentrate processing. Cowpeas are the ultimate intercrop plant.
Over 90% of cowpeas grown in Africa are grown in intercrop systems. In Nicaragua the
intercropping of 4 rows of cowpeas between rows of bananas and plantains has shown a
lot of promise. Since the weeds need to be cut from between the banana rows anyway, it
makes sense to use that space for a nitrogen-fixing crop. The cowpea leaves are
processed into leaf concentrate for child nutrition programs and the fiber and whey
returned to the banana plants.

USING LEAF CONCENTRATE BYPRODUCTS

Leaf concentrate has been discussed at length in this manual, but what about the fiber and
the whey that represent over 90% of the weight of the original leaf crop? When any fresh
green leaf crop is processed into leaf concentrate three products are produced: The leaf
concentrate, the residual fiber, and the residual liquid or "whey". 100 kg of leaf crop at
80% moisture content should produce about:
5 -7 kg leaf concentrate at 60% moisture
44 kg fiber at 70% moisture
50 kg "whey" at 94% moisture (it may have an even higher moisture content
from the dew or wash water left on the leaf surface before it was pulped).
Another way of viewing this breakdown of leaves is to figure that 100 kg of fresh leaf
crop at 80% moisture should produce roughly:
2 kg dry of LC
2 kg dry weight of "whey"
16 kg dry weight of fiber
80 kg water

RUMINANT FEED
When figured on a dry weight basis, the fiber left over from leaf concentrate
processing has approximately the same feeding value to animals as unprocessed fresh leaf
crop. Although much of the protein has been removed in the leaf concentrate, the residual
fiber still retains adequate protein good cattle feed. Grinding the leaves up well in the
process means that the fiber has far more surface area than the original leaf crop and this

enables the cows digestive system to extract nutrients more effectively. Because fresh
alfalfa and other leaf crops are usually around 20 % dry matter, while the residual fiber is
around 30% dry matter; the fiber has about 1 1/2 times the feeding value, per kilogram, as
the leaves that it was made from.
100 kg fresh leaf crop = 80 kg water + 20 kg dry matter
50 kg of fiber = 35 kg water + 15 kg dry matter.
In practice the moisture of forage crops
varies from about 75-90 %.
If we assume a daily ration of 2 kg dry
matter for every 100 kg cow weight, this
50 kg of fiber will feed 2 1/2 300 kg
cows. The 100 kg of unprocessed leaf
crop would feed 3 1/3 cows of the same
weight.
The palatability of leaf concentrate
residual fiber is generally quite good if it
is fed fresh or well dried. It ferments
readily if left in a pile, especially in hot
tropical weather, and quickly loses palatability. We have found that cows like it better
than do goats or rabbits but all will usually eat it unless they have been very well fed
recently. It is a good idea to introduce the fiber gradually in the diet of animals and to
make sure they get other feed as well to assure a sufficiently varied diet.

SILAGE
Besides drying the fiber for later use it can be preserved by storing it in a silo. This as a
technique commonly used in many areas for preserving green cattle feed through limiting
the amount of air that comes in contact with the green crop. The action of the anaerobic
(living without air) bacteria alters the acidity of the green feed and makes it more stable.
Work is being done in India with combining leaf concentrate fiber with bagasse (residue
from sugar cane milling) and straw that has been partially broken down with ammonia
from urea. This could become a very inexpensive cattle feed and an excellent way to
utilize sugar cane waste that is discarded in many tropical locations.
Another technique showing even greater promise is described below:

1. Mix together about 215 liters of leaf concentrate whey, 100 kg of sugar cane bagasse
(c. 10 -15% moisture), and 3 kg urea.
2. Pack very tightly into plastic drums or heavy walled plastic bags. This mixture must
be well tamped down and well sealed to exclude as much air as possible.

3. Mix together 300 kg fresh leaf concentrate fiber (c.70 % moisture) and 3 kg urea.

4. Pack very tightly into plastic drums or heavy walled plastic bags. This mixture must be
well tamped down and well sealed to exclude as much air as possible.

5. Leave both for two to three weeks to enable the anaerobic bacteria to break down the
tough fibers.
6. Mix the two silages together and add a small amount of crude molasses and crushed
limestone if they are available

7. This mixed silage is now ready to feed. It will have about the same feed value per kg
as fresh alfalfa, and it is an excellent way to make use of the nutrients in the leaf
concentrate whey and fiber, so that no part of the leaf crop is lost.
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
In locations where the structure or fertility of the soil is low, the residual fiber can be
worked back into the soil with a hoe, roto-tiller or plow to improve it. Research in India
shows wheat yields were greatly increased when they were planted 30-40 days after a
green manure crop of Sesbania sesban or Crotalaria juncea was tilled in. They also found
that they could remove some of the nitrogen in the green manure crop as LC and still
improve the wheat yields. The wheat yield per kilogram of nitrogen supplied was greater
with the LC fiber than with the whole green manure plants tilled in. Because the nitrogen,
which is recovered in the LC, is in a form that tropical soil bacteria quickly attack, most
of this nitrogen may be lost to the air before plant roots can use it.
Incorporating leaf concentrate fiber can supply nitrogen and improve the structure of the
soil by adding organic matter. Leaving green manure crop residues on top of the soil has
nearly the same impact on nitrogen availability as tilling the crop in, and it requires less
time and energy and will protect the soil against erosion better than the tilled in residues.
Well-structured soils rich in organic matter absorb and retain water far more efficiently
than soils maintained only with soluble synthetic fertilizers. This means less flooding and
less drought damage. It also makes for more efficient use of rains and reduces the risk of
salinization from poor drainage in irrigated farmland.
Green manured soils also make better use of phosphorus in the soil by encouraging
mycorrhizal fungus. The mycorrhizae aid plant roots in absorbing phosphorus that is
often present in tropical soils in forms that are difficult to utilize. Studies at ICRISAT in
India showed that chickpeas release mallic acid from their roots that lower soil pH in the
root zone and make phosphorus that is bound with calcium more available to plants.
Pigeonpeas, on the other hand release picidic acid, which has a similar effect of freeing
phosphorus bound with iron. It is quite likely that other legumes have similar beneficial
impacts on phosphorus availability.
Preliminary studies have shown that cowpea forage added to soil lowers the acidity and
reduces aluminum toxicity more effectively than lime. *
Many tropical soils are very acidic and aluminum toxicity is increasingly a limiting factor
in crop yields. Spreading crushed lime on fields can be very expensive, especially where
transportation is a major problem.

* N.V. Hue, I. Amien. Aluminum detoxification with green manures. 1989 Commun. In
Soil Sci. Plant Anal., 20 (15-16), 1499 -1511

MUSHROOMS
Work underway in India has shown the potential of using leaf concentrate residual fiber
as a base for mushroom production. A mixture of one half straw and one half residual
fiber was used as a substrate for raising Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom). The yield
using this mixture was roughly twice what using straw alone produces. Oyster
mushrooms are a high priced delicacy in many markets. There are several closely related
species of edible Pleurotus mushrooms. All of them are
efficient are breaking down the tough lignin fiber in
straw.

Pleurotus will convert 100 kg of straw into

approximately 10 kg of mushroom; 70 kg of water and
carbon dioxide; and 20 kg of spent compost. The spent
compost is useful as a cattle feed component, because
about 80% of the tough fiber in the straw has been
broken down into substances that are more easily
digestible by ruminants. A tremendous amount of straw
is burned in the field each year in the tropics in order to
prepare the fields for the following crop. The burning of
straw in the field is one of the world's worst sources of
air pollution and the loss of organic matter speeds up the
degradation of tropical agricultural soils. The
commercial value of straw is often too low to justify the
labor involved in collecting and composting it to use to
maintain soil fertility. If 10% of the weight of the straw could be converted to high
value mushrooms and 20% to cattle feed, there could be a great incentive for farmers not
to burn their straw in the fields. The spent compost from Pleurotus culture has also been
used as a substitute for chicken manure in commercial plant nurseries in Puerto Rico.
Pleurotus has also been successfully grown on sugar cane bagasse, sawdust and cotton
waste. Both the yield of mushrooms and the value of the spent compost are enhanced
when the mushrooms are grown on a substrate richer in protein than straw. The leftover
fiber from leaf concentrate production has enough nitrogen to enrich at least an equal
weight of straw. The 50:50 ratio of straw to leaf concentrate residual fiber should make
the Pleurotus culture even more attractive as an alternative to burning fields. This is an
area that clearly warrants more practical investigation. (see Technical Guide for Growing
Mushrooms in the Tropics, listed in Appendix).

BIO-GAS
Another possible means of using both the fiber and the "whey" is to incorporate them into
a bio-gas or methane production scheme. Bio-gas can be economically produced in many
locations where there is a good supply of manure and other organic wastes. The process,
which also employs anaerobic bacteria, converts part of the waste to gas that, can be used
to cook with much the same as propane. The effluent, or slurry left over after bio-gas has
been produced from organic wastes, is rich in nitrogen and is useful for improving the
structure and fertility of soils. In Nicaragua, part of the residual fiber from leaf
concentrate was used to make bio-gas, which in turn was used to cook lunch at the
cafeteria of the International School of Agriculture. Bio-gas production can be quite
involved and many projects have concluded that it is not economically feasible in their
location. However, in some countries, notably China and India, low cost bio-gas units are
available and have had some popularity.
It may be possible to use bio-gas
to heat the leaf juice in LC
projects. A group processing 500
kg of leaf crop per day would
produce roughly enough fiber to
feed 7 cows and it would need
the manure from 9 cows to
produce enough bio-gas to the
250 liters of leaf juice to boiling.
Only where cooking fuel is very
scarce or expensive is bio-gas
worth serious consideration.
"WHEY"
We often refer to the clear brown
residual liquid as "whey" because
of its similarity to the whey that
is a by-product of cheese making.
Heating the leaf juice is a process
quite similar to making simple
cheese from milk. In both cases a liquid is coagulated forming curds that contain most of
the protein and oils and a clear tea colored liquid. This "whey" is rich enough in
nitrogen and potassium to be of some value as a fertilizer. It is deficient in phosphorus,
however. The fertilizer value of the "whey" is limited by the fact that it is at least 94%
water. This means it must be used very near the leaf concentrate processing site to justify
the costs of transporting it to the fields. This problem is even greater when the leaf
concentrate is made by the blender method because the extra water used in blending the
leaves further dilutes the nitrogen and potassium in the whey.

The amount of water required by rapidly growing plants is often underestimated. 20-30
liters of water or "whey" are needed each week to supply each square meter of tropical
land in maximum leaf production. The "whey" produced as a by-product of leaf
concentrate will not be nearly enough to irrigate the land area from which the leaves were
harvested. High concentrations of "whey" may damage some tender seedlings. Diluted
"whey", as in that from blender processed leaf concentrate, is safe for plants. It is best
used for high value crops near the processing site. Obviously, it is a sound idea to wait
until the "whey" is completely cooled before pouring it on plants.
Leaf concentrate "whey" is not acceptable in the human diet because of concentrations of
nitrates, oxalic acid, and other anti-nutrients. While it has been remixed with the fiber for
cattle fodder with good results, watering pigs with "whey" has led to kidney problems
over time. Large scale LC operation could possibly justify the expense of evaporating the
whey until it was a thick molasses like liquid that could be remixed with the fiber and
increase the available nitrogen in ruminant feeds.
It has been suggested frequently that this "whey" could serve as a source of nutrients for
growing various beneficial microorganisms like yeast or penicillin. This application
requires highly controlled environments to prevent contamination with unwanted
microorganisms. These conditions are rarely available in developing countries except in
major cities. A project initiated by Find Your Feet in Ghana had some success in
producing ethyl alcohol by adding some sugar to the "whey", fermenting this liquid, then
distilling it. Production of ethyl alcohol can become very complicated because of
government controls or tax policies, or the potential for increasing abusive alcohol
consumption.
Dr. Ham Bruhn at the University of Wisconsin suggested an interesting use for LC
whey. He says that pouring the "whey" over the ground will bring angleworms to the
surface. This may be a useful trick for fishermen, or those raising worms for soil
improvement.

SEEDS AND ROOTS

Immature pods from cowpeas or other types of peas and beans are another potential
byproduct of leaf concentrate. Yield of leaf concentrate per kg of leaf crop will decline
when the crop begins to flower, but we have found that good quality leaf concentrate can
still be made from cowpea leaves after an initial harvest of immature pods. Despite
careful planning, often times there will be crops that pass through the ideal stage before
they are harvested for leaf concentrate processing. Because of this, there is a real
advantage to crops like beans, cowpeas, lablab, or winged beans that have a
commercially valuable seed that can be harvested and sold if the plants cannot all be
processed for leaf concentrate before they mature.
There are several agricultural situations in which leaves used for making leaf curd would
be the byproduct of some other commercially viable product. For example, cassava roots
have a broad market but in many locations the leaves are without commercial value.
Carefully timed harvesting of cassava leaves can actually increase the yield of edible
roots significantly and the leaves could be made into leaf curd. Several vegetables,
including cauliflower, broccoli, turnips, and beets have leaves that can be made into LC
rather than discarded in the fields or at packing plants.
As with green manure crops and intercrops, it is important not to confuse the primary and
secondary objectives of the farmer. If one can get a better yield of the primary product a
farmer may be willing to try a new system. Farmers will rarely want to take a reduction in
yield in their main crop or an increase in labor, for the sake of an output like leaf curd,
whose value may be little known to them.

SECTION IV
ECONOMICS OF LEAF CONCENTRATE
You may know what a kilogram of beans costs, but what does a kilogram of leaf
concentrate cost? This is a question that is as important as it is difficult to answer. The
cost of supplying leaf concentrate can be calculated as a product like beans, or as a
service provided, like health care. In either case, if leaf concentrate is to catch on, it needs
to have some economic advantage over competing products or services.
One of the most important jobs of field workers at leaf concentrate programs is to
perform ongoing economic analysis. This involves collecting information in
quantifiable terms on as many aspects of the program as possible. You may want to start
with the wholesale and retail prices of other nutritious foods available in the area. These
would often include several types of meat, fish, seafood, cheese, eggs, dairy products,
beans, and grains. Powdered milk and dry infant formulas are also useful prices. This will
help you determine what the value of leaf concentrate is likely to be, which will in turn
help set the price that you will be able to sell it for. There is never a product exactly
equivalent to LC on the market so you have to make approximations. The chart on page
90 may be helpful in making value comparisons among nutritious foods. It is important to
remember, though, that there is often a great difference between the nutritional value of
LC and its perceived value by the local people. The perceived value is what they think it
is worth and this will determine the demand for the product. One of the most difficult
and important jobs of leaf concentrate workers is educating the population so that the
perceived value of LC begins to reflect its nutritional value. When one is selling LC to
institutions for nutritional support program the perceived value of the LC should be close
to its nutritional value.
Next you will need to gather as much information as possible on the cost and availability
of the raw material or leaf crop you will be using. How much will price vary during the
year? How much will quality and moisture content vary over the year? Does the price
include harvesting and transportation to the field? In some places forage crops, like
alfalfa, are normally sold standing in the field. It will do little good to know that an area
of alfalfa 3 meters wide by 75 meters long cost $8 US. You will need to calculate how
many kg of leaf crop that is, and what it costs to cut it and haul it to the workshop.
After you have a good idea what leaf crop costs you need to gather information on labor
costs. What do agricultural workers in the area normally receive for a day's work? How
about supervisory workers? What will workers processing leaf concentrate need to earn
to make it an attractive idea for them? This may involve some things other than hourly
wage. Transportation costs are very important to workers. Will they have to pay for a
bus ride or spend and hour walking to work? Fringe benefits are also important in many
work situations. Some times workers would prefer earning a lower hourly rate at one job
because it entitles them to health insurance or reduced cost child care, or gives them

access to subsidized housing. You need to ask a lot of questions to find out real wages.
Sometimes people are reluctant to discuss their incomes, so you may need to work with a
trusted local intermediary.
Once you have a good idea what the value of your product (LC) will be, and the costs of
raw material and labor, you will need to find out as much as you can about the other costs
that are required to produce and distribute the LC. These will include capital expenses
and depreciation on capital equipment. Capital expenses generally refer to large
purchases whose value is retained for a long period of time. This would include grinders,
presses, stoves, cook pots, tables, and improvements to the workshop. Capital expenses
are difficult to calculate for many LC projects because often some of the capital costs are
donated. Projects that are social service programs may have equipment and other costs
met by donation. This can lead to underestimating actual production costs. If $5000 is
required to set up a project, the price of the LC should ideally reflect repaying a loan for
$5000 plus a normal interest rate. Depreciation is the value lost to wear and tear on
equipment. If a grinder costs $1000 and you expect it to need replacement after five
years, it means that grinder is depreciating in value an average of $200 per year or about
$17 per month. This is another production cost that should be figured in to the price
charged for the LC.
Some of the other costs that you will typically encounter are rent on the workshop,
electricity, fuel for heating juice, water, and cleaning supplies. Sometimes taxes or
registration fees and licenses will need to be paid. There are usually expenses in
marketing or distributing the LC that you make. These might include packaging supplies,
salaries or commission for salespeople, transportation, free samples, and advertising.
Once you have gathered the basic economic information, you can begin analyzing it. It is
often useful to calculate the total production cost of a kilogram of leaf concentrate. Then
try to figure how much of that cost is attributable to raw material, labor, capital
expenses, fuel, etc. By taking average monthly expenses and production you should be
able to get some idea how much the electricity or gas or labor cost for each kilogram of
LC. At this point you will be able to see where you should focus your cost cutting efforts.
Successful enterprises will eventually eliminate most of their unnecessary costs, but they
will start with reducing those costs that are greatest.
Below is a very simple budget broken down for a hypothetical small project, that may
help clarify the process of making an economic analysis: * All figures are in US dollars.

Expenses
200 kg leaf crop per day
X 250 days of processing per year
Leaf
Crop

= 50,000 kg
X $ .06 kg
= $3,000 for leaf crop for the year

Transport of
Leaf Crop

$3 per day
X 250 days
$750

Labor

$ 9 for 3 workers @ 1/2 day

X 250 work days
=$2,250 labor for one year

Equipment

$2000 spread over 5 years

=$400 per year

Gas
330
Electric
120
Cleaning Supplies 50
Miscellaneous 300
$ 800 per year

TOTAL ANNUAL EXPENSES = $ 7200

Income
Leaf
Concentrate

Fiber for
Animal Feed

1000 kg dry LC
X $7.50 per kg (equivalent to about $3 per kg fresh LC)
= $7500 per year
22,000 kg
X $ .04 per kg
= $880 for one year

TOTAL GROSS ANNUAL INCOME

= $ 8380

TOTAL NET ANNUAL INCOME

= $ 1180

This analysis is partly based on several assumptions. One of the most important is that
100 kg of fresh leaf crop will yield 2 kg of dry LC. I've assigned a price of $.04 per kg for
the fiber, which is two-thirds the price of the leaf crop per kg. Many dairy farmers may
think that the fiber should cost less than the crop because you have removed something of
value, namely the leaf concentrate, from the forage crop. In fact, a kilo of the fiber has a
feed value roughly 1 times greater than a kilo of leaf crop, due mainly to the lower
water content of the fiber. It is very important that we are able to convince farmers of
this fact. Again the difference between perceived value and nutritional value is critical.

Using this hypothetical project we can calculate that it cost $7200 to produce 1000 kg of
dry LC. This comes to $7.20 per kg (equivalent to about $2.50 per kg fresh LC). Or:
$3.00 for leaf crop
.75 for transporting leaf crop
2.25 for labor
.40 for equipment
.33 for gas
.12 for electric
.05 for cleaning supplies
.30 for miscellaneous expenses
$7.20 for 1 kg dry LC
From this one can see that, for example, cutting your electric bill in half would lower per
kg costs to $7.14. Reducing crop cost by 15% on the other hand would lower costs to
$6.75 per kg. What if you could improve the yield of LC by modifying the equipment
and technique somewhat? Suppose you could get 2.5 kg per 100 kg of leaf crop by
investing another $1000 in equipment. Then you could produce 1250 kg of dry LC for
$7400 ($7200 + 200 extra depreciation each year for the additional $1000 of equipment).
This would come out to $5.92 per kg. So increasing the yield is more likely to improve
the economics of your project than reducing crop costs or electric consumption.

Cost Analysis from Bareilly, India

Walt Bray gathered the information given below for a leaf concentrate project in India.
They should give a more concrete idea how this type of analysis can help. These
relationships are specific to conditions in Bareilly, but some will apply generally to other
leaf concentrate projects.
Basic assumptions: 500 kg of leaf crop at 83% moisture processed per day
5% yield of 60% moisture LC
215 kg of fiber sold at the same cost of leaf crop (on a dry matter
basis)
Labor = 4 workers + 1 supervisor
Equipment cost = $1600 US
Calculated production cost = Rs 15.6 per kg fresh LC ($0.46 US)*
* 1 Indian Rupee =
$0.031 US
General breakdown of costs
with fiber sales
without fiber sales
Leaf Crop
12.5% of total
37% of total
Labor
14.1%
29.6%
Supervisor
17.1%
12.3%
Power, and fuel
13.1%
9.4%
Maintenance and
depreciation
16.2%
11.7%

Effect of LC Yield on calculated production cost:

3% yield = Rs 26/kg
4% yield = Rs19.5/kg
5% yield = Rs 15.6/kg
6% yield = Rs 13/kg
Effect of fiber sales on calculated production cost:
sale of fiber = Rs15.6/kg
no sale of fiber = 21.6/kg

increase of 66.7%
increase of 25%
decrease of 16.7%

increase of 39%

Effect of daily processing rate on calculated production cost:

250 kg leaf crop/day = Rs 20.6/kg increase of 32%
500 kg leaf crop/day = Rs 15.6/kg
600 kg leaf crop/ day = Rs 13.5/kg decrease of 13%
Effect of leaf crop cost on calculated production cost:
Rs 0.4 /kg = Rs 15.6/kg
Rs 0.8 /kg = Rs 17.5/kg
Rs 1.2 /kg = Rs 19.5/kg

increase of 12.5%
increase of 25%

Effect of leaf crop cost on calculated production cost (with no sale of fiber):
Rs 0.4 /kg = Rs 21.6/kg
increase of 39%
Rs 0.8 /kg = Rs 29.6/kg
increase of 90%
Rs 1.2 /kg = Rs 37.6/kg
increase of 141%

Effect of amount of labor on calculated production cost:

3 workers + supervisor = Rs 14/kg decrease of 10%
4 workers + supervisor = Rs 15.6/kg

Effect of capital equipment costs on calculated production cost:

$1500 US = Rs 15.6/kg
$3000 US = Rs 18.1/kg
increase of 16%
Effect of bio-gas unit on calculated production cost:
No purchased fuel due to bio-gas unit = Rs 14.9/kg decrease of 4.6%
All fuel purchased
= Rs 15.6/kg

Factors Affecting Dry Weight Value of Certain Nutritious Foods

% of food that is
normally edible

Meat (beef, mutton,

goat, pork)
Chicken
Fish (non-fatty)
Eggs*
Milk (fresh)
Milk (powdered)
Cheese (medium soft)
Beans (whole dry)
Leaf Concentrate
(dry)

% moisture content

price multiplier for

edible portion on dry
weight basis

82.5%

60%

52%
45%
89%
100%
100%
100%
90%
100%

67%
78%
74%
88%
2%
42%
11%
10%

5.8
10
4.3
8.3
1
1.7
1.3
1.1

* Figure 22 eggs per kilogram.

This chart will give you an idea of the true nutritional value of some common foods that
are other purchased as protein sources. Powdered milk selling for $10 per kg is about the
same price as fish selling for $1 per kg, or chicken selling for $5.80 per kg once you have
figured in the waste and water content. Of course, these foods vary somewhat in their
actual nutritional composition, so exact comparison cannot be made. But it is easy to see
the importance of calculating in waste and moisture content.
Much of the basic economic analysis for leaf concentrate projects should ideally be
carried out before the sites are selected. The more information of this type we have at the
start of the project, the greater the likelihood of achieving financial self-sufficiency.
There is a series of questions in the section of this manual entitled "Considerations for
Setting Up Leaf Concentrate Projects". It is a very good idea to get an answer to as many
of these questions as possible before the decision to begin LC production. Even if this is
done thoroughly, however, you will need to periodically update your economic analysis
to reflect changes in local prices and labor costs.
Up to this point all of the economic analysis has been based on selling LC as a
commodity. Another way of looking at leaf concentrate economics is to consider the
value of providing nutritional support for malnourished children. This is clearly a service
to the community and to the society in general. From the viewpoint of the community or
the general society, a well designed program of nutritional support for malnourished
children makes tremendous economic sense. Children who are brought up to normal
nutritional levels will become far more productive adults than those allowed to remain

malnourished. They will require less expensive medical care, and make much better use
of the educational resources your community offers children.
From this perspective our analysis would look somewhat different. The same
hypothetical project described on page 87 could supply 670 malnourished children with 6
grams of dry leaf concentrate 5 days a week. If we assume the same production costs of
$7200, and the same income from fiber sales of $880; then it will cost $6320 to provide
670 children with leaf concentrate. This comes out to under $10 per child per year,
which is an investment many government and international agencies would consider very
sound. Of course, there are other costs to providing the nutritional support, but this is
often a more attractive way to market leaf concentrate, at least initially, than as a
commodity in the open market.
Whether you are offering the leaf concentrate you produce as a product for sale or as a
nutritional service, you will have to compete with others offering alternatives. You will
need to know not only what meat and eggs and beans costs, but what food
supplementation programs and hospital nutrition recuperation programs costs in your
community. In either case, it pays to streamline production. If you can find less
expensive leaf crop, or a way to improve yield of leaf concentrate, or less expensive
machinery, or a better price for your fiber, you will have a more economic project.

Economics of Very Small Scale Production

Many times we are asked to help set up very small scale nutrition intervention programs.
These programs are often designed to provide nutritional support for the children of one
village. Frequently this is fewer than 50 children. The idea is that these programs would
be very inexpensive to set up as they would use only hand operated pulpers, such as
manual meat grinders, and presses. They would be very decentralized and, at least in
theory, very sensitive to local conditions. They may be less encumbered by bureaucratic
restraints and administrative overhead than larger programs. Despite these advantages,
Leaf For Life does not advocate small programs that use hand operated leaf grinders.
The main reason for this is that a person using a relatively simple inexpensive electric or
gasoline powered grinder can grind ten times as much leaf crop in an hour as a person
grinding leaves by hand. Hand grinding of leaves is physically demanding as well as
slow. Where people are affected by serious poverty and malnutrition, it is a dubious
service to introduce an activity that will take up so much time and bodily. By the second
hour the worker with the powered machine will likely produce times as much as the one
with the hand powered grinder, and the latter is unlikely to be able to last even that long.
If the project uses volunteers, it must accept that the majority of this type of program
suffers a drastic decline in volunteer participation after two or three months. If the
workers are not being paid and cannot see obvious benefits to their families, they will
typically begin arriving late for work and leaving early. Excuses will replace output, and

the aggravation of keeping the volunteer labor force coordinated and enthusiastic will
become a drain for most community leaders.
If a leaf concentrate program pays a worker to grind leaves, it cannot afford to pay one
who uses a hand-operated grinder. If the worker is paid according to production he makes
perhaps one - tenth as much as the more productive worker with a powered grinder. Even
after figuring in the lower capital cost of the manual equipment, he is unlikely to earn
more than one - fifth as much as the other worker. If he is paid more than that the project
is not getting good value for money. If a worker is willing to work for wages that low
because of extreme poverty and lack of other economic opportunities, he or she is
doomed to a cycle of poverty, because it will be impossible to provide for a family
adequately on this income.
If we serve any purpose in introducing leaf concentrate technology to developing
countries, it must be done in such a way that peasants can create more wealth from their
labor than they are currently able to. People rightly expect "development" to lighten their
workload and increase their productivity. This means power tools for physically
demanding tasks.

Economics of Very Large Scale Production

At the opposite end of the spectrum are very large-scale leaf concentrate operations.
There have been several of these over the past twenty years. All have been in
industrialized countries and all have used the leaf concentrate primarily for animal feed.
The scale of these operations dwarfs the village scale programs established by Leaf for
Life. By way of example, France Lucerne, a French firm that processes alfalfa, about
12,000 tons of dried leaf concentrate a year from three plants. The alfalfa comes from
about 7000 hectares of alfalfa. They run from mid-April until mid-October at three
locations. Each plant represents several million dollars in capital investment. The
continuous process is under sophisticated computer control.
Because of their large volume and the advanced technology, France Lucerne can produce
dried LC for far less per kilogram than any of the village programs can ever hope to
achieve. As attractive as that is, there is a down side to the large scale operations. In the
first place they require a great deal of capital that is rarely available in developing
countries. They also require a large area dedicated to the leaf crop and a dependable
system of transportation to deliver it to the processing plant within a couple of hours.
Distributing 12,000 tons of dried LC would also be a daunting task in most developing
countries. There is usually a shortage of the highly trained specialized technicians that are
needed to run such a plant.
In the US a large plant was built by Atlantic Richfield Oil Company in El Centro,
California. I was originally conceived to process up to 60 tons of alfalfa an hour. It was
selling dried LC in a pelletized form mainly to the Japanese poultry industry. They used it
because it made the skins of factory farmed chickens a more appealing golden color. It
also gave the eggs from factory farm a richer looking yolk that customers prefer. When

the Mexican peso was devalued in the early 1980's the price of Mexican marigold meal
dropped sharply, and the Japanese began buying it rather than LC to color their eggs. The
El Centro plant lost millions of dollars and closed. There are dangers from being too big
as well as too small.

MAKING THE BEST USE OF LEAF

CONCENTRATE
Leaf concentrate is an excellent food for everyone over 6 months of age, but in
most programs production is limited and choices must be made as to where the leaf
concentrate will do the most good. Below are some general guidelines on this subject.
- Younger children benefit more than older ones from the same amount of leaf
concentrate. Children under 4 and especially those between 6 months and 2 years will
show more improvement in health than school age children on a leaf concentrate
program. We don't recommend giving children under 6 months leaf concentrate because
their digestive systems are still developing and there is a greater likelihood of indigestion.
- Malnourished children benefit far more from feeding programs than children
who have normal height and weight for their age. This is very important. Third degree
malnutrition (defining degrees of malnutrition is discussed in the nutrition section of this
manual) is a life threatening condition. These children should always be given top
priority in any nutrition program. It is worth the effort required to go to their homes, talk
to their parents, or do whatever is necessary to get leaf concentrate to these children. It
could save their lives.
Second-degree malnutrition puts a child at great risk of serious health problems.
These children are the next priority. Any nutrition program should try to identify and
supplement the diet of all third and second-degree malnourished children in the area
being served by the program. It may be worthwhile to get two servings daily to third
degree children. They should get 30 grams or two tablespoons of fresh leaf concentrate
daily if possible. Second and first-degree malnourished children should get at least 15
grams a day, preferably 20.
- Although weight-for-age records for children are sometimes misleading, it is
important to maintain some kind of records on the growth of the children in your
program. Many nutritionists feel that weight-for-height is a more accurate indication of
nutritional status than weight-for-age. By periodically evaluating the nutritional status of
the children in your program, you can get an idea how good a job you are doing. It may
also help you to know when a child can be taken off the program to make room for one
who is more malnourished.
- It is usually more effective to enrich children's diet at a higher level for a shorter
time than to give them a slight supplementation for a longer period. Thus it may be better
to give 100 children 30 grams of leaf concentrate daily for 6 months then switch groups,

than to give 200 children 15 grams daily for the entire year. Six months is about the
minimum time for a nutrition program to have an impact on a child's health.
- Children showing any degree of night blindness should begin getting 30 grams
per day immediately if possible . They should get a vitamin A capsule if they are
available.
- Children recovering from injury or illness, especially diarrhea should get 30
grams a day, if possible, in bland foods such as pudding or noodles or soup.
- Children with anemia should get leaf concentrate lemonade or leaf concentrate
combined with another source of vitamin C, like guavas, or with a small portion of meat
or fish daily until the anemia is reversed. The presence of vitamin C or meat or fish in
the same meal makes the iron from vegetable sources, like leaf concentrate, much more
usable to the body. You can look under a child's eyelid (with very clean hands) and if the
tissue is whitish or light pink rather than red, it is very likely that the child is anemic.
- After malnourished children, pregnant women should receive the highest
priority in nutrition intervention programs. They should be offered 40-50 grams daily if
possible because of their greater nutritional needs. Since anemia is extremely common
among pregnant women, it is also advisable to include a source of vitamin C or small
amount of meat or fish with their leaf concentrate. Special care should be taken to get
their opinions on leaf concentrate dishes as pregnant women often have strong likes and
dislikes for certain foods.
- Lactating or nursing mothers are usually the next highest priority for nutrition
programs. They have a particular need for calcium and protein, both of which are well
supplied by leaf concentrate.
- If there is an adequate supply of leaf concentrate, adults recovering from illness
or injury should next be considered for your program, as should older women who are
often troubled with osteoporosis, in which their bones become brittle from too little
available calcium.
Two other issues come up frequently when considering how a community can make the
best use of leaf concentrate or other nutritional resources. The first of these is the
question of intestinal parasites. In many villages in developing countries a majority of
the children suffer from intestinal parasites. Some people argue that it is pointless to
offer a nutritional supplement because 'you are just feeding the worms'. They argue that
the problem is first a medical one, then a sanitation one, and only then a nutritional one.
Others say that it does little good to get medicine to expel the worms, because if the
living conditions aren't changed the children will be rapidly re-infested.
The problem with these approaches is that it is very expensive putting in good water
systems and cleaning up other sources of parasite infestation. In many communities this

is not likely to happen in the foreseeable future. Even the access to the medical care and
the drugs used to expel worms is too expensive for a great many people.
While government and other agencies should be urged to begin taking these problems
seriously enough to allocate adequate funds; hygiene and sanitation education are
inexpensive and can be a part of every leaf concentrate project. Furthermore, studies
show that only severe infestations of intestinal parasites affect the nutritional status of
children. At the lower levels of parasite infestation that are most common in children,
normal health and normal growth are possible with good nutrition. Children with more
serious infestations should definitely be treated by local health workers familiar with
these problems, if that is possible.
The second issue concerning the optimum use of leaf concentrate or other nutritious
foods pivots on the relative merits of central feeding centers vs. feeding the children in
their homes. Many health workers feel that the central feeding centers are the only way
that you can be sure if the child is actually eating the food offered. They think that the
food sent to the child's home is often shared with other family members and sometimes
fed to animals.
On the other hand many malnourished children live far from the centers of town. Often
the poorest people live the furthest from the resources offered by the town. Young
children can't walk a long way on their own and their parents are often too busy with
housework, caring for other children, or earning money, to carry them to the centers
every day. Sometimes parents are ashamed to send children with no shoes or tattered
clothes into the town's center. For these people a program that can deliver leaf concentrate
in a preserved state once a week or once every two weeks may be a better option. With a
program where the food is eaten at home it is extremely important that someone from the
program checks in with the family frequently to encourage them to use the leaf
concentrate effectively.
This is a big commitment of labor, and
sometimes it is hard to find workers to
hike back the muddy trails to these
people's homes. Regardless of how it is
done, some means needs to be found to
reach the children who live on the
outskirts of towns and villages or a
nutrition program will fail to meet the
needs of the community.

LEAF CONCENTRATE AND OLDER ADULTS

IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
In many societies elderly people are the fastest growing segment of the population.
Antibiotics and improved medical care are allowing more people to live beyond the age
of sixty even in developing countries where the general standard of living is very low.
Older people need the same forty nutrients - carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and
minerals - as the rest of the population if they are to maintain good health and vigor.
Older people, however, do have some special conditions and circumstances that affect
how much of these nutrients are needed and in what form they are best utilized.
Some of the factors that can adversely influence the nutritional health of older people in
developing countries are:
- Lack of income to buy food of adequate quality and variety. Pensions and social
security systems to provide for those too old to work are the exception. Most rely on
their families to meet their food needs. If that family is poor, food is likely to be
preferentially allocated to income earners.
- Diseases or chronic conditions that affect the eating process. These can be
gastrointestinal disorders that restrict the foods that can be eaten; conditions like arthritis
or Parkinson's disease that limit our physical ability to buy and prepare foods; or
confusion and memory loss that can cause missed or poorly prepared meals.
- Dental and mouth pain that make chewing many foods uncomfortable. Dental
and malocclusion problems are very common in most developing countries as
professional dental care is nearly nonexistent and false teeth tend to be poorly fitted
makeshift affairs.
Leaf concentrate is an inexpensive product that can greatly improve the nutritional status
of the high risk elderly population. Leaf concentrate is a very nutritious curd made by
heating the juice of certain varieties of green leaf crops. It can be an inexpensive source
of high quality protein, iron, calcium, vitamin A and other nutrients in the humid tropics
where malnutrition is most prevalent. The soft texture of leaf concentrate makes it a very
easy food for people with bad teeth or poorly fitted dentures to eat. Because it can be
readily integrated into foods like tamales, dried pasta, and lemonade, that are convenient
and easy for older people to prepare and eat, it is especially well suited for prevention of
malnutrition among the elderly.
By our mid-twenties the physical performance of our bodies has peaked. Gradually the
efficiency with which we chew and digest food declines and we need to eat more of the
same foods to absorb the same amount of essential nutrients. Protein, iron, calcium, and
zinc are more poorly absorbed with advancing age. Many nutritionists recommend that
older people get 12-14% of their calories from protein, as opposed to the 9% suggested
for the general population. Often a reduced ability to absorb one or two essential amino
acids can lower the quality of the protein in the food older people eat. In areas where the
diet is based on staples like corn, sorghum, or legumes that have a marginal quality of
protein this can be significant. Where the total quantity of protein is low or marginal, for

example in regions where cassava, yams, or bananas are important staples, impaired
absorption of amino acids can lead to protein deficiency.
The body's requirement for iron does not increase with age, (in fact post-menopausal
women need less than younger women). However, the reduced efficiency of absorption
can cause anemia in older persons with borderline consumption of iron rich foods. The
little meat that they can afford is usually very tough and stringy, coming from animals
who have not received a rich diet themselves. This is another obstacle to adequate
nutrition for the elderly as they very often have great difficulty chewing tough meat due
to dental or mouth problems. Dark green leafy vegetables, another source of iron, are
quite fibrous and can also be very hard to chew thoroughly for people with poorly fitting
dentures or missing teeth.
Calcium is another essential nutrient that is more poorly absorbed with advancing age.
Dairy products are an excellent source of calcium, but they, like meat, are usually too
expensive for low-income elderly in the tropics. Perhaps even more limiting than price is
the fact that the majority of elderly people in the world cannot digest lactose, or milk
sugar, very well. Most adults can consume a small amount of milk (less than liter per
day) without difficulty, but larger quantities can cause uncomfortable gas formation,
bloating and diarrhea (the main exceptions to this being people of northern European
ancestry and some African tribes with long histories of cattle herding). Cheese and yogurt
don't usually cause this reaction because the fermentation process breaks down the
lactose. For more information on lactose intolerance please see the chapter on Discussion
Topics
Dark green leafy vegetables are potentially an inexpensive source of calcium for these
people. Greens have several limitations as food for elderly people in developing
countries. As mentioned earlier, they are difficult to chew because of the high content of
tough fiber. Many greens contain oxalic acid which can block the body's absorption of
calcium.
Older people generally need fewer calories from their diet than their younger
counterparts. Usually the amount of time spent in demanding physical activity is much
less. Even in times of rest the body of a 70 year old typically uses about 10% less energy
than when he was 20 years old. It is quite possible for elderly people to simultaneously
suffer from being overweight and undernourished. For example, in parts of Mexico fats,
mainly lard, and sugars which supply only calories, make up a large and growing part of
the diet. With their decreased need for energy and reduced absorption of many other
nutrients, older people can easily put on excess weight without assuring their other
nutrient requirements are met. Because leaf concentrate is extremely rich source of a
wide variety of nutrients and has an average calorie content, it is an excellent nutritional
insurance for older people.
As a person grows older their immune system, like their digestive system, becomes less
efficient. Older people are more prone to infections than younger adults. Infections are
closely linked with nutrition. Malnutrition increases our susceptibility to infection and

infection increases our nutritional

requirements. Vitamin A is especially
important in preventing infections as it
helps to maintain the effectiveness of
mucous membranes in the respiratory
and digestive system, which is the body's
first line of defense against invading
micro-organisms. Leaf concentrate is
the richest known source of betacarotene which is converted to vitamin A
within the human body. There is some
danger of toxicity from overuse of high
potency vitamin A capsules that are
often distributed by clinics and
development groups. Beta-carotene, on
the other hand, is a non-toxic way to
insure adequate vitamin A in the diet.
In summary, leaf concentrate is an
inexpensive food that is extremely rich
in of several of the nutrients most likely
to be lacking in the diets of elderly people in developing nations. Leaf concentrate is easy
to combine with inexpensive staples, and a wide variety of these combinations have
proven acceptable in various cultures. Most of these foods are very easy to chew and
digest compared to local alternatives.
Some resources for nutrition and the elderly:
Nutritional Care of the Older Adult Annette B. Natow and Jo-Ann Heslin MacMillan
press NY 1986 306 pp
Nutrition Screeening Manual For Professionals Caring For OLder Americans Nutrition
Screening Initiative Washington, DC 1991
A Resource Guide for Nutrition Management Programs for Older Persons US Dept. of
Helath and Human Services (Administration on Aging) 1985
Nutrition Assessment: A comprehensive guide for Planning Intervention M. D. Simco,
C. Cowell, and JA Gilbride $35
Aspen System Corp. 1600 Research Blvd. Rockville, MD 20850
Nutrition of the Elderly Ed. Munro and Schlieref Nestle Nutrition Service Raven Press
1185 Avenue of The Americas
NY, NY 10036 1991

CULTURAL ASPECTS OF LEAF CONCENTRATE PROGRAMS

Leaf concentrate doesn't do any good if people don't eat it. Whether children will eat leaf
concentrate or not depends on many cultural factors. How the leaf concentrate is
presented and how it is distributed play an essential role in any leaf concentrate program.
This manual contains a few recipes that should give community workers some ideas as to
how to incorporate leaf concentrate into traditional dishes. Peoples' tastes vary from
region to region and the recipes will always have to be adjusted for this.
A public dinner to introduce leaf concentrate to a community can be very helpful if
several dishes are attractively presented. If the women in your community are reluctant
to get involved with the project you might try a cooking contest to see who can make the
best recipe containing leaf concentrate. If a local judge or panel of judges can be
recruited from well-known local people and the contest connected with a community
celebration of some type it may help gain interest and acceptance for leaf concentrate.
The method of distributing leaf concentrate to malnourished children in your community
should be given a lot of consideration. Often the most seriously malnourished children
live far from the community center. Their parents may be very busy, or discouraged, or
sickly, or ashamed of their appearance. Any of these can lead parents to avoid bringing
their children to breakfast or other feeding programs. Sometimes the fathers of
malnourished children feel that if their children are in a nutrition program, it is an
admission of their inability to provide for their families. Maintaining pride is of great
importance. Generally speaking, the more
the program appears to be a charity for the
poor, the more social stigma is attached to it.
The ideal approach is often to provide
nutritional education to the parents while at
the same time appealing directly to the
children. Sometimes a few balloons or
small toys can generate a lot of interest. If
attendance is not consistent at a feeding
center, a weekly prize of some kind could be
given away in a lottery open only to children
who have attended every day that week. If a
video cassette player is available, perhaps
one day a week a children's' movie could be
shown while atol or churritos or some other
leaf concentrate snack are fed. If it is made
fun for the kids the parents will be more
enthusiastic and half your work will be
done.
Families with malnourished children often

have a lot of problems. Sometimes alcohol or drugs, or learning disabilities, or emotional

problems prevent people from taking good care of their children. Sometimes the problem
is just economics; the lack of adequate income. Whatever the case, it is very important
that they be treated with respect. It is also important that nutrition workers don't give up
on families with malnourished children, even if they are ungrateful and uncooperative.
They may be cynical about these types of programs, perhaps with good reason, and it
may take several home visits to convince them that you are for real.
The broader the base of support you have in a community the greater the chance of the
leaf concentrate project taking root. It is always a good idea to try to get the doctors and
other health workers in the area interested in the project. If you can enlist social service
workers in the area or university students doing their social service work, they often have
a lot of enthusiasm. Most often, however, a group of local mothers is by far the most
important support group for these programs.
There are no fixed rules for introducing new foods. The best you can do is to pay
attention to what the local people say and feel, and to learn from your own mistakes and
those of other groups doing similar work.

THE COMMERCIAL MARKET

While most of this manual has
focused on the use of leaf
concentrate to improve the
nutritional status of young children,
we are also aware of a great deal of
interest in small-scale marketing of
leaf concentrate products. Leaf For
Life is working with small women's
co-operatives in several countries
that are trying to generate income
through the sales of leaf concentrate
products. Most of these co-ops
have a dual motivation of trying to
improve the diet of local
malnourished children, while, at the
same time, earning a basic salary or
wage for their labor.
The requirements for successfully
marketing leaf concentrate products
are very different from those of a
successful nutrition intervention
program. The biggest difference is in the targeted consumer. In nutrition programs we
are mainly trying to reach young children whose parents are poor and often quite
uneducated. In marketing leaf concentrate we frequently find ourselves targeting well-

nourished, well-educated, middle class urban people who have recently become
concerned about health and nutrition.
This "health food" market tends to be small and very fussy, but willing to pay high prices
for foods they feel will improve their health. There is often a huge mark up on the prices
of foods sold through `health food' shops because the volume of sales is small. This
means that even though the price to the consumer is very high, the price to the producer
may not be. Sometimes these shops are unwilling to carry products containing salt,
refined sugar, or artificial flavors. At the other end of the market, efforts to market leaf
concentrate foods in low-income communities, revolve around a low enough price and
acceptance of a new food.
It may be helpful to relate some of the experiences of the La Casa de la Salud womens
co-operative in northern Mexico as they tried to market leaf concentrate products in
nearby villages and in the city of Mexicali. After 2 years of producing a small quantity of
leaf concentrate foods for their families and neighbors in their village of about 2000
people, they decided the only way their project could continue was through the sale of
products.
Many of the leaf concentrate foods that had been eaten in their village, like puddings,
frozen confections, donuts, and meat substitutes were considered as possible products for
local markets on a small scale. However, their short shelf lives made them inappropriate
for larger scale marketing in Mexicali. After a period of test marketing several products,
the co-op decided to focus their sales efforts on three; dried pasta, syrups for making
lemonade and other drinks, and fried corn snacks, called churritos.
Each had advantages and drawbacks. The pasta was attractive, convenient and stored
extremely well, but per hour production output was very low because a hand operated
machine was used to make it. The drink mixes required much less labor, as they could be
made in a kitchen blender by combining leaf concentrate, lemon juice and sugar. The
bottles and labels needed to package this sticky liquid on a small scale, however, were
quite expensive. Churritos were very popular with children and teenagers and were well
suited for giving out as samples, as they are ready to eat. Because people seem quite
willing to accept novelty in snack food, it was far easier to get people to try churritos than
pasta, which had to be planned into a conservative meal pattern. The churritos had a
shorter shelf life than either the pasta or drink mixes and there were some quality control
problems. Fluctuations in moisture content, oil temperature, and frying time made it
difficult to get a uniform product. Some churritos were too hard, others too greasy
.
Having chosen three products to sell, the next steps were to promote them in Mexicali,
and to find ways to make them more efficiently, thus lowering per unit costs. The co-op
had attractive labels printed for all three products. A pegboard product display was
designed and given free to storekeepers willing to try selling these new products. Stacks
of free flyers explaining the value of leaf concentrate were left for customers at each
store. Articles about the co-op and their products were submitted to local newspapers
and a representative went on a local radio show to raise public awareness.

On the production side, steps were taken to increase output, lower costs, and improve
quality. A larger commercial blender helped with drink mix production and an improved
rack sped up the drying of the pasta. A nylon dieplate replaced the steel one in the
churritos maker, which made for smoother churritos that absorbed less of the expensive
oil. Bulk purchasing of corn meal, cooking oil, sugar and other supplies lowered costs.
The factor most limiting to production, however, was the low output of leaf concentrate
itself.
`La Casa de la Salud' has not been able to become a profitable co-op selling leaf
concentrate products yet. Problems of irregular supply of leaf crop, low hourly output of
leaf concentrate, and difficulties in transporting the products to market are large obstacles
that haven't yet been overcome. The co-op has not been able to get stores in the low
income barrios of Mexicali or neighboring villages to carry the products regularly.
Volume of production is so small that only the very high retail prices charged at the
middle class health food stores, hold promise of providing a steady income to the women.
And of course, these are the people who least need nutritional support.
Before dismissing the co-op as a failure, however, it is important to remember that they
were never purely a business venture. In addition to running a profitable co-op the
women wanted to take effective action against the malnutrition that is prevalent in their
area. Approximately 25% of their production was donated to poor families in their
village and to primary school children in a very run down barrio of Mexicali. The co-op
also helped to meet several social needs of the women and their families. Much of the
appeal of the co-op to its members is that it offers part time work in the village, so that
family life is not severely disturbed by the women seeking additional income. The
women arrange their own work schedules and their young children can play in the
adjacent churchyard during their 3-4 hour shifts. The co-op has a fund set aside to help
members with emergency expenses. Most of the other employment opportunities for
women have long inflexible hours and transportation problems.
Despite these social benefits to the women and the community, the co-op is in serious
trouble. Our experience with marketing elsewhere has been similar. It is extremely
difficult for a small democratic co-operative making a new product to compete with large
mechanized, well-financed food companies. From the hard cold viewpoint of business
the social benefits to the community are often just an unacceptable overhead. Regardless
of the difficulties involved, successful marketing of leaf concentrate is essential if this
food is to play a significant role in feeding future generations. Below are a few points
that any group thinking about marketing leaf concentrate products might consider before
getting started. These aren't intended to discourage people, only to offer some realistic
perspective on the food business.
- The importance of selling products and difficulty of doing it are always
underestimated. In most businesses sales workers are paid far more than production
workers, yet co-ops often view sales as a very secondary part of their operation. Women
in leaf concentrate co-operatives often see the work as an extension of the cooking and
feeding they traditionally do at home, and as such they are quite familiar with it. The

aggressiveness required of sales workers is often uncomfortable for village women. Good
sales people have real skills and talents that shouldn't be taken for granted. They
understand people. They are creative, enthusiastic and persistent in the face of repeated
rejections. They are a tremendous asset to any group trying to market leaf concentrate
products.
- You will need to put some money into getting things rolling before you
begin making a profit. Small co-ops often balk at spending their precious money on
things like advertising and promotion. Business people understand that, especially when
introducing new products, substantial effort has to be put into giving the product away
before it can be sold profitably. You will need to plan on expenses like free samples,
product displays, contest prizes, and radio advertising to launch your business.
- Quality control is essential. If you are selling pasta, don't try to sell the bags
with lots of broken pieces. Make sure your products look beautiful, not just OK.
Someone who buys one bag of churritos that are hard or have a burnt flavor is unlikely to
ever buy them again. You are responsible for making sure your products are not being
sold in stores when they are too old. Be sure that your bags are not sealed in such a way
that people might end up with a staple in their mouth. If your bags say they contain 100
grams, make sure they do.
- Be conservative in your financial calculations. 10 kgs of ingredients will
never make 100 bags of products with 100 grams in each. Some of your products will
always be lost through spillage. Some prepared foods will usually be broken or burned
during processing. If your foods are tasty and ready-to-eat a surprising amount may be
eaten by workers before heading to market.
Some unexpected expenses should be expected. All of your equipment as well
as your building will need periodic maintenance and eventual replacement. It is better to
slightly overestimate your costs and be pleasantly surprised, than to fail to meet
unrealistic expectations. Dig in for the long haul. Most successful food businesses lose
money for at least their first year before becoming profitable.
- Take advantage of available resources. Many governments have set up
agencies to help small co-ops and businesses get started. There are a growing number of
non- governmental organizations that are promoting small worker owned businesses as a
way out of poverty. Some of these, like the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, offer small
loans with low or no interest. Others can offer help with teaching workers unfamiliar
skills like accounting, marketing, or equipment maintenance.

THE SOCIAL MARKET

The line between business and charity is often blurry and getting more so every day.
Increasingly development agencies are interested in supporting projects that will one day
become self-supporting small businesses or micro-enterprises. The problem is that it is
very difficult for a small women's group to become a profitable business by selling a new
product (LC) to a group of people who are notoriously impoverished, namely
malnourished children. The need to become financially self-sufficient can have some
interesting effects on small groups. Groups that started with the honorable intention of
reducing childhood malnutrition in their community, often end up with the dubious
objective of selling rich people LC at the highest possible price.
We have moved into an arena sometimes called the social market in an effort to resolve
this contradiction. Broadly speaking, social marketing is selling products or services
through organizations or institutions that are trying to perform socially beneficial
services. These include orphanages, clinics, old age homes, schools, homeless shelters,
feeding programs for malnourished children, refugee support programs, and a range of
other programs set up to help out societies more vulnerable members. For the most part
these are programs that need to provide the essential nutrients to groups of people under
their care. Because they need to regularly buy nutritious food in large quantities they
could be an ideal market for leaf concentrate in many ways.
Selling LC to them is quite different than selling it in the commercial market. Typically,
these institutions have very tight budgets and need to buy food at low prices. However,
they are often sympathetic to some of your group's objectives. They may want to help
support your women's co-op by buying LC because they agree that the income generating
possibilities for village women is linked to the problem of poverty that they are working
on. They may like the idea of using local resources and paying local workers for the
production instead of bringing in imported foods. On the other hand, you may be
competing directly with food that is given away for free by the World Food Program, the
government, or the church.
Besides being able to reach people who really need the LC, the biggest advantage of
social marketing is that some of these institutions serve a lot of people and need a lot of
food. They can buy large quantities of LC. For example, we are negotiating with a group
called Alianza Urbana (Urban Alliance) in Mexico. They run 82 barrio feeding centers.
Soynica in Nicaragua is running 26 centers with an average of 85 children and mothers in
each. This is 2200 people or far more than you are likely to reach by selling to a handful
of small retail shops. A once a week snack for thousands of school children could absorb
all the production from a small LC production coop. We are just beginning to learn how
to do effective social marketing, and have a long way to go. Below are a few points that
have been helpful so far:
1. Calculate the lowest price that its is worth selling your LC for. If your price is too
high you won't interest the social institutions, if it is too low you won't recover your
operating costs. It is hard to raise prices once they are set.

2. Sell dried concentrate or simple LC foods that have a long shelf life. Most
institutions have their own kitchen staffs and will not want to pay you the additional labor
costs of preparing more complex foods like churritos. Dried LC enables you to deliver a
sack every three weeks instead of delivering perishable fresh LC every two or three days.
This reduces the cost of transportation.
3. Make a list of all the social institutions in your area. Include address, telephone
number, and contact person. Arrange these in the order of those you think most likely to
purchase LC first and least likely last. Begin at the top of the list visiting the institutions,
meeting the directors and dropping off information about LC and your project. Leave
some samples of both dried LC and of at least one appealing local food that can be made
from dried LC.
4. Arrange a return visit with free samples of an LC food. If the institution is not too
large, bring enough for everyone to try it. Directors are far more likely to allow you to
bring something for a midmorning snack than for a meal, because the meals often have
menus that have to be approved by someone beforehand. This should be short, fun and
informative. Green frog cookies for children or green Christmas tree cookies at Christmas
time are good for getting people interested. Take photos if possible.
5. Offer to send someone from your project to help the kitchen staff learn to cook
with LC.
6. Ask the director to consider buying a small but definite amount each month If
they would like to buy LC and feel that it would be a benefit to their institution but can't
afford, ask them to write you a short letter expressing their interest. You can then
approach social clubs, churches, etc. with this letter asking them to help the institution
purchase a local high nutrition food.
7. Ask for testimonials from institutions that have used LC for a while.

MARKETING FIBER
Make every effort to find a market for the leaf fiber you produce. If you cannot sell it to
dairy farmers for cash, perhaps you can arrange a trade of your fiber to someone raising
animals for some service or product that would help your business. Again, with an
unfamiliar product you may have to give it away for a while to convince people that it is
worth buying. If you can interest an innovative and successful farmer in using the fiber,
his endorsement may make it easier to sell to others. Similarly, if you can get a local
university of agricultural school to test the feed value of the fiber (with donated fiber), it
may be easier to get the attention of farmers
If you have the space it may be worthwhile drying or ensiling the fiber so that it can be
stored and sold at a time when livestock feeds are at their lowest levels and highest
prices. Another alternative is for the project or cooperative to raise its own animals for

sale feeding them with the fiber. This substitutes a known commodity (the animals) for
one of unknown value (the fiber). This can be a sound financial strategy if the people
involved in the project are familiar with raising the animals and feed for the animals is
expensive enough to justify seeking lower cost alternatives. It can get complicated having
joint ownership and responsibility for animals.

SECTION V
DISCUSSION TOPICS
The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize LC workers with some of the controversial
topics that sometimes come up when one is working on LC programs. For the most part
there are no definitive answers to the questions posed here. The aim is simply to present
a quick background and some useful perspective on questions that many volunteer field
workers and staff people have encountered. It is beyond the scope of this manual to
explore these issues in the depth many of them deserve. These are arranged in three
groups; production issues; nutrition issues; and the bigger picture.

Production
"Should we be practicing organic farming methods?
"Organic farming" generally refers to raising crops and animals without the use of
synthetic fertilizers or pesticides and herbicides. There are many closely related concepts
like regenerative farming, bio-dynamic farming, natural farming and sustainable
agriculture. Underlying them all is the idea that farmers must take good care of the soil
and that a healthy soil will produce healthier plants which will be more able to take care
of themselves. Much of the initiative comes from consumers who feel that modern
agricultural techniques produce food that is tainted with pesticides. Increasingly, the
organic agricultural movement is driven by concerns about the environmental
contamination and high energy costs of modern farming. There is almost always present a
philosophical element as well. This boils down to the idea that humans need to remain
close to the natural cycles of life and that industrialized agriculture turns the living
biological relationship of food production into a mechanical one.
Many people become interested in leaf concentrate through their involvement with
organic gardening, health foods, vegetarianism, or other aspects of what might be called a
search for a more natural way of life. Sometimes these people become disillusioned with
leaf concentrate projects when they find out that we may use leaf crops grown with
chemical fertilizers or pesticides.
Everyone has their own lifestyle and their own views, but it is helpful to try to keep
some perspective when working with leaf concentrate programs in developing countries.
The idea of "organic gardening" evolved in wealthy nations as a response to perceived
problems in industrialized food production, after they were producing large food
surpluses. Most of the developing countries only have industrialized agriculture for
export crops, and suffer from inadequate production levels of basic foods. Much of the
wisdom of the "organic agriculture" movement is tied to conditions in the temperate
climatic zones where it evolved. In hot tropical climates many of the organic strategies
don't work nearly as well. For example, composting which is central to organic

agriculture is vastly less useful in the tropics because nitrogen is lost to the air so much
more quickly.
Organic farmers advocate using the slow acting rock phosphate, rather than the synthetic
super-phosphate for soils deficient in that nutrient. However, tropical soils are far more
likely to be deficient in phosphorus and transportation is typically so much more
expensive, relative to income, that the hauling of low value rock phosphates makes less
sense than it does in the US. The question of pest control is also quite different in the
tropics where there is no long cold winter to depress insect population and freeze out soil
nematodes. "Organic farming" approaches tend to be long term solution like building up
the humus level in the soil or gradually bringing pest and predator populations into
equilibrium. The logic of these strategies is essentially unchallenged. The difficulties of
implementing them in terms of leaf concentrate projects are several.
Very often we are operating under the terms of a two-year grant, and need to show
measurable results within that time. Sometimes the land being used is on a short-term
lease or the tenure is very insecure. This makes it difficult to encourage people to make
the long term investments in soil building. Our primary objective is generally to improve
the nutritional status of the people, especially children, in the area of the project.
Agricultural innovations are necessarily secondary to this objective. When there is a
conflict, for instance a leaf crop will be lost to insects unless pesticides are applied
immediately, we are obliged to take measures to protect the crop. This is not a
hypothetical situation. it happens often in practice.
If we are not in a position to impose "organic orthodoxy in our projects, neither can we
completely ignore the essence of the "organic" message. For a range of economic,
environmental and health reasons we need to use the most "organic" methods that are
appropriate to a given situation. If agriculture is dependent on huge energy subsidies or
is rapidly degrading the resource base that it operates from it is not sustainable. If its not
sustainable, its bad agriculture. Leaf for Life is part of a growing movement towards low
input and low impact agriculture that is not based on doctrine, but rather on observation
of specific conditions. We need to be aware of the full range of available responses to
crop problems and choose those least likely to cause damage. For example, we have
planted neem trees at one of our production sites in Nicaragua because the neem seeds
can be made into a safe, effective low cost insecticide. Sustainable agriculture is a
direction to move towards not a set of prescribed practices.

"Should we encourage the production of animals for meat in leaf

concentrate projects?"
More people than ever before are questioning the wisdom of raising animals for meat.
The doubts come from concern over the ethics of our relationship with animals, and
perceived nutritional and environmental problems related to the production and
consumption of meat. As with the arguments for "organic" agriculture, most of these
viewpoints developed in industrialized temperate zone societies that didn't suffer from

food shortages. Many people have chosen to become vegetarians (eat no meat) or vegan
(eat no meat, eggs, or dairy products) in response to these concerns.
The argument against meat is strongest when aimed at the US feedlot beef production.
Huge quantities of edible food (mainly corn and soybeans) are fed to fatten cattle held in
cruel confinement. The fatted cattle then provide heart disease and cancer for the overfed
people who eat them. In the tropics very little humanly edible foods goes to animals.
They are seen much more as a means of converting less valuable resources like the tough
tropical grasses on poor rangeland and domestic garbage into a valuable food. Where
protein-energy malnutrition is common and anemia is widespread, the highly digestible
forms of protein and iron in meat, even in small quantities, can be important to the diet.
Ruminants like cows, goats and sheep can convert indigestible cellulose fiber to useful
foods for humans. With few exceptions the most economical use of the fiber remaining
from leaf concentrate production is to use it produce milk or meat from ruminants. There
are other possible uses for this fiber, such as improving the soil, making bio-gas, or
making paper, but none compare to animal feed in economic value to the producer.
Beside the value of meat or milk, animals also serve as a source of power for agricultural
work and transportation in many developing countries. When trucks and tractors wear out
new ones must be bought, but horses and cattle can reproduce themselves. This point is
very important to impoverished farmers. The manure from farm animals is also important
for maintaining soil fertility. Some groups we work with may elect not to raise animals
with the leaf concentrate fiber for various reasons. Whether to raise animals should be
decided by the local group after they have been well informed about the alternative uses
for the leaf concentrate fiber.

"Shouldn't the processing of leaves be continuous rather in batches?"

There are two basic approaches to leaf concentrate processing; Continuous Processing
and batch processing. Continuous processing allows for the uninterrupted flow of
materials from the time the leaves enter the workshop until the leaf concentrate is
separated. It is the type of system normally used in most industrial processing, and can be
very efficient in terms of output per hour of labor.
When the leaf concentrate is made by repeated steps with breaks in between, it is a batch
process. So, for example, if you have 200 kg of leaves to pulp and you feed it through a
hammer mill it is a continuous process. But when you pulp it 3 kg at a time in a blender it
is a batch process. A belt press allows for continuous processing, but a lever press or
jack press handles a batch at a time.
One part of the process could be continuous and another part batch. For example, in
Mexico we use an impact macerator that allows for continuous pulping, then a batch type
hydraulic press table and a batch type cooker. The advantage of continuous processing is
lost if any part of the process is done by batches, because the material flow will have to
stop and wait for the batch processing.

With the obvious advantages of continuous processing, why do we ever use batch
processes? Continuous processing often require more engineering to make sure all the
parts of the system are matched for speed. If your hammer mill processes 500 kg per
hour but your belt press can only handle 200 kg per hour you won't have an efficient
continuous process. When you are dealing with a relatively small volume of material, say
less than one ton of leaf per day, the initial costs of designing an efficient continuous
process leaf concentrate system may not be justified. The highly variable conditions of
work one frequently encounters in leaf concentrate production in developing countries
can also make managing a coordinated system very difficult. Often the quantity and
quality of the leaves will vary greatly from day to day as may the number of workers.
Even the voltage of the electricity can vary considerably. If anything goes wrong with a
continuous process the whole system comes to a halt, whereas with batch systems it is
often possible to keep processing by making modifications only in that part of the process
that is going wrong. Batch systems tend to be simpler, more flexible, and less expensive
to set up than continuous systems. Conditions in developing countries are usually such
that flexibility is an enormously valuable characteristic in a processing system. The great
advantages in efficiency of continuous systems probably come into play at a rate of about
one ton per day or more.

"Shouldnt food processing equipment be made of stainless steel?"

In most developed or industrialized countries there are rigorous health codes that
determine what materials may come in contact with food during processing. Stainless
steel is the standard for most food processing equipment where these codes are in force. It
is extremely resistant to rust and can be cleaned very thoroughly. The problems with
using stainless steel equipment in nutrition programs in developing countries are
threefold; it is expensive; it is hard to find; and it is hard to work with.
When stainless steel is not available or is too expensive for a project, what alternatives
can be used? We frequently use plastic containers of various sizes. They are relatively
inert and can be cleaned well unless they are badly scratched. Polyester and nylon cloth
are often used to replace expensive stainless steel screen. They are quite inert and can be
cleaned but will break down more quickly from abrasion or friction. Some synthetic
cloths and plastics will photo-degrade or gradually break down from exposure to
ultraviolet radiation sunlight. Some plastic are certified food grade even in wealthy
countries.
Wood is a traditional material used in food processes. It is often employed for chopping
boards, rams for pushing leaves into grinders, feed chutes, pressing and drying frame
trays, etc. Increasingly we have been using non-toxic wood sealer, such as salad bowl
sealer to protect wooden equipment used in our processing. This should reduce
bacteriological contamination.

Sometimes galvanized sheet metal is used in trays and washtubs. This is steel plated with
zinc. It should not be used where the zinc will be quickly worn off or where strongly
acidic substances stay in contact with it for more than a few seconds.
Mild or rolled steel is used when great strength is needed, for example in the frame of the
press tables or the legs of the macerator. Mild steel rusts quickly when it is exposed to
water or even damp air. For the most part rust is not a dangerous contaminant. In fact, it
can contribute useful amounts of iron to the diets of anemic people. When a steel surface
becomes rusty, however, it is much more difficult to clean and the pocked surface creates
hiding places for bacteria. Rusty steel also is visually unappealing and this is quite an
important consideration when you are trying to convince someone of the value and safety
of an unfamiliar product like LC. Aluminum is used in cook pots for heating the leaf
juice and sometimes in other processes. Its limitations are described below.
Some rules of thumb for making sure your processing equipment is safe and appropriate.
- Check with local health codes and visit similar food processing shops in the
area.
- If stainless steel is available and you can afford it, use it in preference to other
materials.
- Make certain that your equipment is designed so that there are not impossible to
clean places where harmful microorganism can breed on food particles.
- Use material that won't easily chip or wear off.
- Make sure the leaf juice is brought to a full boil to kill any bacteria that may
have gotten on the leaves or equipment.

"Is cooking in aluminum pots bad for you?

Some people have expressed concern about contamination from aluminum cookware.
Some evidence shows a possible link between high levels of aluminum in the diet and
Alzheimer's disease. Cooking very acidic liquids such as tomato sauce in an aluminum
pot for an extended time could cause some metal to be dissolved. This should be
avoided. If the inside of the pot is very rough textured, or if it is scratched up from
scraping with a metal spoon or from cleaning with a metal scouring pad aluminum is
more likely to leach into food because of the increased surface area of the metal. The
juice from most leaves that would be used in this process is slightly acidic (pH 5.6 - 6.4).
This is not acidic enough to cause any problem. A smooth finished heavy gauge
aluminum pot should not contaminate juice at this acidity heated briefly to the boiling
point. It is a good idea to avoid vigorous scraping of the bottom and to replace these pots
when they become very scratched.
There have been cases of zinc contamination from very acidic foods being cooked for
long periods in galvanized cookware. Antimony poisoning has occurred where acid foods
have been cooked in chipped enamel cookware. Both galvanized and enamel pots should
be avoided for heating leaf juice repeatedly in leaf concentrate programs.

Nutrition
"If people get enough calories in their diet, won't the protein take care
of itself?"
In the 1950's and 1960's there was a general focus on the lack of protein in diets of people
in tropical countries. Numerous schemes were developed to introduce protein enriched
foods and drinks into populations where malnutrition was prevalent. Weaning foods like
INCAPARINA were introduced with carefully formulated amino acid balance to increase
protein intake in low-income families. There was generally a lot of research on
alternative protein sources done by governments, universities, and food companies like
General Foods, General Mills, and Coca Cola. Fishmeal from dried Peruvian anchovies
was advocated as a solution to the world's protein deficiency, as were single celled
proteins grown on petroleum refinery byproducts. Chlorella algae grown in illuminated
clear plastic tubing was promoted as a substitute for producing protein food on land. Leaf
concentrate, which was then called leaf protein, was very much a part of this worldwide
search for a means to close the perceived "Protein Gap".
Around 1972 several studies came out suggesting that protein requirements had been
overestimated and that a shortage of energy or calories in the diet was a far more
common problem. It was argued that as long as one was receiving an adequate amount of
calories, that protein would take care of itself. That is, a person eating a tradition grain
based diet would take in enough protein as long as he got enough calories. As this point
of view became the consensus opinion of nutritionists and development agencies, interest
in novel sources of protein, like leaf protein quickly diminished. It was replaced by a
passion for calories and to produce more grain. All people needed was "more of their
traditional diet".
This change in outlook roughly coincided with what has become known as "The Green
Revolution". This was a worldwide revolution in the production of grain led by the
development of high yielding short-stemmed wheat and rice varieties in Mexico and the
Philippines, respectively. The new hybrid grains did indeed produce huge crops, and
created some optimism that hunger would be soon defeated by plant breeding science.
The "Green Revolution" crops required far more in the way of fertilizer, pesticide,
machinery, and irrigation than the older grain varieties. By the 1980's grain yields were
reaching a plateau. Any further increase in yields was coming only from proportionately
greater inputs of fertilizer and energy.
A major unintended consequence of the introduction of the high yielding varieties was a
dramatic decline in the consumption of peas and beans in many countries. The large
farmers who could afford the inputs diverted land that had been growing peas and beans
to produce the more profitable new grain varieties. This reduced the supply and increased
the price of these foods, which have traditionally been a vital source of protein in many
cultures. In India, for example, per person consumption of peas and beans declined by
half between 1970 and 1985.

In 1993 few people believe the "Green Revolution" can answer the world's hunger
problems in the long term. The leading role of calories and the need to simply "eat more
of the traditional diet" continue to dominate nutritional development thinking. However,
nutritionists are beginning to see the traditional diets changing rapidly in many areas,
powered largely by rapid urbanization in the tropics. Highly processed and heavily
promoted convenience foods are being eaten in quantities that must be considered in
terms of nutritional impact on millions of people. The importance of vitamins and
minerals, collectively called micronutrients, is also increasingly being stressed. No one
claims these requirements will automatically be met if calorie needs are met.
It is very unlikely that we will return to the days of "the Protein Gap", but it is important
to maintain some perspective as waves of revolutionary nutritional studies are reported in
the popular press. It is a time of great interest in nutrition and impressive strides are being
made in our understanding of this science. You should read reports about new nutritional
information carefully. Often these are "preliminary findings" based on tiny samples of
people. Amid the flurry of reports, consensus of informed opinion will gradually form.

"Wouldn't people be better off just eating more dark green leafy
vegetables than making leaf concentrate?"
The health giving value of greens, such as kale, spinach, turnip and mustard greens, in the
diet is almost universally known, yet hardly ever are they eaten in adequate quantities by
children at risk of malnutrition. Very rarely can projects geared towards promoting
gardening show an improvement in the health of the children in the area.
Greens contain a lot of fiber. Adding fiber to the diet is important for many adults who
eat highly refined diets. Children in developing countries, however, usually get plenty of
fiber from the grains and beans and fruit in their diet. The high fiber content of greens
can aggravate diarrhea and reduce absorption of iron in these children who frequently
suffer from both diarrhea and anemia.
Although they are productive and easy to grow, greens tend to be very perishable and
difficult to market because they are usually 85-90% moisture. In the heat of the tropics,
where most families don't have refrigerators, greens last only a day or two before
becoming inedible. Because so much of the weight of greens is water and indigestible
fiber, they are often quite expensive as a source of nutrients.
Children frequently don't like the strong flavor of many greens and won't willingly eat
them in many cultures. The strong flavors are often attributable to antinutrients like
nitrates, oxalic acid, tannins, and saponins. These antinutrients should not be consumed in
large quantities by anyone, especially malnourished children. The leaf concentrate
processing removes most of these antinutrients, nearly all the fiber, and the bulk of the
water in greens, making it generally more acceptable and more nutritious than the greens
it is made from.

"Wouldn't it be cheaper and easier to fortify common foods with

nutrients that are in short supply?"
Often there is disagreement among nutritional workers on how to best correct a nutrient
deficiency in a given population. The approaches will range from giving capsules or
tablets of the nutrient to encouraging people to produce and eat more traditional foods
that are rich in the missing nutrient. Some success has be achieved by fortifying a
common food with the missing nutrient, such as the fortification of salt with iodine.
Focusing on vitamin A deficiency, a consideration of capsules and fortification is given
below and they are compared with leaf concentrate as a vehicle for countering the
deficiency.
High Potency Vitamin A Capsules: These are very effective at rapidly reversing
deficiency symptoms. They are relatively inexpensive and very compact for easy
transport into remote areas. The capsules also tend to have the affect of turning a food
and nutrition problem into a medical intervention one. Many development workers are
dismayed by passive attitudes about maintaining good health. Some feel the proliferation
of pills and capsules discourage people from making changes in diet and lifestyle that
would give them better control over their health. The widespread use of capsules may
also increase a feeling of dependency on outside technologies among the health workers
in developing countries. It is difficult to administer a program of high potency vitamin A
capsules without some trained health workers in the area, as excessive doses are toxic.

Fortification of Common Foods with Vitamin A: This seems to be working quite well
in a few locations. Sugar has been fortified with vitamin A in parts of Guatemala with
some success. Salt, flour, milk and a few other foods have been suggested as vehicles for
vitamin A fortification. This may be promising where large numbers of people eat
predictable amounts of certain foods that can be processed under controlled conditions in
a central plant. Where fortification doesn't usually work well is in rural areas where most
of the foods are locally grown and prepared. These are, not coincidentally, areas where
malnutrition is prevalent.

Local Production of Leaf Concentrate: Leaf concentrate is something of a midpoint

between the simple growing and eating more greens and the more complex, more
centralized approaches of capsules or fortification. It seems well suited to small co-ops,
school programs, or small business. It takes some effort and capital initiating LC
programs, but it is a food that has other values (like iron and protein) in the diet of
malnourished children. Some of the leaf concentrate foods like lemonade syrup and dried
pasta store well and are very convenient. They are basically ways of preparing dark green
leafy vegetables that children will accept well.

"Why do you use sugar in LC drink mixes? Isn't sugar bad for you?"
On several occasions people have objected to our use of LC drinks sweetened with white
sugar in child nutrition programs. To convey some idea of how complicated these issues
are and how we go about sorting them out, I've outlined the arguments that came up for
and against using sugar in these programs.
Arguments against use of sugar fall into three basic categories: 1. Tooth decay 2. Empty
calories 3. Other. Tooth decay is dramatically less with drinks than candy etc., as it is
dilute and doesn't stay in the mouth long or cling to tooth enamel. The empty calorie
argument is greatly offset when used with LC, which is low in calories and high in most
nutrients. Other arguments include several related to blood sugar equilibrium problems,
including Feingold and other's theory of sugar intake as a cause of hyperactivity in
children. This has been largely refuted by a number of well-controlled double blind
experiments that showed no correlation between sugar and hyperactivity in children.
Children are much more able to digest and absorb large amounts of sugar than adults.
Strong reactions to high sugar intake such as hypoglycemia are very rare, and probably
the large majority of such reactions are psychosomatic in nature.
Some preliminary studies warn of problems from glucosinated proteins (glucose
molecules attaching themselves in a rather unpredictable way to certain protein
molecules) with possible negative impact on eyes and kidneys and nervous system.
Diabetes may be linked to this response. This is still very sketchy stuff and probably
linked to long-term high sugar diets. There are some indications of slight addictivity
from high intakes of refined sugars. Some biochemists and nutritionists feel that high
intake of refined sugar could aggravate diarrhea because it is such a readily available
energy source for bacterial growth. Complex carbohydrates break down more gradually
and may be less likely to stimulate bacterial outbreaks.
Honey and brown sugar would behave so similarly in the body that its unlikely to be
worth much trouble or money to switch. The LC is rich in the trace minerals that they
would supply in small quantities. A number of other benefits have been claimed for
honey, over the years, but usually price eliminates it from consideration for use in
nutrition intervention programs.

Arguments for using sugar also fall into 3 categories: 1. cheap source of calories. 2.
improves palatability and acceptance. 3. helps preserve foods. Many nutritionists would
argue that in a marginally nourished population like low income Nicaraguan children,
increasing caloric intake is the first priority and that sweet drinks are a reasonable and
inexpensive way to do this in sugar producing regions. Drinks typically have less
substitution effect than solid foods. That is, two glasses of a sweet drink may add more
calories to a child's diet than an equivalent number of calories from a solid source
because the mothers more often reduce other food given the child if he receives a solid
supplement.. The benefit of making a marginally attractive food like LC acceptable to
children shouldn't be overlooked. If they will drink two glasses with some extra sugar and
one without it, the benefit of the addition LC and lemon juice will almost certainly
outweigh the negatives of the added sugar. Increasingly, sub-optimal hydration is seen as
a health problem in many 3rd world populations, where high temperature and low
availability of good water are found. This can cause kidney problems, electrolyte
imbalances, constipation, and other difficulties. This is another benefit of the drink. It is
not clear at what point the sugar content would offset the value of just the additional
water.
The high osmotic pressure of sugar sucks moisture through bacterial cell walls and makes
a cheap preservative that is also a source of calories. Usually liquids greater than 67%
sugar are relatively stable. 1.8 kg sugar mixed well with 1 kg 60% LC should be quite
stable. A rule of thumb is to emphasize complex carbohydrates as energy sources and try
to keep the percentage total calories in the diet from refined sugars to around 5%. This
can be extremely difficult in tropical sugar exporting countries.

"What are antioxidants and why are they so important?"

In what is becoming one of the biggest nutrition stories of the century, scientists are
finding that many diseases may be closely tied to the cumulative cellular damage done by
free radicals. Equally important, they are finding that several compounds called
antioxidants exist in common foods that can block these destructive oxygen reactions.
Free radicals are unstable molecules that can be created by normal metabolic processes,
or from environmental factors like cigarette smoke, ultraviolet radiation in sunlight, and a
range of chemicals that people are routinely exposed to. An increasing number of
researchers feel that dietary antioxidants are the realistic way to interrupt this cellular
deterioration that appears to be linked to many types of cancer, heart disease, Parkinson's
disease, cataracts, and dozens of other health problems. Much of this research is still in
preliminary stages but, the evidence is rapidly piling up that increased dietary intake of
antioxidants is a sound strategy for better long-term health.
There are many different compounds. Three of the most important antioxidants in the
human diet are beta-carotene, vitamin C and vitamin E. Leaf concentrate is the
richest known source of beta-carotene and a very good source of vitamin E. It
contains almost no vitamin C. Some of the other known antioxidants and important food
sources of them are given below:

Quercetin - yellow and red onions, red grapes, broccoli, and yellow squash
Ellagic acid - strawberries, blackberries, blueberries, cranberries, grapes, apples,
Brazil nuts and cashews
Glutathion - broccoli, parsley, and spinach
Lycopene - strawberries and tomatoes
Oleic acid - olive oil
Selenium - brazil nuts, seafood, sunflower seeds, and beef liver
Phytates - grains and legumes

"Should milk be used in feeding programs?

In several famine situations where donated milk made up a major part of the diet, many
people suffered from serious intestinal gas and diarrhea. This was due to a widespread
genetic inability to digest the sugar lactose, which is found in milk. The undigested milk
sugar ferments in the intestine causing gas formation, bloating and sometimes diarrhea.
Because of these problems one sometimes encounters a very negative attitude about the
use of milk in feeding programs. There has been some dumping of powdered milk into
developing countries to maintain high milk prices for farmers in the both the US and
Europe. Before 1972 there was tremendous nutritional emphasis on protein and the main
milk protein, casein, is considered a benchmark against which to judge protein quality. It
was a common belief that milk was an ideal food, partly due to the American Dairy
Association's extremely successful lobbying efforts.
Until about 1965 USAID (United States Agency for International Development) was
unaware of the extent of genetic lactose intolerance in various populations and there have
been accusations of cultural chauvinism because of this. Only among people of northern
European ancestry and a few African tribes with long histories of cattle herding, do the
majority of the adults tolerate milk sugar well. The percentage of the adults who are
intolerant varies greatly from culture to culture, with almost 100% of some groups, like
the Thai, intolerant. In other groups, like US blacks, only about 65% are intolerant.
Children up to six years of age are generally able to digest lactose. Even lactose
intolerant adults can usually utilize small amounts of milk (up to about liter per day)
without discomfort. Lactose intolerant people produce some lactase, the enzyme
responsible for breaking down milk sugar, but this tends to decline rapidly with age. If
you are working with programs involving adults you should find out what the levels of
lactose intolerance are before introducing large quantities of milk. Allergy to milk is
usually related to the protein and is much more rare than lactose intolerance, though the
two are often confused in Latin America and other places.

Bigger Picture
"Isn't the normal diet people eat closely tied to their culture? Will they
accept new foods like LC?"
It is very difficult to introduce unfamiliar foods, like leaf concentrate, into people's diet.
This is especially true in traditional cultures. It is not impossible, however, and it gets
easier every year. One needs only to look at the phenomenal popularity of Coca-cola and
Pepsi-cola worldwide to recognize that new foods are being adopted by traditional
cultures. Powerful multinational corporations heavily promote these foods and their
popularity is a testament to the effectiveness of advertising.
Sometimes the changes in diet are economic in nature. In Nicaragua rice has been the
primary grain for many years. However, as the economy continues to declines there,
people are eating far greater quantities of corn because it is cheaper, and they can no
longer afford the preferred rice. At the same time refugees returning to Nicaragua from
the United States have brought with them a taste for many of the convenience foods that
are popular in the US. Pizza, in particular, has experienced great popularity and dozens of
pizza shops have sprung up to supply this demand for a new food.
People all over the world are in the process of making dietary changes that are powered
by the increasingly rapid movement of people and information among different cultures.
Many times this appears to be exploitative and one sided, as when one watches barefoot
malnourished children buying soft drinks from foreign companies. Other times it has a
more progressive side. Mexican people are eating less lard than they did ten years ago
because they have been educated about the links between high animal fat consumption
and heart disease and cancer. Even in small villages this information is arriving and
people are taking action.
Ultimately whether leaf concentrate is accepted in a given society will have to do with
three things:
1. Promotion - can leaf concentrate foods be packaged and sold in a way that
attracts food buyers?
2. Economics - can leaf concentrate be made and sold at a low enough price to be
an affordable alternative to other available foods?
3. Education - can people be adequately educated in the value of good nutrition
in their lives to make changes in diet based on that information?

"Aren't there other alternative high nutrition foods, like soybeans, that
would be easier to introduce than leaf concentrate?"
Mention must be given in this manual to the combination of leaf concentrate and
soybeans. While soybeans are an ancient crop in much of Asia, in many developing
countries they are being promoted as a new low cost diet improver for malnourished
people. Leaf For Life is working with groups trying to introduce soybeans in both

Mexico and Nicaragua. The biggest advantage of soybeans is that they can often be
purchased in bulk and stored for use when needed, whereas leaf concentrate requires
fresh cut leaves every day. Soybeans are often a cheaper source of protein than leaf
concentrate, but LC is usually a cheaper source of iron. Leaf concentrate is the bestknown source of beta-carotene while soy has almost none. Together they are quite a
nutritional package, and there is no reason why people should have to choose one over
the other.

Both leaf concentrate and soybeans can make very efficient use of land resources. The
chart below compares protein yield of leaf concentrate from alfalfa and soybeans to some
other foods.
FOOD

Kgs Edible PROTEIN per Hectare

in 6 Month Growing Season

Leaf Concentrate
from Alfalfa

1070 kg

Soybeans

660

Wheat

475

Milk

430

Eggs

140

Pork

100

Soybeans have nearly twice the protein and much more oil than ordinary beans. One of
the things we like best about soybeans is that a very good milk substitute, called soymilk,
can be made in a lot of places where children can't afford, or can't digest cows' milk. We
have found an extraordinary nutritional package can be delivered in a single portion by
mixing together a glass of soymilk with a tablespoon of leaf concentrate and sugar to
taste. One glass of this drink can supply a 4-6 year old child with more than 100% of the
vitamin A, 83% of the iron, and 37% of the protein suggested by the US Recommended
Dietary Allowances.
Cowpeas, alfalfa and soybeans are all legumes that can convert nitrogen in the air to a
form that plants can use. This eliminates the need for expensive nitrogen fertilizer.
Besides being a big expense for the farmer, nitrogen fertilizer is also very hard on the
environment because it uses tremendous amounts of electric energy to produce and it
often is responsible for the pollution of ground water with nitrates in agricultural areas.
One of the reasons that leaf concentrate and soybeans make such a good combination is
that much of the equipment we use, especially the 5-gallon blender and press tables,
works equally for making soymilk. This keeps the equipment costs for both nutritional
products very low. Dried soybeans have an advantage over leaf crops in that they store
quite well. In areas where leaf crops are not abundantly available all year, we find that
soybeans can be used to bridge the gap. Because the processes of making soymilk or soy
cheese (tofu) are so similar to that of making leaf concentrate, it is easy to train health
workers to make both products in the same workshop. Then, instead of shutting down
when leaf crop is in short supply, the program can switch to soymilk or tofu and the
children can continue receiving a nutritious boost to their diet.

"Isn't hunger caused by political inequality? If it is how can a technical

approach, like leaf concentrate, help?"
Many influential writers on the subject of world hunger feel that the problem will never
be resolved until people recognize that it is primarily a political problem. Susan George
delineates this view when she describes . . . hunger as a function of poverty and poverty
as a function of fundamentally inequitable power structures both within and between
nations." From this point of view measures taken to increase food supply such as
irrigation schemes, integrated pest management, and post-harvest food processing, are
irrelevant to assuring enough that everyone has enough to eat. This outlook has lost some
of it appeal as the socialist governments of the world have come undone, and the
prospects for revolutionary redefinition of power structures in favor of the poor have
greatly diminished.
The criticism of technical approaches to the issue of hunger frequently relates to failures
of the "Green Revolution". This is seen as the imposition of technical innovations, mainly
in the form of high yielding seed varieties that did dramatically increase food supply but
did little to reduce the number of hungry people. The new seeds changed land tenure

patterns and levels of bean consumption at the same time that they increased the supply
of rice and wheat. There are always unintended effects, both bad and good, from new
technologies.
Technical changes don't take place in a vacuum and both the scale of operations and the
choice of operators have implications for the power relationships in the communities
affected. The introduction of leaf concentrate technology can be done on an industrial
commercial scale, on a domestic scale, or on a cooperative village scale. Leaf for Life
tries to gear its projects so that women, who are generally disempowered within current
social structures in developing countries, can control them. We normally advocate small,
decentralized production units that can remain under local control.
In the long run it will be very difficult to eliminate hunger without fundamentally
addressing the inequities of power. It will be equally difficult to eliminate poverty
without the introduction of improved food production and processing techniques. The
challenge is to develop technologies that don't reinforce the current power structure and
to use them as soon as possible to make sure children alive today won't have to wait for
big political changes to get enough to eat.

SECTION VI
GENERAL INFORMATION
TROUBLE SHOOTING
PROBLEM
leaf concentrate has strong
or bitter flavor

POSSIBLE CAUSES
- old leaves were used
- inappropriate species
- old leaf concentrate
(over 2 days
refrigeration or 5

without
days with)
allowed
(no more than 4
delay advisable)

- delay in processing after leaf harvest

some fermentation
hour

- residual liquid or 'whey'

not well enough pressed out
- curd burnt during heating of
juice

leaf concentrate is
too moist or wet

- curd not pressed firmly enough

- curd not pressed gradually enough
- filter cloth is too fine
- juice stirred too much during heating

curds

- juice heated too slowly, making very small

that clog the filter cloth

leaf concentrate has

a gritty texture
grinding

oxalic
gritty texture.
leaf concentrate has
a fibrous texture

low yield of leaf

concentrate (less than
5% of leaf weight)

are wet
when weighed

- leaves not washed well enough before

and contain dirt and dust
- some species, like spinach have crystalline
acid that gives the curd a

- juice was not filtered before heating

- old leaves
- very young leaves
- very high water content in leaves or they
from rain or from washing

- leaves not ground up well

- juice not pressed well enough from fiber

all the

processing is going
too slowly
washing
needed.

- juice not heated high enough to coagulate

curd

- too much time is being spent sorting and

leaves. Extreme care is not

- leaves are being hand stripped from stalks

finished
step.
have one worker
presses)

- workers are waiting for one step to be

before beginning the next
(Usually it is good to
grinding while another

- workshop is not arranged efficiently

- tables are too high or too low for working

relatives

- socializing among workers or friends and

has become too distracting
- children are interfering with work in the

workshop

leaf juice is taking

too long to heat

- pressure is too low on gas stove

- flame is too far below pot

- flame only in contact with part of pot

- breeze on flame and pot
- if wood fire is used; wood is wet or not
well enough split up. It may need more air
supplied by a small fan
- Cook pot is too deep
- metal of pot is too thick
- no top on pot

leaf juice burns on pot bottom

- juice left on heat after it reaches boiling

point
- flame not evenly spread over bottom of
pot
- pot not cleaned well enough after a
previous burn

- lack of gentle stirring during heating

grinder or macerator motor not running - not fully plugged in

- outlet linked to light switch that is not
turned on
- circuit breakers off or fuse burnt out
- reset button on motor needs to be pushed
- damaged or wrong size seal has allowed
water to pass from blender to motor

grinder or blender running too slowly

- motor wired for 220 volts on110 line

- motor wire for 60 Hertz running on 50 Hz
- too many leaves in blender
- too little water
- leaves not cut into short enough pieces

meat grinder not grinding

leaves well

- leaves not cut in short enough pieces

- leaves are too wet; juice is filling grinder
chamber
- motor shaft and grinder shaft are not
properly aligned or connected
- blade is not in place or is in backwards

- holes in die plate are too small or too few

- motor speed is not reduced enough or is

reduced too much; should be between 6090 RPM

children are not showing

improvements in health
after 4 months on leaf
concentrate program

- not enough leaf concentrate is being given

per day
- leaf concentrate meals are too irregular
- children are not eating all the meal that is
offered
- leaf concentrate food is being shared with
other family members
- child is not malnourished
- child is not receiving the usual amount of
food at home.
- intestinal parasites or other chronic health

SAFETY
Machinery
- Children should be kept away from machines in use.
- Machines should be unplugged when not in use, when being cleaned, or when
being repaired.
- Electric cords should be kept out of water and out of foot traffic.
- Switches should be within easy reach of machine operators.
- Motors should be equipped with manual reset buttons to prevent accidental
restarting after they shut off from an overload.
- Guards should always be used to keep hands out of moving machinery. Wooden
push rods should be used to feed leaves into the blender or grinder.
- Ear protection should be worn if the noise level from the machines is very high.
Cooking with Gas
- Gas cylinders should be tied or chained in an upright position.
- Make sure all connections are tight and there are no leaks. Use Teflon tape if
available. Test connections with a little soapy water. This will let you know if there is a
leak.
- If possible, have the gas tank outside, with only the tube or hose inside.
- Don't use a gas cooker in a small unventilated room.
- Make sure gas is turned completely off before leaving workshop.
- Any flame should be at least 2 meters away from the gas tank. Further is better.
- Keep tubes, hoses and connections as out of the work area if possible to avoid
people tripping on them.
General Safety
- Use normal precautions when
dealing with large pots of hot liquids.
- Get help if you need to move
something heavy. Lift with your legs not
your back. Don't risk hurting your back.
- Keep floors free from wet areas if
possible, especially around machinery.
- Wear footwear with good footing
rather than going barefoot or wearing
loose sandals.

HYGIENE
- All workers should wash their hands well before handling food.
- Animals should be kept out of the work area.
- Workers who are coughing or sneezing should not handle food.
- Equipment should be well cleaned after each use. Pulped leaves, leaf juice, and
leaf concentrate can all ferment quickly if left on machinery.

Diseases Transmitted by Food

Diarrhea is the largest cause of death in children. Worldwide an estimated four million
children under the age of five die each year from diarrhea. The symptoms of foodtransmitted disease are usually diarrhea and sometimes nausea and cramps following the
consumption of food or water that is contaminated. There are two types of food borne
diseases. Intoxication is when toxins produced by microorganisms living in food before it
is eaten poison a person. Infection is caused when living microorganism in food multiply
after they reach the person's digestive tract. Young children and people with lowered
immune system resistance
are those most likely to die
from food borne disease.
The types of bacteria
responsible for intoxication
diarrhea are not normally
present in leaf concentrate
processing and should not
be a problem in LC
programs. Many of the
worst agents of infection are
thrive mainly on meat,
poultry and seafood. Some
of the bacteria that can
cause infections in the
human digestive system are
present in the soil and
throughout the tropical
environment. These include
shigella, listeria, E. coli,
Staphylococcus aureus, and
Bacillus cereus. Fortunately
all of these are killed by
heating to boiling as is done
with the coagulation of leaf
juice. The main danger of
bacterial infection from leaf
concentrate comes from it
being recontaminated after it is pasteurized.
To avoid this it is important to store the leaf concentrate in very clean containers and
either refrigerate it or dry it as soon as possible after it is pressed. If it is to be stored for
more than a day or so without refrigeration it should be resuspended in an acidic wash
water to lower the pH below 4.5. This should be done with a diluted acid, if it is
necessary. Moist leaf concentrate should be eaten within a week even if it is refrigerated.

LEAF CONCENTRATE:
SOME BASIC RELATIONSHIPS
LAND AREA 1 hectare = 100 meters (327 feet) on a side or c. 107,000 square feet or c.
21/2 acres .
1 acre = c. 64 meters (c210 feet) on a side or c. 43,000 square feet or .4
of one hectare
(Nicaragua) 1 Manzana = c. 80 meters (265 feet) on a side or c. 70,000 square feet or .7
hectare or 1.6 acres.
WATER REQUIREMENTS Rapidly growing green crops usually need between 34cm (1-1 1/2 inches) of water per week for top growth, depending on soil, air
temperature, and humidity.
or 60-90 gallons per 100 square feet or 65,000 - 97,000 gallons per hectare per week or
26,000 - 39,000 gallons per acre per week.
GREEN CROP YIELD Highly variable. Probably 3-5 kg per square meter ( 2/3 - 1 lb
per square foot) per year is a reasonable estimate for our use. 35-50,000 kg per hectare;
or 30-45,000 lbs per acre (1kg = 2.2 lb). This comes out to about 100 kg a day per hectare
or about 100 lbs a day per acre. Triple these yields are sometimes achieved under
intensive conditions.
TYPICAL YIELD OF LEAF FRACTIONS
100 kgs leaf crop, ie. alfalfa or cowpeas (18-20 kg dry matter)
4-7 kg LC at 60% moisture (1.5 -2.5 kg dry matter)
45 kg fiber at 70 % moisture (c. 13.5 kg dry matter)
COMPOSITION OF LEAF CONCENTRATE
100 gr. of 60% moisture LC should contain approximately:
Protein (High quality protein equivalent to meat or fish, lower than milk
24 gr
or eggs, better than grains, or beans).
50,000 IU

Vitamin A (As beta-carotene)

40 mg
Iron (This is an average of 20 samples worldwide.
Actual amount will vary greatly with soil and processing equipment).
720 mg

Calcium

140

Calories

140 mcg

Folic Acid

USRDA for 4-6 year old children:

Protein
30 g
Vitamin A 2500 IU
Iron
10 mg
Calcium
800 mg
Calories
1800
Folic Acid
200 mcg
- see section on nutrition MISCELANEOUS RELATIONSHIPS
1 kg fresh leaves should yield 1/2 liter or 1 pint juice.
1 tablespoon fresh LC = c. 15 gr. or 1/2 oz.
1 kg LC will provide 66 portions of 15 gr. each
1 pound LC will provide 30 15 gr. portions.
.
For daily portion of 15 gr., figure c. 30 square meters (300 square feet) of good land per
child.
1 pound LC will provide 18 25 gr. portions.
1 kg LC will provide 40 portions of 25 gr. each.
To provide a daily portion of 25 gr., figure 50 square meters (650 square feet) of good
land per child.
On Dry Weight Basis: LC should be 50-65% protein,20-25% lipids, 5-9% ash, .8-1.0%
beta-carotene with significant amounts of calcium, xanthophyll, iron and vitamin E.
FEED VALUE OF FIBER When figured on a dry weight basis, the fiber left over from
leaf concentrate processing has approximately the same feeding value to animals as
unprocessed fresh leaf crop. Because fresh alfalfa and other leaf crops are usually around
20 % dry matter, while the residual fiber is around 30% dry matter; the fiber has about
1 times the feeding value, per kilogram, as the leaves that it was made from. .
The fiber remaining from processing one ton of alfalfa should provide the bulk of the
forage requirement for 25-30 cows who can produce about 75 -100 liters of milk daily.If
we assume a daily ration of 2 kg dry matter for every 100 kg cow weight, this 45 kg of
fiber will feed two and a half 300 kg cows. The 100 kg of unprocessed leaf crop would
feed three and a third cows of the same weight.

WHEY Whey is rich in nitrogen and potassium but deficient in phosphorus as a

fertilizer. It is not acceptable in human diet because of concentrations of nitrates, oxalic
acid, and other anti-nutrients. It has been remixed with the fiber for cows with good
results, though watering pigs with whey has led to kidney problems over time.
10 liters whey will cover 1 meter sq. 1 cm deep. 2-3 cm per week may be needed to
supply optimum water. This amount may damage seedlings and some plants. Diluted
whey, as in that from blender processed leaf concentrate, is safe for plants. It is best used
for high value crops near processing site.
- see section on by-products -

YIELDS OF LEAF CONCENTRATE

VS CROP.MOISTURE
Crop
Moisture
Content

Yield of fresh leaf concentrate (60% moisture)

(grams fresh LC per 100 grams of crop)

75

15%
DM yield
9.38

12.5%
DM yield
7.81

10.0%
DM yield
6.25

7.5%
DM yield
4.69

5.0%
DM yield
3.13

80

7.5

6.25

3.75

2.5

85

5.63

4.69

3.75

2.81

1.88

90

3.75

3.13

2.5

1.88

1.25

(%)

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
YIELDS OF LEAF CONCENTRATE AND FIBER
AND CROP MOISTURE CONTENT
Grams of dry LC per 100 grams of crop dry matter
Greater than 15 grams

Excellent Yield

12.5 to 15 grams

Very Good Yield

10.0 to 12.5 grams

Good Yield

7.5 to 10.0 grams

Fair Yield

Less than 7.5 grams

Poor to Very Poor Yield

Kg of product
per 100 kg of
crop with a leaf
concentrate
yield (dry matter
to dry matter)
of:
Moisture
Content of crop

Product

7.5%

10.0%

12.5%

80%

leaf concentrate
fiber

5
55

6.7
51.7

8.3
49

85%

leaf concentrate
fiber

3.8
41.3

5
39

6.3
36.7

90%

leaf concentrate
fiber

2.5
27.5

3.3
26

4.2
24.5

Note: Both leaf concentrate and fiber assumed to be at 70% moisture. Leaf concentrate
should be pressed to 60 % moisture whenever possible.
Walter Bray February 1993

SOME RULES OF THUMB

1. If it smells bad, it is bad.

This applies to leaves, LC, and products made from LC.

2. If you can recognize pieces of leaf in the pulped leaves, they probably aren't
ground up enough.
3. If you take a pinch of fresh green leaf and rub it vigorously between your thumb
and forefinger it should produce a thin green watery juice. If there is no juice or the
juice is sticky, it is not a good choice for making LC.
4. If you can squeeze juice from the fiber with your bare hand after it has been
pressed it is probably over 70% moisture and not well enough pressed.
5. If you take a pinch of fresh LC and smear it with your thumb across your palm, it
should roll back up and leave your palm clean. If it goes on like finger paint and
leaves your palm green it is too wet; probably 70% moisture or more.
6. If you are getting a 10% yield you are probably doing something wrong. If 100 kg
of fresh leaves is producing more than 7 kg of leaf concentrate, chances are it is very wet
LC. Normally 5 % is typical, don't feel bad if you are getting 5% and reading about
others getting 10%; reality is on your side. The same is true with dry yields over about
2.5%.
7. Nothing changes the economics of LC as greatly as wet curd. Assume you are
yielding 2% on a dry basis, and you are processing 200 kg of leaves and selling fresh LC
for $4 per kg. If your curd is well pressed (60% moisture) you will get $40 worth of LC.
If your curd is poorly pressed (75% moisture) you will have $64 worth of curd. Of
course, the difference is that you are selling 6 liters of water for $24. This is a tremendous
temptation, but a death threat to LC projects. It is why we increasingly recommend using
dried LC.
8. Averages are humbling things. If you normally produce 4 kg of dry LC per day of
work, but on average you don't process one day a week because of electric problems,
average production is 3.2 kg not 4. If the shop is closed for Holy week, two weeks at
Christmas, whenever there is a storm, whenever a worker has a sick relative, and
whenever you are out of leaves or a machine needs repair, the average daily production
over the year may be only 2 kg.
9. Wholesale prices are lower than retail. If you see noodles for sale in a health food
shop for $2.00 per kg, this does not mean that the producer of the noodles receives $2.00.
More likely he gets $1.00 and the storeowner and other middlemen get the other one.
10. There is always some waste. If you are making syrup you will end up with half a
bottle left over. If you make churritos some will burn or break. If they are well made
some will get eaten in the shop before being packaged.

COMMUNICATIONS
An important part of any leaf concentrate project is communications. A few suggestions
on communications from my experience with leaf concentrate projects.
Learn the local language.
Every field worker I've talked to that has worked in Latin America wishes that he had
spent more time learning Spanish before going there to work. The same is likely true of
other languages. Every bit helps; whether its high school courses, language tapes, a short
intensive course in a foreign country, or just studying a phrase book. Keep studying after
you've arrived in a foreign country. Use the language even if you don't speak gracefully.
Avoid hanging out exclusively with ex-patriates who speak your language. That will slow
the learning process down.
Use terms that are as universal as possible.
Your reports from the field are of great interest to a range of people working with leaf
concentrate in countries all over the world. Using scientific as well as local names for
crops, weeds, insects, foods etc. that are not commonly known worldwide will increase
the value of your information. I'm frequently frustrated by reports on crops or recipes
from India that use local names unknown to me. Sometimes I can look them up, because I
have access to good libraries, but this is a time consuming and often fruitless labor. Other
workers in developing countries are less likely to be able to look up these names and thus
these reports are often worthless as a result. Usually someone at a local agricultural
school will know the scientific names of plants and pests important in that region.

The same holds true with the use of local currencies and measuring systems. People don't
have any idea how big a field of 10 Indian bighas or 6 Nicaraguan manzanas is outside of
those cultures. Detailed economic analysis in local currency without reference to an
exchange rate to one of the larger currency systems like the US $ or British can also be
worthless. In general we should include metric system measurements as well as local
ones in any reporting.
Use standard field tests whenever possible.
For example, the percentage of dry matter in leaves compared to the percentage of leaf
concentrate dry matter from those leaves, provides a lot of good information about a crop
and how likely it is to be a useful plant for making LC. Tests that use fresh weight
without giving the percentage of moisture in either the leaves or the LC provide far less
information.
Work toward high-speed low cost computer links.
Electronic information networks, like Eco-Net, and PeaceNet, are opening up
possibilities to exchange information quickly and inexpensively worldwide. We need to
move towards these types of systems as telephone calls are very expensive and the voice

quality often bad, and mail is too slow between projects and office. Frequently there is a
month or more lag between correspondence and questions asked don't get answered. If
we could develop a somewhat standardized format one could respond by saying
something like " please clarify point 3 in report
# 256". The linking of the actual field situation with the experience and resources of the
home offices is frequently quite weak.
Use a standardized monthly production report for each project.
Monthly reports on production provide very valuable information and help us identify
problem areas quickly. A sample monthly report form that can be copied is in the
appendix of this manual.

CONSIDERATIONS IN SETTING UP PROJECTS

The following list of questions may seem very long. It is not necessary to answer them
all in order to be able to run a leaf concentrate project, but they give a good idea of the
many factors that can affect the success or failure of such project. Generally, the more
thought that goes into these types of questions before a project is set up , the greater the
likelihood of success.

Agricultural
- Are there any commercial crops currently grown in the area that could be used for LC
production?
- Rainfall information. How much? What months?
- Irrigation possibilities. Costs? From well? Spring? river?, etc. How pumped?
Sprinkler? Basin? Drip?
- Is sufficient land available to grow leaf crops? Not too steep or very rocky?
- Are tractors available to work the land? Crops like cowpeas that are frequently
replanted need easy access to tractors or animals or roto-tillers to prepare soil. Beware
too easy yes answers.
- How hot is it in the hottest season? When and for how long?
- What are the main crops now grown in that area?
- Any information on yields of corn, sorghum, alfalfa etc is helpful for estimating land
requirements for other LC crops. Get more than 1 opinion.
- Any information on land prices per hectare of farmland? Irrigated farmland?
- Rental or lease agreements used for land tenure?
- Market prices and seasonal availability of forages and animal feeds, especially dairy
feed.
Nutritional
- Evidence of malnutrition in children. Any available weight for age, weight for height or
height for age data.
- Night blindness in children?
- Anemia in children under 5 and pregnant women?
- General impressions of frequency and severity of diarrhea, respiratory infections and
measles?
- Seasonal fluctuations in these?
- Do other feeding programs exist in the area? Are other agencies and organizations
active?
Dietary
- What percentage of the children is breastfed? To what age on average?
- Are any greens eaten regularly by children?
- Carrots?
- Orange fruits or vegetables?
- Impressions of consumption of meat, fish, eggs and milk?
- Is milk vitamin A fortified?

- Prevalence of home gardens?

- What is grown?
- Availability of greens in local stores?
- What do women perceive as shortcomings in their diet? i.e. " If you had $10 more a
week to spend what foods would you buy more of ?'
- Snack food patterns?
- Are there any important food taboos, especially for childrens food?
Economic
- Wages or income of agricultural workers?
- Seasonal fluctuations in family income?
- Income generating activities for women? i.e. assembly plants,? home crafts?, field
work?
- What can they earn in 4 hours? This plays a big role in how women will evaluate
economic potential of LC project.
- Price per kg of staple foods at local stores.
- What cook fuel is used? Cost per month per household?
- Estimated cost of food as percentage of income?
- Is there an apparent market for LC or must one be developed?
- Is there an apparent market for the fiber or must one be developed?
Building for Leaf Concentrate Workshop
- How far is building from the fields of leaves?
- Over what type of roads or path?
- Will leaves be hauled by wheelbarrow, bicycle? horse cart? truck?
- How big is the building or room?
- Who owns it?
- What competing uses are there for the building?
- Can equipment be secured against theft or vandalism?
- How easy is it to clean?
- What is the electric capacity in the building?
- Is running water available? Drinking quality?
- Is building screened to keep out insects?
- Can processing and feeding be done in same building?
- Is there a good drainage system? A sanitary toilet
Machinery
-Are there qualified people involved in the project who can do basic machinery work?
- Welding?
- Carpentry?
- Installing gas cooking equipment?
- Can a college level technical or agricultural school be integrated into program?
Use of By-products
- Are there goats, rabbits, sheep, or cows that can be integrated into the project within
wheelbarrow distance of processing center?

- Are there crop fields near enough the workshop to haul whey in buckets for fertilizer?
- Are there any bio-gas programs nearby?
- Are mushrooms commonly eaten in the area?
- What is the cost and availability of off-season cattle feed? Hay?
- Cost per hectare of urea or other nitrogen fertilizer for corn, or sorghum, or other basic
grains?
Organizational
- Brief history of partner organization and its leading characters.
- How will LC be distributed?
- Will an existing distribution system be used or a new one created?
- Is motivation primarily nutrition intervention, income generation, or some other factor?
- Will leaf concentrate be sold or given away?
- If sold who will get the money?
- How many children will receive leaf concentrate?
- Will the children come to a central feeding center or will the leaf concentrate be
delivered to the homes of the children?
- Are there records available of childrens' names, ages, height and weight?
- Will pregnant and nursing mothers receive leaf concentrate?
- How are mothers involved?
- Will workers be volunteers on rotation?
- Is there any paid staff?
- Is there a contact person for your group that can be reached by phone?
- Other national or international agencies that co-operate with or finance this
organization. Names and addresses of contacts for these with contacts
Financial
-How do people envision financing project?
- Estimation of set up costs?
- Estimation of yearly operating costs?
Transportation
-How long does it take to get to the nearest large town by bus? Cost? Frequency of
buses?
-How long does it take to get to the nearest large city?
Miscellaneous
- Are indigenous people involved in the design and management of the project?
- Is the local political leadership enthusiastic about the project?
- Are there any people who are hostile or very suspicious of the project?
- Are there related projects that might feel threatened by a leaf concentrate project?
- Or that might become integrated with one?
- Is the project leadership closely tied to one political party or other group such as a
church that may make segments of the local population reluctant to participate?

RECIPES
These recipes are offered simply to give an idea of the many ways in which leaf
concentrate can be prepared in different cultures. Recipes are always adjusted to local
conditions of taste and availability of ingredients. We would love to hear of any new
recipes or variations on these that you think are good.
Each of these recipes
provides far more essential nutrients to the body than the traditional recipes on which
they were based. The addition of leaf concentrate can turn an ordinary food into a
nutritional powerhouse.
Basic Leaf Concentrate Syrup formula
375 ml
water
1 kg 60% moisture
fresh LC
2 kg
sugar
30 g
salt*
1.7 g
ascorbic acid**

12 fluid oz
2 lb
4 lb
25 g
1.5 g

Mix well in blender. Approximately 15 grams LC per 30 ml (fluid oz).

Lemonade Concentrate Syrup

1 liter lemon juice
2 kg (3.3 lbs) sugar
1 kg (2.2 lbs) moist leaf concentrate*
50 ml lemon extract (if available)
Blend the leaf concentrate at the highest speed in the lemon juice and extract. Gradually
add the sugar and continue blending until very smooth. This syrup can be put in a bottle
with a tight fitting top and stored for later use. Mix two tablespoons of the syrup in a
large glass of water, or a half liter of syrup in 2 gallons of water.
note: lemon extract can be replaced by lemon oil or 50 grams finely ground lemon
peel. Limes can be used instead of lemons.
* Dried leaf concentrate does not work well in thin liquids like lemonade. Even
with using moist leaf concentrate some of the solids will settle so it is a good idea to stir
up the drinks immediately before serving.
Pasta
3 - 4 kg (6 1/2 - 9 lbs) wheat flour
1 kg (2.2 lbs) moist leaf concentrate or 400 gr dry
2 tablespoons salt
Mix flour and salt, then add leaf concentrate and a small amount of water. Knead for 10
minutes. Dough should be very heavy but elastic. Roll the dough out as thin as possible
and cut into strips. These can be cooked as is or dried in a dark room, sealed in a plastic
bag and cooked when convenient.

note: Hand operated stainless steel pasta rollers are available in some gourmet
cook shops for about $50 US. They make very uniform pasta.

Soup Nuggets
1 kg (2.2 lbs) wheat flour
2 kg (4.4 lbs) moist leaf concentrate or 800 gr dry
100 g (3 1/2 ounces) salt
flavorings to taste
Mix the salt, flour, and flavorings together and then add the leaf concentrate to make a
dough. Roll the dough out in a layer about 1/2 cm thick. Cut into small squares. These
squares can be dried, then added to rice or soups or stews. They can also be cooked in
boiling water for 3-5 minutes before being dried. In that case they will need no further
cooking. When they are well dried they will store well if sealed and kept from sunlight.
note: powder, chili, mustard, horseradish, garlic, onion ginger, or other strong
spices can be used to make nuggets that will add flavor and nutrition to any cooked dish.

Atol (Latin America)

1 kg (2.2 lbs) corn (maize) flour
1 kg (2.2 lbs) bananas
1 kg (2.2 lbs) moist leaf concentrate or 400 gr dry
250 grams (1/2 lb) sugar
To a mixture of corn flour and sugar, add water and cook for 10 minutes. Mash bananas
and leaf concentrate together and add mixture to the cooked flour. Mix thoroughly.
Remove from heat and serve in bowls.
note: Atol can be made as a hot thick drink or as a very thick pudding or pastry
filling, or depending on how much water is used. Many people prefer atol made with
corn starch as it is smoother in texture.
Porridge*
2 kg (4.4 lbs) ragi flour (millet or sorghum)
1 kg (2.2 lbs)rice
1/2 kg (1.1 lbs)brown sugar
1/2 kg (1.1 lbs) moist leaf concentrate or 200 gr dry
Cook the rice, ragi flour, and sugar for 15 minutes in enough water to make a fairly thick
porridge. Thoroughly mix in the leaf concentrate and serve warm.
note: This basic porridge can be made with any locally available grain or with
starchy roots like cassava or potatoes.

* PORRIDGES AS WEANING FOODS

Both atol and porridges are frequently used as weaning foods for infants. The addition of
leaf concentrate to the traditional porridges can make a tremendous difference in the
health of infants during this time of extreme nutritional vulnerability.
A very serious problem with porridges as weaning foods is that young children usually
don't get enough calories and nutrients from the volume of porridge they will eat. This is
because the nutrient density, or amount of essential nutrient per volume of food, is too
low. If parents try to increase the nutrient density of the porridge by adding more solids
it becomes very thick and gloppy and the children will eat less of it. If the porridge is
made thinner with more liquid, children will consume a larger volume but most of the
difference is simply water, so the intake of nutrients is about the same. The nutrient
density can be improved by adding leaf concentrate, and oil, or sugar.
An alternative strategy involves breaking up the starch bonds that make porridge thick
and gloppy. This can be done by adding 5 - 20% flour from sprouted corn or sorghum.
These sprouted grains are rich in amylase that breaks the starch bonds and makes the
porridge more liquid. By using these sprouted grains much more flour can be added to
the porridge that increases the nutrient density up to three times. The amylase is
inactivated at temperatures above 70 degrees C. (160 degrees F.) so the sprouted grain
flour needs to be added to the porridge after it has cooled a bit.
The grains should be washed then soaked 8-10 hours in clean water. After that they need
to be left in a warm dry place and rinsed twice a day for three days. The sprouted grains
are then sun dried. When they are very dry the grains should be rubbed between your
hands to remove all the root hairs and shoots. THIS IS VERY IMPORTANT WITH
SORGHUM BECAUSE THE VEGETATIVE PORTIONS OF SPROUTED SORGHUM
GRAIN CONTAINS TOXIC HYDROCYANIC ACID. DO NOT EAT SPROUTED
SORGHUM WITHOUT CAREFULLY REMOVING THE ROOT HAIRS AND SHOOTS.
White sorghum works far better than brown or purple types of sorghum. I recommend
using sprouted corn to avoid any danger from sorghum. After the sprouted grains are
fully dry they can be ground like any other grain. The amylase activity of the sprouted
grain flour gradually diminishes with time, so it should be used within two weeks of
when it is sprouted. While this may be extra work, in many areas grain sprouting is
already widely practiced at the household or small business level. for various reasons
including the brewing of beers.

Soymilk Shake
250 ml (1 cup) moist leaf concentrate or 100 ml dry
2 1/2 liters soymilk (or cows' milk)
1 1/4 sugar
2 tsp vanilla extract or flavoring.

Blend the leaf concentrate well in 1 liter of soymilk, then blend the sugar well with
another liter of soymilk. Mix these two and the remaining soymilk together well in a
large enough container. Makes 10 glasses.
Frozen Snack
250 ml (1 cup) moist leaf concentrate or 100 ml dry
250 ml (1 cup) sugar
2 bananas
1250 ml (5 cups) soymilk (or cows' milk)
Blend all the ingredients together well. Pour into 10 small plastic bags and tie firmly
closed, then freeze. These can be removed from the bags and eaten with a spoon, or they
can be sucked through a hole bitten in the corner of the bag.
Laddu (India)
1 kg flour
1 kg brown sugar
1 kg moist leaf concentrate or 80 grams dry
200 grams vegetable oil
Dissolve the sugar in a little water; add the flour and oil. Cook for 15 minutes. Mix in
the leaf concentrate and let cool to near room temperature. Form the mixture into little
balls (about 25 g each). These can be rolled in sugar if desired.
note: any locally available flour can be used to make the laddu. Flavorings like
ginger can be added as can chopped nuts or fruit
Tortillas (Mexican and Central American corn flatbread)
1/2 kg corn flour
100 g wheat flour
100 g moist leaf concentrate or 40 grams dry
Mix all the ingredients and knead for 5 minutes. Form small balls and press flat by hand
or with a wooden or metal tortilla press. Grill on both sides until cooked through. Serves
5 adults or 10 children.
Tamales (Mexico)
500 ml (2 cups) corn flour (masa
harina)
125 ml (1/2 cup) moist leaf
concentrate or 50 ml dry
2 teaspoons baking powder
1 teaspoon salt
80 ml (1/3 cup) lard or vegetable
shortening
1 1/2 cup soup stock or water

Combine dry ingredients. Beat the lard until creamy, then gradually beat in the dry
ingredients. Slowly add the soup stock or water, stirring constantly. Spread about 1
tablespoon of this dough in the center of a clean corn leaf. Wrap the dough in the corn
leaf by neatly folding in the edges. Repeat until all the dough is wrapped. This should
make around 25 tamales. Steam the tamales for 40 - 60 minutes. Serve hot. About 3 per
person.
note: The tamale dough can be flavored with chili or other flavorings, or
sweetened. A tablespoon of various types of fillings can also be enclosed by carefully
placing it on the center of the dough before it is wrapped.
Uchepos (Mexico)
Uchepos are made the same way as tamales except they use dough made from
corn that is not fully ripened or dry. They has a unique flavor and are a traditional dish of
Michoacan, Mexico.
Kola Kenda (Sri Lanka)
500 ml (2 cups) dry rice
250 ml (1 cup) grated coconut
250 ml (1 cup) moist leaf concentrate 0 100 ml dry
Cook the rice and coconut until a thick porridge is formed. Mix the leaf concentrate in
thoroughly. Serve warm.
note: Kola kenda is a traditional dish of Sri Lanka, where it is normally made
with fresh green leaf juice. The version made with leaf concentrate is well accepted
there.
Curried Potato Soup
1 1/2 kg potatoes
250 ml (1 cup) moist leaf concentrate or 100 ml dry
3 medium onions
60 ml (1/4 cup) butter, margarine, lard, or oil
2 tsp curry powder
1 tsp salt
1 tsp dill seed
Peel, cut and boil potatoes. Add onion to boiling water for about 5-10 minutes. Strain
and add leaf concentrate, butter, and spices. Blend until creamy, adding more water or
milk if needed. Serve hot or cold. Different spices may be used for variations.

Lemon Trail Bars

250 ml (1 cup) moist leaf concentrate or 90 ml dry
250 ml (1 cup) sugar
125 ml (1/2 cup) shortening
125 ml (1/2 cup) flour
125 ml (1/2 cup) rolled oats

125 ml (1/2 cup) raisins

1 1/2 tsp lemon extract or grated lemon peel
Mix all the ingredients together well. Spread 1 1/2 cm (1/2 inch) thick layer of mixture
on greased cookie sheet. Bake for 40 minutes in slow oven. Slice into bars then let cool.
Other flavorings, like almond, can be substituted for lemon.
Barfi (India)
50 g
150 g
125 g
250 g
50 g
25 g
5-6

LC (fresh)
Bengal gram flour
oil
sugar
potato flour
milk powder
cardamoms

Roast Bengal gram flour in half the oil, add milk powder. Saut potato flour and LC in
remaining oil. Mix enough water to sugar to make thin syrup. Add Bengal gram flour
and LC mixture to this. Stir constantly while heating. When about to set mix in crushed
cardamoms and spread evenly on greased tray. Cut into 20 diamond shaped pieces.
LC Rice (India)
1 cup
1/4 cup
1
3 tablespoons
2-3
1/2 tsp
2
1/2 tsp
salt to taste

rice
fresh LC
onion
oil
green chilies
curry powder
tomatoes
chili powder

Brown onion and curry powder. Add rice and fry for 10 minutes. Add LC, chilies, chili
powder and salt and enough water to cook the rice. When rice is half done add tomatoes.
Serve hot.
Tikki (India)
200 g
150 g
50 g
2 Tbsp
200 g
2
4
150 g
1 tsp

potatoes
LC (fresh)
potato flour
sugar
Bengal gram flour
onions
green chilies
oil
curry powder

1 tsp
salt to taste

garam masala

Mash potatoes and add LC, potato flour, sugar, garam masala, salt, green chilies, and one
chopped onion. Saute remaining onion with half the curry powder. Add LC mixture and
cook 5 minutes on low fire. Remove from heat and let cool. Form into 20 balls. Flatten
the balls a little and dip them in a light batter made from the Bengal gram flour, the
remaining curry powder, salt, and enough water for a light consistency. Fry till crisp.
Serves 10 people.
Tamarind Jelly (Nicaragua)
1 kg
sugar
250 g
tamarinds
1 liter
water
2 Tbsp
fresh LC
1 tsp.
cloves
Soak tamarinds in water. Remove seeds. Slowly cook sugar in water and tamarind
extract. Add Cloves and LC. Heat slowly till thick.
Green Salsa (Mexico)
300 g
tomatoes
1/2
onion
4
chili serranos
2 small
chili perones
60 g
LC (fresh)
1 piece
cilantro
1 clove
garlic
salt to taste
Cook the chilies and tomatoes for 10 minutes. Add
all the remaining ingredients and mix briefly in a
blender or with an egg beater or spoon.
Churritos (Latin America)
350 g
corn (maize) flour
125 g
LC (fresh) or 45 g dried
100 g
wheat flour
1/2 tsp
baking powder
salt to taste
enough oil to deep fry
Mix all the ingredients well. Drive through holes in a meat grinder with the knife
removed (.5-1 cm holes). Fry the worm like churritos and serve as a snack.

Potato - Carrot Pancakes (Mexico)

3/4 kg
potatoes
3/4kg
carrots
1 cup
bread crumbs
2
eggs
1/4 kg
grated cheese
3 Tbsps.
LC (fresh)
Wash and peel the potatoes and carrots, then grate them into the same bowl. Mix LC,
bread crumbs and salt together. Then mix in the cheese and the beaten eggs. Drop on hot
frying pan by the tablespoon and cook like a pancake.
Swedish Meat Balls
1/2 cup
1 cup
1
1
1 clove
1/4 cup
1 tsp.
1 tsp

fresh LC (or 1/4 cup dried)

dry bread crumbs
egg
onion (chopped)
garlic (chopped)
peanuts (chopped)
salt
chili powder

Mix together all ingredients. Form into balls and fry in hot oil till crisp.
Leaf Burger
375 ml (1 1/2 cups) dried bread crumbs
250 ml (1 cup) moist leaf concentrate or 100 ml dry
1 egg
60 ml (1/4 cup) wheat flour
1 tsp mustard
1 clove garlic chopped fine
1 tsp salt
Mix all ingredients well. Form into flat patties about 8 cm in diameter. Fry these on
both sides until they begin to brown. Serve on bun with catsup. This mix can be made
into meatless `meatballs' as well, by forming balls instead of flat patties.
Fiona's Vegan Leaf Burgers
1 cup
fresh LC
1 cup
rolled oats
1 cup
chopped onions
1/2 cup
peanuts (soaked)
cumin, chili, and salt to taste
Combine all ingredients. Form into patties and fry.

DEVELOPMENT CRITERIA
FOR LC FOODS
In testing different LC foods we are looking mainly for improvements in economics,
acceptance, or nutrition. Although Leaf for Life is ultimately concerned with improving
nutritional well being, in my opinion the priorities for testing are in the order given
*above. As we present the case for greater use of leaf concentrate to funders and policy
makers, the most serious doubts raised are generally concerning economics, followed by
acceptance. The nutritional value of leaf concentrate is challenged less frequently.
While most changes that affect any one of these factors will affect the other two, useful
attributes for LC foods are sorted into these three categories below.
Economics
- Long shelf life.
In many areas this means products that can be made during the rainy season and
marketed six months later. A variation on this is making foods year round from dried
LC.
- Inexpensive, readily available ingredients.
Special attention to foods that tend to be inexpensive where malnutrition is prevalent, ie.
cassava, yams, plantains, corn, sorghum, rice and potatoes.
- Simplicity of process.
To be of much use in either fighting malnutrition or income generation for women LC
foods must be fairly easy to make using inexpensive equipment that can be reasonably
maintained in village conditions. Labor requirements should be well thought out, as
should the need for technical expertise or precision.
- Substitution for expensive foods.
It may be easier to market a cheaper substitute for a high demand food like meat or ice
cream, than a premium priced enriched staple food like pasta or porridge.
- Packaging.
Packaging can make up a big part of the cost of a food. Liquids and foods that are brittle
or sticky, for example, can present costly problems.
Acceptance
- Ready to Eat.
Foods that require no cooking are generally easier to introduce. Generally, people are
more adventuresome about trying a snack food in the plaza than trying to integrate a new
staple food into the traditional diet at home. Snack foods appeal more to the young, are
identified with fun, and are usually sold in very small units, all of which encourages
people to give them a try. Snacks represent the fastest growing part of the diet in many
developing countries. They are usually not very nutritious, especially relative to their
cost. Companies from developed countries control much of the snack market. So

displacing a snack food with a new LC one would usually have a clear benefit both
nutritionally and economically for the community. Development policies are beginning
to question how introductions of foods might damage local production of staples.
- Flavor.
Generally we view the flavor of LC as something that should be kept to minimum so that
other more popular flavors can dominate even when foods contain significant amounts of
LC.
- Color.
Normally the dark green of fresh LC is a liability as is the very dark, almost black, green
of dried LC. Various schemes to lighten the color or alter it (such as with Pitahaya
(hylocereus ocamponis), an intensely colored dark red fruit from a cactus like plant, in
Nicaragua) are worth looking into.
Nutrition
- Contains Substantial Amount of LC.
Many foods have been introduced through various projects that contained token amounts
of LC. Probably 4 grams dry weight LC or 10 grams fresh per portion is a minimum if
we are expecting much nutritional benefit. Malnourished children should get 25 grams
fresh LC per day.
- Doesn't destroy or bind nutrients.
Some processes, like exposure to prolonged high temperatures or sunlight can lower the
nutritional value of the ingredients in foods.
- Makes nutrients more available.
The addition of ascorbic acid makes it easier to utilize iron from LC. Some minerals are
better absorbed in certain proportions to each other. Dried LC is more nutritious if it is
ground extremely finely.

Suggestions for 5-Day Course for Leaf Concentrate Field Workers

Monday AM:
"Leaf For Life" film
Orientation
Make LC with macerator
Make and taste atol (a thick warm drink) and porridge
PM
Agricultural aspects of LC
Questions and Answers
Tuesday AM
Make LC with blender and with grinder
Make tamales or basic Indian dishes
PM
Seminar on nutritional problems in developing countries
and nutritional aspects of LC
Hygiene and safety
Questions and Answers
Wednesday AM
Make LC with macerator
Make drink syrup and discuss sugar preservation
PM
Byproducts (feeding ruminants, improving soil,
biogas, ethanol and other possible uses
Economic aspects of LC and basic calculations
Questions and Answers
Thursday AM
Make LC with macerator
Dry LC
PM
Social and cultural aspects of LC programs
LC machinery
Questions and Answers
Friday AM
Reporting, Records Keeping, Accounting, and Communications
Make noodles and spaghetti
Frequently asked Questions, Frequently Encountered Problems
PM
EXAM
PARTY

Minutes
30
45
120
30
180

150
60

120
30

150
45

90
90

120
60
90
90

90
60
60
60
??

SAMPLE EXAMINATION
1. What is the most common nutritional deficiency in the world?
2. Give 3 characteristics of plants that make good leaf concentrate.
3. Give 2 characteristics of plants that don't make good leaf concentrate.
4. What nutrient corrects night blindness?
5. Why is it important to bring leaf juice to the boiling point?
6. Name 2 things that can give leaf concentrate a bad flavor.
7. Why do women need more iron in their diets than men?
8. What is wrong with cutting leaves the evening before you process them?
9. Why is it better to heat leaf juice quickly than slowly?
10. What is the main advantage of a macerator or meat grinder over a blender for
preparing leaf concentrate?
11. What other food processes can be done in a 5 gallon leaf blender?
12. Why do children not eat enough greens to provide significant amounts of protein in
their diets?
13. If I process 50 kg of fresh alfalfa leaves, how much leaf concentrate should I make?
14. Which 2 of these animals make the most efficient use of the fiber left from leaf
concentrate processing?
Rabbit?
Pig?
Turkey? or Cow?
15. Why are leguminous crops like cowpeas and alfalfa good for the soil?
16. What is the biggest advantage of perennial crops over annual crops?
17. What is the youngest age that a child should begin getting leaf concentrate in his diet?
18. Which of these foods would help the body absorb iron the best?
Tortilla? Milk? Guavas? or Beans?

19. Is it possible to get enough protein for excellent health without eating meat?

20. If I process 100 kg of fresh leaves with a moisture content of 80%, how much fiber
should I end up with?
21. Why is calcium important to the human body?
22. What is the minimum length of time to wait before using leaves that have been
sprayed with an insecticide?
23. Why is folic acid important?
24. What is the first thing to do when you come into the leaf concentrate workshop?
25. Why should leaf crops not be cut off at the ground?
26. What is neem?
27. What can bio-gas be used for?
28. What is the main drawback with very small projects?
29. What are antioxidants, and why are theory important?
30. Which of the following is most likely to improve the economics of an LC program
a. lowering fuel use by installing a bio-gas generator
b. saving electricity with a improved motor
c. making the work day shorter
d. increasing the % of LC yielded from the leaves.

OTHER LEAF CONCENTRATE

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT & TECHNIQUES
LEAF PULPERS
THE BLENDER METHOD
The leaf concentrate blender is a fairly simple and inexpensive machine. It is similar to a
household blender except that it has a 5-gallon or (20 liter) hexagonal container, a 1 -2
horsepower motor, and only one speed (3450 RPM).
Two to four liters of clean water (depending on the moisture content and toughness of the
leaves) is poured into the blender, the top is fitted on, then the switch is turned on. The
operator feeds the washed, cut leaves into the blender using a wooden push stick. How
fast the leaves can be pushed into the blender depends on the type of leaf used and how
wet or fibrous it is. The quantity of leaf that one can put into a single blender run is
dependent on the same factors.
Usually about 3 kg (6.6 lb.) can be put into 3- 4 liters of liquid in about two minutes. The
blender should run about 20 seconds after the last leaves are put in to make sure all the
leaves are ground up finely. If the leaves are especially dry or fibrous it pays to run the
blender for a full minute after all the leaves are added and to use a little more liquid in
processing. With a little experience it is possible to tell when to stop putting leaves into
the blender by listening to the motor. As it works harder to chop the leaves it makes a
lower pitched sound.
If the leaves are not coming out of the
blender well pulped, you need to use
more water or fewer leaves or allow
them to be blended for a longer time.
The leaves should be ground into
homogeneous slurry. If there is a lot of
liquid it means that more leaves could
have been blended in the water.
Next you empty the blender into a 5gallon bucket then let it sit a few
minutes. Experiments have shown that
the yield of leaf concentrate increases if
the ground leaves are allowed to remain
in the water for up to ten minutes before
being pressed. After ten minutes there is
no further gain in yields. Then you pour
the bucket slowly over the press table. There are several designs for press tables. There
are drawings of press tables at the back of this manual.

The blender breaks the leaf cell walls well because the hexagonal shape of the container
and the leaves circulating in a liquid medium bring the leaves into repeated contact with
the high speed (3450 RPM) blades. If one added 2-4 liters of water to each batch of
leaves blended the resulting leaf juice would be very diluted and a great deal of extra fuel
and time would be needed to heat the juice to the boiling point. This problem can be
avoided by blending the leaves in juice from earlier runs. So as soon as you have a gallon
(4 liters) or so of juice pressed you can begin using it instead of water as the liquid
medium for blending the leaves. Whey from earlier processing can also be used but we
have had some problems with it, including very strongly flavored curd. Using water for
each batch will result in a slightly greater recovery of curd than using leaf juice. This is
because when the juice is pressed from the blended leaves a certain amount of moisture
remains in the fiber. If the moisture remaining in the fiber is pure leaf juice rather than
very diluted leaf juice, the fiber will contain slightly more protein at the expense of the
leaf curd or LC. Except when fuel costs are very low and leaf costs very high it is not
normally economical to process the leaves only in water instead of leaf juice.
The 5 gallon leaf liquidizers are very useful for a variety of food processing tasks in
addition to making leaf concentrate. They are well suited to making soymilk, which can
in turn be made into tofu or soy bean curd. They are also good at preparing fruits drinks
rapidly or in great quantity for group feeding situations. The liquidizers are very fast at
breaking the pressed leaf curd into fine pieces for drying as well. There may be situations
in which secondary uses such as these will influence the choice of leaf processing
equipment.

The MEAT GRINDER Method

Hand operated meat grinders are
inexpensive commercially available
machines that do a good, if somewhat slow,
job of pulping leaves for leaf concentrate
preparation. Usually the meat grinders are
marked with the numbers #32, #22, or
#333. The #32 is the largest of the
common meat grinders. The #333, the
smallest, is too small for leaf concentrate
processing except in the home. Any of
these grinders can be powered by hand, by
bicycle, or by electric motor. When they
are motor driven the motor speed should be
reduced to 60-80 RPM by gears or pulleys.
The mouth of the grinders should be extended at least 15 cm (6 inches) with a sheet metal
guard to prevent hands from accidentally entering the grinder. A wooden or plastic push
rod should always be used to push the leaves into the grinder. The push rod should have a
head wide enough to prevent it from being pulled into the grinder.

The leaves should be cut or torn into pieces the length of a finger or shorter and fed
slowly into the grinder to avoid it clogging. A custom made curved metal wrench that
can offer some leverage is very handy for removing the retaining disc when the grinder
gets clogged. The grinder powered by a motor with a speed reducer has enough torque to
get very jammed up. Bits of juice and leaf are sometime shot more than a meter out of
the grinder. For this reason, it is advisable to have a plastic skirt in front of the grinder to
avoid getting green stains on everything.
When using a bicycle or an electric motor to power the grinder it is very important that
the shaft of the grinder is precisely aligned with the power source. The speed of the
motor (usually 1700 RPM) can be reduced with either gears or pulleys. The best method,
but the most expensive is to use a sealed speed reducer, which has lubricated gears in a
sealed steel casing. These cost between $150 - 250 US at the time of this writing.
Sometimes you can buy the motor and speed reducer as an integrated unit, and this
reduces the problem of alignment. However, the integrated units can be hard to work on
and you may need to replace both components if one fails.
A series of pulleys can also be used to reduce the motor speed. It is less expensive but
more difficult to use than the geared reducer. The pulleys must be firmly mounted and
well aligned. The pulleys and the belts must be completely covered with some type of
protective covering to keep hair or clothes from being caught.
You can adjust how finely the meat grinders pulp the leaves by putting in discs with
different size holes. A disk with smaller holes will pulp the leaves more finely than a
disc with larger holes. Unfortunately, the smaller holes also mean even slower grinding
and they increase the problem of clogging. Remember to attach the grinder knife with
the blades facing the disc. These knives can be sharpened periodically if necessary. After
a bucket of leaves has been pulped, a liter or so of water should be added and well mixed
in. The leaf pulp can then be treated the same as the pulp from the blender method.
The advantages of the meat grinders are that they are relatively inexpensive, and they can
be found in a hardware store, rather than custom built. They can be used in remote
regions without electricity and in homes. The meat grinders do a good job of pulping the
leaves and use less water in processing than the blender method. This reduces the fuel
necessary to heat the leaf juice. The meat grinders also adapt well to other food
processes, like extruding churritos, mixing dough, and of course grinding meat.
The meat grinders also have some serious disadvantages. They grind leaves more slowly
than blenders, hammer mills or shredders. It is expensive and complicated reducing
motor speeds from 1700 RPM to 60 -80 RPM. Meat grinders work poorly or not at all
with very high moisture crops like young alfalfa or mustard. Rather than being driven
through the dieplate, very moist leaves are juiced in the grinder and the juice backs up
and fills the grinder chamber. Meat grinders also present a danger of hands, hair, or
clothes being pulled into either the grinder itself or the gears or pulleys. In addition, meat
grinders are more difficult to clean than blenders.

HAMMER MILLS AND SHREDDERS

In several locations at several different scales of operation, hammer mills and shredders
have been used to pulp leaves for leaf concentrate. Both machines are essentially fast
moving steel hammers or blades spinning on either a horizontal or vertical shaft. The leaf
crop is fed into the chamber where the spinning hammers or blades hit it repeatedly until
it drops out a shoot in the bottom or side of the chamber. Often the leaves need to be
passed repeatedly through the chamber to rupture enough leaf cells for good leaf
concentrate extraction.
The main advantages of the hammer mills and shredders are that they can chop a lot of
leaves very quickly and they don't require expensive speed reducers. There are many low
cost commercially available machines that are designed to shred dry leaves to make
mulch or to make animal feeds from forage or hay. Some of these can be modified to
pulp fresh green leaves for leaf concentrate.
On the negative side, hammer mills and shredders don't tend to break the leaves up
enough to get good yields of leaf concentrate even with several passes. After the first
pass it can be a sloppy operation passing wet pulp through the machines several times.
Most hammer mills are designed for grinding much drier materials and they can be nearly
impossible to clean. Hammer mills are used in a lot of industrial operations and are
available in many sizes. Some of these machines are very noisy to be using indoors, and
most of the leaf shredders have narrow exit holes that quickly clog with wet leaf pulp. It
is important to remember, however, that development work, if on a somewhat limited
budget, is continuing on these machines as well as all the other possible leaf concentrate
making devices.

LEAF JUICE PRESSES

THE LEVER PRESS TABLE

A relatively simple and inexpensive table can be built without a jack to speed up the
separation of the juice from the fiber. It is useful for small-scale work. The table can be
made from steel or sturdy wood, though the grate where the pressure is applied and the
lever should be steel. The drawings that follow give a good idea how a press table can be
built. It is possible to alter the plans somewhat to suit your particular needs, but a few
important points should be kept in mind:
- The table should be at a height that is comfortable for the people that are using
it.
- The lever needs to be at least 2.1 meters (7 feet) long and very stout. Smaller,
lighter people need longer not shorter levers to exert the same pressure on the fiber.
- The steel bars or rods that make up the top of the lever press table need to be
strong enough to resist the pressure applied by the lever. (see drawing in appendix).
- The table needs to be either bolted down or weighted to keep it from moving
when pressure is applied. I prefer using sand bags for weight so the table can be moved
for cleaning or reorganizing the workshop without the need for bolts in the floor.
- The workers must be able to move freely around the press table. The weight of
the lever needs to be offset by a counterweight hanging from a rope on the other side of a
pulley. This makes it much easier for the workers to lift the lever repeatedly. A sandbag
counterweight can be adjusted to match the weight of the lever.
- The press table needs to be large enough to drain a 5-gallon bucket of pulped
leaves. I suggest about 90 cm X 90 cm (3 feet X 3 feet).

- A frame made from 4 cm X 4 cm ( 1 1/2" X 1 1/2") wood with 6 mm (1/4 inch)

metal screen firmly attached to the bottom should fit over the press table; and nylon filter
cloth should be laid over this frame before the pulped leaves are poured onto the table.
- The juice needs to flow freely onto the sheet of metal or plastic under the press
table, then into a bucket. The outlet of the metal or plastic sheet must be high enough to
allow a bucket to be slid under for collecting the juice.
- The press table needs to be easy to clean. There should be no surfaces that will
hold the juice and no surfaces that can't be reached for easy cleaning.
Using the Press Table:
A. Make sure that the wooden frame with hardware cloth or screen is in position
and that filter cloth is laid over the frame
B. Slowly pour a 5-gallon bucket of leaves that have been pulped in a blender or
in a macerator or meat grinder onto the table. If the leaves were pulped in a meat grinder
or macerator they need to be mixed well with an equal volume of water before being
poured onto the press table.
C. Spread the pulped leaves out evenly over the table with a smooth spreading
stick or with clean hands.
D. Grab all 4 corners of the filter cloth and twist them together to make a bag
with all the pulped leaves inside.
E. Place the bag you've just formed under the lever press with the twist facing up.
Gradually apply pressure by pressing down on the end of the lever. Maintain pressure for
about 10 seconds.
F. Reposition the bag and repeat this step 3 or 4 times. The leaf pulp remaining
in the cloth should now be too dry to easily squeeze liquid out with your hand.
G. The press table can also be used to press the whey from the curd that has
been strained into a cotton filter bag. Pressure needs to be applied more gradually and for
a longer time than when pressing juice from pulped leaves. Avoid pressing curd that is
still very hot, as this tends to tear the filter bags.
H. Clean the press table well after each use.

The Motorized Hydraulic Press Table

We also made and tested a variant on this press that employed an hydraulic piston
powered by a 2 HP motor. The table is designed so that a motorized hydraulic piston and
the manual hydraulic jack are interchangeable by removing 4 bolts. This press seemed
faster and physically less demanding than the jack press. Alfalfa pressed with this press
produced slightly more curd than that pressed with the jack in a very limited test. This
system clearly needed modification before we could recommend its use. Mainly we need
to exchange some of the system's speed for power. The pump may need to be adjusted to
match the piston's capacity. A pressure
relief valve could be installed to allow the
system to hold its pressure at 8 or 10 tons
for a few seconds before the return stroke.
The motorized hydraulic system costs
about $600-700 US more than the jack
press. When the relatively simple
modifications are made it should be a fast,
easy to operate, batch type press. It seems
unlikely that a program processing 200 kg
per day could justify the additional
expense, but programs working with 500
kg or more daily might find it well
worthwhile. It is a system that could
probably be upscaled to at least double its
output fairly easily by adding T's and a
second piston. The easy interchangeability
seems advantageous. This way a group
could begin processing with a jack and
switch to a motorized piston later if
production warranted it. They would then
have the jack as a backup if repairs or
modification in the motorized system were ever needed. Hydraulic systems are known
for being low maintenance once set up. The extensive use of hydraulics in tractor work
means that rural areas frequently have some people with expertise in motorized hydraulic
systems. Food grade hydraulic fluid can be purchased to minimize any possibility of
contamination. Quick release couplings are very useful if the piston is going to be
interchanged with a bottle jack.

Small Hydraulic Jack Plate Press

A simple and inexpensive version of the hydraulic jack press table can be built from
steel.. It has a 30 X 30 cm press plate and uses a 4 ton hydraulic jack. Rather than use
springs to return the jack to its original position, the cross beam can be pushed down
against the jack after the pressure is released. Then the jack and the wooden press plate
to which it is attached can be removed and the process repeated. It sits on a counter top
rather than requiring a base. It is too small for general LC production but could be very
useful in pilot programs, crop testing, and for doing demonstrations away from a
workshop.

Hydraulic Jack Cylinder Presses

A number of relatively simple and inexpensive juice presses have been designed that use
a hydraulic jack to apply pressure to leaf pulp in a perforated cylinder. Some of these
utilize sturdy plastic PVC drainpipe of 15-30 cm (6-12) diameter with numerous small
holes to allow the leaf juice to flow out when the pressure is applied. The pulp is held in
a nylon bag that is placed inside the pipe to prevent the pulp from being driven through
the holes. In another variation of this press, the chamber is metal with a fine metal screen
fixed inside. Unlike the screw presses the hydraulic presses can also be used for
separating the `whey' from the curd.
Some work has also been done with using hydraulic cylinders driven by an electric motor
to accomplish the same thing more quickly. The motorized hydraulic presses appear to
be too complex and expensive relative to how well they perform at removing leaf juice
from pulp. A very similar juice press has been developed using a hand cranked arbor
press rather than a hydraulic jack to apply pressure. It had very nearly the same
advantages and drawbacks as the hydraulic units, though it did not apply as much
pressure.
While the hand-operated hydraulic presses are fairly simple and inexpensive, they are not
without what we consider to be serious problems. They tend to be slow because they are
batch rather than continuous presses. Our experience has been that if the disc that is
driven into the cylinder is slightly too large or too small or misaligned, it is slow and
frustrating getting it back out to reload the chamber with more pulp.
Hydraulic cylinder presses tend to apply a great deal of pressure on a fairly thick layer of
leaf pulp, rather than gentler pressure over a larger area. One drawback of this is that as
the leaf juice is driven out of the pulp nearest the cylinder holes that pulp becomes dry
enough to absorb the juice being driven out of the center of the cylinder.
A closely related problem is that the juice driven off with the initial light pressure is
much richer in protein than the juice driven off towards the end with intense pressure.
Some of the large protein molecules are filtered out of the juice when it is driven through

a tight mat of drier fibrous leaf pulp at the edge of the cylinder. This problem can be
greatly reduced by putting a disk of grooved wood or plastic with grooves cut into them
to separate layers of leaf pulp an inch or so thick in the cylinder. Then the pressure is
applied to several thin layers of leaf pulp stacked on top of each other. Unfortunately,
this aggravates the first problem of slow reloading of leaf

Screw Presses
Several presses for separating leaf juice from fiber have been tried. One of the most
frequently used employs a cylindrical screw or worm that drives leaf pulp against a
screen of some kind. The juice passes through the screen and is collected on a tray that
sits below the screw cylinder. Some of the screw presses are set up so that the pulped
leaves remain in contact with the screen until the screw builds up a certain pressure. It
then passes as fibrous residue out the end of the screw cylinder.
When they are carefully designed and tooled, screw presses are very good at separating
the juice from the fiber in pulped leaves. They can be fed continually rather than in
batches like the hydraulic and lever presses. On the other hand, they can be prone to
clogging and can be very difficult to clean. Quite a bit of careful machine work needs to
be done to make sure the clearances of the screw and the screen chamber are correct.
Because of this skilled work and the cost of a motor and a speed reducer, the screw press
can be a very expensive piece of machinery for a small project.
Hand operated screw presses are often used in wine presses and cider presses. In India we
have combined a very heavy screw type truck jack with a table like the one described
earlier (hydraulic jack press table). The advantages of hand driven screw presses is that
they are extremely simple machines that are easy and cheap to maintain. One drawback
of the hand-operated screw is that it needs to be manually lifted off the pulp after each
run. This can become slow and tiring. The hydraulic jack press avoids this problem by
using springs to lift the press plate.
Testing is currently being done with a broad flat vertical axis screw press that could
mount directly under the macerator. It turns slowly, about 4 RPM, but in theory could
turn the macerator into a continual process operation.

Combined Pulpers and Presses

One line of development in leaf concentrate processing equipment basically combines a
meat grinder with a screw press into a single machine. The leaves are fed into the grinder
or pulper. After they are pulped they drop into a screw press chamber immediately below.
The primary advantage of this machine is that a single person in a single continuous
operation can remove the juice from leaf crops. Because it has only one motor and one
speed reducer, it should be less expensive than the two component machines built
separately.

These machines have been somewhat disappointing in use so far. It has been difficult to
adjust the relative speed of the pulper and juicer section to compensate for differing
moisture and fiber content of the leaves. Many small projects don't have an adequate
supply of leaf crop to justify the cost and electrical capacity of these machines. They are
heavy and quite difficult to clean or to do repair work on. However, they are being
constantly modified and redesigned and they may still live up to their promise of
becoming a relatively inexpensive machine that can process 100 kg of leaves an hour.

Other Leaf Pulpers and Juicers

There are several other machines that have been used experimentally or in small projects
to make leaf concentrate. Work is being done on a modified shredder designed by Glyn
Davys that moves the leaves down a spiral series of short hammers so that they have been
hit many times before they exit the chamber. Another pulper that shows great promise is
based on extrusion. Here the leaves are driven through holes in a die plate by a piston
arm or through holes in an outer cylinder by a revolving eccentric cylinder within. It has
been calculated that the extrusion method should be the most efficient technique for
pulping leaves in terms of the energy required to pulp a given weight of leaves. Village
scale extruders are not available, to the best of my knowledge. It has been estimated, by
workers at the University of Wisconsin, that a processing rate of about one ton of fresh
leaf crop per hour would be necessary before extruders would be the leaf pulpers of
choice.
A manually operated extruder was built in England by modifying plans for a Bielenburg
oil press. A small amount of leaf crop is pushed into a chamber and a long lever arm
drives it through a narrow slot, rupturing the leaf cells. It appeared to be too slow and
physically demanding to process on more than a household level, and probably too
expensive to be reasonable for that scale of operations.
The range of devices that has been called upon to remove leaf juice from the pulp is quite
extensive. Modified sugar cane rollers are used in a project in Pakistan. Small screw
presses designed for village scale oil extraction have also been used. Commercial
machinery designed for making fruit juices has similarly been put to this use. Electric
washing machines have been slightly modified to spin the juice out of the pulp. The pulp
is poured into a mesh bag inside the washing machine and run a couple of minutes on the
spin cycle. Often washing machines discarded because their transmissions are broken can
still run on the spin cycle, making for inexpensive centrifuges. These probably present
difficulties in cleaning.
On a larger scale, a few different devices have been custom built for separating juice
from leaf fiber. Continuous feed belt presses may be the most promising of these. These
compress the pulp between a heavy food grade belt and a perforated rotating stainless
steel cylinder. The leaf juice is driven into the cylinder through the perforations and runs

out into a catch tank. The belt is held under tension between the perforated roller and
another roller with heavy springs. Large scale leaf concentrate production is beyond the
scope of this manual, and people interested in large scale production should contact Leaf
For Life's London office.
The wide variety of custom made machinery for leaf concentrate production is an
indication of the resourcefulness, creativity and dedication of the hundreds of people who
have worked on this food technology since the Second World War. This ingenuity is
clearly a strength; but it also reveals a serious failing. For leaf concentrate production to
become economic in thousands of towns and villages in the developing world, one or two
standardized designs for low cost machinery will need to be selected. Only then will it be
possible to manufacture on a limited scale, rather than custom build machines. Only then
will the price of equipment drop off and parts become interchangeable. Until there is
some degree of standardization of equipment it will be difficult and complicated training
people to use a wide variety of machines, most of which they will never see.

LEAF CONCENTRATE DRYERS

Indirect Solar Dryers
There are several designs for solar assisted tray dryers. This uses a solar collector to heat
air that then rises through the chamber with the trays. The main appeal of these is that the
heat source doesn't have an operating cost. Some of these types of dryers use fans to force
the sun heated air over the drying trays. There are, of course, some drawbacks with solar
energy as a heat source for drying LC. As mentioned earlier, leaf production tends to be
best when the weather is rainy and cloudy. Even in the tropics solar energy is quite
diffuse and in order to maintain relatively high temperatures (40-50C [120 -140 F])
with an adequate airflow the solar collection area needs to be large. Glazing for large
collector surfaces is difficult because glass is expensive, heavy and fragile, and
polyethylene photodegrades rapidly (even more so as the ozone layer is depleted). Good
insulation and sealants are not readily available in most developing countries and without
them it is hard not to lose the heat collected before it flows thru the LC. The large areas
involved in the solar drying of 10 -25 kgs of LC create handling problems and wind and
rain protection become more expensive and complicated.

Electric Heated Tray Dryers

Similar trays were placed in a box heated with a 1500 W electric space heater and a small
fan. These dryers worked fairly well with small quantities of LC, but the time and electric
use were problems and the temperatures generated (c. 40 C [100 - 110 F]) were too
low for fast drying. This dryer had the advantage of being inside the workshop so it was
independent of the weather. Heavy winds and rains are serious problems for large
outdoor dryers. The trays need to be arranged in such a way that the heated air passes

over each tray on its way out the vent at the top. We offset each tray 10 cm (4") so that
the air had to pass under each tray before rising to the next one. Even with offset trays,
the LC closer to the source of heat will dry much faster than that furthest away in this
type of dryer. It is advantageous to rotate the trays at least once during drying to move
the trays furthest from the heating element in closer. This is an additional labor cost. If
this rotating of trays can be done during normal working hours it is not much problem.
However, often the drying will be going on in the evening after the workers have left the
workshop, and having someone return to the workshop just to rotate the trays will be an
irritating task.
One of the nice features of this type of dryer is that it can be hooked up to a timer and a
thermostat, so that as you gain some experience in drying LC you can begin setting the
thermostat for 50 C and the timer for how ever many hours you need for drying. The
heater and fan can then be automatically turned off when the curd is dry even if that is in
the middle of the night. This can reduce electric bills and prevent overdrying or burning
of the curd. If the electric wiring in the workshop is not great or the timer, thermostat and
heating element are not very well made, you may not want to be running this much
electricity without someone around because of the possibility of a fire starting. The dryer
we built in Nicaragua had 6 trays, each 80 X 80 cm (32 X 32"). I think it would have
worked much better with a 3 kW heater. Of course, this would double the electricity
usage and cost.
Many brands of electric food dryers can be purchased off the shelf in the US. Most of
these are intended for household use and designed for drying a kilogram or two of fruit.
Some can be expanded by adding trays. Unfortunately, because they don't add to the
heating element or airflow, this simply slows down the drying. These can be purchased
for $50 -500 US depending on the size and quality. The better ones have built-in timers
and thermostats. These are probably only an option for very small projects or people
doing experimental work.

Gas Dryers
We also made a dryer that uses gas heat rather than solar energy. This provides a measure
of security against moldy or inadequately dried curd on cloudy humid days. We built this
dryer to fit over a gas cooker and to use drying trays that are interchangeable with the
solar dryers. It is a box of light gauge galvanized sheetmetal that captures heat from the
cookers gas jets on the lowest setting. It has a capacity of about 8 kg (17.6 lb) fresh curd.
After 2 hours the LC was 6% moisture. It heated up to 70 - 80 C, which is higher than
ideal for drying curd. It would probably do a better job quicker with a small exhaust fan
attached to the top of the dryer. It may be possible to utilize the waste heat from heating
leaf juice to power a dryer of this type, but it is difficult to keep steam from juice heating
from rewetting the drying curd, unless a wall of some kind separates them.

Tumble Dryers
A heated tumble dryer with a fan was built in Nicaragua. It shows some promise but is a
somewhat complicated gizmo with a geared motor to turn the drum, rollers, a heater, and
a fan. Pete Fellows, with the Intermediate Technology Development Group, described
using a drier like this with a 3 kW electric heater to dry about 3 kg of LC in a couple of
hours. If you can adjust the temperature of your dryer, for example with an thermostat
controlled electric heater,
the LC can be dried more quickly by beginning with a higher temperature. Temperatures
as high as 70 C [158 F] will not damage the nutritional value of the LC as long as it is
moist. Once the curd becomes dry to the touch, the temperature must be kept below 50
C [140 F] or some of the amino acids may be damaged and the quality of the protein can
be affected. In field applications it will usually be more practical to try to hold a steady
temperature near 50C. Overheating and ruining a couple of batches of LC would quickly
offset the saving in time. Generally speaking, the simpler the technology the greater the
likelihood of it actually functioning in developing countries.

CONTACTS
Leaf Concentrate Information:
LEAF FOR LIFE - USA
260 Radford Hollow Road
Big Hill, KY 40405 USA
tel-fax 606 986 5418
LEAF FOR LIFE - UK
37-39 Great Guilford St.
London, SE1 OES
UNITED KINGDOM
Fax 44171 261 9291
Leaf For Life - Bolivia
Soria Galvarro 5333
Casilla 783
Oruro,
BOLIVIA
Leaf For Life - Sweden
Banergatan 85
11526 Stockholm
SWEDEN
Society for Green Vegetation Research
Central Food Technology Research Institute
Mysore 570 013

(publishes newsletter)

INDIA

Other Organizations Involved in Leaf Concentrate Projects:

Pastoral Social- Caritas
1 de Mayo # 335
Morelia, Michoacan CP 58000 MEXICO
telefono: 52 43 12 98 90 fax: 52 43 12 10 00

52 43 12 70 40

SOYNICA
Aptdo RP-05
Managua NICARAGUA
FAX - 011 505 2 89 49 41
Leaf Nutrient Program, Inc.
1203 N. Expressway 77
Box 334
Harlingen ,Texas 78552
USA

(project in Coahuila, Mexico)

Groups Doing Related Health and Nutrition Work:

Hesperian Foundation
PO Box # 1692
Palo Alto, CA 94302
USA
Clearinghouse on Infant Feeding
and Maternal Nutrition
American Public Health Assn.
1015 15th Street NW
Washington, DC 20005 USA

(Publishes "Where There is No

Doctor" and other excellent
books for health care workers in
developing countries)

(Publishes newsletter)

International Vitamin A Consultative Group

& International Nutritional Anemia
Consultative Group
Nutrition Foundation
1126 16th Street NW
Washington, DC USA
Johns Hopkins Hospital
120 Wilmer Eye Institute
600 N. Wolfe Street
Baltimore, MD 21205 USA

(Research on Vitamin A Deficiency)

Helen Keller International

15 W. 16th Street
New York, NY 10011
USA

(Fights Nutritional Blindness)

La Leche League International

PO Box # 1209
Franklin Park, IL 60131-8209
USA

(Promotes Breast Feeding)

Related Agricultural Information:

ECHO
17430 Durrance Rd.
North Fort Myers, Fl 33917
USA
fax 941 543 5317

(publishes excellent newsletter

offers small packets of seed)

Bean/Cowpea CRSP
200 Center for Intermnational Programs
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48824-1035
USA

(Publishes Newsletter)

Liphatech
3101 W. Custer Ave.
Milwaukee, WI 53209
USA

(Sells Legume Inoculants)

International Agriculture Sieve

Rodale Institute
222 Main Street
Emmaus, PA 18098
USA

(Publishes Newsletter)

TRIADES
Pacific Neem Project
Box E
Hakalau, HI 96710
USA

Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center

PO Box # 42
Shanhua, Tainan
(Publishes Newsletter)
Taiwan,
REPUBLIC OF CHINA 74199

Food Processing Equipment:

Unichop
140 E. Commercial Dr.
Wooddale, IL 60129
USA
Grace Valenti
PO Box 105
54-36 Flushing Ave.
Maspeth, NY 11378
USA
Lehman Hardware
PO Box #41
4779 Kidron Road
Kidron, OH 44636
USA
Professor H.D. Bruhn
Dept. of Agricultural Engineering
460 Henry Mall
University of Wisconsin
Madison, WI 53706
USA
INTSOY
Dept. of Food Sciences
University of Illinois,
Urbana-Champagne
1304 W. Pennsylvania Ave.
Urbana, IL 61801
USA

(Inexpensive Meat Grinders)

(Sells Pasta Machines, all Sizes)

(low tech food processig equipment)

(Has worked on leaf concentrate

machinery for many years)

(Develops Soy Processing Equipment

for Developing Countries)

note: Many of these organizations are non-profit groups with very limited
budgets. When asking for information, please enclose a self addressed stamped
envelope.

BOOKS
Leaf Concentrate
Graham, H.and L. Telek. Leaf Protein Concentrates ed. AVI Publishing Co., Inc.
Westport, CT USA. 1983 840 pages
Pirie N.W. Leaf Protein and Its By-products in Human and Animal Nutrition
Cambridge University Presss Cambridge, UK 2nd Ed. 1987 209 pages

Agriculture and Environment

Duke,James A. Handbook of Legumes of World Economic Importance. Plenum Press.
227 W. 17th Street New York, NY and London 1981 345 pages
Facciola,Stephen. Cornucopia: A Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications
1870 Sunset Dr. Vista, CA 92084 USA 1990 677 pages
Sarrantonio, Marianne. Methodologies for Screening Soil Improving Legumes. Rodale
Institute 611 Siegfriedale Road Kutztown, PA 19530 USA. 1991 310 pages
Price, Martin ECHO Development Notes ed. 17430 Durrance Rd. North Fort Myers,
FL 33917-2200 USA Subscription $10 US per year
Myers,Norman The Primary Source: Tropical Forests and Our Future WW Norton &
Co, NY and London 1992 416 pages
Edwards, Clive A.and Rattan Lal and et. al. Sustainable Agricultural Systems Soil and
Water Conservation Society 7515 Northeast Ankeny Rd. Ankeny, Iowa 50021 1990
696 pages
Flint, Mary Louise Pests of the Garden and Small Farm: A Grower's Guide to Using
Less Pesticide University of California, Davis Ca. 1990 276 pages.
Legel, Siegfried Tropical forage legumes and grasses Plenum Press, New York 1981.
Smith, Nigel J. and J. T. Williams and et. al. Tropical Forests and Their Crops Cornell
University Press, Ithaca N.Y. 1992 568 pages.
Quimo, T.H. and S.T. Chang and et. al. Technical Guidelines for Mushroom Growing in
the Tropics Production and Protection Paper 106., Food and Agricultural Organization
of the United Nations, Rome, Italy 1990 155 pages
Better Pastures for the Tropics Yates Seeds P.O. Box 616 Toowoomba, Qld., 4350
Australia 1975 60 pages
Ponting, Clive A Green History of the World: The Environment and the Collapse of
Great Civilizations Penguin Books, New York, N.Y. 1991 432 pages

Lavabre, E.M. Weed Control: Tropical Agriculturist Series MacMillan Press, London
1991
90 pages
McRobie, George, Editor Tools for Organic Farming Intermediate Technology
Publications London 1990 77 pages
Williams, C.N., Uzo, J.O. and Peregrine, W.T.T. Vegetable Production in the Tropics
Longman Scientific and Technical Publishing London 1991 179 pages

Processing
Mazur, Glen A. and Thomas E. Proctor. Troubleshooting Electric Motors. American
Technical Publishers, Inc.,Homewood, IL 60430 USA 1993 299 pages
Fellows, Peter and Hampton, Ann Small-Scale Food Processing: A Guide to Appropriate
Equipment Intermediate Technology Publications London 1992 158 pages
Fellows, Peter and Axtell, Barry Appropriate Food Packaging
of Technology for Development Amsterdam 135 pages

published by Transfer

Nutrition
Cameron, Margaret and Yngve Hofvander Manual on Feeding Infants and Young
Children Third Edition Oxford University Press, Toronto, Ontario Canada 1983 214
pages
King, Maurice and Felicity King. Primary Child Care: A Manual for Health Care
Workers: Book One and Two. Oxford Medical Publications, Toronto, Ontario Canada
0X2 6DP 1991 311 pages and 194 pages.
Natow, Annette B. and Jo-Ann Heslin. Nutritional Care of the Older Adult
MacMillan press NY 1986 306 pp
Nutrition Screeening Manual For Professionals Caring For OLder Americans Nutrition
Screening Initiative Washington, DC 1991
A Resource Guide for Nutrition Management Programs for Older Persons US Dept. of
Helath and Human Services (Administration on Aging) 1985
Simco, M. D. and C. Cowell, On Assessment: A Comprehensive Guide for Planning
Intervention .Aspen System Corp. 1600 Research Blvd. Rockville, MD 20850 $35
Munro and Schliere, Nutrition of the Elderly . Nestle Nutrition Service Raven Press
1185 Avenue of The Americas NY, NY 10036 1991

Management, Marketing, Training, Communications

Werner, David and Bill Bower Helping Health Workers Learn The Hesperian
Foundation, Palo Alto, Ca. 1982
Boyden, Jo and Brian Pratt The Field Directors' Handbook: An Oxfam Manual for
Development Workers Oxford University Press Toronto, Ontario Canada 1985 512
pages
Buzzard, Shirley and Elaine Edgcomb, eds. Monitoring and Evaluating Small Business
Projects: A Step by Step Guide for Private Development Organizations. PACT, New
York, 1987 262 pages
de Wilde, Ton; Schreurs, Stigntje; and Richman, Arleen Opening the Marketplace to
Small Enterprise Intermediate Technology Publications London 1991 155 pages
Kindervatter, Suzanne with Range, Maggie Marketing Strategy: Training Activities for
Entrepreneurs Overseas Education Fund New York 93 pages
Rittner, Don Ecolinking: Everyone's Guide to Online Environmental Information
Peachpit Press Berkely, CA USA 351 pages

MAKING LEAF CONCENTRATE AT HOME

1. Wash and cut leaves. Use only fresh green leaves known to be edible, such as alfalfa,
Swiss chard, lambsquarters, blackeye peas, wheat, mustard, kale, or collards. While many
other plants make good concentrate, it is safer for beginners to stick with commonly
eaten leaf crops. Wash in cool water to remove dust and dirt and cut into pieces 2 - 3"
long.

2. Grind the leaves to a pulp. This can be done with a manual meat grinder or flour
grinder, a wheat grass juicer, or a household blender. Fruit and vegetable juicers usually
clog up quickly from the large amount of fiber in leaves. I prefer using a blender on the
highest speed 1/3 full of water. This step ruptures the cell walls of the leaves liberating
protein and other nutrients.

3. Press as much juice as possible from the pulped leaves. Pour the pulped leaves into
a sheer nylon or polyester cloth of the type used for curtains. Squeeze out as much juice
as possible. You should not be able to squeeze any juice out of a handful of this pulp
when you are done.

4. Heat the juice rapidly to the boiling point. Stir very gently to prevent burning and
remove from heat as soon as the leaf juice boils. A green curd should float to the top.
5. Separate the curd that forms in the heated juice in a closely woven cloth. When
this wet curd has cooled squeeze the "whey" out of the curd. It should be dry enough to
crumble. You may want to make a very simple press with a 2" X 4" X8' lever to apply
more pressure than you can with just your hands. This can be used for pressing the juice
from the pulped leaves as well.
6. What remains in the cloth is LEAF CONCENTRATE!
- 10 lbs of leaves should give you roughly lb leaf concentrate;
4 lbs of fiber for mulch, compost, rabbits or goats; and 5 lbs of "whey" for watering
plants. Leaf concentrate can be dried at about 120 F, ground to a fine powder and stored
for later use in airtight plastic bags away from any light.

Good Luck!

Macerator Components
PIECE
1. Feed Hopper
2. PVC Cylinder
3. Frame
4. Motor (2HP
3600 RPM) &
switch
5. Shaft, bearings,
hub, blade and
mounting
assembly
TOTAL

WHERE MADE ESTIMATED COST ESTIMATED WEIGHT

Local
$ 30 US
6 kg
Local or Import
$ 30
10 kg
Local
$ 125
20 kg
Local or Import
$ 220
24 kg

Import

$ 300

10 kg

$705

70 kg

IMPACT MACERATOR
(measurements in inches; 1 inch = 25.4 mm)

Assembly of Macerator
1. You can purchase piece # 5, the shaft, bearings, hub, blade and mounting assembly
from Leaf For Life for $300 US plus shipping. This includes a heavy stainless steel shaft,
two bearings,( the top one being nickel plated food grade), a mounted pulley and 12.5
mm (") high density nylon blades covered with 16 gauge stainless steel. These are set in
a steel bearing support that can be welded to a locally built frame. This assembly also
includes an aluminum cover to protect the drive belt. This is the only piece that is
difficult to build locally in many locations.
2. If you decide to purchase this assembly follow the steps below:
a. Disassemble the bearings and aluminum cover, noting how they fit back
together.
b. After welding the bearing support to the built frame, reassemble the aluminum
cover and bearings. Any lips or edges of the aluminum cover should face down to collect
the least amount of pulp.
c. Before mounting the cylinder and cylinder supports, assemble the blade and
mount it on the shaft. This allows for the correct positioning of the cylinder. There
should be about 6.25 mm (1/4") between the tip of each blade and the inside cylinder
wall.
3. For safety make sure the drive belt is covered both under and outside of the cylinder.
4. The outside diameter of the blade shaft pulley is 70 mm (2.8 "). The pulley on the
motor should be the same size or as close as possible. If the pulley on the motor has a
much larger diameter it will cause unacceptable vibration.
5. The motor should be a good quality two horsepower 3450-RPM electric motor. Most
motors this size can be set to run on either 110 Volt or 220 Volt current. Make sure that
the motor is set for the wall current that you are using. If you have the choice use, 220
Volts as the motor will run cooler and last longer. Also be sure that your motor is built
for the frequency of electricity that you will be using. Most of the world uses 50 Hz
frequency, but the United States, Mexico and parts of Latin America use 60 Hz. A 60 Hz
motor running on 50 Hz electricity will run about 17% slower and will overheat easily.
6. A plastic washtub as large as will easily slide under the pulley and belt should be used.
For a smooth operation you'll probably want two or three of these, so they can be
switched quickly without stopping the leaf pulping.
7. You may want to attach flexible plastic flaps to the frame to prevent bit of pulp from
flying out over the top of the washtub. This is especially important if you plan to use the
macerator to granulate leaf curd as well as pulp leaves.
8. To reduce noise, vibration, and movement of the macerator, rubber feet of some type
should be fitted to the legs of the frame. The frame should also be secured to the floor or
a wall in some manner.

Monthly
Report
Form
Month
Location
Responsible
Person
Date
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

Year

Kg Leaf Crop

Kg Leaf Concentate

Kg Fiber

Total Hours

ABOUT THIS MANUAL

It is the purpose of this manual to help people interested in health, nutrition, agriculture
and environmental issues to be able to begin making and using leaf concentrate in towns
and villages in developing countries. This manual is an ongoing work that will be
periodically updated. It deals almost exclusively with small or village scale production
systems. There is very little information on industrial scale production. This manual should
be useful to anyone involved in a small leaf concentrate program, but is not intended to
substitute for hands on training. Eventually, the manual will be matched with a training
film on videocassette and a 3 - 5 day training course offered at least once a year. You may
want to photocopy some of the information and charts in this manual for people who need
to refer to one aspect of leaf concentrate work, but who do not need the entire manual.
Throughout the manual I use the terms "leaf concentrate", "LC", or occasionally "leaf
curd" to describe a food made from coagulating green plant leaf juice. This food has also
been called "leaf protein" and "leaf protein concentrate". Most of the references relate to
projects linked with or run by a small voluntary organization called Find Your Feet in
Great Britain and Leaf for Life in the USA.
Information and ideas for this manual came from a lot of people, most importantly Walt
Bray, Glyn Davys, and Boone Guyton. Drawings and help with layout also came from
several people, including Beth Rosdatter, Alison Craig, Susan Lynn, Therese and Sherri
Hildebrand, Jose Leon and Danne Lakin. You are most cordially invited to join in the
development of this exciting 'Food for the Future'. Leaf For Life appreciates any
criticisms or suggestions that may help to improve this course. We also like to hear of
problems, solutions, recipes, or good ideas that people run into while working with leaf
concentrate.
Thank you and the best of luck.

INTRODUCTION
In the last half of the 18 th Century a Frenchman named Rouelle discovered that a
vegetable curd could be made by simply heating the juice squeezed from hemlock leaves.
Little was done with this information until World War II when the British, fearing that
their food supplies could be cut off, began searching for alternative sources of protein.
N.W. Pirie led a team of scientists in the development of equipment to extract protein
from green leaves. Using alfalfa, wheat leaves, mustard greens, and other plants, the team
did a great deal of research on the use of these leaf concentrates. While this team and a
few other individuals continued working on leaf concentrates, it wasn't until the 1960's
that interest in making curd from leaves picked up again. Work began advancing on two
quite different fronts.

In several highly developed countries work began on using dried leaf curd to enrich animal
feeds. At the same time Find Your Feet ( LEAF FO R LIFE), a small voluntary
organization based in London, England, began promoting the use of leaf concentrate to
counter malnutrition in children living in tropical villages and towns.
Several studies were undertaken to establish the safety and nutritional value of the leaf
concentrate in the diets of children. Find Your Feet ( LEAF FOR LIFE) has since started
programs to teach women how to prepare leaf concentrate for malnourished children in
Mexico, India, Bolivia, Sri Lanka, Ghana, Nicaragua and Bangladesh.* These programs
have received financial support from the United Nations, the European Economic
Community, Mexico's DIF, the British Overseas Development Agency, the Rotary Club
International, employee programs from Delta Airlines and Sun Microsystems, as well as
many private trusts and individual supporters.
In all of its projects Leaf For Life has worked to train women to make high quality leaf
concentrate from local leaves, with the aim of improving the diet of members of their
communities who are vulnerable to malnutrition. Usually this means children, pregnant and
nursing mothers, and the elderly. Through the work done in these projects and work done
in England, the U.S., India and Sweden the process of making and using leaf concentrate
is gradually becoming easier and more economical
Machinery is constantly being improved and new recipes are tried every year The
workshops where leaf concentrate is made are becoming more efficiently organized and
the cost of starting a program is dropping.

* We know of two other organizations using leaf concentrate in small nutrition programs.
Leaf Nutrient Program has begun a project in Coahuila, Mexico and the Pakistan Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research did the same type of work at an orphanage near
Lahore, Pakistan. Their addresses, along with those of other sources of information on
subjects related to leaf concentrate are listed in the back of this manual.

WHAT IS LEAF CONCENTRATE?

Leaf concentrate is an extremely nutritious food made by mechanically separating
indigestible fiber and soluble anti-nutrients from much of the protein, vitamins, and
minerals in certain fresh green plant leaves. Because it is so rich in beta-carotene, iron,
and high quality protein, leaf concentrate is very effective in combating malnutrition,
especially the anemia and vitamin A deficiency which are prevalent among children and
pregnant women in most developing countries. It is easily combined with a variety of
inexpensive foods to make culturally acceptable dishes.

Because it takes more direct advantage of solar energy, a leaf crop can produce more
nutrients per hectare than any other agricultural system. Leaf crops can usually be
produced with less environmental impact than grains. The simple technology of making
leaf concentrate offers a means of capturing a much greater part of the leaf harvest for
direct human consumption. The fiber that is separated can be used to feed animals, and
the left over liquid, or "whey" can be used to fertilize plants, so nothing is lost.

WHY LEAF CONCENTRATE WORKS

Agriculture is basically a biological system for collecting the energy of the sun in ways that
are useful to humans. Green leaves are the solar energy collectors. The more surface area
of green leaves exposed to the sun's light, the more energy can be captured from a given
parcel of land.
Chlorophyll, the pigment that makes leaves (and leaf concentrate) so green, converts
carbon dioxide from the air, water and sunlight into simple carbohydrates. These combine
with each other to make sugars and starches, which supply our bodies with energy. They
also combine to make fibers like cellulose and lignin that make useful things like paper,
cotton cloth, and wood possible. These simple carbohydrates formed in the plant's green
leaves also combine with nitrates from the soil to make proteins, which are often called the
building blocks of life.
The basic foods that we eat are almost all created in the green leaves of plants. They are
then translocated to be stored in seeds, tubers, and fruits. When we eat a tortilla, a sweet
potato, or a banana we are eating food made by the green leaves of the corn plant, the
sweet potato plant, and the banana plant. Moving the food from the leaf to the seed or the
tuber or the fruit costs the plant energy. This reduces the amount of available food
because the plants burn their own sugars and starches to get this energy. Of course, much
more of this food becomes unavailable when the seeds or tubers are fed to animals. This
explains why animal products like meat, milk, and eggs are usually more expensive than
plant products.
When we grow wheat or other basic grains the young leaves of the plant are relatively
efficient at converting the sun's energy to food. However, for much of the time that the
grain occupies our best farmland it is producing very little food. As the leaves turn yellow
and brown they stop producing food and the plant is simply drying the seed so that it will
be a very compact food storage container. These grains are certainly convenient food.
Because the grains have far less water and fiber than the green leaves, as well as generally
milder flavor, they have been a more useful and popular food.
The leaf concentrate technology offers a simple means of removing much of the water and
almost all of the fiber from the green leaves. This can make green leaves a much more
attractive food. While leaf concentrate will never replace grains, it does offer a major

new source of food in the human diet. Combining inexpensive easily grown starchy crops
like cassava, bananas, and breadfruit with leaf concentrate could provide superior nutrition
to a grain based diet for millions of people in the tropics. By more directly tapping the
tremendous productivity of leaf crops, leaf concentrate can produce more protein and
most other important nutrients per hectare than other agricultural systems.
How quickly this food technology is put into widespread practice will depend mainly on
economics. The economics of leaf concentrate production is closely tied to the scale of
operation and how well the fiber that remains when the concentrate is separated from the
leaves is utilized. Usually the most economical use of this fiber is to feed it to cows,
goats, sheep, horses, rabbits, or guinea pigs.. Because the fiber is so finely chopped up
animals can absorb the nutrients in it more readily than they can from hay or forage crop.
In a sense, the grinding of the leaves for making leaf concentrate acts in the same way as
the animals chewing the leaves for a long time. This residual fiber is also lower in
moisture than the original leaf crop so it is easier to dry for hay or to preserve as silage.
Ultimately what makes leaf concentrate work is that is it based on the careful observation
of some of the biological processes that are fundamental to understanding the nature of
food. How well it works will be determined by how well people like yourself can apply
these observations to create practical systems of leaf concentrate production.

ADVANTAGES OF LEAF CONCENTRATE

1. Leaf concentrate is an extremely nutritious food. It is richer in vitamin A and iron than
any commonly available foods. Deficiencies of these two nutrients are two of the most
serious and prevalent health problems in the world today. Leaf concentrate is also a very
good source of high quality protein and calcium, as well as several other important
nutrients.
2. It is a very efficient way of using land to produce food, yielding roughly three times as
much protein per hectare as grain crops and five to ten times as much per hectare as
animal raising.
3. While the green color of leaf concentrate foods is unfamiliar, the acceptance of these
foods by children in a dozen different countries has been excellent. As most parents
know, many children all over the world do not like to eat dark green leafy vegetables. We
do not have this problem when these leaf crops are converted into leaf concentrate foods.
4. Leaf concentrate is relatively easy to make. It can be made in rural villages, by people
with little training or education.

5. It offers a very nutritious food at prices below what foods like meat, cheese, eggs, or
powdered milk cost. It is usually the cheapest dietary source of vitamin A and iron
wherever it is made.
6. It is an environmentally sound agricultural technique. Leaf crops protect the soil from
the erosion that has been destroying grain production land. Pesticides are not needed to
protect leaf concentrate crops from cosmetic insect damage since the leaves are ground to
a pulp immediately after harvest.
7. Nothing is wasted in leaf concentrate production. The residual fiber makes an excellent
feed for cows, goats, sheep, horses, rabbits, or guinea pigs. It can also be used to enrich
the soil or in production of bio-gas for cooking. The left over liquid is rich in nitrogen and
potassium, and makes a good fertilizer. It has been used to produce ethanol as well.
8. Unlike dark green vegetables, leaf concentrate is easy to preserve. It can be dried,
converted to pasta, made into drink mixes or syrups, salted or pickled.
9. Many of the anti-nutrients found in leafy foods are removed through the leaf
concentrate process. The hydrocyanic acid, nitrates, goitrgens and free oxalic acid that
limit the usefulness of many leaf crops in the human diet are almost completely removed
when the leaves are converted to leaf concentrate.
10. Leaf concentrate uses far less fuel to prepare than beans, the main high protein food of
the world's poor.
11. There have been no known cases of allergic reaction to leaf concentrate since 1975
when the standard processing heat was raised to a minimum of 90 C (195 F). However,
many children are intolerant of other nutrient dense foods like fish or cheese, and genetic
lactose intolerance makes milk a less than ideal food for children in some regions.

DISADVANTAGES OF LEAF CONCENTRATE

1. Good leaf yields require a steady supply of water. In many locations there are long dry
seasons and irrigated land is at a premium. In arid lands the water requirements of lush leaf
crops are usually excessive and focusing on improving water thrifty crops like sorghum,
millet, buffalo gourd, tepary beans, and acacias is a more realistic strategy.
2. Most people are not accustomed to eating many dark green foods.
3. Fresh leaves are very perishable. They must be processed soon after they are harvested
or the quality and yield of leaf concentrate goes down.
4. Fresh leaves are heavy as is the residual fiber and 'whey'. These means transportation
costs will be high unless processing can be done very close to the leaf crop field.
5. While domestic scale production can be done with inexpensive commercial grinders and
blenders, larger scale equipment is not currently available commercially and must be
custom built.
6. The vitamin C in fresh leaves is lost during processing.

SECTION I

HOW TO MAKE LEAF CONCENTRATE

EIGHT BASIC STEPS
1. Harvest fresh green leaves from plants known to be good sources for leaf concentrate.
(More information on choosing the right plants is in the section on growing leaf
concentrate crops in this manual).

2. Wash the leaves well in clean water to remove dust and dirt.
3. If the leaves are large or there are a lot of tough stems cut or tear the leaves into pieces
the length of a finger. (This step is unnecessary with some of the leaf grinders like the
impact macerator)

4. Grind the leaves to a pulp.

5. Press as much juice as possible from the pulped leaves.
6. Heat the juice rapidly to the boiling point.
7. Separate the curd that forms in the heated juice in a tightly woven cloth.
8. Press as much liquid as possible out of this curd.
What remains in the cloth is LEAF CONCENTRATE

1. Cut fresh green leaves

HARVESTING LEAVES
Normally we prefer to harvest leaves early in the morning and take them immediately to
the leaf concentrate workshop where they are washed in clean water then ground up as
soon as possible. Any long delays in processing from the time the leaves are cut until the
leaf concentrate is finished will lower the quantity or quality of the final product.
The leaves are cut off as low on the plant as will allow for rapid regrowth. It is very
important not to cut too low, especially with plants like cowpeas, as they will die rather
than produce more foliage. Cutting cowpeas at 5 cm rather than 20 cm (2 rather than 8
inches) will mean that the crop needs to be reseeded at least twice as often and the annual
leaf production will be several tons less per hectare. The ideal height for cutting leaf crops
varies from crop to crop and even among varieties of the same crop. It is relatively easy
to test regrowth at a few different heights to see what works best with the crop you are
using.

Perhaps more important than the height at which a crop is cut, is the time. Leaves are best
for making leaf concentrate when their content of protein is highest and their moisture
content is between 75-85%. As a very general rule, for most crops their leaves are at peak
moisture content early in the morning and a peak protein content just before flowering. A
schedule of harvesting can be worked out that takes into account seasonal fluctuations of
leaf production as well as any changes in the processing capacity or end use of leaf
concentrate that take place during the year.
Equipment for harvesting leaf concentrate for small scale projects is very simple. A
Nicaraguan leaf concentrate worker developed a handy cutting system using a sharp
machete and a special stick with a curved metal hook on the end. He uses the hooked
stick to hold the plants erect to cut with his machete and then to toss the cut plants into
piles. Generally two handed scythes or swing blades are more effective for cutting alfalfa
and most other leaf crops than machetes or knives. Cowpeas tend to get too tangled to
cut with a scythe, but with a little practice this is a much faster method for cowpeas as
well.
European scythes are often made with better blades and better balance than cheaper
stamped steel ones available in the US and many other countries.

On a slightly larger scale a sickle bar or reciprocating mower could be used to cut the
crop. Several implement companies make sickle bar mowers that will slice the leaves off
cleanly at an even height. This height may be lower than optimal for some crops and may
need to be adjusted. Some of these are designed to be used with tractors or horses, but
there are also some designed for use with "walking tractors" like the BCS or the Gravely,
that are smaller, cheaper, and more flexible in use than larger tractors.
One type of leaf cutter that doesn't work for leaf concentrate is a rotary lawn mower.
These have high speed rotary blades that chop the leaves too finely before they can be
washed. The rotary motion also tends to suck up dirt and dust that are very hard to wash
out of the cut leaves. Some early tests of leaf concentrate showed very high levels of ash
because the leaves were cut with a rotary lawn mower and the dust was never adequately
removed.
Strimmers or Weed Eaters can also be useful for leaf harvest. There are a wide range of
these tools available with different cutting heads and we have not tested them thoroughly.
Michael Cole in England uses a strimmer with a metal cutter for alfalfa. We are trying to
employ a Strimmer fastened to small bicycle wheels for wet weather weeding in
Nicaragua, and it is possible that this technique can be employed in leaf harvest as well.

Transporting Leaves
After the leaves are cut they are usually tossed into piles. Using light leaf rakes to pull the
harvested crop into windrows and hayforks to load them onto carts is much faster than
packing the leaves into sacks by hand. The piles are then picked up and loaded into sacks
or piled directly into a cart or wagon or truck. Whatever is most convenient for your
project to haul the leaves is probably fine.
We have had some problems with bicycles and with trucks. The bicycles don't have the
hauling capacity needed and sometimes the amount of leaf concentrate we could make was
limited by what could be hauled on one bike trip. The three wheel bikes designed for
hauling could be better, but they are made for paved streets and won't do well getting in
and out of muddy fields. We found that trucks tend to be too valuable and have many
other competing uses. The use of trucks may be freely offered at the beginning of a new
project when enthusiasm is high, but they can become much less available after the novelty
of the program or the presence of foreigners passes. They are frequently broken down,
even if otherwise available.
Wheelbarrows and simple two wheel push carts may work well if the amount of leaves is
not great and the distance between the leaf field and processing workshop is only a couple
hundred meters. For greater weights or greater distances carts drawn by horse, donkey or
ox may be more appropriate. The cost of transporting leaves should definitely be figured
into your economic projections. You may be able to offset some of the cost by offering
some of the residual fiber to the owner of the animals for feed. If fiber and "whey" need

to be hauled somewhere, it may be reasonable to arrange for them to be hauled away by

the same cart that delivers the fresh leaves.
In wet weather carts can bog down in the mud and leaves may need to be packed into
sacks and hauled to the road on workers' shoulders. Wider tires such as automobile tires
don't bog as easily as bicycle tires, but they add a lot more weight and friction to the load.
Motorcycle tires may be a good compromise in areas where inexpensive used ones are
available.
Transportation of leaves is one of the most commonly underestimated expenses in leaf
concentrate projects, and it is well worth giving some thought to this at the initial planning
stage.

Weighing Leaves
After the leaves are brought into the workshop they should be weighed. The leaves can be
weighed with a bathroom scale, a fishhook type scale, or a scale used for weighing grain
and feed. Weighing leaves and recording the weight every day may seem like an
unnecessary bother, but it provides projects with important information. If the leaves and
the leaf concentrate are weighed every day it becomes possible to analyze labor costs,
processing efficiency and other aspects of production critical to an economically healthy
program.
If you are buying leaves, it is normally better to buy them by weight than volume as it
relates more directly to yield. Don't pay extra for leaves that a farmer has hosed down, as
the water will not yield any LC . By correlating leaf weight with LC weight, you may be
able to see that a certain type of leaf crop is more economical, or that leaves from one
farmer are a better buy than those from another. Changes in the ratio of LC produced to
the weight of the leaves may alert you to problems with machinery, processing, or
agricultural technique..

2. Wash the leaves

Once weighed, the leaves should be inspected for pieces of stick, roots, and rock. It is
usually not necessary to remove weeds, grass, or dead leaves. Only when there are a lot of
weeds known to be poisonous or very bitter tasting is it worth the trouble of picking out
every one. In several projects the extremely careful picking out of stray weeds and bits of
grass was taking more time than grinding and pressing the leaves, and providing no
benefit.
After inspection the leaves should be immersed in clean water to remove dirt and dust.
This can be done in large washtubs or in specially designed wash tanks. Small amounts of
leaves can be washed by hand then shaken out to remove excess water before cutting and
grinding. For larger quantities of leaves you will probably want to use a special tank and

handle the leaves with clean pitchforks or rakes. In either case you want to remove the
leaves from the tank rather than drain the water and then remove the leaves. When the
water is drained much of the dirt gets caught in the leaves on its way out. If you can't
grind the leaves right away for any reason, try to leave them in the wash tank, as this will
delay wilting which lowers leaf concentrate yield.
Where water is in short supply you may want to use this water at least once more. It can
be used for the initial rising out of pots, filter cloth and processing equipment. Ideally it
could then be used to water crops. If a crop field, orchard or garden is downhill from the
processing site it may be worth running a tube or a ditch to carry this wash water to
plants. It is important that the wash water not be repeatedly drained very near the
workshop or the soil will quickly become waterlogged and foul smells will follow. It could
also become a breeding ground for mosquitoes that can spread malaria, dengue fever and
other diseases in tropical areas.

3. Cut or tear the leaves into pieces

Depending on the crop and the type of pulping equipment used, it may be necessary to cut
or tear the leaves into smaller pieces before pulping them. This step reduces the work that
the pulper must do and may eliminate long fibers wrapping around machine parts. Precutting leaves also makes feeding the crop into leaf pulpers easier. Vine crops especially
are difficult to feed into leaf pulpers if they are not cut to shorter length first. Some
tropical legumes have vines several meters long that tend to get very tangled.
Precutting the leaf crop can be done with a forage chopper. These can be treadle powered,
bicycle powered or motor driven. Relatively small amounts of leaves (up to about 200 kg
can be cut on a table with a machete or cutlass. This is tiring work, and the likelihood of
accidents increases as people become fatigued from heavy exertion. Very small quantities
of leaves can be stripped from their vines by hand. This is very slow, but worthwhile on a
domestic scale where leaves are pulped with manually operated equipment.
Precutting leaves adds a time and energy consuming step to the leaf concentrate process.
This step often takes longer than pulping. It may also require additional machinery, such
as forage choppers. Whenever possible it is advantageous to avoid this step. The impact
macerator is a leaf pulping machine that can handle fairly long fibrous leaf stems (alfalfa
up to 70 cm [28"]) without precutting. This is one of the main reasons we are currently
advocating use of the impact macerator for small leaf concentrate programs.

4. Grind the leaves to a pulp.

Perhaps the most critical aspect of economic leaf concentrate production is the pulping of
the fresh leaves. In order for juice to be squeezed easily from the leaves they must be well
ground . There are a number of ways to do this, several of which will be briefly described
in this section. However one goes about pulping the leaves, the object is to break open as

many of the leaf 's fibrous cell walls as possible. When these walls are broken open the
nutrient rich contents of the cells can pass into the juice and later be recovered as curd.
When leaves wilt, the pressure inside the cells is reduced and the amount of force required
before rupturing the cell wall increases; just as it is easier to pop a fully inflated balloon.
The yield of LC from most crops will decline 4-15% in 4 hours and by 50% after 9 hours.
Even with ideal circumstances, it is impossible to rupture all the cell walls, but some
techniques work far better than others. If clearly recognizable pieces of leaf remain after
pulping, cell rupture is inadequate.
Generally smashing leaves works better than cutting them repeatedly. Pulping the leaves
takes several times more energy than pressing the juice out. It is usually uneconomical in
terms of energy to try to squeeze juice from leaves that have not been ground up first.
Several studies on industrial scale leaf fractionation have shown extrusion, or the driving
of leaf crop through small openings, to be the most energy efficient means of rupturing
leaf cells. Smaller scale extruders have not performed as well. Probably extrusion is
superior to other methods of cell rupture only when over one ton per hour of leaves is
being processed. On the other extreme leaf crop can be pulped with hand operated
grinders. We do not normally recommend this because it dooms the operator to a very low
hourly productivity.
There is currently no off-the-shelf machine that is designed specifically to make leaf
concentrate. There are some machines like hammer mills and meat grinders that can be
fairly easily adapted to the purpose. In choosing a machine to pulp leaves it is worth
considering at least the following:
- cost and availability
- throughput (how many kilograms of leaves can be processed per hour)
- clean up time required (this can be a significant hidden labor cost)
- dependability and ease of maintenance (a 100 kg per hour machine that has a lot
of down time may produce less per month than a more dependable 50 kg per hour
machine.)
- energy use (what is the cost of energy per kg of LC produced?
Does it use a form of energy readily available? 3 phase electric motors are generally more
efficient than single phase, but only if 3 phase current is available where you are working)
- safety and noise level
A number of different leaf pulping machines have been tried in village programs. Some of
these are discussed in the chapter on Other Leaf Concentrate Processing Equipment on
page 149. Below is some information on the leaf pulping machine that we currently
recommend using in projects that process over 100 kg and under 1000 kg of leaf
crop per day. Drwings are on page 175

The Impact Macerator

The main pulper that we use is a modification of a tool developed at the University of
Wisconsin in the US by Richard Koegel and Hjalmar Bruhn. It is basically a vertical axis
hammermill with a single fixed hammer. Leaves are dropped into a large feed hopper that
directs them to the center of the blades. They spin at approximately 3450 RPM inside a
350 mm (14")* cylinder made of steel or very heavy gauge PVC. (* Measurements are
mostly approximate metric equivalents of work done in the English system). The leaves
are smashed by the blunt blades and fall through to a 58 X 35 cm (23 " X 14") plastic
washtub sitting below the cylinder. The cylinder sits on a frame of 50 mm (2" ) square
steel tube. A two horsepower high speed motor is mounted vertically between the legs of
the frame.
In the original design the macerator was driven directly from the motor shaft. Driving the
macerator with a pulley instead allows the placement of the motor outside the cylinder so
that only the belts and pulleys need to be covered. It also allows for the macerator to use a
greater variety of motors that may be less expensive, and to use gasoline or diesel motors
where electricity is not available. A pulley driven macerator has to have bearings on the
shaft the blades are attached to and some means of preventing pulp from piling up on the
belt shroud. One advantage of the direct drive is that the motor bearings are the only
ones needed. It is quite possible that the motor bearings would last longer, however, if the
shaft had its own set of bearings. In addition we can use nickel plated food grade top
bearing, which makes for a more hygienic process. The external powered macerator is
quite a bit quieter.
The power is transferred from the motor by way of a set of pulleys and a fan belt to a 250
mm (1") stainless steel shaft. The shaft passes through two bearings separated by about
125 mm (5") of steel support. The top bearing is of sealed nickel plated food grade
materials since it comes in contact with the leaf crop. About 95 mm (3 3/4 ") above the
top bearing a blade is mounted on a stainless steel hub that is fixed to the shaft with 2
Allen screws set at 90 from each other.
The blunt blades or hammers are a cross of high density nylon (Nylamid) 37.5 mm wide
X 12.5 thick mm X 338 mm long; (1 " , ", and 13 ") . The hitting surface of the
blades is covered with stainless steel of 16 gauge. This cover is bolted through the top of
the blade with 6.25 mm (1/4") stainless steel bolts with lock or pressure washers. The
stainless steel cover gives much greater abrasion resistance to the blades without the
weight of solid stainless steel blades.
The PVC cylinder sits on the very inside edge of the frame, and is held in place by four 4"
angles extending from the corners of the frame. Two 7.75 mm (5/16") bolts with wing
nuts prevented the cylinder from vibrating. We use a cylindrical galvanized sheet metal
feed hopper. It is a 425 mm (17") in diameter, and 400 mm (16") high; with a shallow
cone attached that ends with an 200 mm (8") opening about 100 mm (4") over the center
of the blades.

It is necessary to pass the leaves through the macerator twice in order to achieve adequate
cell rupture. Tests in Mexico using alfalfa indicate that with two passes the
macerator grinds the leaves about as well as a 5 gallon liquidizer, and it does so in
considerably less time. The macerator doesn't require precutting the leaf crop, a time
consuming step that is necessary with many small scale leaf pulpers. Alfalfa 70 cm (28")
long passed through without problem. The macerator also eliminates the handling of
liquid that is necessary with the 5 gallon liquidizer.
This macerator can pulp over 100 kg of leaves per hour even with two passes. A bit of
experience is needed before workers can match the flow of leaf crop into the macerator
with the machine's capacity for maximum throughput. This is especially true on the
second pass where big clumps of pulp can overload the motor. A third pass improved the
yield of LC further, but is probably justified only where leaf crop is very expensive.
We are still testing this machine and it is quite likely that the exact configuration of the
blades, blade speed, cylinder size, feed hopper, and motor capacity that we recommend
will be adjusted as we learn more about this machine. However, a few patterns emerged
that were quite consistent. Adding water to the pulp always improved yield, though it
doubled cooking time and fuel consumption. This is a technique where water equivalent
to of the volume of the leaf pulp is mixed with the pulp and allowed to sit for about ten
minutes before pressing The higher the blade speed and the slower the feed rate, the
higher the yield was. Very high blade speeds led to unacceptable vibration and noise.

5. Press as much juice as possible from the pulped leaves

After the fresh leaves are ground up or pulped the juice must be separated from the
indigestible fiber. This is usually accomplished by pushing the pulp against a fine screen or
a filter cloth that allows most of the juice to pass through but holds back the pieces of
fiber. A thin layer of pulp (less than 4 cm [1"] works far better than a thicker layer.
When a thicker layer of pulp is pressed much of the juice from the center of the layer tends
to be reabsorbed by the drier pulp at the edge of the layer. Some of the large protein
molecules are also filtered out when the leaf juice must pass through a thick layer of
compacted pulp to escape. This lowers the yield of leaf concentrate. Very high pressure
is unnecessary and can complicate things by clogging filters. A pressure of 2 kg per cm
(30 lb. per inch) applied over a layer of leaf pulp that is initially 2.5 cm (1") thick for ten
seconds is usually adequate. Pressures as low as one third of this can be effective if the
pulp is reoriented and pressed a second time. After pressing it should not be possible to
get more than a drop or two of liquid from the fiber when it is squeezed in your fist.
Below is some information on the juice press that we currently recommend using in
projects that process between 100 kg and under 500 kg of leaf crop per day. Some of
the other machines that have been used to press leaf juice are described in the section on

other processing equipment, page 153. Drawings of several of the presses described are in
the appendix.

THE Hydraulic Jack PRESS TABLE

The hydraulic jack press table works by spreading a layer of pulped leaves over 60 X 60
cm (24" X 24") surface, 3-5 cm (1-2") deep and applying pressure over that area with a 12
- 20 ton hydraulic truck jack. After the juice is pressed out, the jack and the wooden press
plate it sits on are returned to their original position with 2 stout springs. It is worth trying
to get the jack set for the minimum return that will allow the pulped leaves to slide
underneath. This will reduce the time consuming effort of using the jack handle to bring
the press plate into contact with the leaf pulp. The press plate should be covered with thin
stainless steel or galvanized sheet metal.
A table is built with 2" thick wood under a galvanized tray that has 2 - 4 layers of rabbit
cage wire fence or some plastic fencing material on top to allow the leaf juice to run off
freely. It is worth having a good jack that can be easily rebuilt. Enerjac, Hein-Werner, and
Lincoln make professional quality 12 ton bottle jacks that are available in the US. Jacks
may need to have air bled out of them every three months. Most jacks have a rubber
nipple that can be removed for this purpose.
The galvanized tray is large enough to hold two 60 X 60 cm (24" X 24") wooden frames
that have 62 mm (1/4") woven wire mesh (hardware cloth) fixed to their bottom side. This
allows the press operator to fill one tray while the other is being pressed. The tray needs to
be inclined enough for the juice to flow freely into a bucket.
The complete press table cost about $350-400 US built in Mexico. With a little practice it
does a good job pressing loads of 6 kg of leaves. It has a capacity of about 50 - 75 kg per
hour. For projects processing over 200 kg of leaf per day a motorized version of this
press, described on page 155 may be more appropriate.

Strain the Leaf Juice

The leaf juice should be strained through a screen or cloth before heating to remove
particles of fiber. If a significant amount of fiber is left in the leaf juice the appearance
and the nutritional composition of the concentrate will be somewhat altered. Small
amounts of fiber are usually not a problem in the diets of adults. For children in
developing countries whose diet is already high in fiber, however, fiber can aggravate
diarrhea and make some nutrients more difficult to absorb.

6. Heat the juice rapidly to the boiling point.

Leaf concentrate is separated from the leaf juice by coagulating the protein. When the
protein coagulates many other nutrients are pulled together in this curd. The most
effective way to coagulate the protein in leaf juice is to heat it rapidly. While the leaf curd
or concentrate will form by the time the leaf juice reaches 65 C (147 F), it is very

important to continue heating the juice to the boiling point. This serves several purposes,
including:
- pasteurization of the leaf concentrate to kill most harmful microorganisms that
may have been on the leaves from the soil or from handling.
- destruction of enzymes in leaf juice that can lead to off flavors, and more rapid
deterioration of the concentrate, as well as to the formation of pheophorbides. These
substances can cause sensitivity to light and allergic reactions in some people.
- formation of a firmer curd that is much easier to separate from the leaf juice
than the soft curd that forms in juice that is not heated to boiling.
Heating should be as rapid as possible. Heating slowly will cause a reduction in yield. It
also causes the curd to be soft and fine textured. This type of curd is undesirable because
it seals up filter cloths that are used to separate the curd from the remaining liquid
("whey"). Slow heating also results in greater fuel costs as more heat is lost to the air. It
is not necessary to keep the leaf juice at a boiling temperature. Holding the juice at the
boiling point for more than a few seconds will cause some loss of vitamins as well as
greater fuel costs, without providing any benefits.
The simplest way to heat leaf juice, and the method we use most often in small projects, is
to put it in a large shallow pan over a hot flame. This is a very familiar process to peasant
women who generally bring liquids to a boil over fires several times a week. The pot
should have a top to conserve heat.
Heavy gauge stainless steel is the best material for the cook pots to be made from in terms
of cleaning and not contaminating the juice. Aluminum pots are generally much cheaper
and more readily available than stainless steel. Light gauge pots of any material should be
avoided because there will be more problems with curd burning on the bottom of the pot.
Burning of curd can be greatly reduced by gently scraping across the bottom of the cook
pot a few times just before the juice reaches the boiling point. It may be helpful to use the
same amount of juice each time you heat so that you can time how long it takes to come
to a boil. For example in Mexico we have been heating about 18 liters in a 30 liter pot. It
takes about 13 minutes to come to a boil using a high pressure gas burner. We can use an
inexpensive kitchen timer set at 11 minutes so that we don't have to constantly watch the
pot. When the timer buzzes someone will take off the lid and begin gently scraping the
bottom of the pot. This prevents boiling over, and reduces burning curd and unnecessary
fuel use.
Gas fires are sometimes not hot enough for efficient curd formation. This may be due to a
regulator keeping the pressure too low or to low quality gas. A local person experienced
in gas fittings should be consulted to make sure the fittings, hose and burners are all
compatible with high pressure gas. Heating time can sometimes be shortened and fuel use
lowered by protecting the flame from breezes with a metal skirt. This is especially true if
heating is being done in a partially open workshop. It is important to make sure the flame
is well distributed over the bottom of the pot, not concentrated in one small circle. Raising

or lowering the pot relative to the flame can insure that the maximum heat is reaching the
cookpot. If the gas flame is yellow the air intake setting needs to be adjusted for more
efficient burning.

Wood fires frequently burn at too low a temperature for good coagulation of leaf juice. If
you are using wood fires and the juice is taking a long time to come to a boil or the curd is
very soft and fine textured, the flame may not be hot enough. The heat of wood fires can
often be increased by: - using drier wood
- splitting the wood into smaller pieces
- increasing the air flow through the combustion area. This can be done by
enlarging the air opening or by using a small fan to bring air to the fire.
Whenever the heating of the leaf juice is done inside it is important that the room be well
ventilated. Smoke and carbon monoxide can build up from burning in an enclosed area.
Wood stoves need to have a vent pipe or chimney of some type to draw the smoke out of
the room.
Two other techniques have been employed in heating leaf juice. These are steam injection
and trickling the leaf juice into water held near the boiling point. Steam injection is used
on larger scale operations such as the France Lucerne plant that handles many tons of
alfalfa per hour. It is probably not worthwhile on village scale operations. Trickling juice
into a pot of water has been advocated by some workers for small scale leaf concentrate
production.
The idea is to trickle leaf juice in at a rate that will never lower the water temperature
below
80 C. A curd forms almost immediately and floats to the surface. It can then be floated
down an overflow into a container below. The advantages of this system over heating in a
pot are that it is continuous and that the curd never burns because it doesn't stay in contact
with the bottom of the pan. The drawbacks are that it is more difficult to arrange and
coordinate and that the juice is not heated as conclusively to the boiling point, thus
pasteurization is not as thorough.
Curd can be obtained from leaf juice without using heat in a number of ways. These
include centrifuging, ultra-filtration, fermentation, and acidification. None of these

techniques appears to be superior to heat except in specific laboratory circumstances. In

village leaf concentrate program heat is clearly the preferred way to coagulate leaf juice.

7. Separate the curd that forms in the heated juice in a

tightly woven cloth.
After the leaf juice reaches the boiling point it should be removed from the heat and
allowed to stand for a few minutes to cool. Leaving the curd a few minutes in the hot
liquid assures better pasteurization with no further fuel costs. Letting the liquid cool a bit
before separating the curd reduces the chances of workers being scalded from hot liquid.
The cook pot should never be filled completely, especially if it is going to be moved while
there is hot liquid in it. If the quantity of juice heated at one time is fairly small (under 20
liters) it can be handled by two workers pouring the entire contents of the cook pot
through a filter cloth of tergel type material. This cloth can be supported by a 60 X 60 cm
(2' X 2') wooden frame that has 62mm (1/4") woven wire mesh (hardware cloth) fixed to
its bottom side. This can be identical to, and serve as a backup for the tray used in the
hydraulic jack press. This frame can be set on a washtub so that the "whey" will pass
through the cloth and be collected in the tub. The relatively large surface area and open
weave of the cloth will allow the "whey" to drain freely from the curd. The curd is then
placed in a more tightly woven cloth, like the cotton-polyester twill below, and pressed to
remove as much "whey" as possible.
If more than 20 liters of leaf juice is being heated at a time it will be necessary to use a
custom built cookpot with a valve that can allow the "whey" to be drained off after the
curd is scooped out.
It has been easier for us to use rectangular than round pots for larger quantities of liquid.
A rectangular scoop similar to those used for removing foods from deep fryer can be used
to remove the curd. It should be covered with a metal screening material about as finely
woven as normal insect screen. The scoop can be made to barely fit inside the narrow
dimension of the cookpot, so that almost all the curd can be removed by dragging the
scoop the length of the pot then raising it. You may want two handles rather than one for
easier handling. You can arrange for the scoop to drain for a few minutes above the
cookpot after the curd has been removed. This type of arrangement is common for
draining grease from deep fried foods. The valve for this type of a cookpot must be at
least one inch in diameter and easy to clean. The curd from the scoop can be then put into
the twill type cloth for thorough pressing.
By far the easiest way we have found to press the "whey" from the curd is to spread it in a
layer not more than 2.5 cm (1") deep on the twill cloth and press it in the hydraulic press
table. The process is the same as the pressing of the juice from the fiber except that twill
is used instead of tergel cloth and the pressure must be applied a bit slower and held for a
bit longer. After being pressed the curd should be crumbly and contain about 60%
moisture.

8. What remains in the cloth is LEAF CONCENTRATE

Filter Cloth
Pressing the juice from the pulped leaves and pressing the "whey" from the curd require a
mesh or filter of some type to keep the solids on one side and allow the liquids to pass
through. We have found cloth to be the cheapest and easiest way to do this. We
generally use a synthetic cloth like polyester Tergel for separating juice from leaf pulp and
a finely woven cotton - polyester blend twill for separating "whey" from curd. The Tergel
also works for the initial straining of curd from "whey" and for drying trays. Samples of
these are below.

Tergel

Twill

PRESERVING LEAF CONCENTRATE

Washing the Curd
Washing leaf concentrate is sometimes recommended as a means of reducing strong
flavors and slowing down the growth of molds. Often a strong unpleasant flavor in leaf
curd is due to soluble compounds that have not been adequately pressed out. To wash
fresh LC it should well mixed in ten times its volume of clean water. It is next stirred well
and allowed to stand for 10-15 minutes. It is then separated and pressed in exactly the
same way as it was when the curd was separated from the heated leaf juice. The stability
of the curd may be improved by adding 5% salt to the water used to wash the curd or by
adding enough acid to lower the water pH to around 4. Washing adds an additional step

in the process, plus the expense of salt or acid if they are used. It also can reduce the B
vitamins that are available in the curd. Where strong flavors are not a problem and the leaf
curd is used or preserved soon after being made, this step is usually ot recommended. If
you are having trouble with strong flavored curd or rapid molding, try washing the curd.

Why Preserve Curd?

There are numerous reasons for wanting to preserve leaf concentrate. In most locations
production of leaf crop is greater at some times of the year than others. In the tropics
there is often a wet season with good leaf production and a dry season with poor leaf
growth. In cooler climates there is frequently a season when cold weather severely limits
leaf growth. Preserving leaf concentrate from the periods of maximum growth allows you
to continue with child feeding programs or sales of products throughout the off season.
Sometimes you may want to use preserved leaf concentrate when repairs are being made
on machinery, changes being made at the workshop, or workers unable to work for
whatever reason. Having some preserved leaf concentrate on hand is good insurance
against such short term problems as running out of gas or the electric being out for a
couple of days. If your program can continue to deliver leaf concentrate despite these
inevitable problems, people who may have been suspicious of the program's value, will
often come to respect your dependability. Where several small nutrition intervention
programs are linked, it may make economic sense to produce all the concentrate at the site
with the best conditions and to distribute preserved LC from there to the other sites. This
will often mean lower costs for feeding programs than running several very small LC
production sites using fresh leaf curd.

How To Preserve Leaf Curd

Fortunately, there are easy ways to preserve leaf concentrate. A few basic principles apply
to all of these methods. The leaf concentrate should be preserved as soon as possible after
it is made because bacterial action will begin quickly. Remember that the rich nutrient
content that makes leaf concentrate so beneficial for humans also promotes rapid growth
of many micro-organisms. Leaf concentrate should be stored in a container that is as
airtight as possible, and it should always be stored in a location that is cool, dry, and out
of direct sunlight.
A system of marking the dates that the leaf concentrate was preserved will help you to
rotate your stock. This way you will use older leaf concentrate first and avoid having
some go to waste because it is stored for too long. How long it can be stored is not an
exact science. It will depend on the methods used and the percentage of moisture in the
curd, as well as the condition in which it is stored.
No matter how long leaf concentrate has been stored it is a good idea to smell it and
examine it closely before using it. If it smells of rotted vegetation or has any visible signs
of mold on it don't use it.

Below are some easy formulas for preserving leaf concentrate that are possible without
expensive equipment. For each kilogram of fresh leaf concentrate (at 60% moisture) you
wish to preserve, mix with:

2 kg sugar + 1 liter lemon juice

(blend leaf curd and juice together at high speed then add sugar to make a lemonade
syrup that will keep)
OR

2 kg sugar + 1 liter water + 40 grams salt

(salt helps preserve LC and reduces settling when syrup is mixed with water)
OR

2 kg sugar + 1 liter water + 40 grams salt + 1600 mg vitamin C

(This is a syrup formula we've used succesfully in Nicaragua. Vitamin C, or ascorbic acid,
is an antioxidant that helps preserve LC; it also makes the iron in LC easier for the body to
utilize. This will provide about 25 mg vitamin C per 15 grams of LC)

OR

2 kg sugar
(to make a paste that can be added to many sweet foods and drinks.)
The rule of thumb: for each kg of water you need 3 kgs of sugar. So 1 kg of LC at 60%
moisture contains 600 grams of water and needs to have 1800 grams of sugar added to
preserve it
OR

200 grams salt

(This can be mixed and stored in airtight plastic bag, or layered and store in brine like
sauerkraut. The salt needs to be washed off before it is eaten). It is important to note

that while salt can be a fairly easy and inexpensive means of preserving leaf concentrate,
that much of the beta-carotene can be destroyed if the mixture of LC and salt is exposed
to air for any length of time. The very thin polyethylene bags available in many developing
countries are generally not an adequate barrier for keeping out air. Heavier plastic bags
(1.75 mil and thicker) will work better but are much more expensive, and not widely
available. The beta-carotene is important because it is converted to vitamin A in the body.
OR

50 grams pure acetic or propionic acid

(these are harder to find and handle and usually more expensive)
OR

2-4 kg wheat, corn, millet or rice flour

(then dry to less than 10% moisture)
OR

Leaf concentrate can be dried alone

Drying LC has been a discouraging business and we have not encouraged
some projects to work in that direction. In much of the tropics peak leaf yields coincide
with very wet weather which makes drying in outdoor trays very difficult. Drying leaf
concentrate can be tricky. The drawbacks of drying are that it tends to case harden, so
there are particles of leaf concentrate that are very dry on the outside but still moist on the
inside. These appear to be dry but can gradually wick moisture to the surface and mold in
storage. Dried leaf concentrate can be a difficult food to work into recipes. It is often like
adding sand into foods If it is dried at too high a temperature the protein quality can be
damaged. If it is dried too slowly, there is more chance of bacterial contamination or
mold. It can turn an unappealing greenish black color when dried, and a grassy flavor can
become stronger.
On the positive side, it is possible to make a good quality dried leaf concentrate
with an inexpensive drying setup and a little extra care. There are a few things that make
successful drying of leaf concentrate much easier. The most important is starting with
very well pressed curd. Leaf curd that is well pressed in a closely woven cloth should be
crumbly. If you can take a pinch of leaf concentrate and smear it on the palm of your hand
like finger paint it is not well enough pressed. It should roll up and leave your hand clean.
Well pressed curd will dry more quickly with less case hardening than wetter curd.

Granulating the Pressed Curd

One of the important factors in drying LC is how finely broken up it is beforehand.
We had some problem with case hardening and mold in Nicaragua. We were just
crumbling up the curd in our hands and some of the particles were larger than others.
Granulating the LC by pushing it through an insect screen gives a uniform finely divided
curd that grinds up easily when dried. The screen needs to be backed by hardware cloth or
some kind of stronger wire mesh or the screen will pull loose from rubbing the curd
through it. It is a fairly time consuming process that would need to be modified for 10-25
kg per day LC production. Pushing the curd through 1/4" hardware cloth is very fast but
leaves pieces of curd large enough for case hardening.
Passing the curd into a 5 gallon blender twice for a few seconds each time, breaks most of
the curd up as finely as granulating, but a few bigger pieces need to be sifted out and reblended. Workers at the University of Wisconsin reported better drying rates when the
curd is driven through 3/16" holes in a dieplate on a meat grinder before drying. We have
not tried this technique yet. It may be useful when drying curd that is quite moist (70%
moisture) or when more than a thin layer is put on a tray or rack.
We tried granulating the curd with the macerator as well. It required two passes and we
needed a plastic skirt to prevent the granulated curd from bouncing and blowing out of the
washtub below the macerator. It was dramatically faster and easier than the manual
granulator. The curd needs to be well pressed for this to work. In Mexico, we are
recommending that the curd from the previous day be granulated in the macerator first
thing in the morning when the machine is clean and dry, and then the maximum sunshine
would be available for drying during the day.
There are many different types of food dryers that could be used to dry leaf concentrate.
Described below are the simplest, least expensive ones that we've had success with in
Mexico and Nicaragua. Some other types of food dryers are described in the chapter on
"Other Leaf Concentrate Processing Equipment".

Tray or Rack Dryers

We have been using large trays or racks covered with finely woven synthetic fiber for
drying LC in a few locations. Cloth such as nylon curtain material that is open enough to
allow the passage of air is ideal for making drying racks. The dried curd comes off
synthetic cloth more cleanly than it does from cotton. This cloth can be stretched tightly
over wooden frames. The corners of the frames should be braced to maintain rigidity. The
leaf concentrate is spread in a thin even layer on the frames at a rate of one to two
kilograms per square meter (1/4 - 1/2 pound per square foot). Trays of under 1 meter (39
X 39") on each side can be loaded, moved and emptied fairly easily by a single person.
Our larger trays 180 X 85 cm (72 X 34") were difficult to handle. The worst trays were

this size with a cross brace across the middle that made them almost impossible to empty
without spilling some of the dried LC.

Simple Solar
The simplest way to use these racks is to put them outside where the sun shines all day.
They can be set up on bricks or blocks to allow the free movement of air underneath. It is
essential that the racks be covered in such a way that the heat from the sun reaches the
drying curd but the light from the sun does not. Direct sunlight will quickly destroy the
beta-carotene (pro-vitamin A) in leaf concentrate. It is possible to stack drying racks on
top of each other in such a way that each provides shading for rack below. Then only the
top rack needs a cover. Of course, this gives the trays less exposure to the sun's heat than
if they are spread out only one tray deep. Tightly woven black cotton cloth works well for
blocking the ultraviolet rays while absorbing the solar heat.
A somewhat more expensive dryer can be built in place. A light wooden frame box
roughly 2 meters X 2 meters (c. 78 X 78") is inclined from c. 50 cm to 20 cm (20 to 8") to
shed water. It is covered with 4 mil clear polyethylene supported with wire poultry
netting. Trays with granulated leaf concentrate spread at approximately 2 kg per m (c.
lb per square foot) were slid into frames about 10 cm (4") below the polyethylene. The
same trays were used but they were covered with black cotton cloth to protect the leaf
curd from sunlight.The sides had removable sheet metal panels that allowed the trays to be
slid in or out. It was not airtight and the only airflow was what came through small
incidental openings in the box.
This was a very effective dryer. It quickly reached temperatures of 50 -55C. In a
comparison test we dried 2 kg per meter granulated LC (64% moisture) for 2 hours at
28 C air temperature on each of the dryers. On this dryer the LC was 13% moisture after
2 hours. Ultraviolet resistant polyethylene film would be good as the more common film
that we used photodegrades in less than one year. UV resistant film would probably have
to be imported.
We used the same principle of letting the sun pass through the clear plastic film to heat up
black cotton cloth stretched over the curd, but in a much simpler and cheaper
arrangement. Plastic film was attached to one side of a wooden frame 180 X 85 cm (72 X
34") and black cloth stretched across the other side. This frame was simply placed over a
drying tray (which was made with fine weave tergel polyester cloth) loaded with
granulated LC and supported by bricks at the corners. After 2 hours the LC was 21%
moisture. It heated up to 40 - 45. The airflow below the drying tray was significantly
greater than in the box and may have been partly responsible for the lower temperatures
and slower drying. These frames are simple, cheap, and mobile, and stackable.

Grinding and Storing Dried Leaf Concentrate

For leaf concentrate to store well it should be dried to less than 10% moisture then sealed
in an airtight container out of sunlight. Thin plastic bags will allow too much oxygen to
pass through to the dried curd. Without a moisture meter it is somewhat difficult to tell if
your concentrate is dry enough. You can do a rough moisture test on a small amount by
putting 100 grams of the air dried concentrate in a very low oven (100 C [220 F]) for
12 hours and weighing the difference. For rough tests I dry a sample until it seems to be
very dry then weigh it. Then I dry it for another 15 minutes and put it back on the balance.
If there is no measurable difference in weight, this can be considered to be the dry weight.
You will need a fairly accurate gram balance to do this.
The dried leaf concentrate is far easier to use later if you can grind it to a very fine
powder. It will have a lighter green color and incorporate much better in recipes if it is
ground nearly as fine as flour. Dried LC that is not ground very finely will leaves foods
with an unpleasant gritty texture. The high protein content of LC makes for very hard
particles when it is dried. If dried LC is not ground very finely some of it may pass
through the body as particles without being fully digested and absorbed. So fine grinding
will also make it easier for the body to utilize the nutrients in dried leaf concentrate.
You may need to sift it through a fine cloth to make sure it is all finely ground. We have
found that it is difficult to grind dried LC finely enough with the inexpensive hand
operated flour mills available in many developing countries. Commercial grinders are
reluctant to grind LC because some of it will remain in the mill and give flour a greenish
hue for a while. The most effective tool I have found for grinding dried LC is an electric
mill with stainless steel heads made in the US. It is called MagicMill and retails for about
$240 US. Their address is in the resource section in the rear of this manual. Be sure to
specify whether you want a 60 HZ (US and Central America) or 50 HZ (most of the rest
of the world) motor. They are very loud and quite slow. These mills will grind a kilogram
of dried LC in about 20 minutes. However you grind dried LC, try to avoid breathing the
fine green dust that is made in the process. Putting the grinder inside a plastic washtub
with a wooden top and a cloth airvent made the grinder far quieter and eliminated the dust
problem. We are still looking for a better solution to the problem of grinding dried LC.
Finely ground dried LC works well in most recipes. Generally if you use one third as much
dried LC as fresh and add two parts of water you have approximated the fresh LC. So that
1 kg dried LC plus 2 liters water is roughly equivalent to 3 kg fresh LC. Dried LC has not
worked well in drink mixes. It settles too quickly even when finely ground. Most drinks
are sweet enough so that sugar preservation of the fresh LC is a better option.

The Basics of Drying LC

1. Start with very well pressed curd (c. 60%
moisture)
2. Granulate the curd to get small uniform sized
particles and increase the ratio of surface are to weight
3. Expose the granulated curd to heat . 50 C [120
F] is
ideal, 60C [140F]) is the maximum
4. Expose the granulated curd to moving air to remove
the
moisture that evaporates from the surface of
the LC
5. Dry the LC as quickly as possible after it is made
6. Protect the drying LC from sunlight, blowing dust,
insects, and rodents
7. Dry to below 10% moisture. If you're not sure,
finish
drying it in an oven at a very low
temperature
8. Grind as finely as possible
9. Store in thick, well sealed plastic bags, with as much
air
removed as possible; in a cool dark place

SECTION II

NUTRITION
People whose diet provides their body with a regular and adequate supply of the 40
nutrients essential for growth and health are said to be well-nourished. Those whose diets
fall short on one or more of these essential nutrients are malnourished. Malnutrition is the
biggest health problem in the world. The World Health Organization estimates that
730,000,000 children in the world are currently malnourished. In Mexico it is estimated
that 1 child in 3 is malnourished.
Malnourished children are smaller and weaker than their peers. They have more frequent
and more severe intestinal and respiratory infections, and they take longer to recover from
them. Their attention span is shorter and their ability to concentrate or remember things is
less than that of well nourished children. Their life expectancy is shorter. In severe cases,
they suffer permanent mental and physical damage in their first tender years of life from a
lack of enough food. In a world where the struggle to succeed can be very tough, they
begin life at a tremendous disadvantage, through no fault of their own.
The suffering and loss of human potential from malnutrition is unnecessary. Malnutrition
is preventable in much the same way that smallpox and polio are. While there is no vaccine
against malnutrition, the same creative forces that developed the vaccines and the same
determination that makes sure children are vaccinated against crippling diseases can free
our children from the plague of malnutrition. Leaf concentrate can be a powerful tool in
the effort to defeat malnutrition.
While a lack of any one of 40 essential nutrients can cause a specific deficiency disease,
malnutrition almost always involves an under supply of many nutrients, chief among them:

protein
energy or calories
iron
vitamin A
calcium
iodine
folic acid
vitamin E
Lets take a closer look at these nutrients and the role they play in the human body, and at
what foods supply them best.

PROTEIN:

Proteins are the basic building blocks of life. They are needed daily to build and repair
muscles, maintain healthy brain cells, and for a wide range of enzymes and hormones that
are involved in everything from digestion to sexual response and emotions. Proteins are
especially important to young children and pregnant and lactating mothers. Children
under 14 months can suffer permanent mental retardation from an inadequate supply of
protein. Proteins are also very important when recovering from an illness or injury. Other
nutrients, especially vitamin A, will not be fully utilized if the diet doesn't have sufficient
protein.
Below several common foods are grouped by how much protein they contain.

Highest

High

Good

Fair

Poor

Soy

Leaf
Concentrate
Chicken
Fish
Pork

Beans

Wheat

Cassava

Milk

Corn
Rice
Millet

Plantains
Potatoes
Sweet
Potatoes
Yams
Taro
Fruit

Beef
Cheese
Eggs
-

Not only is the amount of protein important to us, but also the quality of that protein. The
form of protein in some foods like milk and eggs is in a form that is more useful to us than
the protein in corn or beans. This means we need to eat more grams of protein from corn
or beans to have the same benefit to the body as the protein from milk or eggs.

Below several common foods are grouped according to the quality of their protein.

Highest

High

Good

Fair

Poor

Eggs
Milk

Leaf
Concentrate
Meat
Fish
Seafood

Soy

Wheat

Corn

Rice

Beans

Gelatin
Peanuts

Generally speaking the protein from animal sources, i.e.. meat, milk, or eggs, is of higher
quality than the protein from plants, i.e.. beans, grains, or vegetables. One can improve
the quality of protein from plants by mixing them. For example, the traditional Mexican
mixture of corn and beans has a higher quality protein than either corn or beans alone.
The same is true with the traditional Indian meal of chapatis (wheat) and dahl (beans), or
the Chinese rice and soy beans, or the African millet and cowpeas. The protein in leaf
concentrate is an excellent complement to the protein found in corn, wheat, rice, or millet.
Many people think that it is necessary to eat meat to receive an adequate supply of
protein. This is not true, as many studies of vegetarians have shown. People who eat very
little meat or other animal products like milk, eggs, or cheese, need to eat more grams of
protein and remember to mix them. Because meat ordinarily takes more land to produce
than grains or beans or vegetables, meat price will continue to be too high for meat to play
a major role in the diet of billions of people. Because of this it is very important that we
learn more about using vegetable proteins wisely.
Diets that are extremely rich in protein, especially protein from meat, have been strongly
linked to osteoporosis, a disease in which the bones becomes brittle from losing calcium
through the urine. Osteoporosis is prevalent among post-menapausal women, as the
female hormone estrogen which protects the body's calcium is no longer produced in
sufficient quantity. Excessive protein in the diet is rarely a problem among low income
groups in the developing world, as most protein sources are much more expensive than
foods rich in carbohydrates.

ENERGY:
Calories are a way to measure the energy in foods that power all human activity. Starches
and sugars are the most important sources of energy, followed by fats and oils, then by
alcohol. Carbohydrates and proteins have an energy value of about 4 Calories per gram,
while fats have about 9 Calories per gram. Fats are said to be denser in energy. Sometimes
weaning foods and foods for young children are too bulky for the energy that they provide
the child. A child will become full before he has eaten enough to meet his energy needs.

Water and fiber take up room in a child's stomach but do not supply energy. Sometimes
traditional coarse porridges will have too much water and fiber to be adequate weaning
foods.
The energy density of these foods can be improved by adding a small amount of oil or fat.
Vegetable oils are generally considered to be better for us than lard or other animal fats
like butter. These animal fats contain a lot of saturated fats and cholesterol, which have
been tied to hardening of the arteries and heart disease. Coconut oil is also sometimes
avoided because it is chemically more like animal fats than oils pressed from soy, sesame,
safflower, cotton seed, rape seed (canola) and olives. Palm oil, although rich in saturated
fatshas been found to act more like vegetable oils that are rich in mono-unsaturated fats,
such as soy and cottonseed oil. There is more information on porridges as weaning foods
in the recipe section of this manual.
Complex carbohydrates like corn, wheat, beans, potatoes or fruit are considered to be
healthier than refined sugar as energy sources for people. This is because they contain a
range of other nutrients and they burn more slowly, which delivers energy to the body at a
more consistent rate. Foods high in refined sugars, for example soft drinks, are sometimes
said to contain "empty Calories". In some parts of the developing world, like urban
Mexico, refined carbohydrates are making up a rapidly growing percentage of the Calorie
intake. When this happens a person will meet his Calorie requirement long before reaching
recommended intakes for several other nutrients. He must then either overconsume
Calories to meet his other needs and become obese, or become deficient in one or more
essential nutrients.

A child who is not getting enough Calories in his diet will typically sit quietly and be
apathetic while other children play. His body is trying to conserve the limited supply of
fuel for more essential activities like breathing and pumping blood. A child who is not
getting enough Calories from carbohydrates, fats and oils will burn up valuable proteins
for fuel. Fresh leaf concentrate has about the same number of calories as an equal weight
of chicken or eggs, but because it is usually eaten in rather small portions, it is not an
important source of Calories.

IRON:
Iron deficiency anemia is the most common nutritional disease in the world. Especially at
risk are women of childbearing age, who need extra iron for menstruation, pregnancies,
and lactation; and young children, who need extra iron for rapid growth. UNICEF
estimates 50% of the children in developing countries (c.500 million children) and 60% of
the pregnant women in these countries suffer from iron deficiency anemia. The World
Health Organization considers young children with hemoglobin counts below 11.0 g/dl or
older children and adults with values below 12.0 g/dl to be anemic. Whenever blood is

lost, as with wounds, hookworm, malaria, internal bleeding as with ulcers, menstruation or
childbirth, iron needs go up significantly.
The body needs iron to make hemoglobin, which enables our blood to carry oxygen to
every part of our bodies. When the supply of iron is low we can't carry enough oxygen to
our cells to burn the fuel efficiently. When this happens we feel tired. Anemic children are
smaller and grow more slowly than those with normal hemoglobin levels. They have less
energy for playing or learning. Their mental development may be retarded and their
attention span reduced. Their immune response is depressed, which leaves them more
vulnerable to infections.
When women are anemic during their pregnancies, as the majority in developing countries
are, their babies are more likely to be born prematurely or underweight. A woman whose
diet is marginal in iron intake who has children closely spaced will often suffer from severe
anemia. This can make her lethargic and apathetic and less able to care for her children.
These babies are born with low iron stores in their livers and often become very anemic
themselves before they are old enough to absorb adequate iron from the food they eat.
These families have a high risk of severe health problems and should be a top priority in
leaf concentrate programs.
As with protein, we must consider both the quantity and the quality of iron in the diet.
Much the same as protein, animal based foods tend to be richer in both the quantity and
quality of iron than plant based foods. However, as is the case with protein, it is very
possible to get an excellent supply of iron from plant sources if one has a little information
on the subject.
Almost all diets contain more iron than the body needs. The problem is that most of the
iron is poorly absorbed. Some of the iron in meat, fish, and poultry (heme iron) is quite
well utilized, but the iron in grains, beans, and vegetables, and the remaining iron in animal
based foods (non-heme iron) is very poorly absorbed. Because meat production yields
less food per hectare than grains, beans, and vegetables; meat products are usually too
expensive for poor families in developing countries to buy. As a result the women and
young families in these families suffer from very high rates of iron deficiency.
A chart in the appendix summarizes a study of anemic children in Bolivia that were given
six grams of dried leaf concentrate five days a week for five months. The leaf concentrate
costs about 5 cents per serving or about 5 dollars per child for the entire time. The leaf
concentrate is especially effective when combined with a source of vitamin C, such as
citrus fruit.
Anemia in adults lowers productivity and capacity to do work. This, of course, affects
their ability to earn an adequate income and increases the likelihood that their children will
be malnourished. Increasingly we see that anemia is implicated in a vicious cycle of
malnutrition and poverty. Reversing anemia is a sound investment. A study in Indonesia,
reported in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, showed than an iron supplement to

anemic workers improved productivity an average of 15-25%. This meant a return of

$260 for each $1 spent on the supplements.
Below are some common foods grouped by iron content.

Highest

High

Good

Fair

Poor

Leaf Concentrate
Liver

Beef
Pork
Eggs

Fish
Chicken
Greens
Beans

Corn
Mangoes

Rice
Milk

* Please note that milk, while an animal product, contains almost no iron.
In some areas certain products are enriched with iron. Flour, bread, macaroni, and baby
formulas are often fortified with iron. Find out if any common foods are fortified where
you live and if these products are regularly eaten by low income families.
The absorption of non-heme (plant) iron is even worse when a meal contains a lot of bran,
the fibrous part of grains. Tannin, which is found in tea, also makes non-heme iron more
difficult to absorb. Deficiencies of other nutrients can aggravate anemia. Most important
of these are:
Folic Acid
Protein
Vitamin A
Vitamin B-6
Riboflavin
Copper

The presence of meat in a meal makes the non-heme iron much more usable; but as was
pointed out earlier meat is usually too expensive to be eaten by the poor. Ascorbic acid or
Vitamin C also makes non-heme iron more useful to the human body. The study from
Bolivia shows this relationship. Basically, the absorption of non-heme iron is considered to
be four times as great in a diet containing 90 grams of meat or 75 mg of Vitamin C, as in a
diet with less than 30 grams of meat or 25 mg of Vitamin C.
This is a very important consideration. It is often easier, cheaper, and more effective to
add vitamin C, than to add more iron to the diet. Roughly speaking, a woman consuming
over 75 mg of vitamin C will need only 1/4 as much iron as a woman consuming less than
30 mg of vitamin C; if the iron is from non-animal sources. Unfortunately the vitamin C in

leaf juice is destroyed when it is heated, so leaf concentrate contains very little of this
vitamin. We can compensate for this, however, by adding lemon juice or other sources of
vitamin C. Leaf concentrate lemonade is therefore an extremely useful food for women
and children suffering from anemia. Other good sources of vitamin C are guavas, other
citrus fruits, fresh tomatoes, dark green vegetables, and other fruits and fruit juices.

Vitamin C Content of some

Tropical Fruits
Fruit
Acerola
Guava
Orange Peel
Lemon Peel
Kiwi
Longans
Lemon (whole with peel)
Jujube
Papaya
Pummelo
Strawberry
Orange
Lemon (without peel)
Cantaloup
Grapefruit
Kumquats
Mulberries
Tangarine
Passionfruit
Mangos*
Starfruit (Carambola)
Pineapple
Sapodillar (Manilkar zapota)
Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.)
Apricots
Grapes
Watermelon
Cooked Plaintains
Bananas
Tamarinds

mgs. Vitamin C
per 100 grams
1,677
183
136
129
98
81
77
69
61
61
56
53
53
42
38
37
36
30
30
27
21
15
15
14
10
10
10
10
9
4

* Mangoes are considerably richer in vitamin C when slightly unripe.

Some vegetables are also good sources of vitamin C. For example, 100 grams of fresh
kale contains about as much vitamin C as an equal weight of guavas. Part of the vitamin C
is lost when vegetables are cooked. A study of leafy vegetables in Sri Lanka showed that
on average the vegetables lost 32% of their vitamin C in five minutes of boiling and 54%
in ten minutes. Steaming resulted in losses of 15% in five minutes and 39% in ten.
Small amounts of meat, especially organ meats, also help the body to absorb iron from
non-animal sources. To be effective the vitamin C or meat must be eaten in the same meal
as the iron source. The small amount of iron that enters our food from steel or iron food
processing equipment is generally beneficial. A small amount of rust from iron cook pots
may also be somewhat beneficial where iron deficiency anemia is prevalent.
Recent studies from Scandinavia have indicated that high levels of iron, especially in adult
men may be a factor in heart disease. Men who are heavy meat eaters are more likely to be
at risk. These studies will need further confirmation before they are used for general
dietary recommendations.

VITAMIN A:
Vitamin A is essential for good vision and for the body's protection against disease
organisms. People with low vitamin A intakes are more susceptible to several forms of
cancer. Vitamin A is essential to the health of the mucous membranes that line the
digestive and respiratory systems. This is the body's first line of defense against infection.
Studies in Indonesia have shownchildren with low levels of vitamin A to be about 4 times
as likely to suffer from diarrhea and respiratory infections as are children with adequate
vitamin A levels.
The classic symptom of serious vitamin A deficiency is night blindness. Any children that
have trouble seeing toys at dusk are probably somewhat deficient in vitamin A, and should
receive immediate vitamin A in some form. About 500,000 children under 5 years of age
go permanently blind from vitamin A deficiency in the world each year. Most of these
children die from infections within a few years of going blind. Leaf concentrate, even in
very small amounts, is extremely effective in combating vitamin A deficiency.
Actually, the vitamin A from plant sources is in the form of beta-carotene, which is
converted in our bodies to vitamin A. Vitamin A is stored in our livers so we don't need
to eat it every day. Food scientists have come to believe that the amount of vitamin A the
human body requires for optimum health is much greater than it was previously thought to
be. The new US Recommended Dietary Allowances have thus been greatly increased.
Leaf concentrate is so rich in beta-carotene that only 10 grams will meet the new higher
USRDA for vitamin A in a 4-6 year old child.

Some foods are grouped below according to their content of vitamin A.

Highest

High

Good

Fair

Poor

Leaf Concentrate

Dark Green
Vegetables
Carrots
Mangoes

Winter Squash

Meat

Rice

Eggs
Papaya

Fish

Milk*
Potatoes

Liver

* In some areas milk is fortified with Vitamin A.

CALCIUM:
Calcium is needed for strong bones and teeth. Low levels of calcium in the diet can lead
to brittle, poorly formed bones and easily decayed teeth. Calcium is very important in the
diets of older women, who often suffer from osteoporosis, or brittle bones. Osteoporosis
can determine whether a slip and fall causes a few bruises or crippling broken bones and
long periods of immobility.
Several foods are grouped below as sources of calcium.

Highest

High

Fair

Poor

Leaf Concentrate
Cheese

Dark Green Vegetables

Sesame Seeds
Milk**

Tortillas*
Beans
Meat

Rice
Corn
Fruit

* In Mexico and some parts of Central America corn tortillas and other corn products
make up a very large part of the peoples' diet. Traditionally, the corn is prepared by first
soaking it overnight in lime water. This process, called Nixtamalization, adds substantial
quantities of calcium to the diet.

** The majority of the adults in the world are lactose intolerant. This means they are not
able to digest lactose, the sugar in milk. There is more on this subject in the "Discussion
Topics" chapter.

IODINE
Iodine and folic acid are two other essential nutrients that are frequently deficient in the
diets of low income people in developing countries. Iodine is needed to help us regulate
our metabolism, that is, how fast our engine runs and how quickly we burn up fuel. It is
abundant in fish, seafood, and seaweed. Whether plants contain adequate iodine depends
very much on how much iodine is in the soil. Many regions have soils that are depleted in
iodine. In these regions iodized salt, if available, is good protection against this deficiency.
Plants from the cabbage family, including kale, collards, brocoli, and turnip greens contain
goitrogens, or substances that block the absorption of iodine. These are deactivated by
cooking. Cows that are fed large quantities of forage kale can pass the goitrens on in their
milk, and children drinking this milk can become iodine deficient.

FOLIC ACID
Folic acid, sometimes referred to as folacin, helps us to use iron. It is often in short supply
in anemic people. Fresh green vegetables and wheat germ are excellent sources of folic
acid. Whole grains and leaf concentrate are good sources. Folic acid is sometimes
prescribed for pregnant women, as they are especially prone to the deficiency. Some
caution should be exercised in using folic acid supplements, however, because high levels
of folic acid can mask the symptoms of pernicious anemia, which is an inability to absorb
or utilize vitamin B-12 or cyanocobalamin. This is a fairly rare disorder.

VITAMIN E
Vitamin E is an antioxidant that protects the body from lipid peroxidation, an oxygen
reaction that turns cholesterol into more toxic forms implicated in hardening of the
arteries. It has also been shown to offer protection against some forms of cancer and to
improve general functioning of the immune system. The exact mechanisms by which
vitamin E works are not yet fully understood, but there is widespread agreement among
nutritional scientists that it is far more important to maintaining good health than was
previously thought.
Six grams of dried LC provides about 20% of the USRDA (United States Recommended
Daily Allowance) of vitamin E. Sunflower seeds, nuts, wheat germ, and vegetable oils,

such as soy, corn, and safflower are other excellent sources of vitamin E. This vitamin
does not occur in animal products.

SECTION III
AGRICULTURE
A successful leaf concentrate program will usually have three components of roughly
equal importance:
- producing the leaf crop
- processing the crop into leaf concentrate
- marketing or distributing the products
This section will address the first of these. In many projects the cost of the leaf crop
represents one half of the total cost of producing leaf concentrate. It is usually the biggest
single expense, and the most obvious place to look for ways to reduce production costs.
Insufficient supply of fresh leaf crop in top condition is a persistent problem at most leaf
concentrate projects.

WHO SHOULD GROW THE LEAF CROPS?

Often it has been assumed that local farmers would be producing forage crops that could
be used by projects, and the project would be able to purchase leaf crop from a
dependable local market. This has been the exception for several reasons. Even where a
suitable forage crop, such as alfalfa, is commercially grown, it may not be harvested in
such a way as to be available on a daily basis. In northern Mexico we have a project in an
area of large irrigated alfalfa fields that yield very well. However, almost all of the crop is
cut for hay. This means that 100 hectares may be available for leaf concentrate production
today and it will all be mowed for hay tomorrow. In some locations where leaf concentrate
could have a major benefit on malnutrition, there is no suitable forage crop currently under
commercial cultivation. This is the case in Nicaragua.
In Bareilly, India farmers had several concerns that dampened their enthusiasm for
growing leaf concentrate crops. Among these were the perception that the crops needed
to be weeded more often than other crops; that cutting a relatively small amount of leaves
each morning would ruin a small farmer's chance of securing day labor; and that unfenced
animal could eat the leaf crop.
Small leaf concentrate projects will rarely purchase enough crop to entice many farmers to
alter their normal growing and harvesting techniques. A project may decide the most
economical and dependable way to supply adequate leaf crop is to grow it themselves. Or

it may be possible to contract with a few farmers to supply the crop. Both approaches
have their pitfalls.
A group that is undertaking a leaf concentrate project will usually have its hands full with
processing and distribution of the leaf concentrate. Growing leaf crops brings in a new set
of work conditions and problems and may spread the project management too thinly.
Agricultural experience and skills are not quickly acquired and several groups have failed
miserably at producing their own leaf crops because they were not farmers by trade.
Ownership of land can be very expensive and renting or leasing it may not provide much
security. Agricultural equipment can also be an expensive and complicated arena for a
small leaf concentrate to enter. If irrigation is being used the cost can be daunting and
management of irrigation systems can be complex.
Contracting a few farmers to supply your project with fresh leaf crop can leave you
completely dependent on one individual. The farmers may try to take advantage of this
dependency by overcharging for leaves, or by wetting the leaves beforehand if they are
sold by weight. Contracting more farmers can spread out your dependency, but it also
means that you have to deal with several people. You may have to coordinate a schedule
of sales among the several farmers. If you are buying 200 kg per day from one farmer,
that may represent a very important source of income for him that he will protect by
meeting your expectations as a buyer. On the other hand if you spread your purchase of
leaf crop among 5 farmers, the sales may not be important enough to any of them to
assure that you get priority treatment as a consumer.
There is no easy answer to this dilemma. Any solution will have to take into account the
many specific conditions of your project and the agricultural realities in the area. A couple
things that may be useful are to select a member of your group or cooperative to take
primary responsibility for making sure the leaf crop arrives on time and in good condition.
This person could be someone who already has agricultural experience, or you could try
to recruit a person with farming skills into your group to widen your base. It may make
sense to send a member to some type of agricultural training course. Both regional and
foreign agricultural schools and universities often have programs to give students hands on
experience by working with charitable organizations. This can be a great source of free or
nearly free specialized help, but it best not to have unrealistic expectations of what
students will accomplish. If you are contracting a farmer or several farmers it will
probably be useful to have them observe the leaf concentrate process and the feeding of
malnourished children. This will help the farmers identify with the project and to
understand its importance to their community.

CHOOSING LEAF CROPS

Not all leaves are suitable for making leaf concentrate. There are an estimated 350,000
species of flowering plants in the world and it is unlikely that as many as 500 of them have
been evaluated as possible leaf concentrate source plants. While hundreds of species of

plants have been evaluated for making leaf concentrate; in any region there are usually 2
or 3 that are the most productive or the most economical. It is important that more plants
be tested. Leaf For Life and a few other groups, notably TRIADES in Hawaii, as well as
several more academically oriented institutes, continue evaluating crops for their potential
to make leaf concentrate. The following information should help you to understand the
process of selecting crops better and to give you a sense of what has already been done.
While we'd like to avoid the dissipated energy from continually reinventing the wheel; it is
worth noting that a good many improvements in wheel technology have taken place since
the original invention was made. We have found on many occasions that our field test
results differed from a published report on a crop, sometimes for better and sometimes for
worse. If you are planning to do some testing of possible leaf concentrate crops, it is
worth remembering a few things that might make your work more useful to other people
working in this field. Use scientific,in addition to local names for crops. Local names like
Chinese Spinach or quelite may refer to several different plants in different location.
Everyone in southern India may know what Patsam or Makchari is, but it is impossible for
a Latin American worker to find out without the scientific name. Use the metric system of
measurement. Record as much information as possible. The age of the plants at harvest,
the cultivar or variety of a plant if it is known, the method of processing, are all important
if we are trying to compare the performance of different plants. The moisture content of
the plant leaves and the leaf concentrate are probably the most important. Field reports of
very high yields for LC without identifying the moisture content are meaningless. I've read
a detailed analysis of leaf concentrate from Bolivia that was 83 % moisture. Others are as
low as 55 %. There is a difference between the weight of dried LC (which is usually
around 10% moisture) and the dry weight of LC (0% moisture). The chart on yields at the
end of the agricultural section will give you a good idea what constitutes a good yield. It
is calculated from the dry weight of the leaves to the dry weight of the LC. Both should be
dried for 12-16 hours at about 100 C, to determine dry weight.

GENERAL NOTES ABOUT SELECTING CROPS

FOR LEAF CONCENTRATE PRODUCTION
Three great divides separate potential leaf crops quickly into functional blocks:
1. Tropical vs. Temperate and Subtropical plants
2. Perennial vs. annual plants
3. Legumes vs. Non-legume plants
Tropical plants normally thrive in hot climates and don't tolerate frost. Temperate plants
are adapted to areas with a cold winter and warm summer. Subtropical plants are best
suited to the edge between the tropical and temperate zone or to higher elevations within
the tropics. Most of the research that has been done on leaf concentrate has been done in
temperate zones in Europe and the United States and more information is available on
temperate crops as sources of leaf concentrate. Medicago sativa (alfalfa or lucerne) is a
temperate, perennial legume that has been studied extensively and is used in commercial
leaf concentrate production for animal feed. It is the benchmark crop against which leaf
concentrate crops must be compared. In addition to alfalfa, temperate and subtropical leaf

concentrate candidates include clovers (especially berseem); members of the cabbage or

mustard family, small grains such as wheat and oats, and chenopods, including beet
greens, lambsquarters, Swiss chard, orach, and quinoa.
Many of the temperate zone candidates are commonly eaten as vegetables and have been
bred for centuries to reduce the levels of toxic or bitter components. Economically, it is
difficult to compete with alfalfa which can yield up to 120 tons of green matter per
hectare, fixes its own nitrogen from the air, can be cut many times a year, and only needs
to be replanted every 4-8 years. Some mixes of annuals, for example wheat and mustard,
may give even greater yields and have milder flavored curd than alfalfa, though they would
require more labor and energy inputs as well as nitrogen fertilizer.
One area of interest is by-product leaves of commercial vegetables, such as beets,
cauliflower, radish, and sugar beet. A leaf concentrate operation near a packing plant
could potentially improve the economics of growing these vegetables by making a high
value product from leaves that are currently low value or a disposal problem.
Tropical plants must receive more of our attention for several reasons. As stated above,
there are already good LC crops in the temperate zones. Even more basic is the fact that
LC is much more needed in the tropics. The humid tropics have a large number of people,
the fastest growing populations, the greatest prevalence of malnutrition, and the fewest
technical and financial resources with which to meet the food requirements of its people of
any region on earth. Compared to the temperate zones, the tropics have a longer growing
season but generally more problems with insects, viruses, fungus, nematodes and noxious
weeds. Tropical soils tend to be more fragile and less fertile. Soil moisture and nitrogen
are lost much more quickly to the air because of the high temperatures. Generally far less
systematic breeding has been done with tropical leaf crops and they often exhibit
tremendous genetic differences from one variety to another.
If alfalfa is the benchmark crop for the temperate zones, I would suggest, for the time
being that Vigna unguiculata (cowpeas) is the tropical plant against which all candidates
be compared. Cowpeas are not as strong an LC crop as alfalfa, but they are eaten as a leaf
crop in many countries, thrive in hot humid conditions, come up quickly, and produce
good yields of mild flavored leaf curd. They are well suited to a variety of intercropping
schemes, are capable of fixing large amounts of atmospheric nitrogen, and make a good
green manure crop. The humid tropics have much greater diversity of plant life than the
rest of the planet, and as a result there are thousands of plants that may have potential as
leaf concentrate sources.
Although the great majority of plant species have never actually been processed for leaf
concentrate, we can narrow the search very quickly by applying a set of criteria for plants
we hope to use to make leaf concentrate, by looking for plants that maximize the positive
characteristics given below and minimize the negative ones.
Positive Plant Characteristics in Potential Leaf Concentrate Sources

- known to be edible by humans in the area where it would be used

- palatable to animals
- consistently yields large amount of green forage (30 tons per hectare per year or
more)
- produces green forage over most of the year
- moisture content of fresh leaves above 75 % and below 90 %
- protein content in fresh leaves at least 2.5 %
- can fix atmospheric nitrogen (leguminous plants like beans, peas, clovers, alfalfa
and many tropical trees have nodules on their roots that can turn the nitrogen in the air
into nitrates that can be absorbed by plants)
- can be used as a green manure or be intercropped with local commercial crops
- erect, non-twining growth habit for ease of harvest
- resistance to common tropical virus, insect, fungus and nematode problems
- establishes quickly enough to compete with weeds
- leaves will regrow after harvest for repeated cuttings
- seed or cuttings for propagation readily obtainable
- can withstand drought
- can tolerate low fertility, aluminum, and acidity in soil
- can tolerate salinity and high pH
- has multiple purposes (i.e. edible seeds or roots, green manure, useful for
industrial purposes such as medicine, paper or textile manufacture)
Negative Plant Characteristics in Potential Leaf Concentrate Sources
- high concentrations of toxins, especially toxic amino acids in plant leaves
- high levels of tannins or phenolic compounds that can bind with proteins and
make them difficult to absorb (this can often be determined by leaf juices spontaneously
coagulating at room temperature)
- leaf juice forms bitter or unpleasant tasting curd
- leaf juice that doesn't coagulate readily when heated to boiling
- mucilaginous leaf juice that is difficult to separate from fiber, A simple rule of
thumb is to rub a few tender leaves from the plant in question between your fingers; the
juice released should be thin and watery not thick or sticky.
- acidic leaf juice
- leaf juice that forms a very fine soft curd that is difficult to separate from whey
- leaves that are difficult to harvest (how long will it realistically take to harvest
200 kg of fresh leaves from this plant? This is usually a minimum daily amount for an
economical production site. An experienced Mexican farm worker can cut 200 kg of
alfalfa in 15 minutes with a scythe.)

Too high

Too low

Just Right

SUGGESTED POTENTIAL LEAF CROPS

As of April 1993 I would recommend one of the following leaf crops to people who
would like to begin working with leaf concentrate and who do not want to get involved
with any crop testing:
Medicago sativa (alfalfa or lucerne)
Vigna unguiculata (cowpea)
Trifolium alexandrium (berseem clover)
Dolichos lablab (lablab or hyacinth bean)
Clitoria ternatea (butterfly or Kordofan pea)
Brassica oleracea (collards or kale)
Brassica juncea (mustard)
Beta vulgaris var. cicla (Swiss chard, acelgas)
Atriplex hortensis (orach, mountain spinach
Triticum x aestivum (wheat, trigo)
Manihot esculenta (cassava, manioc)

Below is a more extensive listing of plant species that have been recommended by various
workers as sources of leaf concentrate. I've tried to give some of the pros and cons of
each along with some other notes and sources of seed. Addresses of listed seed
companies are at the end of this section. There is not a lot of information available on
some of the crops, and some of these may prove to be unsuitable after further studies are
done. We will try to keep this list updated to include information as it comes to us. Please
send us any relevant information you might have gathered on any of these crops or on
others that you feel should be included in this list. Thanks!

LEGUMES (ANNUALS)

Canavalia ensiformis - Jack Bean

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: grew very well in trials at San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua
both jackbean and swordbean (C. gladiata) leaves are eaten as potherbs in Asia
easily established
withstood long dry season well
Cons: possibility of toxicity; green beans are reportedly toxic
no information on how well it coagulates or processes
Notes: closely related to C. gladiata (swordbean) another useful tropical legume used as a
green manure but with strong possibility of toxicity problems
Seeds:- ECHO; Banana Tree; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; B &T Associates; Kumar
International; Phoenix Seeds; Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd; Setropa Seeds

Crotalaria juncea - (C. ochroleuca) Sunnhemp, Sun Hemp

Pros: top performer for weight and speed of growth in Muniguda trials in India
processed easily
yielded over 5% LC and tasted good
very high dry matter yields reported (8-20 ton/ha)

Cons: somewhat poisonous to livestock, should not be fed at over 10 % of fodder ration
not well known as a food crop
can't recommend until toxicity questions are resolved
Notes: most of the work on sunnhemp has been relative to its value as a bast fiber
much used as a green manure, less as hay or fodder,
seeded at 50- 240 kg/ha; but heavy seed rate is to insure upright stems for long
fibers and may be negative factor to leaf yield
yields 25% lower without weeding
2 cuts can be taken if first is at height of 30-35 cm from ground
Seeds: - ECHO; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Hurov's Tropical Seeds; Peaceful Valley
Farm Supply; Setropa Seeds; Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd

Cyamopsis tetragolonobus - Guar, or Cluster bean

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: did well in trials at Muniguda in India
reported good yield when closely planted and good tasting curd
leaves eaten in Africa, young pods, and immature as well as mature seeds also
eaten
seeds contain powerful thickening agent with commercial value
81 % moisture in leaves
extremely tolerant of salinity (second only to Atriplex)
uses cowpea EL type inoculant
N fixation similar to cowpeas
Cons: green crop yield considerably lower than cowpeas and other tropical legumes
requires high levels of phosphate in soil (200-250 kg/ha) though his increases yield
of following crops
Notes: bushy plant to 3 meters tall
needs 400- 500 mm annual rainfall, 900 mm optimum
high rainfall and heat best for green crop, but lowers quality and yield of seed
prefers pH 7.5-8.0
seed planted 2.5-3 cm deep at 8-15 kg/ha
didn't break down as quickly as Crotalaria juncea in green manure trial in India;
may need at least two months before following crop is planted

best forage yields at 51 cm between rows

Seeds: - ECHO; Banana Tree ; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Peaceful Valley Farm Supply
; B &T Associates; Kumar Internationa; Setropa Seeds

Dolichos lablab (Lablab purpureus)- Lablab Bean, Hyacinth, Bonavist,

Jacinto, Gallinita, Poroto de Egipto, Frijol de Adorno, Tonga Bean.
Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: leaves eaten both fresh and dried
one of top selections from Puerto Rico LC trials of tropical plants
large seeds good for drilling
retains foliage longer than cowpeas
drought tolerant
grew very well in trials in San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua
good nitrogen fixation even without inoculant
recommended by Ram Joshi in India and by Telek in Puerto Rico
fodder yields of 5-10 ton/ha dry matter have been reported
succesfully intercropped with corn
young pods and mature seeds have commercial value in many countries; used as
vegetable, tofu, tempeh, sprouts. also has large starchy edible root. good multi-purpose
crop
Cons: slow early growth
yielded poor curd and small quantity in Nicaraguan field test
lablab forage has reportedly affected the flavor of milk from cows
high percentage of vines and stems may make pre-chopping necessary
reportedly very sensitive to flooding
Notes: very poor regrowth when cut below 25 cm
benefits greatly from superphosphate application (250 kg/ha)
Highworth and Rongai good forage varieties
89 % moisture in leaves ; 86 % in stems
400 mm minimum rainfall, 750 - 1000 mm is optimum, over 2500 mm
unacceptable
with dense growth lower leaves are shed,; they are lost for LC but make good
mulch
can cause bloat in cattle
makes good silage with 2 parts sorghum; protein is 8.1% vs. 4.5 % for plain
sorghum forage.
often takes four days for cattle to accept lablab forage
75% germination of seeds
some damage from leaf-eating insects and nematodes reported
seeding rates reported at 20-70 kgs/ha seed for dense stand
needs water for 10 weeks then very drought resistant

sometimes seeded between coffee trees, after 2 months further weeding is

unnecessary
fresh seeds may contain dangerous levels of hydrocyanic acid, darker colored seeds
contain more; need very thorough cooking and change of water
Seeds:- ECHO; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Hurov's Tropical Seeds; B &T Associates;
Setropa Seeds; Queensland Agricultural Seeds Pty.,Ltd; Primac Seeds; Phoenix Seeds1

Mucuna deerianga or Mucuna spp - Velvetbean, Terciopelo

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: grew very well in trials at San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua
widely promoted throughout Central America by International Clearing House on
Cover Crops
good nitrogen fixation (up to 200 kg/ha
easily established
withstood long dry season well
Cons: likelihood of toxicity. Even the Clearing House cautions against using velvetbean
in quantities equal to other pulses. Most of the participants in a velvetbean demonstration
in Nicaragua experienced nausea and headache. Too little is known about the chemistry
of the leaves and the variation in their composition from variety to variety and under
different agricultural conditions. It also appears that sensitivity to toxins from velvetbeans
varies greatly from person to person.
it can be extremely tangled and presumably difficult to harvest as a result
Notes: a commercial source of L-Dopa used in treatment of Parkinson's Disease
sometimes called M. pruriens
seeds usually sowed 15-90 cm apart in rows 90 -180 cm apart; broadcast doesn't
work well
c. 35- 45 kg/ha; or 15 kg/ha when intercropped with corn
2-3 cultivations usually necessary to control weeds until plants start vining
cowpea inoculant can be used
dense plantings don't produce good seed yields because of poor air circulation
Seeds:- ECHO; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Hurov's Tropical Seeds; B &T Associates;
Setropa
Peace Seeds; Glendale Enterprises,Inc.; Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd

Phaseolus lunatus L - Tropical Lima Bean, Madagascar Bean

Tropical
Pros: well suited to leached low fertility soils common to humid tropics
shows great promise in African rainforest, a difficult environment for pulses
leaves eaten as a minor potherb when young and tender in parts of Latin America
and Africa

green and dried beans have commercial food value

successful intercrop trials with corn in Columbia
Cons: most of the breeding has been for seed yield, bushy growth habit, and adaptability
to temperate zone; none of which serves our purpose
not well tested as LC source
seeds require longer cooking time than other pulses and may contain dangerous
amounts of HCN. White seeds usually safe; dark seeds need to be boiled very thoroughly
and have water thrown out
Notes: has perennial as well as annual forms
viny unselected varieties performed better than improved bush type in African trials
indigenous to South, and Central America and the Caribbean
seed harvest varies from 3-9 months with 5 months typical
Seeds:- ECHO;

Eden Seeds

Phaseolus vulgaris - Common Bean, Frijol.

Temperate/Sub-

Tropical
Pros: leaves eaten as a vegetable in much of Africa and Asia
very well known and accepted
seeds widely available
seeds and immature pods have strong commercial market
Cons: slower starting than cowpeas
seeds normally selected for seed yield at expense of foliage
usually do poorly in very wet tropics
most cultivars can't tolerate standing water even for a few hours
Notes: prefer cooler subtropics, 800 -2000 meters, usually cowpeas will do better in
humid lowlands
cultivation must be shallow, especially in closely planted rows to avoid root
damage.
usually planted in rows 70 - 80 cm apart, 5-10 cm between seeds, and 5 - 8 cm
deep
in Nicaragua are normally planted in rows 80-90 apart. This is tied to the space
needed to cultivate with oxen. We are testing a system of planting beans in rows 16" apart
with the wheel seeder and cultivating them with the wheel hoe. When they get too
crowded we harvest every other row to make leaf concentrate. This system could
potentially produce far more nutrients per acre with less work. By having an extra row of
beans between the wide rows, weeding would be easier, the soil would be improved and
the land would yield leaf concentrate and fiber for animals as well as beans.
c. 87 % moisture; 3.6% protein in fresh leaves
bean leaf yield usually improves markedly with added phosphorus in the soil

small seeded pole types should produce more foliage than bush types, half runners
are intermediate
many varieties used for centuries as intercrop with corn; 70 % of beans in Latin
America are intercropped
over 14,000 cultivars worldwide with very large variety of characteristics
seeding rate of 100 kg/ha probably good for foliage; as low as 25 kg/ha for beans;
with lower seeding rates for pole types than bush types
bush beans are normally planted 5-8 cm deep; in rows 50 cm apart; with 5-10 cm
between seeds
inoculation of seeds usually not necessary

Vigna aconitifolia - Moth Bean or Mat Bean

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: relatively well known bean crop
forage 75% moisture;
7.5 - 10 tons/ha dry matter
excellent forage and green manure crop
very drought resistant
adapted to very hot climates
Cons: low creeping growth habit could make this crop difficult to harvest and to clean
not well tested as LC crops
not eaten as potherb
Notes: prefers dry sandy soils
prefers 500 -7500 mm rainfall
sea level to 1300 meters
Seeds: - J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Hurov's Tropical Seeds; Seeds of Change

Vigna unguiculata - (Vigna sinensis) Cowpeas, Frijol de Vaca

Pros: well known to be edible, leaves eaten as vegetable in many African and Asian
countries.
seeds easily available commercially and very easy to propagate
germinates well
grows very quickly compared to many tropical legumes enabling it to get over
weeds with one cultivation
good yield of mild flavored leaf curd
Cons: Somewhat prone to virus
Sensitive to frost and flooding
Annual that won't take repeated cuttings, needs replanting at least every 12 weeks
Notes: moisture content 85-89%; protein much higher at 89% than 85%

huge number of cultivars are commercially available including California blackeye

#5, Magnolia, Mississippi, and Vining Purple Hull that have been bred for resistance to
fusarium, root knot nematodes, wilt and other viruses
most of the breeding for resistance has been done with bush type heavy seed
yielding varieties, whereas the best foliage varieties like Iron and Clay, and Whippoorwill
have not been bred much for resistance. Disease has not been a big problem in Nicaragua
over 4 years.
March 1993 report from Nicaragua shows harvests of irrigated cowpea forage at
about 550 grams per square meter. estimated 57 tons/ha green crop per year
Dry LC is about 2-2.25 % of fresh crop or c. 1.4 tons dry LC per ha per year or
enough LC for about 930 children to receive a 6 gram portion M-F all year.
- research on cowpeas is being done at International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture N.Q. Ng Head OYO Road PMB 5320 Ibadan, NIGERIA tel:
400300 400314 whose European contact is: IITA c/o Ms. Maureen Larkin, Carolyn
House 26 Dingwall Rd. Croydon CR9 3EE UK fax 44 81 681 8583. They may be
willing to provide test packets of cowpea varieties.
Seeds: widely available. Iron and Clay, and China Red are the most widely available
forage types in the US. Inoculant from Peaceful Valley Farm Supply~~P.O. Box
2209~Grass Valley~CA 95945, USA tel:= 916 272 GROW
FAX= 916 272 4794 or
Liphatech 3101 W. Custer Ave. Milwaukee, WI 53209 USA tel: 414 462 7600 or
from many larger seed dealers. Typical price $20 US for 50 lb (c.23 kg) sack.

LEGUMES (PERENNIAL)

Calopogonium mucunoides - Calopo

Tropical
Pros: Native to Nicaragua, well suited to humid tropics
tolerates acid lateritic soils
yielded c. 60 ton/ha green manure in 6 months
nearly 250 kg/ha N fixation
a self-regenerating annual with good seed production
can also be propagated from stem cuttings
Cons: not known as a human food
forage not palatable to cattle
shallow rooted so doesn't withstand long drought
needs at least 850 mm rainfall, prefers 1250 mm
Notes: forms complete cover crop 60 cm thick in 5 months
often intercropped with citrus, rubber and coconuts

Seeds: - Empresa de Semillas Forrajeres

Centrosema decumbes, C. pubescens - Centro

Tropical
Pros: very leafy perennial legume
easy to establish on poor soil
Cons: not known as a human food
not very palatable to cattle
Notes: 5-7 tons/ha dry matter reported
4-8 months to form dense cover 40-50 cm high
for forage sow 8 kgs/ha in rows 90 cm apart; more if broadcast at onset of rainy
season
stems are not woody for the first 18 months
Sometimes planted with Calopogonium mucunoides or Pueraria phaseoloides for
quicker cover
Seeds:- J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Setropa Seeds; Queensland Agricultural Seeds
Pty.,Ltd; Kenya Seed Co; Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd; Dumon Agro NV

Clitoria ternatea - Butterfly or Kordofan Pea., Campanilla, Zapatilla de la

Reina,
Tropical
Pros: given top rating by Telek in terms of % protein in dry LC (59.3%) and PER or
Protein Efficiency Ratio (2.4) in Puerto Rico trials
moisture content of green crop c 79%
perennial legume
green matter yields of 80 - 100 kg/ha + recorded in Campeche, Mexico and in
Cuba
dry matter yields of 13 tons/ha have been recorded in Australia
tolerant to drought, alkalinity, slope, virus, and weeds
can use cowpea EL type inoculant
very palatable to cattle
Cons: no experience with making or using Clitoria LC on other than lab scale
much lower yield without inoculant and lower protein content
won't tolerate waterlogging
slow germination 7-15 days. We've had poor germination twice in Nicaragua
Notes: prefers full sun
twiner; stem grows to 5 meters

grows from sea level to 1800 meters

rainfall minimum of 400 mm, optimum 1500 mm; does well with irrigation
flowers cerulean blue, used to tint boiled rice, as litmus substitute, as ornamental
covers the ground in 4-6 weeks when sown 25 cm apart in rows 1 meter apart,
dense enough to smother weeds in 4-6 months
dry matter yields vary greatly from 1 ton/ha in rainfed sandy soil to 13.5 tons/ha in
irrigated clay.
grown with Sudan, elephant grass, sorghum and sunnhemp
sown 1-3 kg/ha on well prepared seedbed
nitrogen application depresses growth
virus problems under wet conditions at Turrialba, Costa Rica
some grasshopper and nematode problems in Africa
young pods eaten as green beans
Seeds: - ECHO; Banana Tree; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Chitern Seeds; Inland and
Foreign Trading Co., Ltd

Desmodium intortum; D. discolor ; D. nicaraguaense - Greenleaf

Pros: perennial legumes can go 6 years if phosphorus supplied, often 3 without
can utilize cowpea inoculant
D. nicaraguaense used as forage in Central America, called horse-fattener because
of palatability and feed value
up to 7 cutting per year in Costa Rica.
grows up to 6 meters but usually cropped back by livestock
can withstand heavy competition from grasses
Cons: not known as human food
genus contains several obscure toxins
forage reportedly high in tannins, though lower tannin Australian cultivar
"Greenleaf" is available
leaves of D. intortum stick to cloth making harvest difficult
Notes: native to South America usually above 500 meters
several closely related and frequently confused species
propagated by seed (c. 6 kg/ha) or cuttings 15-30 cm long
usually grown with a grass
frequent weed in coffee plantations
cuttings below 8 cm can destroy plants
annual dry matter yield (c. 8 tons/ha) best with 12 week harvest intervals
Seeds:-Setropa Seeds; Queensland Agricultural Seeds Pty.,Ltd; Kenya Seed Co.

Glycine wightii

(Glycine javanica) - Perennial soybean

Tropical
Pros: perennial legume

eaten as potherb in Malawi

palatable forage
tolerates acid soil and shade
yields c. 7-10 tons/ha dry matter
Cons: little done on crop as LC source
Notes: c. 89% moisture
attempts to cross with soybean have been unsuccessful
can climb over trees and shrubs like kudzu
propagated from seed; c 7-9 kgs/ha
prefers 750 - 1000 mm rain
when mixed with grasses, including sorghums and millets yielded 10 -13 tons/ha
green matter every 40 days (over 100 tons/ha green matter per year)
Seeds:-Setropa Seeds

Macroptilium atropurpurium (Phaseolus atropurpureus) - Siratro

Pros: native to Mexico and Central America
long-lived perennial
deep taproots provide drought resistance
tolerates alkaline soil and high aluminum levels
can use cowpea inoculant
Cons: disease prone in very humid regions
Notes: prefers subtropical conditions to 2000 m or drier tropics (700 cm per year)
prefers deep sandy soil
can't tolerate waterlogging
more tolerant of low fertility then Desmodium intortum or Glycine wightii, less
than Stylosanthes humilis
won't tolerate high manganese in soil as well as other legumes
plant at beginning of rainy season
typical seeding rate c. 3-5 kgs/ha
benefits greatly from phosphate fertilizer as a rule
yield increases as cutting interval is extended from 4 to 16 weeks
up to 11 tons/ha dry matter with 4 cuts; average 5-7 tons dry matter with 2 cuts
per season
70-75% moisture
Seeds:-Setropa Seeds; Queensland Agricultural Seeds Pty.,Ltd; Kenya Seed Co;
T.S.L. Ltd

Macroptilium lathyroides - Phasey bean, Wild pea bean

Tropical/Subtropical

Pros: selected by Telek as one of most promising tropical LC plants in Puero Rico
high protein
good extraction
very palatable to cattle
rapid regrowth forms dense stand
could be machine harvested
good nodulation
tolerant of waterlogging
5-12 tons/ha dry matter reported; claim made of 60 tons/ha dry matter potential
with irrigation
Cons: not known as a human food
seeds difficult to gather due to shattering
sensitive to viruses
sensitive to frost
seed not readily available commercially
Notes: annual or short lived perennial
typical seeding rate 1-3 kg/ ha
protein highest at 79% moisture at 4 months; at 6 months 70% moisture and only
2/3 the protein per kg dry matter
Seeds: Zentralinstitut fur Genetik und Kulturpflanzen-forshung~Correnstrasse 3~4325
Gatersleben~GERMANY (non-commercial source; small samples to institutions)

Medicago sativa - Alfalfa (including tropical varieties)

Temperate/Subtropical
Pros: best tested of all LC plants
only plant used to make LC commercially
deep rooted perennial legume
yields up to 100 tons green crop/ha with irrigation
withstands repeated cutting (8 to 15 cuts per year in Mexico)
dense and erect growth ideal for harvest with scythe or sicklebar cutter
80 - 83 % moisture, 5 - 6 % protein
Cons: strong flavored curd due to saponins; stronger if not well pressed
attacked by virus and other diseases in hot humid climates
Notes: tropical varieties have been developed at the University of Florida and in Brazil.
these do better in heat but still have problems compared to tropical natives
In Aurangabad, India alfalfa yielded 150 t/ha fresh crop; 25 t/ha DM; (16.7%)
6t/ha CP; 3.2 (2.13% of green matter ; 12.8% of DM) t/ha extracted protein, with 14-16
harvests per year. Yields were increased by frequent irrigation, NPK, manure and
micronutrients, simazine, and closer rows (30 cm rather than 46 cm) and frequent harvest;
8 rather than 5 in 180 days

alfalfa is a potential source of a variety of medicinal and industrial compounds.

Research has begun at the University of Wisconsin to commercially extract compounds
from genetically altered alfalfa. This could potentially be integrated into an LC production
scheme.
seeds are very hard and should be scarified or soaked in water before planting.
Fresh seed does not germinate as well as seed that is 2-3 years old.
when broadcast seed rate suggested as 12-20 kg/ha; in rows or ridges 55-72 cm
apart 10-12 kg/ha seed used. Ridges or rows facilitates weeding
usually responds to 250 kg/ha superphosphate per year or 500 kg/ha every other
year; also often responds to potassium and sometime s boron
best harvested at beginning of flowering
optimum rainfall usually 500-600 mm, where there is over 1000 mm it sometimes
grows only as an annual
in Michoacan, Mexico (c.2000 meters) yields c. 80 tons/ha green matter per year
with irrigation; which should yield 1.6 tons dry LC ; enough for 1060 children at 6 grams
daily
good alfalfa sells for $40-70 US per ton in the field in Michoacan, Mexico
low saponin varieties should be used for LC production
Seeds: normally available commercially in afalfa growing regions. Small packets of
tropical varieties from - ECHO;
non-hardy, heat resistant variety CUF 101 (grown in
California's Central Valley) is available from - Cal/West Seeds; also Ramsey Seed Co;
Gunson Seed

Psophocarpus tetragolonobus - Winged bean, Goa bean

Tropical
Pros: leaves eaten as vegetables
85% moisture, 5% protein
one of top performers in Puerto Rico LC trials; PER of 2.2; behind only Clitoria
ternatea
used as green manure, forage, cover crop, fresh and dried beans, and edible tubers;
the ultimate multi-purpose crop
tolerates heat and low pH
apparently can utilize cowpea inoculant
Cons: needs good drainage
needs lots of water 1500 mm for good growth; 2500 mm or more for top
production
little information on leaf yields as it is grown mainly for beans or tubers
difficulties in germination in Nicaraguan trials
slow starter, needs weeding until established
forms tangled mess of vines that could be difficult to harvest and pulp
Notes: perennial vine, but often grown as an annual
sea level to 2000 meters

typically planted 2.5 -7.5 cm deep c. 10 cm apart for foliage, at beginning of rainy
season
trellised plants produce twice the seed of unstaked plants
picking flowers increases tuber yield
Seeds: - ECHO; Banana Tree; KEO Entities; B &T Associates; Sutton and
Sons,(INDIA); Phoenix Seeds; Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd; .Tokita Seed
Co., Ltd.Setropa Seeds

Pueraria phaseoloides (P. javanica) - Puero or Tropical Kudzu

Pros: perennial tropical legume
considered very palatable to livestock
does well in high rainfall areas (over 1000 mm per year) if dry periods is not too
long
good at smothering weeds once established
recommended from Venezuelan trials
Cons: not used as a green for humans, little information available on its use for humans
heavy twining habit with extremely tough fibrous stems (used in ropemaking in
some places) could make it hard to harvest and to pulp
slow to establish cover
Notes: 30 - 50 tons green crop/ha possible
Seeds: - Banana Tree; Hurov's Tropical Seeds;
Dumon Agro NV~~715

Primac Seeds; Setropa Seeds;

Stylosanthes gracilis (guianensis) - Brazilian lucerne, Stylo, Tropical

alfalfa
Tropical
Pros: one of highest yielding legumes 15 tons/ha dry matter reported with irrigation and
fertilizer; 17 -21 tons/ha dry matter per year considered possible
can utilize cowpea inoculant
can accumulate calcium and phosphorus even when levels of these nutrients are
low in the soil
tolerates high aluminum in soil
Cons: not known as a human food
can't tolerate shade
susceptible to leaf spot infection
Notes: typical seeding rate 3 kg/ha broadcast or in rows 45 - 60 cm apart

Tropical

benefits from 1 or 2 weedings until established (usually 3-5 months)

Seeds: -Setropa Seeds

Trifolium alexandrium - Berseem or Egyptian Clover

Subtropical
Pros: has been successfully used as LC source in Pakistan, India, and Egypt
excellent productivity (8-10 tons /ha dry matter with 3 cuts and no irrigation; and
12-18 tons /ha dry matter with 6-8 cuts and irrigation). Generally 2 tons /ha dry matter per
cut, yields up to 170 tons green fodder/ha are possible
more succulent stems than alfalfa, up to 90% moisture; therefore less energy
required for grinding
Cons: prefers warm temperate climate (12-25 C), cooler than most of the humid tropic
locations.
Notes: seed rate 22/50 kgs/ha planted early in wet season
1.3- 2.5 cm deep
needs minimum of 250 mm annual rainfall
won't tolerate frost
tolerates high pH and virus
can use commercial white clover inoculant, molasses or other sticking agent helps
inoculation
phosphorus, zinc, copper and boron can become limiting factors
Feb 93 report from India shows Berseem with 87 -91 % moisture and yielding 32
grams of fresh leaf curd per kg fresh berseem
Seeds: - ECHO; Peaceful Valley Farm Supply; Kaufman Seed, Inc.; Harmony Farm
Supply; Empresa de Semillas Forrajeres

LEGUMES (PERENNIAL TREES AND SHRUBS)

Erythrina variegata - Tiger's Claw, Indian Coral Tree
Erythrina poeppigiana - Poro
Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: used in living fencepost schemes and intercropped with coffee in Costa Rica
produced more foliage than Gliricidium sepium, though less than Leucaena in
Indian trials
lower polyphenol concentration in leaves than Cajanus cajan
goat milk production increased with E. poeppigiana leaves added to banana and
king grass rations
E.poeppigiana leaves and sugar cane juice successful feed for rabbits and
guinea pigs

Cons: foliage not known as human food

great genetic variation in quantities of alkaloids present in leaves
very little known about LC production from these plants
Notes: Tested extensively at CATIE in Costa Rica
E. indica leaves in water (5 grams to 15 ml) said to kill nematodes
Seeds:- Hurov's Tropical Seeds; Peace Seeds; J.L. Hudson Seedsman

Gliricidium sepium - Mother of Cacao

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: commonly used in agro-forestry schemes
living fence
flowers eaten as potherb or fried
Cons: leaves not known as a human food
yielded much less foliage than Erythrina in Indian trials
Notes: established more quickly than Erythrina in Nicaraguan trials, though Erythrina
caught up
within 1 year
Seeds:- Banana Tree; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; B &T Associates; Kumar International;
Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd

Sesbania grandiflora & S. sesban

- . (Gallito, Sesban)

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: extremely fast growing small tree; especially first 3-4 years; often 4 meters 1st
year; 8 meters by 3rd
one of best nitrogen fixers
widely used as green manure
seed and inoculant readily available
nodulation excellent often even without commercial inoculant
76 % moisture and 8.7 % protein
great potential in reforestation and land reclamation schemes
excellent potential for firewood in 5 year cycle
can be planted very densely (c. 3000 stems per ha)
resprouts vigorously after cutting to stay within height cattle can reach (or people)
leaves palatable to cattle
Cons: difficulties with germination
foliage quickly stripped by insects in Nicaragua trial
photoperiod sensitivity in some varieties

Notes: In Java yields of 55 ton/ha green matter in 6-7 months, far better than Crotalaria in
same experiment
S. rostrata in Senegal showed potential N fixation of 270 kg/ha in 45 days
biomass and N fixation faster with stem cuttings than seeds
Ratooning (cutting at or near base and allowing regrowth) gave top yields
Seeds: Peaceful Valley Farm Supply; ECHO; Banana Tree; J.L. Hudson Seedsman;
B &T Associates; Kumar International

AMARANTHS AND RELATIVES

Celosia argentea - Quailgrass, Soko
Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: has been used in Africa as a green pot herb
used to make leaf concentrate, called Sokotein
did well in trials in Tennessee
Cons: curd was unappealing near black color
requires high levels of nitrogen in soil for top yield
Notes: an amaranth with many attributes similar to A. tricolor
beautiful purple flowers
edible oil sometimes extracted from seeds on small scale in Africa
Seeds:- ECHO; Hurov's Tropical Seeds;

B &T Associates

Alternathera sissoo (A. sessilis, A. ficoidea?) - Brazilian spinach

Pros: one of top three candidates in TRIADES LC trials in Hawaii
used as cooked vegetable
spreads to smother weeds
non-twining
Cons: propagated from cuttings
low growing, creeping plant may be difficult to harvest in economically viable
quantities (200 - 500 kgs per day) rapidly and without a lot of soil getting into the leaf
grinder
Notes: flowers sometimes eaten
member of amaranth family
not well known
Seeds:- Hurov's Tropical Seeds; Gleckler's Seedsmen; B &T Associates

Amaranthus tricolor - Bledo forajero

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: comes up quickly, can often be harvested in 3-4 weeks
large yields possible under intensive cultivation
c.85% moisture in green crop
pan-tropic
seed readily available
regrowth up to 4 harvests
protein quality excellent for leaf crop
tolerates high aluminum content in soil
Cons: often worked with in LC projects but usually yields poorly
some tests have given very fine curd that is difficult to separate
badly attacked by damping off in Rivas, Nicaragua
very dependent on nitrogen fertilizer for good yields
doesn't grow well during long periods of cloudy or rainy weather or in partial
shade
prone to bolting (premature setting of seed)
Notes: numerous amaranth species, including A.cruentus, A. hypochondriacus, A.
caudatus are grown for grain-like seeds. Often green shoots and thinnings from these
crops are eaten casually as greens.
some wild amaranths, notably A. retroflexus, A. spinosis, and A. hybridus are often
serious weeds. They are eaten as greens sometimes as well., but are not useful sources of
leaf concentrate.
leaves are high in oxalic acid, but most of the free oxalic acid will wash out with
"whey" and the crystalline oxalic acid normally passes through the body without bonding
with calcium. Free oxalic acid can bond with calcium, which makes the calcium less
available to the human body and can lead to calcium oxalate kidney stones in some people.
leaves high in nitrates, especially in dry weather or when grown with high levels of
nitrogen fertilizer. Almost all of the nitrates will also wash out with the "whey"
sometimes transplanted at 2-3 weeks when 2-4 leaves are on plant
slugs and snails often damage young plants
vegetable amaranths have more trouble with insects as a rule than grain amaranths
c. 87 % moisture; 3.5 % protein
Seeds:- - J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Hurov's Tropical Seeds; Peace Seeds; Redwood
City Seed Co; Burpee & Co; B &T Associates

BRASSICAS
Brassica carinata - Ethiopian collards, Texsel greens
Temperate/Subtropical
Pros: Excellent flavored greens and curd

very fast growing

one of the most heat tolerant brassicas
most salt tolerant brassica
most waterlogging tolerant brassica
Cons: somewhat prone to bolting
heavy nitrogen user
least drought resistant of leafy brassicas in Indian trials
Notes: breeding program at Texas A & M was promoting this crop as Tamu TexSel
Seeds:- Texas Foundation Seed Service; ECHO; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; B &T
Associates

Brassica juncea (B. alba, B. nigra) - Mustard , Mostaza.

Temperate
Pros: erect fast growing plants
did well with wheat in early Rothamstead trials
grew very well in San Ignacio, Nicaragua despite hot humid climate
Cons: When large amounts were ground quickly in Nicaragua, workers experienced
burning sensation on eyes and skin
90-92 % moisture and 2.4-3 % protein is marginal in terms of dry matter for
economic production
Notes: Grown in India for LC with seeding rate of 30 kg/ha
Seeds:- Banana Tree; J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Burpee & Co;
-hundreds of varieties; seed widely available

B &T Associates

Brassica oleracea var. acephala - Collards, Kale,Col Foragera

Temperate
Pros: 83 % moisture, 4 -6 % protein
grow quickly
well recognized as edible leaf crop
tree, thousand headed, and walking stick kale varieties produce huge leaves on tall
strong plants
Cons: very slow regrowth
sometimes a strong cooked cabbage smell to curd
need cool nights
Notes: goitregens that limit usefulness of brassicas as forage crops are destroyed by heat
in LC process; however, they may remain in the fiber in significant quantity to affect milk.

They are passed from forage to milk and can cause iodine deficiency in children who drink
this milk.
Seeds: -Burpee & Co.; Redwood City Seed Co; Chitern Seeds; B &T Associates;
Eden Seeds --numerous varieties; seed widely available

CHENOPODS
Atriplex hortensis - Orach, Mountain Spinach
Temperate
Pros: did very well in Rolf Carllson's trials in Sweden
salt tolerant
eaten as green
Cons: heavy nitrogen feeder
prefers cooler climate
Notes: in chenopodium family; some members of genus, especially A. nummalaria, are
among most salt tolerant plants known. It exudes salt onto leaf surface. Palatable and
high in protein but salt content makes livestock thirsty in low water areas. It is possible
that LC process would offer a reasonable way to wash out salt in whey and greatly
improve value of this crop in saline areas. A . HALIMUS will produce palatable forage
when irrigated with saline solution of 30 g/liter of sodium chloride.
Seeds:- J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Abundant Life Seed Foundation; Peace Seeds; B &T
Associates

Beta vulgaris - Common beetroot. Remolacha

Temperate
Pros: by-product leaves of popular root vegetable
beet greens are eaten as a vegetable in many places
Cons: very fine curd is somewhat difficult to separate
leaves may be past peak when root reach maximum weight
Notes:--numerous varieties; seed widely available

Beta vulgaris var. cicla - Swiss Chard, Acelgas

Pros: popular leaf vegetable in Mexico and India
some varieties well suited to repeated harvest including Erbette, Perpetual, and
Markin Giant
Cons: very fine curd is somewhat difficult to separate

Temperate

Notes: includes leaf beets, which are beets grown for leaves as well as some Japanese
cultivars that are mid way between chards and leaf beets.
-numerous varieties; seed widely available in areas where crop is grown

Chenopodium album - Lambsquarters, Fat Hen

Temperate
Pros: did very well in Rolf Carllson's trials in Sweden
a common weed in disturbed soil
eaten in northern Mexico as Quelite, a spinach substitute
82 % moisture
Cons: prefers very rich land
Notes: related plants including C. bonus henricus (good King Henry) and C. quinoa also
can be used to make leaf concentrate.
Luis Fuentes in Bolivia reported that quinoa leaves were too dry to extract well,
but they may have a higher moisture content grown in a wetter area than the Bolivian
Altiplano
Seeds:- J.L. Hudson Seedsman; Abundant Life Seed Foundation; Bountiful Gardens;
B &T Associates

GRAINS
Avena sativa - Oats, Avena
Temperate
Pros: used in Bareilly project in India
Cons:
Notes: similar to wheat
-numerous varieties; seed widely available in areas where crop is grown

Pennisetum glaucum (P. typhoides, P. americanum) - Pearl millet

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: very fast growing c-4 crop
good flavor to LC reported in India
adapted to sandy soils with under 300 mm rainfall
erect growth habit for easy harvest
Cons: tough and fibrous
lower yield of LC than legumes

no N fixation, needs heavy N fertilizer for good crop

foliage not known as a food
Notes: macerator appears to be well suited to tough fibrous crops, especially non-viny
ones
slender leafy Egyptian varieties better than grain type
81-86% moisture
seeding rate c.5 kgs/ha
Seeds:- ECHO; Seeds of Change
-numerous varieties; seed widely available in areas where crop is grown

Secale cereale - Rye

Temperate
Notes: similar to wheat
used as a green manure sometimes because its vigorous branching roots open up
soil and add organic matter along with the green tops
perennial ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) gave good LC yield in New Zealand trials
-numerous varieties; seed widely available in areas where crop is grown

Triticosecale sp. - Triticale

Temperate
Pros: hardy to cold, reportedly grows well in Bolivian altiplano
erect plant 120 -200 cm tall should be easily harvested with scythe
seeds valuable grain crop
Cons: needs nitrogen fertilizer for good yield
doesn't thrive in humid tropics
Notes: a cross between wheat and rye
Seeds:- Good Seed Co.; Sharp Bros. Seed Co; Chambers Seeds

Triticum x aestivum - Wheat, Trigo

Pros: used successfully in early trials at Rothamsted
young wheatgrass extracts easily
erect growth should be easily harvested with scythe or sickle bar cutter
fall planted wheat could give very early forage harvest in spring in temperate zones
Cons: needs nitrogen fertilizer for good yield
doesn't thrive in humid tropics

Temperate

Notes: Thinopyron intermedium (Intermediate wheatgrass) is a related species that may

have more potential as LC source. It is being tested at Rodale Research Center as a
perennial grain
-numerous varieties; seed widely available in areas where crop is grown

OTHERS (PERENNIAL TREES & SHRUBS)

Moringa olifera - Horseradish, Marango or Drumstick Tree, Benzolive,
Malungay
Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: Indigenous tree in much of Central America
leaves eaten cooked
ECHO reported success making LC from moringa
good fencepost crop
a tree crop whose roots can get water and keep foliage green when field crops are
brown
roots used as horeradish substitute
seeds reportedly yield good cooking oil (though we didn't have much success
separating it in Nicaragua)
seeds reportedly useful for purifying drinking water
does well with low rainfall
Cons: we had trouble separating mucilaginous juice in Nicaragua, though ECHO
reported good results
trees would be difficult to harvest 200 kg of leaves from compared to field crops
Notes: TRIADES reports African moringa (Moringa stenopetala) has larger and more
palatable leaves and is generally more desirable
Seeds: - ECHO; Banana Tree; J.L. Hudson Seedsman;
Seeds Pvt. Ltd. Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd

Kumar International; Pocha

Sauropus androgynus - Asparagus bush, Katuk. Sweet leaf bush

Pros: one of top three candidates in TRIADES LC trials in Hawaii
leaves can be eaten raw
growing tip is asparagus-like delicacy (it needs shade to be use as asparagus)
easily propagated from seeds or cuttings
adapted to wet tropics
YIELDS UP to 80 TONS GREEN LEAVES /HA reported
recommended as vegetable crop by Franklin Martin in Puerto Rico and by ECHO
leaves available year round

Cons: frequent usage reported to cause bodily pains

speed of leaf harvest on small shrubby tree?
Martin Price of ECHO reported a failure of Indonesian large plantation for shoots
because of high labor requirements
heavy N feeder
Notes: 81 % moisture
8-10 weeks to first harvest
likes about 70% of full sunlight
leaves used to color pastry, make fermented rice, and alcoholic drink
fruits used to makes sweets in Southeast Asia
needs high soil moisture for good shoot production, though shrub will survive
much lower moisture
Seeds: - Hurov's Tropical Seeds; The Borneo Collection

Spondias purpurea - Jocote

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: indigenous scrubby tree crop in Nicaragua
young leaves eaten occasionally raw or cooked, used as tea for colds
possibilities as living fence
make good yield of LC with pleasantly tangy flavor
leaves 5.5% protein; low moisture
Cons: difficult to harvest economical quantities quickly
little known about chemistry of leaves
Notes: S. mombin, S. lutin, S. mangifera, and S. dulcis all related plants whose somewhat
tart leaves are eaten either raw or cooked
Seeds: - Hurov's Tropical Seeds; B &T Associates; Kumar International

OTHERS (NON-WOODY)
Azolla pinnata
Tropical
Pros: 2nd highest in dry matter (7.8%) of 16 water plants in Calcutta trials
good quality LC
aquatic fern that grows in association with nitrogen fixing blue-green algae
may have potential as LC crop in places to wet for conventional field crops
may have potential for use in rice paddy intercrop
Cons: higher moisture content 92% and lower extractability than legumes

Notes: suggested by TRIADES

Coccinia grandis_ - Perennial cucumber, Ivy gourd, Scarlet gourd

Pros: one of top three candidates in TRIADES LC trials in Hawaii
vigorous perennial
leaves can be eaten raw or cooked
cucumber like fruits eaten young or pickled
reportedly used as living fence
Cons: wild relatives can become weed pest spread by birds, (to prevent this a sterile
cultivar is used which can only be propagated by cuttings)
Notes: Little information available on this crop as grown for leaves rather than fruit
Seeds: - Hurov's Tropical Seeds;

B &T Associates

Crassocephalum biafrae - Sierra Leone Bologi

Crassocephalum crepidioides -Ebolo
Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: well adapted to growing in light shade. Direct sunlight reported to reduce rate of
growth. This could be a valuable attribute for growing in agro-forestry or multi-storied
schemes or intercropped with coffee, banana or other large perennials.
Cons: little known about this crop as a source of LC
succulent leaves could be mucilaginous
propagated by cuttings, rarely by seeds. This makes importation of crop into areas
where it doesn't already exist difficult.
plants very sensitive to dry soil
Notes: young leaves and shoots eaten in tropical Africa
more investigation needed before it can be seriously considered
prefers soil with organic content
plants normally established 60-75 cm apart with supports up to 1.5 meters
flowering shoots removed to encourage leaf production
leaf harvest begins in 60-70 days, continues for over one year depending on plant
vigor
yields c. 15 kg fresh leaf per plant per year
Seeds: - Hurov's Tropical Seeds

Manihot esculenta - Cassava or Yuca

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: leaves high in protein

good yield of LC
pan-tropic
could be one of the biggest protein producers in the tropics
cassava LC could be mixed with starchy cassava tubers to make nutritious food
Zaire study shows that some defoliation can increase tuber yield
in Nicaragua leaves continue to be green well into dry season
Columbian study indicates acceptable digestibility of cassava LC
Cons: may not be easy to harvest in large quantities
serious questions about digestibility of protein due to binding with phenolics
not recommended by Telek in Puerto Rico
Notes: chick studies need to be done
heating juice to boiling and pressing curd very well should remove c. 95% of
hydrocyanic acid
Hydrocyanic acid content of tubers varies from c 14 mg/kg (sweet cassava) to 400
mg/kg (bitter cassava). Leaves from plants with bitter tubers have much higher HCN
than leaves from plants with sweet tubers. Taste is not a reliable indicator of HCN activity.
added nitrogen tends to stimulate leaf production and depress tuber yield
c. 80 % moisture; 6% protein in fresh leaves (moisture content lower in older
leaves)
Seeds: - Hurov's Tropical Seeds; B &T Associates
-numerous varieties; seed and cuttings widely available in areas where crop is
grown

Sesimum indicum - Sesame, Ajonjoli.

Tropical/Subtropical
Pros: produced good yield of mild flavored curd in Nicaraguan trials Cassava Leaf
leaves eaten raw in salads or as a potherb
Cons: Walt Bray reported trouble with mucilaginous juice in several trials in India and the
US.
Notes: much grown for seed; little known about production of leaves
Seeds:- Kusa Reasearch Foundation; Chitern Seeds

Silphium perfoliatum L -

Temperate

Pros: produced very heavy yield in Italian trials

harvested twice (first week of June and mid August yielded up to 200 tons/ha
green crop
a weed, should have potentia for breeding

Cons: not well known as a human food source

doesn't have easily available commercial seed
Notes: studied in several European countries

Urtica dioica - Stinging nettle

Temperate
Pros: young leaves are palatable potherb
very high in protein
used by Michael Cole in England
Cons: hairs on leaves irritate skin
Notes: leaf juice has been used as a rennet in preparing cheese
prefers rich moist soil of riverbanks
used to make herbal tea
reportedly has anti-fungal effect on plants
Seeds: - Abundant Life Seed Foundation;

J.L. Hudson Seedsman

SOURCES OF SEEDS
Many of the seed sources listed here deal mainly with very small packets of seeds,
sometimes containing a dozen or fewer seeds. This may be enough to see if a plant will
grow well in your area or to make a small sample of leaf concentrate. For economic
production of LC you will need to develop much cheaper sources of bulk seed.
Sometimes these are available locally through seed companies not listed here. You may be
able to propagate your own seed from a small packet or two if teh growing conditions for
that plant are excellent. There are lots of rules restricting the movement of seeeds between
countries. You may need to get a phytosanitary document, declaring the seed to be free of
pathogens like viruses from the seed source. Find out about this before ordering seeds, or
they may be confiscated. Sources in bold type handle seed for several crops listed.
Abundant Life Seed Foundation ~ PO Box 772 ~ Port Townsend,~ WA 98368 ~USA
tel: 206 385 7192

B &T Associates~Whitnell House~Fiddington~Bridgewater~Somerset TA5

1JE~UNITED KINGDOM tel: 278 733 209

Banana Tree~~715 Northampton St.~Easton~PA 18042~~USA~tel: 215 253-9589

The Borneo Collection~PO El Arish~QLD 4855~AUSTRALIA~tel: 70 685 263 (will ship

plants to tropical countries, not US mainland)
Bountiful Gardens~5798 Ridgewood Rd~Willits~CA 95490~USA
Burpee & Co.~300 Park Ave.~Warminster~PA 18974~USA~tel: 1 800 888 1447
Cal/West Seeds ~Po Box 1428~Woodland ~CA 95695~USA
Chambers Seeds~15 Westleigh Rd.~Barton Seagraves~Kettering~Northants NN15
5AJ~UNITED KINGDOM~tel: 0933 681 632

Chitern Seeds~Bortree Stile~Ulverston~Cumbria~England LA12 7PB~UNITED

KINGDOM~tel: 0229 581 137
Dumon Agro NV~Pathoekeweg 40~8000 Brugge~BELGIUM~tel: 32 050 315161; fax
050 315171 (large quantities only)

ECHO ~ 17430 Durrance Road ~ N. Fort Myers, FL 33917 USA tel: 813 543 3246
Eden Seeds~MS 316~Gympie 4570~AUSTRALIA~tel: 071 86 5230
Empresa de Semillas Forrajeres~Casilla 593~Tiquipaya~Cochabamba~BOLIVIA~tel:
41975
The Environmental Collaboration~ PO Box 539~Osseo~MN 55369~USA (5 tree
minimum for each species) [seedlings]
Gleckler's Seedsmen~Metamora~OH 43540~USA
Glendale Enterprises,Inc.~Rt 3 Box 77 P~Defuniak Springs~FL 32433~USA~ tel: 904
859 2141
Good Seed Co.~Star Rt. Box 73A~Oroville~WA 98844~USA~tel: 509 485 3605

Gunson Seed~Nature Rd~Zesfontein~7409~Petit 1512~REPUBLIC OF SOUTH

AFRICA
Harmony Farm Supply~PO Box 451~Graton~CA 95444~USA~tel: 707 823 9125

J.L. Hudson Seedsman~PO Box 1058~Redwood City~CA 94064~USA

Hurov's Tropical Seeds~PO Box 1596~Chula Vista~CA 92012~USA ~tel: 619 464
1017;619 426 0091

Inland and Foreign Trading Co., Ltd.~Block 79A~Indus Rd. # 04418/420~SINGAPORE 0316~tel: 272 2711 or 278 2193
KEO Entities~ 348 Chelsea Circle~ Land O'Lakes~ FL 34639~ USA tel: 813 996 4644
Kaufman Seed, Inc. Box 398 Ashdown, AR 71822 USA tel: 501 898 3328

Kenya Seed Co.~Elgon Downs Farm Research Centre~PO Box

13~Endebess~KENYA~tel: 0325 20941 (42 & 43)

Kumar International~Ajitmal 206121~ Etawah~Uttar Pradesh, INDIA

Kusa Reasearch Foundation~PO Box 761~Ojai~CA 93023~USA
Peace Seeds~2385 SE Thompson St.~Corvallis~OR 97333~USA~tel: 503 752 0421

Peaceful Valley Farm Supply~~P.O. Box 2209~Grass Valley~CA 95945, USA

tel:= 916 272 GROW

FAX= 916 272 4794

Phoenix Seeds~PO Box 9~Stanley~Tasmania 7331~AUSTRALIA ~ tel: 00458 1105

Plants of the Southwest~930 Baca St.~Santa Fe~NM 87501~USA~ tel: 505 983 1548
Pocha Seeds Pvt. Ltd.~PO Box 55~Near Sholopur Bazaar~Poona 411 040~INDIA~ tel:
671978
Primac Seeds~PO Box 943~Murwillumbah~NSW 2484~AUSTRALIA~tel: 6166 72 1866

Queensland Agricultural Seeds Pty.,Ltd.~PO Box 1052~Toowoomba, QLD

4350~ AUSTRALIA ~tel: 61 76 30 1000
Redwood City Seed Co.~PO Box 361~Redwood City~CA 94064~USA~ tel: 415 325
7333
Seeds of Change~621 Old Sante Fe Trail #10~Santa Fe~NM 87501~USA tel: 505 983
8956

Setropa Seeds~ Troelstralaan 4~1272 JZ Huizen~HOLLAND

Sutton and Sons,(INDIA) Pvt. Ltd.~PO Box 9207~Calcutta 700 071~INDIA~tel: 91
3329 0472

T.S.L. Ltd.~PO Box 66043~Kopje~Harare~ZIMBABWE~tel: 68685 94; fax: 68698

Texas Foundation Seed Service~Texas Agricultural Experiment Station~College
Station~TX 77843-2581~USA~tel: 409 845 4051
Tokita Seed Co., Ltd.~Nakagawa~Omiya-shi~Saitama-ken 330~JAPAN~tel: 048 683
3434

AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION
For many years the work of Leaf For Life has been very focused on teaching small groups
of people, usually women, in tropical countries to make and use leaf concentrate in order
to improve the nutrition and health of their families. It is worth remembering, however,
that our search for means of producing and distributing leaf concentrate often leads to
secondary benefits that may have lasting value for the communities we work with.
In Nicaragua, for example, we are trying to learn how to grow abundant cowpea foliage
for leaf concentrate. Like much of the developing world, Nicaragua's agriculture has been
shaped by centuries of colonial domination. There is a highly mechanized export sector
that uses very expensive equipment to produce sugar, bananas, coffee and cotton. Then
there is the subsistence or small farm sector where peasants try to coax enough food for
their families with a machete and maybe a hoe. Between the $50,000 tractors and the $4
machete little is available in the way of labor saving agricultural tools. Out of necessity
Leaf For Life has become involved in the introduction of appropriate scale agricultural
tools.
One of the most promising of these tools is a simple wheel seeder that costs about $75.
We introduced these because they enable us to plant cowpeas more accurately and more
quickly. They give much more evenly planted rows which has eliminated both
overplanting, which wastes valuable seed, and underplanting, which leads to low yields.
As the farmer pushes the seeder along it opens a row to the depth we select, drops in
seeds at the frequency we chose, and covers the seed with dirt. At the same time it is
marking the next row at the distance we chose.
Keeping the rows free from weeds that compete with the cowpeas is another chore that
we've had to address. Typically small farmers use either a machete to hack the weeds
while bent over in the hot tropical sun or chop the weeds out with a heavy hoe. Both
methods are extremely tiring and time consuming. Weeding needs to be done frequently or
tough perennial weed grasses take hold and the yield of the crops drops sharply from their
competition. We are testing two different types of wheel hoes that cost between $50 and
$65. These tools allow the peasant to stand upright and walk quickly down the rows
rolling a 20 cm (8") slicing hoe through the weeds. The wheel cultivator is so much easier
and faster to use that workers are encouraged to stay ahead of the tough weeds with
frequent shallow weeding. With slight modifications we can adjust the wheel seeder to lay
out rows that perfectly match the wheel cultivators. Earthway, a US. based company

produces both seeders and wheel hoes; Coles Planet Jr. is a more expensive US. built
wheel seeder. Both are available through Peaceful Valley Farm Supply.
Normally beans in Nicaragua are planted in rows 32-36" apart. This is tied to the space
needed to cultivate with oxen. We are testing a system of planting beans in rows 16" apart
with the wheel seeder and cultivating them with the wheel hoe. When they get too
crowded we harvest every other row to make leaf concentrate. This system could
produce far more nutrients per acre with less work. By having an extra row of beans
between the wide rows, weeding would be easier, the soil would be improved and the land
would yield LC and fiber for animals as well as beans.
Preparing small plots of land for planting is another job that plagues the Nicaraguan
peasant. Often they contract wealthier farmers to prepare land with tractors. But because
they have small parcels to plow they frequently have to wait until after the optimal
planting time when the tractors are less busy. The big tractors require a substantial area at
the end of the rows in which to turn. This means much of the land in small plots is left
unprepared. We have partially resolved this problem in our small cowpea patches by using
gasoline powered roto-tillers or rotary tiller.
We have used a 5 horsepower tiller that costs about $400 and are bringing in an 8 HP and
a 14 HP tiller that costs about $1000 and $2500. These are more expensive tools, but still
cost far less than the full size tractors. The largest of these is a BCS Italian made walking
tractor. It is an amazingly versatile agricultural tool, that is becoming quite popular in
parts of Latin America. It can prepare small parcels of land quickly for seeds and cultivate
weeds. In addition a sickle-bar mower can be attached that enables one to quickly harvest
forage crops at an even height. Attachments allow this tool to be used to chop or grind
crops for animal feed, pump water, and even haul up to a quarter ton on a cart it can pull
behind.

SOME GENERAL SUGGESTIONS

FOR GROWING LEAF CONCENTRATE CROPS
Information
- In most areas the farmers and gardeners who successfully grow traditional leaf crops are
the best source of information on growing them.
- Try to make connections in the forage or horticulture departments of the nearest college
level agricultural school. They can be very helpful in identifying local pests, suggesting
varieties that have done well in the area, etc. Use the library.
- Try to find out the scientific name for any serious weed, insect pest, nematode or
disease. Also scientific names for any local leaf crops that are of interest. This will enable
distant workers to help find solutions or to provide useful information. Increasingly, we
will be able to use high speed computer searches to find information quickly.

Water
- The most common limiting factor in leaf crop production is an inadequate or uneven
supply of water to the plants. Lush leaf crops require a lot of water. Don't begin a leaf
concentrate operation unless you can supply your leaf crops enough water for good
growth. Most leaf crops thrive with 2 - 4 cm of water per week throughout their growing
season. Once established, plants prefer a thorough soaking every week to ten days over a
light sprinkle more frequently. Some plants, like cowpeas, are very sensitive to flooding,
so overwatering can be as harmful as underwatering.
- It may be more economical to produce more leaf concentrate than needed during the
rainy season and preserve it for the dry season, than to try to irrigate crops through the
dry season to maintain year round production. This can be a critical economic decision for
a leaf concentrate project. It needs to be carefully thought out. Our experience with
irrigation systems in developing countries has not been very positive. Often the capacity of
the pumps or of the well or storage tanks is overestimated. Ditches may be clogged with
waterweeds that need to be cleaned out, or they may leak more water than reaches the
plants. An irrigation failure during the dry season can mean a complete crop loss.
Irrigation systems that are not carefully designed to provide adequate drainage of the
added water can lead to salinization of the soil and a serious loss of soil structure.This is a
very serious problem affecting irrigated farming.
- Always it costs more in effort or money or both to grow crops with irrigation than with
rainfall. Usually you can produce much more crop if you can control the amount of water
reaching the plants. Also plants frequently will perform better in dry season with irrigation
than during a rainy season because of greater sunshine and fewer problems with molds,
fungi, and viruses. Try to calculate the additional costs of the irrigation against its value,
and against the additional costs of preserving leaf concentrate and leaving your workshop
and workers idle through the dry season.

- Many plants respond well to irrigation directly after leaf harvests.

Soil
- Non-leguminous leaf crops are heavy nitrogen feeders. They will yield better with an
application of manure, urea, ammonium sulfate, or other nitrogen fertilizer. Some
leguminous crops will respond well to light feedings of nitrogen, but others like Clitoria
may experience reduced forage yield.
- The value of the nitrogen added to the soil from leguminous leaf concentrate crops
should be considered. We estimate that in Nicaragua $25-35 US per hectare can be saved
by growing cowpeas for leaf concentrate and incorporating the fiber, then switching to
corn production the following year.
- Leguminous leaf crops are usually heavy phosphorus feeders and will respond well to
added phosphorus. This element is frequently deficient in tropical soil and often is the first
factor limiting yields. PHOSPHORUS can improve yield of protein and biomass from
legumes significantly even at 25-30 kg per hectare.
- Have your soil analyzed if that service is available at low cost and follow the fertilizer
and lime recommendations if possible.
- If the soil structure or fertility is poor the residual fiber and whey can be incorporated
into the soil to improve it. Low organic matter in the soil can lead to many problems
including waterlogging, poor utilization of phosphorus, and poor aeration of crop roots.
Manure and crop residues help maintain organic matter in the soil. It is important that
carbon rich residues, such as straw, sawdust, or sugar cane bagasse be mixed with
nitrogen rich sources like manure and leguminous crop residues. The addition of large
quantities of carbon rich material can devastate crops until the soil microorganisms regain
a soil balance. Building up soil organic matter is a long term undertaking, and it is
impossible to do it adequately in one year or less.

Planting
- Seeds should be planted closer together than they are normally. For crops like cowpeas,
or lablab that are normally grown for their seeds, it pays to plant at twice the normally
density for maximum forage yield. Denser planting is not normally warranted for
perennial legumes like alfalfa and pueraria.
- Plant seeds carefully. Planting too deeply is the most common cause of poor
germination. If the seeds are carefully spaced in the rows and the rows are straight, the
work of weeding will be much easier, and you won't need to thin the plants. When seeds
are planted very quickly there is a tendency to have blank stretches and clumps of plants
that are too close to each other. Both of these reduce yield.
- Inoculate legume seeds with commercial inoculant if available or with soil from a
successful field of the same legume, unless the same crop has been grown on this land

within the past three years. For some crops like Clitoria, inoculated plants will produce
25% more foliage, as well as fixing far more nitrogen from the air.
- Leaf crops can often be grown between two rows of another crop, then cut when their
leaves begin touching the other crop. This can reduce weed problems and increases the
productivity of the land.

Weeds
- It is especially important to control weed growth when leaf crop is young and just after
leaf harvest. Keeping weeds down until the leaf crop is well established is especially
important with perennial legumes, that tend to be a bit slower than annuals getting started.
While a few weeds will usually have little effect on LC yield or quality, heavy weeds will
compete strongly with your leaf crop for water, nutrients, space, and sunlight and the LC
yield per hectare can be drastically reduced.
- Annual weeds are usually best controlled by cultivation, and perennial weeds can often
be controlled by repeated cultivation as well. In small patches hand hoeing is often
effective. A study in India gave the top rating to a long handled push-pull hoe with a 1520 cm (6-8") serrated blade set at 70 to the handle. This was considered four times faster
than pulling the weeds by hand.
- By far the worst weed problem we've encountered in Nicacarua has been Cyperuses,
grasslike perennials in the nutsedge family. They are extremely difficult to get rid of
because of their extensive underground roots system.
The two essentials to
controlling nutsedges by attrition are to cultivate it before they have 5-6 leaves, at which
point they begin producing tubers; and to keep them shaded by other plants as
completely as possible. They don't compete well in the shade and density of the Cyperus
tubers and rhizomes can be gradually reduced until it is not a serious problem. Cyperus
tubers can survive up to 4 years in dry soils.
- When the ground is not too wet, a high wheel hand cultivator fitted with a slicing hoe
can be pushed quickly through the rows cutting of the Cyperus just below the ground.
Where this had been done once every two weeks, the Cyperus was already large enough
to be difficult to cut through and already forming new tubers. Running the wheel hoe
through rows just wide enough for it to pass once a week should help keep the Cyperus
from being able to photosynthesize and thus from being able to build up the reserves of
carbohydrates in its root system that make it so hard to eradicate. Perennial weed grass,
like Imperata, can be treated in much the same way as Cyperus.
- There are also wheel hoes and other simple cultivators that are set up to be drawn by
animals. In general, draft animals supply more power than humans and greater flexibility
than tractors. An ox typically delivers from 0.5 -0.75 horsepower, while a human worker
rarely has a sustained output of over 0.1 horsepower.
- We do not usually recommend the use of herbicides to control weeds. They can be an
expensive, usually imported habit. Poisoning of farm workers, contamination of ground

water, and accidentally killing desirable plants with herbicide is common, especially where
workers cannot read warning labels. Where severe infestation of perennial grasses or
sedges prevents adequate growth of leaf crops, it may be necessary to use herbicides to
gain control initially. If herbicides are needed continually to maintain normal leaf crop
yields, you should consider changing the leaf crop to one that can compete better with the
weeds, or changing the cultivation schedule to one of frequent shallow weedings until the
grasses are weakened.
- Glyphosate (Round-Up) herbicide is probably the easiest and least expensive means of
achieving control over perennial nutsedges and grasses. We used glyphosate to control
the Cyperus for about 3 months before reinfestation. The timing of the application of this
herbicide is critical to its success. It should be applied when the Cyperus is about 20 cm
high and growing rapidly. Workers at CATIE in Costa Rica suggested an application rate
of 2 liters per hectare, with 700 ml mixed with 25 liters of water and delivered through
very fine (80001 -80005) low volume nozzles. Glyphosate is a fairly safe chemical in terms
of acute toxicity to mammals with an LD 50 of 4320 mg/kg (this is the dosage that kills
50% of laboratory mice), compared with 2,4 -D, for example, which has an LD 50 of 375
mg/kg. Glyphosate is a skin and eye irritant and care should be taken in mixing and
handling it.
- Some crops can be used to smother weeds effectively. Closely planted sweet potato
vines have been used for this purpose. Velvet beans, kudzu, and desmodium are examples
of leguminous crops sometimes planted to smother weeds. These have the advantage of
fixing nitrogen and can leave the soil enriched as well as relatively weed free. This
technique takes far more time than spraying herbicide.
- Another technique for deterring persistent weeds is called "solarizing". It is useful only
for relatively small patches. The soil is tilled or plowed then wetted, then covered with a
thin (2 mil) clear or black plastic sheet for 2 to 3 weeks. Clear plastic has been
recommended more frequently, but recent tests indicate black plastic may be slightly more
effective. Ultraviolet resistant polyethylene will hold up much longer under the tropical
sun, but is more expensive and more difficult to find in most countries. In tropical climates
the temperature will rise quickly and most grasses will be effectively killed. Many of the
weed seeds under the plastic will also be killed. Nematodes and Pythium (the organisms
that cause damping off ) will also be killed. Perennial weeds with tubers, rhizhomes, or
stolons below 10 cm (4"), such as Cyperus will usually recover from solarizing, though
they will be weakened.
- Geese have been used to control weeds succesfully in some locations. They are
especially fond of young grasses and cyperus. About 10 geese per hectare is usually
recommended. They have to be enclosed and provided with water and a small amount of
additional food. If there is not

Temperature required to destroy pests

PESTS

TEMPERAT
URE

Nematodes
Damping Off
(Pythium)
Most Pathogenic
Bacteria and Fungi
Most Soil Insects
and Some Viruses
Most Weed Seeds
Resistant Weed
Seeds and Viruses

REQUIRED
FOR 30
MINUTES
( F)

( C)

123
130

51
55

150

66

162

73

180
212

83
100

Pests
- Avoid insecticides if possible. If not use low toxicity ones like neem, rotenone, BT
(Bacillus thurengensis) sabadilla or pyrethroids. Wait at least 15 days to process leaves
after spraying and wash the leaves especially well. Try safe insect repellents, such as
garlic, onion, chilies, or tobacco soaked for two days in water. Then spray this water on
the plants, after straining it. If slight insect damage affects appearance of leaves, as they
will soon be ground to a pulp anyway.
- Neem (Azadirachta indica) is a tree from India that has been spread throughout most of
the tropics. The seeds from the Neem tree can be gro und in water to make an insecticide
that is safe for mammals, doesn't persist in the environment, and can be easily produced
locally, avoiding the cost and dependency on imported insecticides. It is effective in
controlling grasshoppers, beetles, aphids, and caterpillars. Neem extract acts both as an
insecticide and as a repellant. It doesn't kill instantly, as some synthetic insecticides do nor
does it have as long lasting an effect. So it must be used as early as possible after an insect
infestation is suspected and it may need to be applied more than once to maintain control.
Neem leaves also have some insecticidal properties, though not as strong as the seeds.
They are sometimes packed with beans or other seeds to repel storage insects. The wood
from neem is very resistant to termite damage.
- If possible avoid walking through leguminous crops when they are wet from rain or dew.
This is one of the main ways that viruses are transmitted. This is not always possible
because it is advantageous to harvest leaf crop early in the morning when dew may still be
on the leaves.

- Domestic animals belonging to neighbors could be the biggest pests of all. Cows, horses
and pigs can damage a leaf crop quickly. Chickens can scratch up new seeds. Fencing in
your crop can be a major additional expense if you are working in an area where livestock
is roaming freely. Unscrupulous farmers may encourage their livestock to feed on your
leaf crops to reduce their feed bill. This is normally a serious matter in agricultural
societies, and the offending farmer will often be held liable for your losses.

Harvest
- Try to have fresh leaves year round by either adjusting a harvest schedule or by timing
the planting of more than one crop. This requires considerable forethought and
experience.
- Harvest the plant high enough to allow for rapid regrowth. For example, cowpeas cut at
20 cm above the ground will regrow quickly but those cut at 5 cm will regrow slowly if at
all.

INTERCROPPING
Intercropping is the growing of two crops in the same field at the same time. It is one of
the oldest agricultural practices known. An intercrop normally produces greater total
yield than the two crops grown separately. So two hectares of corn and cowpeas
intercropped will usually produce about 30% more than one hectare of corn and one
hectare of cowpeas. Some plant combinations make more productive intercrops than
others. The intercropping of a nitrogen fixing leguminous crop with a grain or other
heavy nitrogen feeder like bananas is a common practice. Plants that are tolerant to
shading are often well suited to intercropping with tree crops or tall plants like maize.
Among tropical forage legumes, Desmodium intortum stands out for high productivity in
moderate shade, followed by Pueraria phaseoloides, and Centrosema pubescens.
These are very important in developing countries where yields are often limited because
farmers can't afford to buy nitrogen fertilizer, and agricultural soils are often depleted by
grain crops. Farmers are usually primarily concerned with the main crop yield. If that
holds up and there is either soil improvement, lowered fertilizer costs, or additional food
products (ie. beans or LC), the farmer is likely to continue intercroppping. If there is a
significant decline in the main crop intercropping is unlikely to be continued, even if there
are other advantages.
Leaf for Life is studying various intercropping systems using cowpeas and other crops
that are suitable for leaf concentrate processing. Cowpeas are the ultimate intercrop plant.
Over 90% of cowpeas grown in Africa are grown in intercrop systems.
In Nicaragua
the intercropping of 4 rows of cowpeas between rows of bananas and plantains has shown
a lot of promise. Since the weeds need to be cut from between the banana rows anyway, it
makes sense to use that space for a nitrogen fixing crop. The cowpea leaves are processed
into leaf concentrate for child nutrition programs and the fiber and whey returned to the
banana plants.

USING LEAF CONCENTRATE BYPRODUCTS

Leaf concentrate has been discussed at length in this manual, but what about the fiber and
the whey that represent over 90% of the weight of the original leaf crop? When any fresh
green leaf crop is processed into leaf concentrate three products are produced. The leaf
concentrate, the residual fiber, and the residual liquid or "whey". 100 kg of leaf crop at
80% moisture content should produce about:
5 -7 kg leaf concentrate at 60% moisture
44 kg fiber at 70% moisture
50 kg "whey" at 94% moisture (it may have an even higher moisture content
from the dew or wash water left on the leaf surface before it was pulped).
Another way of viewing this breakdown of leaves is to figure that 100 kg of fresh leaf
crop at 80% moisture should produce roughly:
2 kg dry of LC
2 kg dry weight of "whey"
16 kg dry weight of fiber
80 kg water

RUMINANT FEED
When figured on a dry weight basis, the fiber left over from leaf concentrate
processing has approximately the same feeding value to animals as unprocessed fresh leaf
crop. Although much of the protein has been removed in the leaf concentrate, the residual
fiber still retains adequate protein good cattle feed. Grinding the kleaves up well in the
process means that the fiber has far more surface area thatn the original leaf crop and this
enables the cows's digestive system to extract nutrients more effectively. Because fresh
alfalfa and other leaf crops are usually around 20 % dry matter, while the residual fiber is
around 30% dry matter; the fiber has about 1 1/2 times the feeding value, per kilogram, as
the leaves that it was made from.
100 kg fresh leaf crop = 80 kg water + 20 kg dry matter
50 kg of fiber = 35 kg water + 15 kg dry matter.
In practice the moisture of forage crops varies from about 75-90 %.

If we assume a daily ration of 2 kg dry matter for every 100 kg cow weight, this 50 kg of
fiber will feed 2 1/2 300 kg cows. The 100 kg of unprocessed leaf crop would feed 3 1/3
cows of the same weight.
The palatability of leaf concentrate residual fiber is generally quite good if it is fed fresh or
well dried. It ferments readily if left in a pile, especially in hot tropical weather, and
quickly loses palatability. We have found that cows like it better than do goats or rabbits
but all will usually eat it unless they have been very well fed recently. It is a good idea to
introduce the fiber gradually in the diet of animals and to make sure they get other feed as
well to assure a sufficiently varied diet.

SILAGE
Besides drying the fiber for later use it can be preserved by storing it in a silo. This as a
technique commonly used in many areas for preserving green cattle feed through limiting
the amount of air that comes in contact with the green crop. The action of the anaerobic
(living without air) bacteria alters the acidity of the green feed and makes it more stable.
Work is being done in India with combining leaf concentrate fiber with bagasse (residue
from sugar cane milling) and straw that has been partially broken down with ammonia
from urea. This could become a very inexpensive cattle feed and an excellent way to
utilize sugar cane waste that is discarded in many tropical locations.
Another technique showing even greater promise is described below:

1. Mix together about 215 liters of leaf concentrate whey, 100 kg of sugar cane bagasse
(c. 10 -15% moisture), and 3 kg urea.

2. Pack very tightly into plastic drums or heavy walled plastic bags. This mixture must be
well tamped down and well sealed to exclude as much air as possible.

3. Mix together 300 kg fresh leaf concentrate fiber (c.70 % moisture) and 3 kg urea.
4. Pack very tightly into plastic drums or heavy walled plastic bags. This mixture must be
well tamped down and well sealed to exclude as much air as possible.

5. Leave both for two to three weeks to enable the anaerobic bacteria to break down the
tough fibers.

6. Mix the two silages together and add a small amount of crude molasses and crushed
limestone if they are available

7. This mixed silage is now ready to feed. It will have about the same feed value per kg as
fresh alfalfa, and it is an excellent way to make use of the nutrients in the leaf concentrate
whey and fiber, so that no part of the leaf crop is lost.

SOIL IMPROVEMENT
In locations where the structure or fertility of the soil is low, the residual fiber can be
worked back into the soil with a hoe, roto-tiller or plow to improve it. Research in India
shows wheat yields were greatly increased when they were planted 30-40 days after a
green manure crop of Sesbania sesban or Crotalaria juncea was tilled in. They also found
that they could remove some of the nitrogen in the green manure crop as LC and still
improve the wheat yields. The wheat yield per kilogram of nitrogen supplied was greater
with the LC fiber than with the whole green manure plants tilled in. Because the nitrogen
which is recovered in the LC is in a form that tropical soil bacteria quickly attack, most of
this nitrogen may be lost to the air before plant roots can use it.
Incorporating leaf concentrate fiber can supply nitrogen and improve the structure of the
soil by adding organic matter. Leaving green manure crop residues on top of the soil has
nearly the same impact on nitrogen availability as tilling the crop in, and it requires less
time and energy and will protect the soil against erosion better than the tilled in residues.
Well structured soils rich in organic matter absorb and retain water far more efficiently
than soils maintained only with soluble synthetic fertilizers. This means less flooding and
less drought damage. It also makes for more efficient use of rains and reduces the risk of
salinization from poor drainage in irrigated farmland.
Green manured soils also make better use of phosphorus in the soil by encouraging
mycorrhizal fungus. The mycorrhizae aid plant roots in absorbing phosphorus that is often
present in tropical soils in forms that are difficult to utilize. Studies at ICRISAT in India
showed that chickpeas release mallic acid from their roots that lower soil pH in the root
zone and make phosphorus that is bound with calcium more available to plants.
Pigeonpeas, on the other hand release picidic acid, which has a similar effect of freeing
phosphorus bound with iron. It is quite likely that other legumes have similar beneficial
impacts on phosphorus availability.
Preliminary studies have shown that cowpea forage added to soil lowers the acidity and
reduces aluminum toxicity more effectively than lime.* Many tropical soils are very acidic
and aluminum toxicity is increasingly a limiting factor in crop yields. Spreading crushed
lime on fields can be very expensive, especially where transportation is a major problem.
* N.V. Hue, I. Amien. Aluminum detoxification with green manures. 1989 Commun. In
Soil Sci. Plant Anal., 20 (15-16), 1499 -1511

MUSHROOMS
Work underway in India has shown the potential of using leaf concentrate residual fiber as
a base for mushroom production. A mixture of one half straw and one half residual fiber
was used as a substrate for raising Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom). The yield
using this mixture was roughly twice what is produced by using straw alone. Oyster
mushrooms are a high priced delicacy in many markets. There are several closely related

species of edible Pleurotus mushrooms. All of them are efficient are breaking down the
tough lignin fiber in straw.

Pleurotus will convert 100 kg of straw into approximately 10 kg of mushroom; 70 kg of

water and carbon dioxide; and 20 kg of spent compost. The spent compost is useful as a
cattle feed component, because about 80% of the tough fiber in the straw has been broken
down into substances that are more easily digestible by ruminants. A tremendous amount
of straw is burned in the field each year in the tropics in order to prepare the fields for the
following crop. The burning of straw in the field is one of the world's worst sources of air
pollution and the loss of organic matter speeds up the degradation of tropical agricultural
soils. The commercial value of straw is often too low to justify the labor involved in
collecting and composting it to use to maintain soil fertility. If 10% of the weight of the
straw could be converted to high value mushrooms and 20% to cattle feed, there could be
a great incentive for farmers not to burn their straw in the fields. The spent compost from
Pleurotus culture has also been used as a substitute for chicken manure in commercial
plant nurseries in Puerto Rico.
Pleurotus has also been successfully grown on sugar cane bagasse. sawdust and cotton
waste. Both the yield of mushrooms and the value of the spent compost are enhanced
when the mushrooms are grown on a substrate richer in protein than straw. The leftover
fiber from leaf concentrate production has enough nitrogen to enrich at least an equal
weight of straw. The 50:50 ratio of straw to leaf concentrate residual fiber should make
the Pleurotus culture even more attractive as an alternative to burning fields. This is an
area that clearly warrants more practical investigation. (see Technical Guide for Growing
Mushrooms in the Tropics, listed in Appendix).

BIO-GAS
Another possible means of using both the fiber and the "whey" is to incorporate them into
a bio-gas or methane production scheme. Bio-gas can be economically produced in many
locations where there is a good supply of manure and other organic wastes. The process
which also employs anaerobic bacteria, converts part of the waste to gas that can be used
to cook with much the same as propane. The effluent, or slurry left over after bio-gas has
been produced from organic wastes, is rich in nitrogen and is useful for improving the
structure and fertility of soils. In Nicaragua, part of the residual fiber from leaf
concentrate was used to make bio-gas, which in turn was used to cook lunch at the
cafeteria of the International School of Agriculture. Bio-gas production can be quite
involved and many projects have concluded that it is not economically feasible in their
location. However, in some countries, notably China and India, low cost bio-gas units are
available and have had some popularity.
It may be possible to use bio-gas to heat the leaf juice in LC projects. A group processing
500 kg of leaf crop per day would produce roughly enough fiber to feed 7 cows and it
would need the manure from 9 cows to produce enough bio-gas to the 250 liters of leaf

juice to boiling. Only where cooking fuel is very scarce or expensive is bio-gas worth
serious consideration.
"WHEY"
We often refer to the clear brown residual liquid as "whey" because of its similarity to the
whey that is a by-product of cheese making. Heating the leaf juice is a process quite
similar to making simple cheese from milk. In both cases a liquid is coagulated forming
curds that contain most of the protein and oils and a clear tea colored liquid. This "whey"
is rich enough in nitrogen and potassium to be of some value as a fertilizer. It is deficient
in phosphorus, however. The fertilizer value of the "whey" is limited by the fact that it is at
least 94% water. This means it must be used very near the leaf concentrate processing
site to justify the costs of transporting it to the fields. This problem is even greater when
the leaf concentrate is made by the blender method because the nitrogen and potassium in
the "whey" are further diluted by the extra water used in blending the leaves.
The amount of water required by rapidly growing plants is often underestimated. 20-30
liters of water or "whey" are needed each week to supply each square meter of tropical
land in maximum leaf production. The "whey" produced as a by-product of leaf
concentrate will not be nearly enough to irrigate the land area from which the leaves were
harvested. High concentrations of "whey" may damage some tender seedlings. Diluted
"whey", as in that from blender processed leaf concentrate, is safe for plants. It is best
used for high value crops near the processing site. Obviously, it is a sound idea to wait
until the "whey" is completely cooled before pouring it on plants.
Leaf concentrate "whey" is not acceptable in the human diet because of concentrations of
nitrates, oxalic acid, and other anti-nutrients. While it has been remixed with the fiber for
cattle fodder with good results, watering pigs with "whey" has led to kidney problems
over time. Large scale LC operation could possibly justify the expense of evaporating the
whey until it was a thick molasses like liquid that could be remixed with the fiber and
increase the available nitrogen in ruminant feeds.
It has been suggested frequently that this "whey" could serve as a source of nutrients for
growing various beneficial microorganisms like yeast or penicillin. This application
requires highly controlled environments to prevent contamination with unwanted
microorganisms. These conditions are rarely available in developing countries except in
major cities. A project initiated by Find Your Feet in Ghana had some success in
producing ethyl alcohol by adding some sugar to the "whey", fermenting this liquid, then
distilling it. Production of ethyl alcohol can become very complicated because of
government controls or tax policies, or the potential for increasing abusive alcohol
consumption.
An interesting use for LC "whey" was suggested by Dr. Ham Bruhn at the University of
Wisconsin. He says that pouring the "whey" over the ground will bring angle worms to

the surface. This may be a useful trick for fishermen, or those raising worms for soil
improvement.

SEEDS AND ROOTS

Immature pods from cowpeas or other types of peas and beans are another potential
byproduct of leaf concentrate. Yield of leaf concentrate per kg of leaf crop will decline
when the crop begins to flower, but we have found that good quality leaf concentrate can
still be made from cowpea leaves after an initial harvest of immature pods. Despite careful
planning, often times there will be crops that pass through the ideal stage before they are
harvested for leaf concentrate processing. Because of this, there is a real advantage to
crops like beans, cowpeas, lablab, or winged beans that have a commercially valuable seed
that can be harvested and sold if the plants cannot all be processed for leaf concentrate
before they mature.
There are several agricultural situations in which leaves used for making leaf curd would
be the byproduct of some other commercially viable product. For example, cassava roots
have a broad market but in many locations the leaves are without commercial value.
Carefully timed harvesting of cassava leaves can actually increase the yield of edible roots
significantly and the leaves could be made into leaf curd. Several vegetables, including
cauliflower, broccoli, turnips, and beets have leaves that can be made into LC rather than
discarded in the fields or at packing plants.
As with green manure crops and intercrops, it is important not to confuse the primary and
secondary objectives of the farmer. If one can get a better yield of the primary product a
farmer may be willing to try a new system. Farmers will rarely want to take a reduction in
yield in their main crop or an increase in labor, for the sake of an output like leaf curd,
whose value may be little known to them.

SECTION IV
ECONOMICS OF LEAF CONCENTRATE
You may know what a kilogram of beans costs, but what does a kilogram of leaf
concentrate cost? This is a question that is as important as it is difficult to answer. The
cost of supplying leaf concentrate can be calculated as a product like beans, or as a service
provided, like health care. In either case, if leaf concentrate is to catch on, it needs to have
some economic advantage over competing products or services.
One of the most important jobs of field workers at leaf concentrate programs is to perform
ongoing economic analysis. This involves collecting information in quantifiable terms
on as many aspects of the program as possible. You may want to start with the wholesale
and retail prices of other nutritious foods available in the area. These would often include
several types of meat, fish, seafood, cheese, eggs, dairy products, beans, and grains.
Powdered milk and dry infant formulas are also useful prices. This will help you determine
what the value of leaf concentrate is likely to be, which will in turn help set the price that
you will be able to sell it for. There is never a product exactly equivalent to LC on the
market so you have to make approximations. The chart on page 90 may be helpful in
making value comparisons among nutritious foods. It is important to remember, though,
that there is often a great difference between the nutritional value of LC and its perceived
value by the local people. The perceived value is what they think it is worth and this will
determine the demand for the product. One of the most difficult and important jobs of
leaf concentrate workers is educating the population so that the perceived value of LC
begins to reflect its nutritional value. When one is selling LC to institutions for nutritional
support program the perceived value of the LC should be close to its nutritional value.
Next you will need to gather as much information as possible on the cost and availability
of the raw material or leaf crop you will be using. How much will price vary during the
year? How much will quality and moisture content vary over the year? Does the price
include harvesting and transportation to the field? In some places forage crops, like
alfalfa, are normally sold standing in the field. It will do little good to know that an area of
alfalfa 3 meters wide by 75 meters long cost $8 US. You will need to calculate how many
kg of leaf crop that is, and what it costs to cut it and haul it to the workshop.
After you have a good idea what leaf crop costs you need to gather information on labor
costs. What do agricultural workers in the area normally receive for a day's work? How
about supervisory workers? What will workers processing leaf concentrate need to earn
to make it an attractive idea for them? This may involve some things other than hourly
wage. Transportation costs are very important to workers. Will they have to pay for a
bus ride or spend and hour walking to work? Fringe benefits are also important in many
work situations. Some times workers would prefer earning a lower hourly rate at one job
because it entitles them to health insurance or reduced cost child care, or gives them

access to subsidized housing. You need to ask a lot of questions to find out real wages.
Sometimes people are reluctant to discuss their incomes, so you may need to work with a
trusted local intermediary.
Once you have a good idea what the value of your product (LC) will be, and the costs of
raw material and labor, you will need to find out as much as you can about the other costs
that are required to produce and distribute the LC. These will include capital expenses
and depreciation on capital equipment. Capital expenses generally refer to large
purchases whose value is retained for a long period of time. This would include grinders,
presses, stoves, cookpots, tables, and improvements to the workshop. Capital expenses
are difficult to calculate for many LC projects because often some of the capital costs are
donated. Projects that are social service programs may have equipment and other costs
met by donation. This can lead to underestimating actual production costs. If $5000 is
required to set up a project, the price of the LC should ideally reflect repaying a loan for
$5000 plus a normal interest rate. Depreciation is the value lost to wear and tear on
equipment. If a grinder costs $1000 and you expect it to need replacement after five
years, it means that grinder is depreciating in value an average of $200 per year or about
$17 per month. This is another production cost that should be figured in to the price
charged for the LC.
Some of the other costs that you will typically encounter are rent on the workshop,
electricity, fuel for heating juice, water, and cleaning supplies. Sometimes taxes or
registration fees and licenses will need to be paid. There are usually expenses in marketing
or distributing the LC that you make. These might include packaging supplies, salaries or
commission for salespeople, transportation, free samples, and advertising.
Once you have gathered the basic economic information, you can begin analyzing it. It is
often useful to calculate the total production cost of a kilogram of leaf concentrate. Then
try to figure how much of that cost is attributable to raw material, labor, capital expenses,
fuel, etc. By taking average monthly expenses and production you should be able to get
some idea how much the electricity or gas or labor cost for each kilogram of LC. At this
point you will be able to see where you should focus your cost cutting efforts. Successful
enterprises will eventually eliminate most of their unnecessary costs, but they will start
with reducing those costs that are greatest.
Below is a very simple budget broken down for a hypothetical small project, that may help
clarify the process of making an economic analysis: * All figures are in US dollars.

Expenses
200 kg leaf crop per day
X 250 days of processing per year
Leaf
Crop

= 50,000 kg
X $ .06 kg

= $3,000 for leaf crop for the year

Transport of
Leaf Crop

$3 per day
X 250 days
$750

Labor

$ 9 for 3 workers @ 1/2 day

X 250 work days
=$2,250 labor for one year

Equipment

$2000 spread over 5 years

=$400 per year

Gas
330
Electric
120
Cleaning Supplies 50
Miscellaneous 300
$ 800 per year

TOTAL ANNUAL EXPENSES = $ 7200

Income
Leaf
Concentrate

Fiber for
Animal Feed

1000 kg dry LC
X $7.50 per kg (equivalent to about $3 per kg fresh LC)
= $7500 per year
22,000 kg
X $ .04 per kg
= $880 for one year

TOTAL GROSS ANNUAL INCOME

= $ 8380

TOTAL NET ANNUAL INCOME

= $ 1180

This analysis is partly based on several assumptions. One of the most important is that
100 kg of fresh leaf crop will yield 2 kg of dry LC. I've assigned a price of $.04 per kg for
the fiber which is two-thirds the price of the leaf crop per kg. Many dairy farmers may
think that the fiber should cost less than the crop because you have removed something of
value, namely the leaf concentrate, from the forage crop. In fact, a kilo of the fiber has a
feed value roughly 1 times greater than a kilo of leaf crop, due mainly to the lower water

content of the fiber. It is very important that we are able to convince farmers of this fact.
Again the difference between perceived value and nutritional value is critical.
Using this hypothetical project we can calculate that it cost $7200 to produce 1000 kg of
dry LC. This comes to $7.20 per kg (equivalent to about $2.50 per kg fresh LC). Or:
$3.00 for leaf crop
.75 for transporting leaf crop
2.25 for labor
.40 for equipment
.33 for gas
.12 for electric
.05 for cleaning supplies
.30 for miscellaneous expenses
$7.20 for 1 kg dry LC
From this one can see that, for example, cutting your electric bill in half would lower per
kg costs to $7.14. Reducing crop cost by 15% on the other hand would lower costs to
$6.75 per kg. What if you could improve the yield of LC by modifying the equipment and
technique somewhat? Suppose you could get 2.5 kg per 100 kg of leaf crop by investing
another $1000 in equipment. Then you could produce 1250 kg of dry LC for $7400
($7200 + 200 extra depreciation each year for the additional $1000 of equipment). This
would come out to $5.92 per kg. So increasing the yield is more likely to improve the
economics of your project than reducing crop costs or electric consumption.

Cost Analysis from Bareilly, India

The information given below was gathered by Walt Bray for a leaf concentrate project in
India. They should give a more concrete idea how this type of analysis can help. These
relationships are specific to conditions in Bareilly, but some will apply generally to other
leaf concentrate projects.
Basic assumptions: 500 kg of leaf crop at 83% moisture processed per day
5% yield of 60% moisture LC
215 kg of fiber sold at the same cost of leaf crop (on a dry matter
basis)
Labor = 4 workers + 1 supervisor
Equipment cost = $1600 US
Calculated production cost = Rs 15.6 per kg fresh LC ($0.46 US)*
* 1 Indian Rupee =
$0.031 US
General breakdown of costs
with fiber sales
Leaf Crop
12.5% of total
Labor
14.1%

without fiber sales

37% of total
29.6%

Supervisor
Power, and fuel
Maintenance and
depreciation

17.1%
13.1%

12.3%
9.4%

16.2%

11.7%

Effect of LC Yield on calculated production cost:

3% yield = Rs 26/kg
4% yield = Rs19.5/kg
5% yield = Rs 15.6/kg
6% yield = Rs 13/kg
Effect of fiber sales on calculated production cost:
sale of fiber = Rs15.6/kg
no sale of fiber = 21.6/kg

increase of 66.7%
increase of 25%
decrease of 16.7%

increase of 39%

Effect of daily processing rate on calculated production cost:

250 kg leaf crop/day = Rs 20.6/kg increase of 32%
500 kg leaf crop/day = Rs 15.6/kg
600 kg leaf crop/ day = Rs 13.5/kg decrease of 13%
Effect of leaf crop cost on calculated production cost:
Rs 0.4 /kg = Rs 15.6/kg
Rs 0.8 /kg = Rs 17.5/kg
Rs 1.2 /kg = Rs 19.5/kg

increase of 12.5%
increase of 25%

Effect of leaf crop cost on calculated production cost (with no sale of fiber):
Rs 0.4 /kg = Rs 21.6/kg
increase of 39%
Rs 0.8 /kg = Rs 29.6/kg
increase of 90%
Rs 1.2 /kg = Rs 37.6/kg
increase of 141%

Effect of amount of labor on calculated production cost:

3 workers + supervisor = Rs 14/kg decrease of 10%
4 workers + supervisor = Rs 15.6/kg

Effect of capital equipment costs on calculated production cost:

$1500 US = Rs 15.6/kg
$3000 US = Rs 18.1/kg
increase of 16%
Effect of bio-gas unit on calculated production cost:
No purchased fuel due to bio-gas unit = Rs 14.9/kg decrease of 4.6%
All fuel purchased
= Rs 15.6/kg

Factors Affecting Dry Weight Value of Certain Nutritious Foods

% of food that is
normally edible

Meat (beef, mutton,

goat, pork)
Chicken
Fish (non-fatty)
Eggs*
Milk (fresh)
Milk (powdered)
Cheese (medium soft)
Beans (whole dry)
Leaf Concentrate
(dry)

% moisture content

price multiplier for

edible portion on dry
weight basis

82.5%

60%

52%
45%
89%
100%
100%
100%
90%
100%

67%
78%
74%
88%
2%
42%
11%
10%

5.8
10
4.3
8.3
1
1.7
1.3
1.1

* Figure 22 eggs per kilogram.

This chart will give you an idea of the true nutritional value of some common foods that
are other purchased as protein sources. Powdered milk selling for $10 per kg is about the
same price as fish selling for $1 per kg, or chicken selling for $5.80 per kg once you have
figured in the waste and water content. Of course, these foods vary somewhat in their
actual nutritional composition, so exact comparison cannot be made. But it is easy to see
the importance of calculating in waste and moisture content.
Much of the basic economic analysis for leaf concentrate projects should ideally be carried
out before the sites are selected. The more information of this type we have at the start of
the project, the greater the likelihood of achieving financial self-sufficiency. There is a
series of questions in the section of this manual entitled "Considerations for Setting Up
Leaf Concentrate Projects". It is a very good idea to get an answer to as many of these
questions as possible before the decision to begin LC production. Even if this is done
thoroughly, however, you will need to periodically update your economic analysis to
reflect changes in local prices and labor costs.
Up to this point all of the economic analysis has been based on selling LC as a
commodity. Another way of looking at leaf concentrate economics is to consider the

value of providing nutritional support for malnourished children. This is clearly a service
to the community and to the society in general. From the viewpoint of the community or
the general society, a well designed program of nutritional support for malnourished
children makes tremendous economic sense. Children who are brought up to normal
nutritional levels will become far more productive adults than those allowed to remain
malnourished. They will require less expensive medical care, and make much better use of
the educational resources your community offers children.
From this perspective our analysis would look somewhat different. The same hypothetical
project described on page 87 could supply 670 malnourished children with 6 grams of dry
leaf concentrate 5 days a week. If we assume the same production costs of $7200, and
the same income from fiber sales of $880; then it will cost $6320 to provide 670 children
with leaf concentrate. This comes out to under $10 per child per year, which is an
investment many government and international agencies would consider very sound. Of
course, there are other costs to providing the nutritional support, but this is often a more
attractive way to market leaf concentrate, at least initially, than as a commodity in the
open market.
Whether you are offering the leaf concentrate you produce as a product for sale or as a
nutritional service, you will have to compete with others offering alternatives. You will
need to know not only what meat and eggs and beans costs, but what food
supplementation programs and hospital nutrition recuperation programs costs in your
community. In either case, it pays to streamline production. If you can find less expensive
leaf crop, or a way to improve yield of leaf concentrate, or less expensive machinery, or a
better price for your fiber, you will have a more economic project.

Economics of Very Small Scale Production

Many times we are asked to help set up very small scale nutrition intervention programs.
These programs are often designed to provide nutritional support for the children of one
village. Frequently this is fewer than 50 children. The idea is that these programs would
be very inexpensive to set up as they would use only hand operated pulpers, such as
manual meat grinders, and presses. They would be very decentralized and, at least in
theory, very sensitive to local conditions. They may be less encumbered by bureaucratic
restraints and administrative overhead than larger programs. Despite these advantages,
Leaf For Life does not advocate small programs that use hand operated leaf grinders.
The main reason for this is that a person using a relatively simple inexpensive electric or
gasoline powered grinder can grind ten times as much leaf crop in an hour as a person
grinding leaves by hand. Hand grinding of leaves is physically demanding as well as slow.
Where people are affected by serious poverty and malnutrition, it is a dubious service to
introduce an activity that will take up so much time and bodily. By the second hour the
worker with the powered machine will likely produce times as much as the one with the
hand powered grinder, and the latter is unlikely to be able to last even that long.

If the project uses volunteers, it must accept that the majority of this type of program
suffers a drastic decline in volunteer participation after two or three months. If the
workers are not being paid and cannot see obvious benefits to their families, they will
typically begin arriving late for work and leaving early. Excuses will replace output, and
the aggravation of keeping the volunteer labor force coordinated and enthusiastic will
become a drain for most community leaders.
If a leaf concentrate program pays a worker to grind leaves, it cannot afford to pay one
who uses a hand operated grinder. If the worker is paid according to production he makes
perhaps one - tenth as much as the more productive worker with a powered grinder. Even
after figuring in the lower capital cost of the manual equipment, he is unlikely to earn more
than one - fifth as much as the other worker. If he is paid more than that the project is not
getting good value for money. If a worker is willing to work for wages that low because
of extreme poverty and lack of other economic opportunities, he or she is doomed to a
cycle of poverty, because it will be impossible to provide for a family adequately on this
income.
If we serve any purpose in introducing leaf concentrate technology to developing
countries, it must be done in such a way that peasants can create more wealth from their
labor than they are currently able to. People rightly expect "development" to lighten their
work load and increase their productivity. This means power tools for physically
demanding tasks.

Economics of Very Large Scale Production

At the opposite end of the spectrum are very large scale leaf concentrate operations.
There have been several of these over the past twenty years. All have been in
industrialized countries and all have used the leaf concentrate primarily for animal feed.
The scale of these operations dwarfs the village scale programs established by Leaf for
Life. By way of example, France Lucerne, a French firms that processes alfalfa, about
12,000 tons of dried leaf concentrate a year from three plants. The alfalfa comes from
about 7000 hectares of alfalfa. They run from mid-April until mid-October at three
locations. Each plant represents several million dollars in capital investment. The
continuous process is under sophisticated computer control.
Because of their large volume and the advanced technology, France Lucerne can produce
dried LC for far less per kilogram than any of the village programs can ever hope to
achieve. As attractive as that is, there is a down side to the large scale operations. In the
first place they require a great deal of capital that is rarely available in developing
countries. They also require a large area dedicated to the leaf crop and a dependable
system of transportation to deliver it to the processing plant within a couple of hours.
Distributing 12,000 tons of dried LC would also be a daunting task in most developing
countries. There is usually a shortage of the highly trained specialized technicians that are
needed to run such a plant.

In the US a large plant was built by Atlantic Richfield Oil Company in El Centro,
California. I was originally conceived to process up to 60 tons of alfalfa an hour. It was
selling dried LC in a pelletized form mainly to the Japanese poultry industry. They used it
because it made the skins of factory farmed chickens a more appealing golden color. It
also gave the eggs from factory farm a richer looking yolk that customers prefer. When
the Mexican peso was devalued in the early 1980's the price of Mexican marigold meal
dropped sharply, and the Japanese began buying it rather than LC to color their eggs. The
El Centro plant lost millions of dollars and closed. There are dangers from being too big as
well as too small.

MAKING THE BEST USE OF LEAF

CONCENTRATE
Leaf concentrate is an excellent food for everyone over 6 months of age, but in
most programs production is limited and choices must be made as to where the leaf
concentrate will do the most good. Below are some general guidelines on this subject.
- Younger children benefit more than older ones from the same amount of leaf
concentrate. Children under 4 and especially those between 6 months and 2 years will
show more improvement in health than school age children on a leaf concentrate program.
We don't recommend giving children under 6 months leaf concentrate because their
digestive systems are still developing and there is a greater likelihood of indigestion.
- Malnourished children benefit far more from feeding programs than children who
have normal height and weight for their age. This is very important. Third degree
malnutrition (defining degrees of malnutrition is discussed in the nutrition section of this
manual) is a life threatening condition. These children should always be given top priority
in any nutrition program. It is worth the effort required to go to their homes, talk to their
parents, or do whatever is necessary to get leaf concentrate to these children. It could
save their lives.
Second degree malnutrition puts a child at great risk of serious health problems.
These children are the next priority. Any nutrition program should try to identify and
supplement the diet of all third and second degree malnourished children in the area being
served by the program.It may be worthwhile to get two servings daily to third degree
children. They should get 30 grams or two tablespoons of fresh leaf concentrate daily if
possible. Second and first degree malnourished children should get at least 15 grams a
day, preferably 20.
- Although weight-for-age records for children are sometimes misleading, it is
important to maintain some kind of records on the growth of the children in your program.
Many nutritionists feel that weight-for-height is a more accurate indication of nutritional
status than weight-for-age. By periodically evaluating the nutritional status of the
children in your program, you can get an idea how good a job you are doing. It may also

help you to know when a child can be taken off the program to make room for one who is
more malnourished.
- It is usually more effective to enrich children's diet at a higher level for a shorter
time than to give them a slight supplementation for a longer period. Thus it may be better
to give 100 children 30 grams of leaf concentrate daily for 6 months then switch groups,
than to give 200 children 15 grams daily for the entire year. Six months is about the
minimum time for a nutrition program to have an impact on a child's health.
- Children showing any degree of night blindness should begin getting 30 grams
per day immediately if possible . They should get a vitamin A capsule if they are available.
- Children recovering from injury or illness, especially diarrhea should get 30
grams a day, if possible, in bland foods such as pudding or noodles or soup.
- Children with anemia should get leaf concentrate lemonade or leaf concentrate
combined with another source of vitamin C, like guavas, or with a small portion of meat
or fish daily until the anemia is reversed. The presence of vitamin C or meat or fish in the
same meal makes the iron from vegetable sources, like leaf concentrate, much more usable
to the body. You can look under a child's eyelid (with very clean hands) and if the tissue
is whitish or light pink rather than red, it is very likely that the child is anemic.
- After malnourished children, pregnant women should receive the highest priority
in nutrition intervention programs. They should be offered 40-50 grams daily if possible
because of their greater nutritional needs. Since anemia is extremely common among
pregnant women, it is also advisable to include a source of vitamin C or small amount of
meat or fish with their leaf concentrate. Special care should be taken to get their opinions
on leaf concentrate dishes as pregnant women often have strong likes and dislikes for
certain foods.
- Lactating or nursing mothers are usually the next highest priority for nutrition
programs. They have a particular need for calcium and protein, both of which are well
supplied by leaf concentrate.
- If there is an adequate supply of leaf concentrate, adults recovering from illness
or injury should next be considered for your program, as should older women who are
often troubled with osteoporosis, in which their bones become brittle from too little
available calcium.
Two other issues come up frequently when considering how a community can make the
best use of leaf concentrate or other nutritional resources. The first of these is the
question of intestinal parasites. In many villages in developing countries a majority of the
children suffer from intestinal parasites. Some people argue that it is pointless to offer a
nutritional supplement because 'you are just feeding the worms'. They argue that the
problem is first a medical one, then a sanitation one, and only then a nutritional one.

Others say that it does little good to get medicine to expel the worms, because if the living
conditions aren't changed the children will be rapidly re-infested.
The problem with these approaches is that it is very expensive putting in good water
systems and cleaning up other sources of parasite infestation. In many communities this is
not likely to happen in the foreseeable future. Even the access to the medical care and the
drugs used to expel worms is too expensive for a great many people.
While government and other agencies should be urged to begin taking these problems
seriously enough to allocate adequate funds; hygiene and sanitation education are
inexpensive and can be a part of every leaf concentrate project. Furthermore, studies
show that only severe infestations of intestinal parasites affect the nutritional status of
children. At the lower levels of parasite infestation that are most common in children,
normal health and normal growth are possible with good nutrition. Children with more
serious infestations should definitely be treated by local health workers familiar with these
problems, if that is possible.
The second issue concerning the optimum use of leaf concentrate or other nutritious foods
pivots on the relative merits of central feeding centers vs. feeding the children in their
homes. Many health workers feel that the central feeding centers are the only way that
you can be sure if the child is actually eating the food offered. They think that the food
sent to the child's home is often shared with other family members and sometimes fed to
animals.
On the other hand many malnourished children live far from the centers of town. Often
the poorest people live the furthest from the resources offered by the town. Young
children can't walk a long way on their own and their parents are often too busy with
housework, caring for other children, or earning money, to carry them to the centers
every day. Sometimes parents are ashamed to send children with no shoes or tattered
clothes into the town's center. For these people a program that can deliver leaf concentrate
in a preserved state once a week or once every two weeks may be a better option. With a
program where the food is eaten at home it is extremely important that someone from the
program checks in with the family frequently to encourage them to use the leaf
concentrate effectively.
This is a big commitment of labor, and sometimes it is hard to find workers to hike back
the muddy trails to these people's homes. Regardless of how it is done, some means needs
to be found to reach the children who live on the outskirts of towns and villages or a
nutrition program will fail to meet the needs of the community.

LEAF CONCENTRATE AND OLDER ADULTS

IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
In many societies elderly people are the fastest growing segment of the population.
Antibiotics and improved medical care are allowing more people to live beyond the age of
sixty even in developing countries where the general standard of living is very low. Older
people need the same forty nutrients - carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals
- as the rest of the population if they are to maintain good health and vigor. Older people,
however, do have some special conditions and circumstances that affect how much of
these nutrients are needed and in what form they are best utilized.
Some of the factors that can adversely influence the nutritional health of older people in
developing countries are:
- Lack of income to buy food of adequate quality and variety. Pensions and social
security systems to provide for those too old to work are the exception. Most rely on
their families to meet their food needs. If that family is poor, food is likely to be
preferentially allocated to income earners.
- Diseases or chronic conditions that affect the eating process. These can be
gastrointestinal disorders that restrict the foods that can be eaten; conditions like arthritis
or Parkinson's disease that limit our physical ability to buy and prepare foods; or confusion
and memory loss that can cause missed or poorly prepared meals.
- Dental and mouth pain that make chewing many foods uncomfortable. Dental
and malocclusion problems are very common in most developing countries as professional
dental care is nearly nonexistent and false teeth tend to be poorly fitted makeshift affairs.
Leaf concentrate is an inexpensive product that can greatly improve the nutritional status
of the high risk elderly population. Leaf concentrate is a very nutritious curd made by
heating the juice of certain varieties of green leaf crops. It can be an inexpensive source of
high quality protein, iron, calcium, vitamin A and other nutrients in the humid tropics
where malnutrition is most prevalent. The soft texture of leaf concentrate makes it a very
easy food for people with bad teeth or poorly fitted dentures to eat. Because it can be
readily integrated into foods like tamales, dried pasta, and lemonade, that are convenient

and easy for older people to prepare and eat, it is especially well suited for prevention of
malnutrition among the elderly.
By our mid-twenties the physical performance of our bodies has peaked. Gradually the
efficiency with which we chew and digest food declines and we need to eat more of the
same foods to absorb the same amount of essential nutrients. Protein, iron, calcium, and
zinc are more poorly absorbed with advancing age. Many nutritionists recommend that
older people get 12-14% of their calories from protein, as opposed to the 9% suggested
for the general population. Often a reduced ability to absorb one or two essential amino
acids can lower the quality of the protein in the food older people eat. In areas where the
diet is based on staples like corn, sorghum, or legumes that have a marginal quality of
protein this can be significant. Where the total quantity of protein is low or marginal, for
example in regions where cassava, yams, or bananas are important staples, impaired
absorption of amino acids can lead to protein deficiency.
The body's requirement for iron does not increase with age, (in fact post-menopausal
women need less than younger women). However, the reduced efficiency of absorption
can cause anemia in older persons with borderline consumption of iron rich foods. The
little meat that they can afford is usually very tough and stringy, coming from animals who
have not received a rich diet themselves. This is another obstacle to adequate nutrition for
the elderly as they very often have great difficulty chewing tough meat due to dental or
mouth problems. Dark green leafy vegetables, another source of iron, are quite fibrous
and can also be very hard to chew thoroughly for people with poorly fitting dentures or
missing teeth.
Calcium is another essential nutrient that is more poorly absorbed with advancing age.
Dairy products are an excellent source of calcium, but they, like meat, are usually too
expensive for low income elderly in the tropics. Perhaps even more limiting than price is
the fact that the majority of elderly people in the world cannot digest lactose, or milk
sugar, very well. Most adults can consume a small amount of milk (less than liter per
day) without difficulty, but larger quantities can cause uncomfortable gas formation,
bloating and diarrhea The main exceptions to this being people of northern European
ancestry and some African tribes with long histories of cattle herding. Cheese and yoghurt
don't usually cause this reaction because the fermentation process breaks down the
lactose. For more information on lactose intolerance please see the chapter on Discussion
Topics
Dark green leafy vegetables are potentially an inexpensive source of calcium for these
people. Greens have several limitations as food for elderly people in developing countries.
As mentioned earlier, they are difficult to chew because of the high content of tough fiber.
Many greens contain oxalic acid which can block the body's absorption of calcium.
Older people generally need fewer calories from their diet than their younger counterparts.
Usually the amount of time spent in demanding physical activity is much less. Even in
times of rest the body of a 70 year old typically uses about 10% less energy than when he

was 20 years old. It is quite possible for elderly people to simultaneously suffer from
being overweight and undernourished. For example, in parts of Mexico fats, mainly lard,
and sugars which supply only calories, make up a large and growing part of the diet. With
their decreased need for energy and reduced absorption of many other nutrients, older
people can easily put on excess weight without assuring their other nutrient requirements
are met. Because leaf concentrate is extremely rich source of a wide variety of nutrients
and has an average calorie content, it is an excellent nutritional insurance for older people.
As a person grows older their immune system, like their digestive system, becomes less
efficient. Older people are more prone to infections than younger adults. Infections are
closely linked with nutrition. Malnutrition increases our susceptibility to infection and
infection increases our nutritional requirements. Vitamin A is especially important in
preventing infections as it helps to maintain the effectiveness of mucous membranes in the
respiratory and digestive system, which is the body's first line of defense against invading
micro-organisms. Leaf concentrate is the richest known source of beta-carotene which is
converted to vitamin A within the human body. There is some danger of toxicity from
overuse of high potency vitamin A capsules that are often distributed by clinics and
development groups. Beta-carotene, on the other hand, is a non-toxic way to insure
adequate vitamin A in the diet.
In summary, leaf concentrate is an inexpensive food that is extremely rich in of several of
the nutrients most likely to be lacking in the diets of elderly people in developing nations.
Leaf concentrate is easy to combine with inexpensive staples, and a wide variety of these
combinations have proven acceptable in various cultures. Most of these foods are very
easy to chew and digest compared to local alternatives.
Some resources for nutrition and the elderly:
Nutritional Care of the Older Adult Annette B. Natow and Jo-Ann Heslin MacMillan
press NY 1986 306 pp
Nutrition Screeening Manual For Professionals Caring For OLder Americans Nutrition
Screening Initiative Washington, DC 1991
A Resource Guide for Nutrition Management Programs for Older Persons US Dept. of
Helath and Human Services (Administration on Aging) 1985
Nutrition Assessment: A comprehensive guide for Planning Intervention M. D. Simco, C.
Cowell, and JA Gilbride $35
Aspen System Corp. 1600 Research Blvd. Rockville, MD 20850
Nutrition of the Elderly Ed. Munro and Schlieref Nestle Nutrition Service Raven Press
1185 Avenue of The Americas
NY, NY 10036 1991

CULTURAL ASPECTS OF LEAF CONCENTRATE PROGRAMS

Leaf concentrate doesn't do any good if people don't eat it. Whether children will eat leaf
concentrate or not depends on many cultural factors. How the leaf concentrate is
presented and how it is distributed play an essential role in any leaf concentrate program.
This manual contains a few recipes that should give community workers some ideas as to
how to incorporate leaf concentrate into traditional dishes. Peoples' tastes vary from
region to region and the recipes will always have to be adjusted for this.
A public dinner to introduce leaf concentrate to a community can be very helpful if several
dishes are attractively presented. If the women in your community are reluctant to get
involved with the project you might try a cooking contest to see who can make the best
recipe containing leaf concentrate. If a local judge or panel of judges can be recruited
from well known local people and the contest connected with a community celebration of
some type it may help gain interest and acceptance for leaf concentrate.
The method of distributing leaf concentrate to malnourished children in your community
should be given a lot of consideration. Often the most seriously malnourished children live
far from the community center. Their parents may be very busy, or discouraged, or sickly,
or ashamed of their appearance. Any of these can lead parents to avoid bringing their
children to breakfast or other feeding programs. Sometimes the fathers of malnourished
children feel that if their children are in a nutrition program, it is an admission of their
inability to provide for their families. Maintaining pride is of great importance. Generally
speaking, the more the program appears to be a charity for the poor, the more social
stigma is attached to it.
The ideal approach is often to provide nutritional education to the parents while at the
same time appealing directly to the children. Sometimes a few balloons or small toys can
generate a lot of interest. If attendance is not consistent at a feeding center, a weekly
prize of some kind could be given away in a lottery open only to children who have
attended every day that week. If a video cassette player is available, perhaps one day a
week a children's' movie could be shown while atol or churritos or some other leaf
concentrate snack are fed. If it is made fun for the kids the parents will be more
enthusiastic and half your work will be done.
Families with malnourished children often have a lot of problems. Sometimes alcohol or
drugs, or learning disabilities, or emotional problems prevent people from taking good
care of their children. Sometimes the problem is just economics; the lack of adequate

income. Whatever the case, it is very important that they be treated with respect. It is
also important that nutrition workers don't give up on families with malnourished children,
even if they are ungrateful and uncooperative. They may be cynical about these types of
programs, perhaps with good reason, and it may take several home visits to convince them
that you are for real.
The broader the base of support you have in a community the greater the chance of the
leaf concentrate project taking root. It is always a good idea to try to get the doctors and
other health workers in the area interested in the project. If you can enlist social service
workers in the area or university students doing their social service work, they often have
a lot of enthusiasm. Most often, however, a group of local mothers is by far the most
important support group for these programs.
There are no fixed rules for introducing new foods. The best you can do is to pay
attention to what the local people say and feel, and to learn from your own mistakes and
those of other groups doing similar work.

THE COMMERCIAL MARKET

While most of this manual has focused on the use of leaf concentrate to improve the
nutritional status of young children, we are also aware of a great deal of interest in small
scale marketing of leaf concentrate products. Leaf For Life is working with small
women's co-operatives in several countries that are trying to generate income through the
sales of leaf concentrate products. Most of these co-ops have a dual motivation of trying
to improve the diet of local malnourished children, while, at the same time, earning a basic
salary or wage for their labor.
The requirements for successfully marketing leaf concentrate products are very different
from those of a successful nutrition intervention program. The biggest difference is in the
targeted consumer. In nutrition programs we are mainly trying to reach young children
whose parents are poor and often quite uneducated. In marketing leaf concentrate we
frequently find ourselves targeting well nourished, well educated, middle class urban
people who have recently become concerned about health and nutrition.
This "health food" market tends to be small and very fussy, but willing to pay high prices
for foods they feel will improve their health. There is often a huge mark up on the prices
of foods sold through `health food' shops because the volume of sales is small. This means
that even though the price to the consumer is very high, the price to the producer may not
be. Sometimes these shops are unwilling to carry products containing salt, refined sugar,
or artificial flavors. At the other end of the market, efforts to market leaf concentrate
foods in low income communities, revolve around a low enough price and acceptance of a
new food.
It may be helpful to relate some of the experience of the La Casa de la Salud women's cooperative in northern Mexico as they tried to market leaf concentrate products in nearby
villages and in the city of Mexicali. After 2 years of producing a small quantity of leaf

concentrate foods for their families and neighbors in their village of about 2000 people,
they decided the only way their project could continue was through the sale of products.
Many of the leaf concentrate foods that had been eaten in their village, like puddings,
frozen confections, donuts, and meat substitutes were considered as possible products for
local markets on a small scale. However, their short shelf lives made them inappropriate
for larger scale marketing in Mexicali. After a period of test marketing several products,
the co-op decided to focus their sales efforts on three; dried pasta, syrups for making
lemonade and other drinks, and fried corn snacks, called churritos.
Each had advantages and drawbacks. The pasta was attractive, convenient and stored
extremely well, but per hour production output was very low because a hand operated
machine was used to make it. The drink mixes required much less labor, as they could be
made in a kitchen blender by combining leaf concentrate, lemon juice and sugar. The
bottles and labels needed to package this sticky liquid on a small scale, however, were
quite expensive. Churritos were very popular with children and teenagers and were well
suited for giving out as samples, as they are ready to eat. Because people seem quite
willing to accept novelty in snack food, it was far easier to get people to try churritos than
pasta, which had to be planned into a conservative meal pattern. The churritos had a
shorter shelf life than either the pasta or drink mixes and there were some quality control
problems. Fluctuations in moisture content, oil temperature, and frying time made it
difficult to get a uniform product. Some churritos were too hard, others too greasy
.
Having chosen three products to sell, the next steps were to promote them in Mexicali,
and to find ways to make them more efficiently, thus lowering per unit costs. The co-op
had attractive labels printed for all three products. A pegboard product display was
designed and given free to storekeepers willing to try selling these new products. Stacks
of free flyers explaining the value of leaf concentrate were left for customers at each store.
Articles about the co-op and their products were submitted to local newspapers and a
representative went on a local radio show to raise public awareness.
On the production side, steps were taken to increase output, lower costs, and improve
quality. A larger commercial blender helped with drink mix production and an improved
rack sped up the drying of the pasta. A nylon dieplate replaced the steel one in the
churritos maker, which made for smoother churritos that absorbed less of the expensive
oil. Bulk purchasing of corn meal, cooking oil, sugar and other supplies lowered costs.
The factor most limiting to production, however, was the low output of leaf concentrate
itself.
`La Casa de la Salud' has not been able to become a profitable co-op selling leaf
concentrate products yet. Problems of irregular supply of leaf crop, low hourly output of
leaf concentrate, and difficulties in transporting the products to market are large obstacles
that haven't yet been overcome. The co-op has not been able to get stores in the low
income barrios of Mexicali or neighboring villages to carry the products regularly.
Volume of production is so small that only the very high retail prices charged at the middle

class health food stores, hold promise of providing a steady income to the women. And of
course, these are the people who least need nutritional support.
Before dismissing the co-op as a failure, however, it is important to remember that they
were never purely a business venture. In addition to running a profitable co-op the
women wanted to take effective action against the malnutrition that is prevalent in their
area. Approximately 25% of their production was donated to poor families in their village
and to primary school children in a very run down barrio of Mexicali. The co-op also
helped to meet several social needs of the women and their families. Much of the appeal
of the co-op to its members is that it offers part time work in the village, so that family life
is not severely disturbed by the women seeking additional income. The women arrange
their own work schedules and their young children can play in the adjacent churchyard
during their
3-4 hour shifts. The co-op has a fund set aside to help members with emergency
expenses. Most of the other employment opportunities for women have long inflexible
hours and transportation problems.
Despite these social benefits to the women and the community, the co-op is in serious
trouble. Our experience with marketing elsewhere has been similar. It is extremely
difficult for a small democratic co-operative making a new product to compete with large
mechanized, well financed food companies. From the hard cold viewpoint of business the
social benefits to the community are often just an unacceptable overhead. Regardless of
the difficulties involved, successful marketing of leaf concentrate is essential if this food is
to play a significant role in feeding future generations. Below are a few points that any
group thinking about marketing leaf concentrate products might consider before getting
started. These aren't intended to discourage people, only to offer some realistic
perspective on the food business.
- The importance of selling products and difficulty of doing it are always
underestimated. In most businesses sales workers are paid far more than production
workers, yet co-ops often view sales as a very secondary part of their operation. Women
in leaf concentrate co-operatives often see the work as an extension of the cooking and
feeding they traditionally do at home, and as such they are quite familiar with it. The
aggressiveness required of sales workers is often uncomfortable for village women. Good
sales people have real skills and talents that shouldn't be taken for granted. They
understand people. They are creative, enthusiastic and persistent in the face of repeated
rejections. They are a tremendous asset to any group trying to market leaf concentrate
products.
- You will need to put some money into getting things rolling before you
begin making a profit. Small co-ops often balk at spending their precious money on
things like advertising and promotion. Business people understand that, especially when
introducing new products, substantial effort has to be put into giving the product away
before it can be sold profitably. You will need to plan on expenses like free samples,
product displays, contest prizes, and radio advertising to launch your business.

- Quality control is essential. If you are selling pasta, don't try to sell the bags
with lots of broken pieces. Make sure your products look beautiful, not just OK.
Someone who buys one bag of churritos that are hard or have a burnt flavor is unlikely to
ever buy them again. You are responsible for making sure your products are not being
sold in stores when they are too old. Be sure that your bags are not sealed in such a way
that people might end up with a staple in their mouth. If your bags say they contain 100
grams, make sure they do.
- Be conservative in your financial calculations. 10 kgs of ingredients will
never make 100 bags of products with 100 grams in each. Some of your products will
always be lost through spillage. Some prepared foods will usually be broken or burned
during processing. If your foods are tasty and ready-to-eat a surprising amount may be
eaten by workers before heading to market.
Some unexpected expenses should be expected. All of your equipment as well
as your building will need periodic maintenance and eventual replacement. It is better to
slightly overestimate your costs and be pleasantly surprised, than to fail to meet unrealistic
expectations. Dig in for the long haul. Most successful food businesses lose money for at
least their first year before becoming profitable.
- Take advantage of available resources. Many governments have set up
agencies to help small co-ops and businesses get started. There are a growing number of
non- governmental organizations that are promoting small worker owned businesses as a
way out of poverty. Some of these, like the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, offer small
loans with low or no interest. Others can offer help with teaching workers unfamiliar
skills like accounting, marketing, or equipment maintenance.

THE SOCIAL MARKET

The line between business and charity is often blurry and getting more so every day.
Increasingly development agencies are interested in supporting projects that will one day
become self-supporting small businesses or micro-enterprises. The problem is that it is
very difficult for a small women's group to become a profitable business by selling a new
product (LC) to a group of people who are notoriously impoverished, namely
malnourished children. The need to become financially self-sufficient can have some
interesting effects on small groups. Groups that started with the honorable intention of

reducing childhood malnutrition in their community, often end up with the dubious
objective of selling rich people LC at the highest possible price.
We have moved into an arena sometimes called the social market in an effort to resolve
this contradiction. Broadly speaking, social marketing is selling products or services
through organizations or institutions that are trying to perform socially beneficial services.
These include orphanages, clinics, old age homes, schools, homeless shelters, feeding
programs for malnourished children, refugee support programs, and a range of other
programs set up to help out societies more vulnerable members. For the most part these
are programs that need to provide the essential nutrients to groups of people under their
care. Because they need to regularly buy nutritious food in large quantities they could be
an ideal market for leaf concentrate in many ways.
Selling LC to them is quite different than selling it in the commercial market. Typically,
these institutions have very tight budgets and need to buy food at low prices. However,
they are often sympathetic to some of your group's objectives. They may want to help
support your women's co-op by buying LC because they agree that the income generating
possibilities for village women is linked to the problem of poverty that they are working
on. They may like the idea of using local resources and paying local workers for the
production instead of bringing in imported foods. On the other hand, you may be
competing directly with food that is given away for free by the World Food Program, the
government, or the church.
Besides being able to reach people who really need the LC, the biggest advantage of social
marketing is that some of these institutions serve a lot of people and need a lot of food.
They can buy large quantities of LC. For example, we are negotiating with a group called
Alianza Urbana (Urban Alliance) in Mexico. They run 82 barrio feeding centers. Soynica
in Nicaragua is running 26 centers with an average of 85 children and mothers in each.
This is 2200 people or far more than you are likely to reach by selling to a handful of small
retail shops. A once a week snack for thousands of school children could absorb all the
production from a small LC production coop.We are just beginning to learn how to do
effective social marketing, and have a long way to go. Below are a few points that have
been helpful so far:
1. Calculate the lowest price that its is worth selling your LC for. If your price is too
high you won't interest the social institutions, if it is too low you won't recover your
operating costs. It is hard to raise prices once they are set.
2. Sell dried concentrate or simple LC foods that have a long shelf life. Most
institutions have their own kitchen staffs and will not want to pay you the additional labor
costs of preparing more complex foods like churritos. Dried LC enables you to deliver a
sack every three weeks instead of delivering perishable fresh LC every two or three days.
This reduces the cost of transportation.

3. Make a list of all the social institutions in your area. Include address, telephone
number, and contact person. Arrange these in the order of those you think most likely to
purchase LC first and least likely last. Begin at the top of the list visiting the institutions,
meeting the directors and dropping off information about LC and your project. Leave
some samples of both dried LC and of at least one appealing local food that can be made
from dried LC.
4. Arrange a return visit with free samples of an LC food. If the institution is not too
large, bring enough for everyone to try it. Directors are far more likely to allow you to
bring something for a midmorning snack than for a meal, because the meals often have
menus that have to be approved by someone beforehand. This should be short, fun and
informative. Green frog cookies for children or green Christmas tree cookies at Christmas
time are good for getting people interested. Take photos if possible.
5. Offer to send someone from your project to help the kitchen staff learn to cook
with LC.
6. Ask the director to consider buying a small but definite amount each month If
they would like to buy LC and feel that it would be a benefit to their institution but can't
afford, ask them to write you a short letter expressing their interest. You can then
approach social clubs, churches, etc. with this letter asking them to help the institution
purchase a local high nutrition food.
7. Ask for testimonials from institutions that have used LC for a while.

MARKETING FIBER
Make every effort to find a market for the leaf fiber you produce. If you cannot sell it to
dairy farmers for cash, perhaps you can arrange a trade of your fiber to someone raising
animals for some service or product that would help your business. Again, with an
unfamiliar product you may have to give it away for a while to convince people that it is
worth buying. If you can interest an innovative and successful farmer in using the fiber, his
endorsement may make it easier to sell to others. Similarly, if you can get a local
university of agricultural school to test the feed value of the fiber (with donated fiber), it
may be easier to get the attention of farmers
If you have the space it may be worthwhile drying or ensiling the fiber so that it can be
stored and sold at a time when livestock feeds are at their lowest levels and highest prices.
Another alternative is for the project or cooperative to raise its own animals for sale
feeding them with the fiber. This substitutes a known commodity (the animals) for one of
unknown value (the fiber). This can be a sound financial strategy if the people involved in
the project are familiar with raising the animals and feed for the animals is expensive
enough to justify seeking lower cost alternatives. It can get complicated having joint
ownership and responsibility for animals.

SECTION V
DISCUSSION TOPICS
The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize LC workers with some of the controversial
topics that sometimes come up when one is working on LC programs. For the most part
there are no definitive answers to the questions posed here. The aim is simply to present a
quick background and some useful perspective on questions that many volunteer field
workers and staff people have encountered. It is beyond the scope of this manual to
explore these issues in the depth many of them deserve. These are arranged in three
groups; production issues; nutrition issues; and the bigger picture.

Production
"Should we be practicing organic farming methods?
"Organic farming" generally refers to raising crops and animals without the use of
synthetic fertilizers or pesticides and herbicides. There are many closely related concepts
like regenerative farming, bio-dynamic farming, natural farming and sustainable
agriculture. Underlying them all is the idea that farmers must take good care of the soil
and that a healthy soil will produce healthier plants which will be more able to take care of
themselves. Much of the initiative comes from consumers who feel that modern
agricultural techniques produce food that is tainted with pesticides. Increasingly, the
organic agricultural movement is driven by concerns about the environmental
contamination and high energy costs of modern farming. There is almost always present a
philosophical element as well. This boils down to the idea that humans need to remain
close to the natural cycles of life and that industrialized agriculture turns the living
biological relationship of food production into a mechanical one.
Many people become interested in leaf concentrate through their involvement with
organic gardening, health foods, vegetarianism, or other aspects of what might be called a
search for a more natural way of life. Sometimes these people become disillusioned with
leaf concentrate projects when they find out that we may use leaf crops grown with
chemical fertilizers or pesticides.
Everyone has their own lifestyle and their own views, but it is helpful to try to keep some
perspective when working with leaf concentrate programs in developing countries. The
idea of "organic gardening" evolved in wealthy nations as a response to perceived
problems in industrialized food production, after they were producing large food
surpluses. Most of the developing countries only have industrialized agriculture for export
crops, and suffer from inadequate production levels of basic foods. Much of the wisdom
of the "organic agriculture" movement is tied to conditions in the temperate climatic zones
where it evolved. In hot tropical climates many of the organic strategies don't work nearly

as well. For example, composting which is central to organic agriculture is vastly less
useful in the tropics because nitrogen is lost to the air so much more quickly.
Organic farmers advocate using the slow acting rock phosphate, rather than the synthetic
super-phosphate for soils deficient in that nutrient. However, tropical soils are far more
likely to be deficient in phosphorus and transportation is typically so much more
expensive, relative to income, that the hauling of low value rock phosphates makes less
sense than it does in the US. The question of pest control is also quite different in the
tropics where there is no long cold winter to depress insect population and freeze out soil
nematodes. "Organic farming" approaches tend to be long term solution like building up
the humus level in the soil or gradually bringing pest and predator populations into
equilibrium. The logic of these strategies is essentially unchallenged. The difficulties of
implementing them in terms of leaf concentrate projects are several.
Very often we are operating under the terms of a two year grant, and need to show
measurable results within that time. Sometimes the land being used is on a short term lease
or the tenure is very insecure. This makes it difficult to encourage people to make the
long term investments in soil building. Our primary objective is generally to improve the
nutritional status of the people, especially children, in the area of the project. Agricultural
innovations are necessarily secondary to this objective. When there is a conflict, for
instance a leaf crop will be lost to insects unless pesticides are applied immediately, we are
obliged to take measures to protect the crop. This is not a hypothetical situation. it
happens often in practice.
If we are not in a position to impose "organic" orthodoxy in our projects, neither can we
completely ignore the essence of the "organic" message. For a range of economic,
environmental and health reasons we need to use the most "organic" methods that are
appropriate to a given situation. If agriculture is dependent on huge energy subsidies or is
rapidly degrading the resource base that it operates from it is not sustainable. If its not
sustainable, its bad agriculture. Leaf for Life is part of a growing movement towards low
input and low impact agriculture that is not based on doctrine, but rather on observation
of specific conditions. We need to be aware of the full range of available responses to
crop problems and choose those least likely to cause damage. For example, we have
planted neem trees at one of our production sites in Nicaragua because the neem seeds can
be made into a safe, effective low cost insecticide. Sustainable agriculture is a direction to
move towards not a set of prescribed practices.

"Should we encourage the production of animals for meat in leaf

concentrate projects?"
The wisdom of raising animals for meat is being questioned by more people than ever
before. The doubts come from concern over the ethics of our relationship with animals,
and perceived nutritional and environmental problems related to the production and
consumption of meat. As with the arguments for "organic" agriculture, most of these
viewpoints developed in industrialized temperate zone societies that didn't suffer from

food shortages. Many people have chosen to become vegetarians (eat no meat) or vegan
(eat no meat, eggs, or dairy products) in response to these concerns.
The argument against meat is strongest when aimed at the US feedlot beef production.
Huge quantities of edible food (mainly corn and soybeans) are fed to fatten cattle held in
cruel confinement. The fatted cattle then provide heart disease and cancer for the overfed
people who eat them. In the tropics very little humanly edible foods goes to animals. They
are seen much more as a means of converting less valuable resources like the tough
tropical grasses on poor rangeland and domestic garbage into a valuable food. Where
protein-energy malnutrition is common and anemia is widespread, the highly digestible
forms of protein and iron in meat, even in small quantities, can be important to the diet.
Ruminants like cows, goats and sheep can convert indigestible cellulose fiber to useful
foods for humans. With few exceptions the most economical use of the fiber remaining
from leaf concentrate production is to use it produce milk or meat from ruminants. There
are other possible uses for this fiber, such as improving the soil, making bio-gas, or
making paper, but none compare to animal feed in economic value to the producer. Beside
the value of meat or milk, animals also serve as a source of power for agricultural work
and transportation in many developing countries. When trucks and tractors wear out new
ones must be bought, but horses and cattle can reproduce themselves.This point is very
important to impoverished farmers. The manure from farm animals is also important for
maintaining soil fertility. Some groups we work with may elect not to raise animals with
the leaf concentrate fiber for various reasons. Whether to raise animals should be decided
by the local group after they have been well informed about the alternative uses for the
leaf concentrate fiber.

"Shouldn't the processing of leaves be continuous rather in batches?"

There are two basic approaches to leaf concentrate processing; Continuous Processing
and batch processing. Continuous processing allows for the uninterrupted flow of
materials from the time the leaves enter the workshop until the leaf concentrate is
separated. It is the type of system normally used in most industrial processing, and can be
very efficient in terms of output per hour of labor.
When the leaf concentrate is made by repeated steps with breaks in between, it is a batch
process. So, for example, if you have 200 kg of leaves to pulp and you feed it through a
hammermill it is a continuous process. But when you pulp it 3 kg at a time in a blender it
is a batch process. A belt press allows for continuous processing, but a lever press or jack
press handles a batch at a time.
One part of the process could be continuous and another part batch. For example, in
Mexico we use an impact macerator which allows for continuous pulping, then a batch
type hydraulic press table and a batch type cooker. The advantage of continuous
processing is lost if any part of the process is done by batches, because the material flow
will have to stop and wait for the batch processing.

With the obvious advantages of continuous processing, why do we ever use batch
processes? Continuous processing often require more engineering to make sure all the
parts of the system are matched for speed. If your hammermill processes 500 kg per hour
but your belt press can only handle 200 kg per hour you won't have an efficient continuous
process. When you are dealing with a relatively small volume of material, say under one
ton of leaf per day, the initial costs of designing an efficient continuous process leaf
concentrate system may not be justified. The highly variable conditions of work one
frequently encounters in leaf concentrate production in developing countries can also
make managing a coordinated system very difficult. Often the quantity and quality of the
leaves will vary greatly from day to day as may the number of workers. Even the voltage
of the electricity can vary considerably. If anything goes wrong with a continuous process
the whole system comes to a halt, whereas with batch systems it is often possible to keep
processing by making modifications only in that part of the process that is going wrong.
Batch systems tend to be simpler, more flexible, and less expensive to set up than
continuous systems. Conditions in developing countries are usually such that flexibility is
an enormously valuable characteristic in a processing system. The great advantages in
efficiency of continuous systems probably comes into play at a rate of about one ton per
day or more.

"Shouldn't food processing equipment be made of stainless steel?"

In most developed or industrialized countries there are rigorous health codes that
determine what materials may come in contact with food during processing. Stainless steel
is the standard for most food processing equipment where these codes are in force. It is
extremely resistant to rust and can be cleaned very thoroughly. The problems with using
stainless steel equipment in nutrition programs in developing countries are threefold; it is
expensive; it is hard to find; and it is hard to work with.
When stainless steel is not available or is too expensive for a project, what alternatives can
be used? We frequently use plastic containers of various sizes. They are relatively inert
and can be cleaned well unless they are badly scratched. Polyester and nylon cloth are
often used to replace expensive stainless steel screen. They are quite inert and can be
cleaned but will break down more quickly from abrasion or friction. Some synthetic
cloths and plastics will photo-degrade or gradually break down from exposure to
ultraviolet radiation sunlight. Some plastic are certified food grade even in wealthy
countries.
Wood is a traditional material used in food processes. It is often employed for chopping
boards, rams for pushing leaves into grinders, feed chutes, pressing and drying frame trays,
etc. Increasingly we have been using non-toxic wood sealer, such as salad bowl sealer to
protect wooden equipment used in our processing. This should reduce bacteriological
contamination.

Sometimes galvanized sheet metal is used in trays and washtubs. This is steel plated with
zinc. It should not be used where the zinc will be quickly worn off or where strongly
acidic substances stay in contact with it for more than a few seconds.
Mild or rolled steel is used when great strength is needed, for example in the frame of the
press tables or the legs of the macerator. Mild steel rusts quickly when it is exposed to
water or even damp air. For the most part rust is not a dangerous contaminant. In fact, it
can contribute useful amounts of iron to the diets of anemic people. When a steel surface
becomes rusty, however, it is much more difficult to clean and the pocked surface creates
hiding places for bacteria. Rusty steel also is visually unappealing and this is quite an
important consideration when you are trying to convince someone of the value and safety
of an unfamiliar product like LC. Aluminum is used in cook pots for heating the leaf juice
and sometimes in other processes. Its limitations are described below.
Some rules of thumb for making sure your processing equipment is safe and appropriate.
- Check with local health codes and visit similar food processing shops in the area.
- If stainless steel is available and you can afford it, use it in preference to other
materials.
- Make certain that your equipment is designed so that there are not impossible to
clean places where harmful microorganism can breed on food particles.
- Use material that won't easily chip or wear off.
- Make sure the leaf juice is brought to a full boil to kill any bacteria that may have
gotten on the leaves or equipment.

"Is cooking in aluminum pots bad for you?

Some people have expressed concern about contamination from aluminum cookware.
Some evidence shows a possible link between high levels of aluminum in the diet and
Alzheimer's Disease. Cooking or leaving very acidic liquids such as tomato sauce in an
aluminum pot for an extended time could cause some metal to be dissolved. This should
be avoided. If the inside of the pot is very rough textured, or if it is scratched up from
scraping with a metal spoon or from cleaning with a metal scouring pad aluminum is more
likely to leach into food because of the increased surface area of the metal. The juice from
most leaves that would be used in this process are slightly acidic (pH 5.6 - 6.4). This is not
acidic enough to cause A smooth finished heavy gauge aluminum pot should not
contaminate juice at this acidity heated briefly to the boiling point. It is a good idea to
avoid vigorous scraping of the bottom and to replace these pots when they become very
scratched.
There have been cases of zinc contamination from very acidic foods being cooked for long
periods in galvanized cookware. Antimony poisoning has occurred where acid foods have
been cooked in chipped enamel cookware. Both galvanized and enamel pots should be
avoided for heating leaf juice repeatedly in leaf concentrate programs.

Nutrition
"If people get enough calories in their diet, won't the protein take care
of itself?"
In the 1950's and 1960's there was a general focus on the lack of protein in diets of people
in tropical countries. Numerous schemes were developed to introduce protein enriched
foods and drinks into populations where malnutrition was prevalent. Weaning foods like
INCAPARINA were introduced with carefully formulated amino acid balance to increase
protein intake in low income families. There was generally a lot of research on alternative
protein sources done by governments, universities, and food companies like General
Foods, General Mills, and Coca Cola. Fishmeal from dried Peruvian anchovies was
advocated as a solution to the world's protein deficiency, as were single celled proteins
grown on petroleum refinery byproducts. Chlorella algae grown in illuminated clear
plastic tubing was promoted as a substitute for producing protein food on land. Leaf
concentrate, which was then called leaf protein, was very much a part of this worldwide
search for a means to close the perceived "Protein Gap".
Around 1972 several studies came out suggesting that protein requirements had been
overestimated and that a shortage of energy or calories in the diet was a far more common
problem. It was argued that as long as one was receiving an adequate amount of calories,
that protein would take care of itself. That is, a person eating a tradition grain based diet
would take in enough protein as long as he got enough calories. As this point of view
became the consensus opinion of nutritionists and development agencies, interest in novel
sources of protein, like leaf protein quickly diminished. It was replaced by a passion for
calories and to produce more grain. All people needed was "more of their traditional diet".
This change in outlook roughly coincided with what has become known as "The Green
Revolution". This was a worldwide revolution in the production of grain led by the
development of high yielding short stemmed wheat and rice varieties in Mexico and the
Philippines, respectively. The new hybrid grains did indeed produce huge crops, and
created some optimism that hunger would be soon defeated by plant breeding science.
The "Green Revolution" crops required far more in the way of fertilizer, pesticide,
machinery, and irrigation than the older grain varieties. By the 1980's grain yields were
reaching a plateau. Any further increase in yields were coming only from proportionately
greater inputs of fertilizer and energy.
A major unintended consequence of the introduction of the high yielding varieties was a
dramatic decline in the consumption of peas and beans in many countries. The large
farmers who could afford the inputs diverted land that had been growing peas and beans

to produce the more profitable new grain varieties. This reduced the supply and increased
the price of these foods, which have traditionally been a vital source of protein in many
cultures. In India, for example, per person consumption of peas and beans declined by half
between 1970 and 1985.
In 1993 few people believe the "Green Revolution" can answer the world's hunger
problems in the long term. The leading role of calories and the need to simply "eat more of
the traditional diet" continue to dominate nutritional development thinking. However,
nutritionists are beginning to see the traditional diets changing rapidly in many areas,
powered largely by rapid urbanization in the tropics. Highly processed and heavily
promoted convenience foods are being eaten in quantities that must be considered in
terms of nutritional impact on millions of people. The importance of vitamins and
minerals, collectively called micronutrients, is also increasingly being stressed. No one
claims these requirements will automatically be met if calorie needs are met.
It is very unlikely that we will return to the days of "the Protein Gap", but it is important
to maintain some perspective as waves of revolutionary nutritional studies are reported in
the popular press. It is a time of great interest in nutrition and impressive strides are being
made in our understanding of this science. Read reports about new nutritional information
carefully. Often these are "preliminary findings" based on tiny samples of people. Amid the
flurry of reports, consensus of informed opinion will gradually form.

"Wouldn't people be better off just eating more dark green leafy
vegetables than making leaf concentrate?"
The health giving value of greens, such as kale, spinach, turnip and mustard greens, in the
diet is almost universally known, yet hardly ever are they eaten in adequate quantities by
children at risk of malnutrition. Very rarely can projects geared towards promoting
gardening show an improvement in the health of the children in the area.
Greens contain a lot of fiber. Adding fiber to the diet is important for many adults who eat
highly refined diets. Children in developing countries, however, usually get plenty of fiber
from the grains and beans and fruit in their diet. The high fiber content of greens can
aggravate diarrhea and reduce absorption of iron in these children who frequently suffer
from both diarrhea and anemia.
Although they are productive and easy to grow, greens tend to be very perishable and
difficult to market because they are usually 85-90% moisture. In the heat of the tropics,
where most families don't have refrigerators, greens last only a day or two before
becoming inedible. Because so much of the weight of greens is water and indigestible
fiber, they are often quite expensive as a source of nutrients.
Children frequently don't like the strong flavor of many greens and won't willingly eat
them in many cultures. The strong flavors are often attributable to antinutrients like
nitrates, oxalic acid, tannins, and saponins. These antinutrients should not be consumed in

large quantities by anyone, especially malnourished children. The leaf concentrate

processing removes most of these antinutrients, nearly all the fiber, and the bulk of the
water in greens, making it generally more acceptable and more nutritious than the greens it
is made from.

"Wouldn't it be cheaper and easier to fortify common foods with

nutrients that are in short supply?"
Often there is disagreement among nutritional workers on how to best correct a nutrient
deficiency in a given population. The approaches will range from giving capsules or tablets
of the nutrient to encouraging people to produce and eat more traditional foods that are
rich in the missing nutrient. Some success has be achieved by fortifying a common food
with the missing nutrient, such as the fortification of salt with iodine. Focusing on vitamin
A deficiency, a consideration of capsules and fortification is given below and they are
compared with leaf concentrate as a vehicle for countering the deficiency.
High Potency Vitamin A Capsules: These are very effective at rapidly reversing
deficiency symptoms. They are relatively inexpensive and very compact for easy transport
into remote areas. The capsules also tend to have the affect of turning a food and
nutrition problem into a medical intervention one. Many development workers are
dismayed by passive attitudes about maintaining good health. Some feel the proliferation
of pills and capsules discourage people from making changes in diet and lifestyle, that
would give them better control over their health. The widespread use of capsules may
also increase a feeling of dependency on outside technologies among the health workers in
developing countries. It is difficult to administer a program of high potency vitamin A
capsules without some trained health workers in the area, as excessive doses are toxic..
Fortification of Common Foods with Vitamin A: This seems to be working quite well
in a few locations. Sugar has been fortified with vitamin A in parts of Guatemala with
some success. Salt, flour, milk and a few other foods have been suggested as vehicles for
vitamin A fortification. This may be promising where large numbers of people eat
predictable amounts of certain foods that can be processed under controlled conditions in
a central plant. Where fortification doesn't usually work well is in rural areas where most
of the foods are locally grown and prepared. These are, not coincidentally, areas where
malnutrition is prevalent.
Local Production of Leaf Concentrate: Leaf concentrate is something of a midpoint
between the simple growing and eating more greens and the more complex, more
centralized approaches of capsules or fortification. It seems well suited to small co-ops,
school programs, or small business. It takes some effort and capital initiating LC
programs, but it is a food that has other values (like iron and protein) in the diet of
malnourished children. Some of the leaf concentrate foods like lemonade syrup and dried

pasta store well and are very convenient. They are basically ways of preparing dark green
leafy vegetables that children will accept well.

"Why do you use sugar in LC drink mixes? Isn't sugar bad for you?"
On several occasions people have objected to our use of LC drinks sweetened with white
sugar in child nutrition programs. To convey some idea of how complicated these issues
are and how we go about sorting them out, I've outlined the arguments that came up for
and against using sugar in these programs.
Arguments against use of sugar fall into three basic categories: 1. tooth decay 2. empty
calories 3. other. Tooth decay is dramatically less with drinks than candy etc., as it is
dilute and doesn't stay in the mouth long or cling to tooth enamel. The empty calorie
argument is greatly offset when used with LC, which is low in calories and high in most
nutrients. Other arguments include several related to blood sugar equilibrium problems,
including Feingold and other's theory of sugar intake as a cause of hyperactivity in
children. This has been largely refuted by a number of well controlled double blind
experiments that showed no correlation between sugar and hyperactivity in children.
Children are much more able to digest and absorb large amounts of sugar than adults.
Strong reactions to high sugar intake such as hypoglycemia are very rare, and probably the
large majority of such reactions are psychosomatic in nature.
Some preliminary studies warn of problems from glucosinated proteins (glucose molecules
attaching themselves in a rather unpredictable way to certain protein molecules) with
possible negative impact on eyes and kidneys and nervous system. Diabetes may be linked
to this response. This is still very sketchy stuff and probably linked to long term high sugar
diets. There are some indications of slight addictivity from high intakes of refined sugars.
Some biochemists and nutritionists feel that high refined sugar intake could aggravate
diarrhea because it is such a readily available energy source for bacterial growth. Complex
carbohydrates break down more gradually and may be less likely to stimulate bacterial
outbreaks.
Honey and brown sugar would behave so similarly in the body that its unlikely to be worth
much trouble or money to switch. The LC is rich in the trace minerals that they would
supply in small quantities. A number of other benefits have been claimed for honey, over
the years, but usually price eliminates it from consideration for use in nutrition intervention
programs.

Arguments for using sugar also fall into 3 categories: 1. cheap source of calories. 2.
improves palatability and acceptance. 3. helps preserve foods. Many nutritionists would
argue that in a marginally nourished population like low income Nicaraguan children,
increasing caloric intake is the first priority and that sweet drinks are a reasonable and
inexpensive way to do this in sugar producing regions. Drinks typically have less
substitution effect than solid foods. That is, two glasses of a sweet drink may add more
calories to a child's diet than an equivalent number of calories from a solid source because
the mothers more often reduce other food given the child if he receives a solid
supplement.. The benefit of making a marginally attractive food like LC acceptable to
children shouldn't be overlooked. If they will drink two glasses with some extra sugar and
one without it, the benefit of the addition LC and lemon juice will almost certainly
outweigh the negatives of the added sugar. Increasingly, sub-optimal hydration is seen as a
health problem in many 3rd world populations, where high temperature and low
availability of good water are found. This can cause kidney problems, electrolyte
imbalances, constipation, and other difficulties. This is another benefit of the drink. It is
not clear at what point the sugar content would offset the value of just the additional
water.
The high osmotic pressure of sugar sucks moisture through bacterial cell walls and makes
a cheap preservative that is also a source of calories. Usually liquids greater than 67%
sugar are relatively stable. 1.8 kg sugar mixed well with 1 kg 60% LC should be quite
stable. A rule of thumb is to emphasize complex carbohydrates as energy sources and try
to keep the percentage total calories in the diet from refined sugars to around 5%. This
can be extremely difficult in tropical sugar exporting countries.

"What are antioxidants and why are they so important?"

In what is becoming one of the biggest nutrition stories of the century, scientists are
finding that many diseases may be closely tied to the cumulative cellular damage done by
free radicals. Equally important, they are finding that several compounds called
antioxidants exist in common foods that can block these destructive oxygen reactions.
Free radicals are unstable molecules that can be created by normal metabolic processes, or
from environmental factors like cigarette smoke, ultraviolet radiation in sunlight, and a
range of chemicals that people are routinely exposed to. An increasing number of
researchers feel that dietary antioxidants are the realistic way to interrupt this cellular
deterioration that appears to be linked to many types of cancer, heart disease, Parkinson's
disease, cataracts, and dozens of other health problems. Much of this research is still in
preliminary stages but, the evidence is rapidly piling up that increased dietary intake of
antioxidants is a sound strategy for better long term health.
There are many different compounds. Three of the most important antioxidants in
the human diet are beta carotene, vitamin C and vitamin E. Leaf concentrate is the
richest known source of beta-carotene and a very good source of vitamin E. It

contains almost no vitamin C. Some of the other known antioxidants and important food
sources of them are given below:
Quercetin - yellow and red onions, red grapes, broccoli, and yellow squash
Ellagic acid - strawberries, blackberries, blueberries, cranberries, grapes, apples,
Brazil nuts and cashews
Glutathion - broccoli, parsley, and spinach
Lycopene - strawberries and tomatoes
Oleic acid - olive oil
Selenium - brazil nuts, seafood, sunflower seeds, and beef liver
Phytates - grains and legumes

"Should milk be used in feeding programs?

In several famine situations where donated milk made up a major part of the diet, many
people suffered from serious intestinal gas and diarrhea. T HIS WAS DUE TO A
widespread genetic inability to digest the sugar lactose, which is found in milk. The
undigested milk sugar ferments in the intestine causing gas formation, bloating and
sometimes diarrhea. Because of these problems one sometimes encounters a very negative
attitude about the use of milk in feeding programs. There has been some dumping of
powdered milk into developing countries to maintain high milk prices for farmers in the
both the US and Europe. Before 1972 there was tremendous nutritional emphasis on
protein and the main milk protein, casein, is considered a benchmark against which to
judge protein quality. It was a common belief that milk was an ideal food, partly due to
the American Dairy Association's extremely successful lobbying efforts.
Until about 1965 USAID (United States Agency for International Development) was
unaware of the extent of genetic lactose intolerance in various populations and there have
been accusations of cultural chauvinism because of this. Only among people of northern
European ancestry and a few African tribeswith long histories of cattle herding, do the
majority of the adults tolerate milk sugar well. The percentage of the adults who are
intolerant varies greatly from culture to culture, with almost 100% of some groups, like
the Thai, intolerant. I other groups, like US blacks, only about 65% are intolerant.
Children up to six years of age are generally able to digest lactose. Even lactose intolerant
adults can usually utilize small amounts of milk (up to about liter per day) without
discomfort. Lactose intolerant people produce some lactase, the enzyme responsible for
breaking down milk sugar, but this tends to decline rapidly with age. If you are working
with programs involving adults you should find out what the levels of lactose intolerance
are before introducing large quantities of milk. Allergy to milk is usually related to the
protein and is much more rare than lactose intolerance, though the two are often confused
in Latin America and other places.

Bigger Picture
"Isn't the normal diet people eat closely tied to their culture? Will they
accept new foods like LC?"
It is very difficult to introduce unfamiliar foods, like leaf concentrate, into people's diet.
This is especially true in traditional cultures. It is not impossible, however, and it gets
easier every year. One need only to look at the phenomenal popularity of Coca-cola and
Pepsi-cola worldwide to recognize that new foods are being adopted by traditional
cultures. These foods are heavily promoted by powerful multinational corporations and
their popularity is a testament to the effectiveness of advertising.
Sometimes the changes in diet are economic in nature. In Nicaragua rice has been the
primary grain for many years. However, as the economy continues to declines there,
people are eating far greater quantities of corn because it is cheaper, and they can no
longer afford the preferred rice. At the same time refugees returning to Nicaragua from
the United States have brought with them a taste for many of the convenience foods that
are popular in the US. Pizza, in particular, has experienced great popularity and dozens of
pizza shops have sprung up to supply this demand for a new food.
People all over the world are in the process of making dietary changes that are powered by
the increasingly rapid movement of people and information among different cultures.
Many times this appears to be exploitative and one sided, as when one watches barefoot
malnourished children buying soft drinks from foreign companies. Other times it has a
more progressive side. Mexican people are eating less lard than they did ten years ago
because they have been educated about the links between high animal fat consumption and
heart disease and cancer. Even in small villages this information is arriving and people are
taking action.
Ultimately whether leaf concentrate is accepted in a given society will have to do with
three things:
1. promotion - can leaf concentrate foods be packaged and sold in a way that
attracts food buyers?
2. economics - can leaf concentrate be made and sold at a low enough price to be
an affordable alternative to other available foods?
3. education - can people be adequately educated in the value of good nutrition
in their lives to make changes in diet based on that information?

"Aren't there other alternative high nutrition foods, like soybeans, that
would be easier to introduce than leaf concentrate?"

Mention must be given in this manual to the combination of leaf concentrate and soybeans.
While soybeans are an ancient crop in much of Asia, in many developing countries they are
being promoted as a new low cost diet improver for malnourished people. Leaf For Life is
working with groups trying to introduce soybeans in both Mexico and Nicaragua. The
biggest advantage of soybeans is that they can often be purchased in bulk and stored for
use when needed, whereass leaf concentrate requires fresh cut leaves every day. Soybeans
are often a cheaper source of protein than leaf concentrate, but LC is usually a cheaper
source of iron. Leaf concentrate is the best known source of beta-carotene while soy has
almost none. Together they are quite a nutritional package, and there is no reason why
people should have to chose one over the other.

Both leaf concentrate and soybeans make very efficient use of land resources. The chart
below compares protein yield of leaf concentrate from alfalfa and soybeans to some other
foods.
FOOD

Kgs Edible PROTEIN per Hectare

in 6 Month Growing Season

Leaf Concentrate
from Alfalfa

1070 kg

Soybeans

660

Wheat

475

Milk

430

Eggs

140

Pork

100

Soybeans have nearly twice the protein and much more oil than ordinary beans. One of
the things we like best about soybeans is that a very good milk substitute, called soymilk,
can be made in a lot of places where children can't afford, or can't digest cows' milk. We
have found an extraordinary nutritional package can be delivered in a single portion by
mixing together a glass of soymilk with a tablespoon of leaf concentrate and sugar to
taste. One glass of this drink can supply a 4-6 year old child with more than 100% of the
vitamin A, 83% of the iron, and 37% of the protein suggested by the US Recommended
Dietary Allowances.

Cowpeas, alfalfa and soybeans are all legumes that can convert nitrogen in the air to a
form that plants can use. This eliminates the need for expensive nitrogen fertilizer.
Besides being a big expense for the farmer, nitrogen fertilizer is also very hard on the
environment because it uses tremendous amounts of electric energy to produce and it
often is responsible for the pollution of ground water with nitrates in agricultural areas.
One of the reasons that leaf concentrate and soybeans make such a good combination is
that much of the equipment we use, especially the 5 gallon blender and press tables, works
equally for making soymilk. This keeps the equipment costs for both nutritional products
very low. Dried soybeans have an advantage over leaf crops in that they store quite well.
In areas where leaf crops are not abundantly available all year, we find that soybeans can
be used to bridge the gap. Because the process of making soymilk or soycheese (tofu) are
so similar to that of making leaf concentrate, it is easy to train health workers to make
both products in the same workshop. Then, instead of shutting down when leaf crop is in
short supply, the program can switch to soymilk or tofu and the children can continue
receiving a nutritious boost to their diet.

"Isn't hunger caused by political inequality? If it is how can a technical

approach, like leaf concentrate, help?"
Many influential writers on the subject of world hunger feel that the problem will never be
resolved until people recognize that it is primarily a political problem. Susan George
delineates this view when she describes ". . . hunger as a function of poverty and poverty
as a function of fundamentally inequitable power structures both within and between
nations." From this point of view measures taken to increase food supply such as irrigation
schemes, integrated pest management, and post-harvest food processing, are irrelevant to
assuring enough that everyone has enough to eat. This outlook has lost some of it appeal
as the socialist governments of the world have come undone, and the prospects for
revolutionary redefinition of power structures in favor of the poor have greatly diminished.
The criticism of technical approaches to the issue of hunger frequently relates to failures of
the "Green Revolution". This is seen as the imposition of technical innovations, mainly in
the form of high yielding seed varieties, that did dramatically increase food supply but did
little to reduce the number of hungry people. The new seeds changed land tenure patterns
and levels of bean consumption at the same time that they increased the supply of rice and
wheat. There are always unintended effects, both bad and good, from new technologies.
Technical changes don't take place in a vacuum and both the scale of operations and the
choice of operators have implications for the power relationships in the communities
affected. The introduction of leaf concentrate technology can be done on an industrial
commercial scale, on a domestic scale, or on a cooperative village scale. Leaf for Life tries
to gear its projects so that they can be controlled by women who are generally

disempowered within current social structures in developing countries. We normally

advocate small decentralized production units that can remain under local control.
In the long run it will be very difficult to eliminate hunger without fundamentally
addressing the inequities of power. It will be equally difficult to eliminate poverty without
the introduction of improved food productionand processing techniques. The challenge is
to develop technologies that don't reinforce the current power structure and to use them
as soon as possible to make sure children alive today won't have to wait for big political
changes to get enough to eat.

SECTION VI
GENERAL INFORMATION
TROUBLE SHOOTING
PROBLEM
leaf concentrate has strong
or bitter flavor

POSSIBLE CAUSES
- old leaves were used
- inappropriate species
- old leaf concentrate

without
days with)
allowed
more than 4
advisable)

(over 2 days
refrigeration or 5
- delay in processing after leaf harvest
some fermentation (no
hour delay

- residual liquid or 'whey'

not well enough pressed out
- curd burnt during heating of
juice

leaf concentrate is
too moist or wet

- curd not pressed firmly enough

- curd not pressed gradually enough
- filter cloth is too fine
- juice stirred too much during heating

curds

- juice heated too slowly, making very small

that clog the filter cloth

leaf concentrate has

a gritty texture
grinding

- leaves not washed well enough before

and contain dirt and dust

oxalic
gritty texture.
leaf concentrate has
a fibrous texture

low yield of leaf

concentrate (less than
5% of leaf weight)

are wet
when weighed

- some species, like spinach have crystalline

acid that gives the curd a

- juice was not filtered before heating

- old leaves
- very young leaves
- very high water content in leaves or they
from rain or from washing

- leaves not ground up well

- juice not pressed well enough from fiber

all the

processing is going
too slowly
washing
needed.

- juice not heated high enough to coagulate

curd

- too much time is being spent sorting and

leaves. Extreme care is not

- leaves are being hand stripped from stalks

finished
step.
have one worker
presses)

- workers are waiting for one step to be

before beginning the next
(Usually it is good to
grinding while another

- workshop is not arranged efficiently

- tables are too high or too low for working

relatives

- socializing among workers or friends and

has become too distracting
- children are interfering with work in the

workshop

leaf juice is taking

too long to heat

- pressure is too low on gas stove

- flame is too far below pot

- flame only in contact with part of pot

- breeze on flame and pot

well
more air

- if wood fire is used; wood is wet or not

enough split up. It may need
supplied by a small fan

- Cook pot is too deep

- metal of pot is too thick

- no top on pot

leaf juice burns on

pot bottom
point

- juice left on heat after it reaches boiling

- flame not evenly spread over bottom of

pot
- pot not cleaned well enough after a
previous burn
- lack of gentle stirring during heating

grinder or macerator motor not running - not fully plugged in

- outlet linked to light switch that is not
turned on
- circuit breakers off or fuse burnt out
- reset button on motor needs to be pushed

water to

- damaged or wrong size seal has allowed

pass from blender into motor

grinder or blender running too slowly

- motor wired for 220 volts on110 line

- motor wire for 60 Hertz running on 50 Hz
- too many leaves in blender
- too little water
- leaves not cut into short enough pieces

meat grinder not grinding

leaves well

- leaves not cut in short enough pieces

- leaves are too wet; juice is filling grinder

chamber

properly

- motor shaft and grinder shaft are not

aligned or connected
- blade is not in place or is in backwards

- holes in die plate are too small or too few

reduced
60- 90 RPM

children are not showing

improvements in health
after 4 months on leaf
concentrate program
per day

- motor speed is not reduced enough or is

too much; should be between

- not enough leaf concentrate is being given

- leaf concentrate meals are too irregular

- children are not eating all the meal that is
offered

other

- leaf concentrate food is being shared with

family members
- child is not malnourished

food at

- child is not receiving the usual amount of

home.

- intestinal parasites or other chronic health

SAFETY
Machinery
- Children should be kept away from machines in use.
- Machines should be unplugged when not in use, when being cleaned, or when
being repaired.
- Electric cords should be kept out of water and out of foot traffic.
- Switches should be within easy reach of machine operators.
- Motors should be equipped with manual reset buttons to prevent accidental
restarting after they shut off from an overload.
- Guards should always be used to keep hands out of moving machinery. Wooden
push rods should be used to feed leaves into the blender or grinder.
- Ear protection should be worn if the noise level from the machines is very high.
Cooking with Gas
- Gas cylinders should be tied or chained in an upright position.
- Make sure all connections are tight and there are no leaks. Use Teflon tape if
available. Test connections with a little soapy water. This will let you know if there is a
leak.
- If possible, have the gas tank outside, with only the tube or hose inside.
- Don't use a gas cooker in a small unventilated room.
- Make sure gas is turned completely off before leaving workshop.
- Any flame should be at least 2 meters away from the gas tank. Further is better.
- Keep tubes, hoses and connections as out of the work area if possible to avoid
people tripping on them.
General Safety
- Use normal precautions when dealing with large pots of hot liquids.
- Get help if you need to move something heavy. Lift with your legs not your
back. Don't risk hurting your back.
- Keep floors free from wet areas if possible, especially around machinery.
- Wear footwear with good footing rather than going barefoot or wearing loose
sandals.

HYGIENE
- All workers should wash their hands well before handling food.
- Animals should be kept out of the work area.
- Workers who are coughing or sneezing should not handle food.
- Equipment should be well cleaned after each use. Pulped leaves, leaf juice, and
leaf concentrate can all ferment quickly if left on machinery.

Diseases Transmitted by Food

Diarrhea is the largest cause of death in children. Worldwide an estimated four million
children under the age of five die each year from diarrhea. The symptoms of food
transmitted disease are usually diarrhea and sometimes nausea and cramps following the
consumption of food or water that is contaminated. There are two types of food borne
diseases. Intoxication is when a person is poisoned by toxins produced by microorganisms
living in food before it is eaten. Infection is caused when living microorganism in food
multiply after they reach the person's digestive tract. Young children and people with
lowered immune system resistance are those most likely to die from food borne disease.
The types of bacteria responsible for intoxication diarrhea are not normally present in leaf
concentrate processing and should not be a problem in LC programs. Many of the worst
agents of infection are thrive mainly on meat, poultry and seafood. Some of the bacteria
that can cause infections in the human digestive system are present in the soil and
throughout the tropical environment. These include shigella, listeria, E. coli,
Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus cereus. Fortunately all of these are killed by heating
to boiling as is done with the coagulation of leaf juice. The main danger of bacterial
infection from leaf concentrate comes from it being recontaminated after it is pasteurized.
To avoid this it is important to store the leaf concentrate in very clean containers and
either refrigerate it or dry it as soon as possible after it is pressed. If it is to be stored for
more than a day or so without refrigeration it should be resuspended in an acidic wash
water to lower the pH below 4.5. This should be done with a diluted acid, if it is
necessary. Moist leaf concentrate should be eaten within a week even if it is refrigerated.

LEAF CONCENTRATE:
SOME BASIC RELATIONSHIPS
LAND AREA 1 hectare = 100 meters (327 feet) on a side or c. 107,000 square feet or
c. 21/2 acres .
1 acre = c. 64 meters (c210 feet) on a side or c. 43,000 square feet or .4
of one hectare
(Nicaragua) 1 Manzana = c. 80 meters (265 feet) on a side or c. 70,000 square feet or .7
hectare or 1.6 acres.
WATER REQUIREMENTS Rapidly growing green crops usually need between 3-4cm
(1-1 1/2 inches) of water per week for top growth, depending on soil, air temperature, and
humidity.
or 60-90 gallons per 100 square feet or 65,000 - 97,000 gallons per hectare per week or
26,000 - 39,000 gallons per acre per week.
GREEN CROP YIELD Highly variable. Probably 3-5 kg per square meter ( 2/3 - 1 lb
per square foot) per year is a reasonable estimate for our use. 35-50,000 kg per hectare;

or 30-45,000 lbs per acre (1kg = 2.2 lb). This comes out to about 100 kg a day per
hectare or about 100 lbs a day per acre. Triple these yields are sometimes achieved under
intensive conditions.
TYPICAL YIELD OF LEAF FRACTIONS
100 kgs leaf crop, ie. alfalfa or cowpeas (18-20 kg dry matter)
4-7 kg LC at 60% moisture (1.5 -2.5 kg dry matter)
45 kg fiber at 70 % moisture (c. 13.5 kg dry matter)
COMPOSITION OF LEAF CONCENTRATE
100 gr.of 60% moisture LC should contain approximately:
24 gr
Protein (High quality protein equivalent to meat or fish, lower than milk
or eggs, better than grains, or beans).
50,000 IU

Vitamin A (As beta-carotene)

40 mg
Iron (This is an average of 20 samples worldwide.
Actual amount will vary greatly with soil and processing equipment).
720 mg

Calcium

140

Calories

140 mcg

Folic Acid

USRDA for 4-6 year old children:

Protein
30 g
Vitamin A 2500 IU
Iron
10 mg
Calcium
800 mg
Calories
1800
Folic Acid
200 mcg
- see section on nutrition MISCELANEOUS RELATIONSHIPS
1 kg fresh leaves should yield 1/2 liter or 1 pint juice.
1 tablespoon fresh LC = c. 15 gr. or 1/2 oz.
1 kg LC will provide 66 portions of 15 gr. each

1 pound LC will provide 30 15 gr. portions.

.
For daily portion of 15 gr., figure c. 30 square meters (300 square feet) of good land per
child.
1 pound LC will provide 18 25 gr. portions.
1 kg LC will provide 40 portions of 25 gr. each.
To provide a daily portion of 25 gr., figure 50 square meters (650 square feet) of good
land per child.
On Dry Weight Basis: LC should be 50-65% protein,20-25% lipids, 5-9% ash, .8-1.0%
beta-carotene with significant amounts of calcium, xanthophyll, iron and vitamin E.
FEED VALUE OF FIBER When figured on a dry weight basis, the fiber left over from
leaf concentrate processing has approximately the same feeding value to animals as
unprocessed fresh leaf crop. Because fresh alfalfa and other leaf crops are usually around
20 % dry matter, while the residual fiber is around 30% dry matter; the fiber has about 1
times the feeding value, per kilogram, as the leaves that it was made from. .
The fiber remaining from processing one ton of alfalfa should provide the bulk of the
forage requirement for 25-30 cows who can produce about 75 -100 liters of milk daily.If
we assume a daily ration of 2 kg dry matter for every 100 kg cow weight, this 45 kg of
fiber will feed two and a half 300 kg cows. The 100 kg of unprocessed leaf crop would
feed three and a third cows of the same weight.

WHEY Whey is rich in nitrogen and potassium but deficient in phosphorus as a fertilizer.
It is not acceptable in human diet because of concentrations of nitrates, oxalic acid, and
other anti-nutrients. It has been remixed with the fiber for cows with good results, though
watering pigs with whey has led to kidney problems over time.
10 liters whey will cover 1 meter sq. 1 cm deep. 2-3 cm per week may be needed to
supply optimum water. This amount may damage seedlings and some plants. Diluted
whey, as in that from blender processed leaf concentrate, is safe for plants. It is best used
for high value crops near processing site.
- see section on by-products -

YIELDS OF LEAF CONCENTRATE

VS CROP.MOISTURE
Crop
Moisture
Content

Yield of
fresh leaf
concentr
ate (60%
moisture)

75

(grams
fresh LC
per 100
grams of
crop)
15%
DM yield
9.38

12.5%
DM yield
7.81

10.0%
DM yield
6.25

7.5%
DM yield
4.69

5.0%
DM yield
3.13

80

7.5

6.25

3.75

2.5

85

5.63

4.69

3.75

2.81

1.88

90

3.75

3.13

2.5

1.88

1.25

(%)

Grams of dry LC per 100 grams of crop dry matter

Greater than 15 grams

Excellent Yield

12.5 to 15 grams

Very Good Yield

10.0 to 12.5 grams

Good Yield

7.5 to 10.0 grams

Fair Yield

Less than 7.5 grams

Poor to Very Poor Yield

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
YIELDS OF LEAF CONCENTRATE AND FIBER
AND CROP MOISTURE CONTENT

Kg of product
per 100 kg of
crop with a leaf
concentrate
yield (dry matter
to dry matter)
of:
Moisture
Content of crop

Product

7.5%

10.0%

12.5%

80%

leaf concentrate
fiber

5
55

6.7
51.7

8.3
49

85%

leaf concentrate
fiber

3.8
41.3

5
39

6.3
36.7

90%

leaf concentrate
fiber

2.5
27.5

3.3
26

4.2
24.5

Note: Both leaf concentrate and fiber assumed to be at 70% moisture. Leaf concentrate
should be pressed to 60 % moisture whenever possible .
Walter Bray February 1993

SOME RULES OF THUMB

1. IF IT SMELLS BAD, IT IS Bad.
from LC.

This applies to leaves, LC, and products made

2. If you can recognize pieces of leaf in the pulped leaves, they probably aren't
ground up enough.
3. If you take a pinch of fresh green leaf and rub it vigorously between your thumb
and forefinger it should produce a thin green watery juice. If there is no juice or the
juice is sticky, it is not a good choice for making LC.
4. If you can squeeze juice from the fiber with your bare hand after it has been
pressed it is probably over 70% moisture and not well enough pressed.
5. If you take a pinch of fresh LC and smear it with your thumb across your palm, it
should roll back up and leave your palm clean. If it goes on like finger paint and leaves
your palm green it is too wet; probably 70% moisture or more.
6. If you are getting a 10% yield you are probably doing something wrong. If 100 kg
of fresh leaves is producing more than 7 kg of leaf concentrate, chances are it is very wet
LC. Normally 5 % is typical, don't feel bad if you are getting 5% and reading about others
getting 10%; reality is on your side. The same is true with dry yields over about 2.5%.
7. Nothing changes the economics of LC as greatly as wet curd. Assume you are
yielding 2% on a dry basis, and you are processing 200 kg of leaves and selling fresh LC
for $4 per kg. If your curd is well pressed (60% moisture) you will get $40 worth of LC.
If your curd is poorly pressed (75% moisture) you will have $64 worth of curd. Of
course, the difference is that you are selling 6 liters of water for $24. This is a tremendous
temptation, but a death threat to LC projects. It is why we increasingly recommend using
dried LC.
8. Averages are humbling things. If you normally produce 4 kg of dry LC per day of
work, but on average you don't process one day a week because of electric problems,
average production is 3.2 kg not 4. If the shop is closed for Holy week, two weeks at

Christmas, whenever there is a storm, whenever a worker has a sick relative, and
whenever you are out of leaves or a machine needs repair, the average daily production
over the year may be only 2 kg.
9. Wholesale prices are lower than retail. If you see noodles for sale in a health food
shop for $2.00 per kg, this does not mean that the producer of the noodles receives $2.00.
More likely he gets $1.00 and the store owner and other middlemen get the other one.
10. There is always some waste. If you are making syrup you will end up with half a
bottle left over. If you make churritos some will burn or break. If they are well made some
will get eaten in the shop before being packaged.

COMMUNICATIONS
An important part of any leaf concentrate project is communications. A few suggestions
on communications from my experience with leaf concentrate projects.
Learn the local language.
Every field worker I've talked to that has worked in Latin America wishes that he had
spent more time learning Spanish before going there to work. The same is likely true of
other languages. Every bit helps; whether its high school courses, language tapes, a short
intensive course in a foreign country, or just studying a phrase book. Keep studying after
you've arrived in a foreign country. Use the language even if you don't speak gracefully.
Avoid hanging out exclusively with ex-patriates who speak your language. That will slow
the learning process down.
Use terms that are as universal as possible.
Your reports from the field are of great interest to a range of people working with leaf
concentrate in countries all over the world. Using scientific as well as local names for
crops, weeds, insects, foods etc. that are not commonly known worldwide will increase
the value of your information. I'm frequently frustrated by reports on crops or recipes
from India that use local names unknown to me. Sometimes I can look them up, because I
have access to good libraries, but this is a time consuming and often fruitless labor. Other
workers in developing countries are less likely to be able to look up these names and thus
these reports are often worthless as a result. Usually someone at a local agricultural school
will know the scientific names of plants and pests important in that region.

The same holds true with the use of local currencies and measuring systems. People don't
have any idea how big a field of 10 Indian bighas or 6 Nicaraguan manzanas is outside of
those cultures. Detailed economic analysis in local currency without reference to an
exchange rate to one of the larger currency systems like the US $ or British can also be
worthless. In general we should include metric system measurements as well as local ones
in any reporting.

Use standard field tests whenever possible.

For example, the percentage of dry matter in leaves compared to the percentage of leaf
concentrate dry matter from those leaves, provides a lot of good information about a crop
and how likely it is to be a useful plant for making LC. Tests that use fresh weight
without giving the percentage of moisture in either the leaves or the LC provide far less
information.
Work toward high speed low cost computer links.
Electronic information networks, like Eco-Net, and PeaceNet, are opening up possibilities
to exchange information quickly and inexpensively worldwide. We need to move towards
these types of systems as telephone calls are very expensive and the voice quality often
bad, and mail is too slow between projects and office. Frequently there is a month or more
lag between correspondence and questions asked don't get answered. If we could develop
a somewhat standardized format one could respond by saying something like " please
clarify point 3 in report
# 256". The linking of the actual field situation with the experience and resources of the
home offices is frequently quite weak.
Use a standardized monthly production report for each project.
Monthly reports on production provide very valuable information and help us identify
problem areas quickly. A sample monthly report form that can be copied is in the
appendix of this manual.

CONSIDERATIONS IN SETTING UP PROJECTS

The following list of questions may seem very long. It is not necessary to answer them all
in order to be able to run a leaf concentrate project, but they give a good idea of the many
factors that can affect the success or failure of such project. Generally, the more thought
that goes into these types of questions before a project is set up , the greater the likelihood
of success.

Agricultural
- Are there any commercial crops currently grown in the area that could be used for LC
production?
- Rainfall information. How much? What months?
- Irrigation possibilities. Costs? From well? Spring? river?, etc. How pumped? Sprinkler?
Basin? Drip?
- Is sufficient land available to grow leaf crops? Not too steep or very rocky?
- Are tractors available to work the land? Crops like cowpeas that are frequently
replanted need easy access to tractors or animals or roto-tillers to prepare soil. Beware
too easy yes answers.
- How hot is it in the hottest season? When and for how long?
- What are the main crops now grown in that area?
- Any information on yields of corn, sorghum, alfalfa etc is helpful for estimating land
requirements for other LC crops. Get more than 1 opinion.
- Any information on land prices per hectare of farmland? Irrigated farmland?
- Rental or lease agreements used for land tenure?
- Market prices and seasonal availability of forages and animal feeds, especially dairy feed.
Nutritional
- Evidence of malnutrition in children. Any available weight for age, weight for height or
height for age data.
- Night blindness in children?
- Anemia in children under 5 and pregnant women?

- General impresssions of frequency and severity of diarrhea, respiratory infections and

measles?
- Seasonal fluctuations in these?
- Do other feeding programs exist in the area? Are other agencies and organizations
active?
Dietary
- What percentage of the children are breastfed? To what age on average?
- Are any greens eaten regularly by children?
- Carrots?
- Orange fruits or vegetables?
- Impressions of consumption of meat, fish, eggs and milk?
- Is milk vitamin A fortified?
- Prevalence of home gardens?
- What is grown?
- Availability of greens in local stores?
- What do women perceive as shortcomings in their diet? ie " If you had $10 more a week
to spend what foods would you buy more of ?'
- Snack food patterns?
- Are there any important food taboos, especially for childrens food?
Economic
- Wages or income of agricultural workers?
- Seasonal fluctuations in family income?
- Income generating activities for women? ie. assembly plants,? home crafts?, field work?
- What can they earn in 4 hours? This plays a big role in how women will evaluate
economic potential of LC project.
- Price per kg of staple foods at local stores.
- What cook fuel is used? Cost per month per household?
- Estimated cost of food as percentage of income?
- Is there an apparent market for LC or must one be developed?
- Is there an apparent marlket for teh fiber or must one be developed?
Building for Leaf Concentrate Workshop
- How far is building from the fields of leaves?
- Over what type of roads or path?
- Will leaves be hauled by wheelbarrow, bicycle? horse cart? truck?
- How big is the building or room?
- Who owns it?
- What competing uses are there for the building?
- Can equipment be secured against theft or vandalism?
- How easy is it to clean?
- What is the electric capacity in the building?
- Is running water available? Drinking quality?
- Is building screened to keep out insects?

- Can processing and feeding be done in same building?

- Is there a good drainage system? A sanitary toilet
Machinery
-Are there qualified people involved in the project who can do basic machinery work?
- Welding?
- Carpentry?
- Installing gas cooking equipment?
- Can a college level technical or agricultural school be integrated into program?
Use of By-products
- Are there goats, rabbits, sheep, or cows that can be integrated into the project within
wheelbarrow distance of processsing center?
- Are there crop fields near enough the workshop to haul whey in buckets for fertilizer?
- Are there any bio-gas programs nearby?
- Are mushrooms commonly eaten in the area?
- What is the cost and availability of off season cattle feed? Hay?
- Cost per hectare of urea or other nitrogen fertilizer for corn, or sorghum, or other basic
grains?
Organizational
- Brief history of partner organization and its leading characters.
- How will LC be distributed?
- Will an existing distribution system be used or a new one created?
- Is motivation primarily nutrition intervention, income generation, or some other factor?
- Will leaf concentrate be sold or given away?
- If sold who will get the money?
- How many children will receive leaf concentrate?
- Will the children come to a central feeding center or will the leaf concentrate be
delivered to the homes of the children?
- Are there records available of childrens' names, ages, height and weight?
- Will pregnant and nursing mothers receive leaf concentrate?
- How are mothers involved?
- Will workers be volunteers on rotation?
- Is there any paid staff?
- Is there a contact person for your group that can be reached by phone?
- Other national or international agencies that co-operate with or finance this organization.
Names and addresses of contacts for these.with contacts
Financial
-How do people envision financing project?
- Estimation of set up costs?
- Estimation of yearly operating costs?
Transportation

-How long does it take to get to the nearest large town by bus? Cost? Frequency of
buses?
-How long does it take to get to the nearest large city?
Miscellaneous
- Are indigenous people involved in the design and management of the project?
- Is the local political leadership enthusiastic about the project?
- Are there any people who are hostile or very suspicious of the project?
- Are there related projects that might feel threatened by a leaf concentrate project?
- Or that might become integrated with one?
- Is the project leadership closely tied to one political party or other group such as a
church that may make segments of the local population reluctant to participate?

RECIPES
These recipes are offered simply to give an idea of the many ways in which leaf
concentrate can be prepared in different cultures. Recipes are always adjusted to local
conditions of taste and availability of ingredients. We would love to hear of any new
recipes or variations on these that you think are good.
Each of these recipes
provides far more essential nutrients to the body than the traditional recipes on which they
were based. The addition of leaf concentrate can turn an ordinary food into a nutritional
powerhouse.
Basic Leaf Concentrate Syrup formula
375 ml
water
1 kg 60% moisture
fresh LC
2 kg
sugar
30 g
salt*
1.7 g
ascorbic acid**

12 fluid oz
2 lb
4 lb
25 g
1.5 g

Mix well in blender. Approximately 15 grams LC per 30 ml (fluid oz).

Lemonade Concentrate Syrup

1 liter lemon juice
2 kg (3.3 lbs) sugar
1 kg (2.2 lbs) moist leaf concentrate*
50 ml lemon extract (if available)

Blend the leaf concentrate at the highest speed in the lemon juice and extract. Gradually
add the sugar and continue blending until very smooth. This syrup can be put in a bottle
with a tight fitting top and stored for later use. Mix two tablespoons of the syrup in a
large glass of water, or a half liter of syrup in 2 gallons of water.
note: lemon extract can be replaced by lemon oil or 50 grams finely ground lemon
peel. Limes can be used instead of lemons.
* Dried leaf concentrate does not work well in thin liquids like lemonade. Even
with using moist leaf concentrate some of the solids will settle so it is a good idea to stir
up the drinks immediately before serving.
Pasta
3 - 4 kg (6 1/2 - 9 lbs) wheat flour
1 kg (2.2 lbs) moist leaf concentrate or 400 gr dry
2 tablespoons salt
Mix flour and salt, then add leaf concentrate and a small amount of water. Knead for 10
minutes. Dough should be very heavy but elastic. Roll the dough out as thin as possible
and cut into strips. These can be cooked as is or dried in a dark room, sealed in a plastic
bag and cooked when convenient.
note: Hand operated stainless steel pasta rollers are available in some gourmet
cook shops for about $50 US. They make very uniform pasta.

Soup Nuggets
1 kg (2.2 lbs) wheat flour
2 kg (4.4 lbs) moist leaf concentrate or 800 gr dry
100 g (3 1/2 ounces) salt
flavorings to taste
Mix the salt, flour, and flavorings together and then add the leaf concentrate to make a
dough. Roll the dough out in a layer about 1/2 cm thick. Cut into small squares. These
squares can be dried, then added to rice or soups or stews. They can also be cooked in
boiling water for 3-5 minutes before being dried. In that case they will need no further
cooking. When they are well dried they will store well if sealed and kept from sunlight.
note: powder, chili, mustard, horseradish, garlic, onion ginger, or other strong
spices can be used to make nuggets that will add flavor and nutrition to any cooked dish.

Atol (Latin America)

1 kg (2.2 lbs) corn (maize) flour
1 kg (2.2 lbs) bananas

1 kg (2.2 lbs) moist leaf concentrate or 400 gr dry

250 grams (1/2 lb) sugar
To a mixture of corn flour and sugar, add water and cook for 10 minutes. Mash bananas
and leaf concentrate together and add mixture to the cooked flour. Mix thoroughly.
Remove from heat and serve in bowls.
note: Atol can be made as a hot thick drink or as a very thick pudding or pastry
filling, or depending on how much water is used. Many people prefer atol made with corn
starch as it is smoother in texture.
Porridge*
2 kg (4.4 lbs) ragi flour (millet or sorghum)
1 kg (2.2 lbs)rice
1/2 kg (1.1 lbs)brown sugar
1/2 kg (1.1 lbs) moist leaf concentrate or 200 gr dry
Cook the rice, ragi flour, and sugar for 15 minutes in enough water to make a fairly thick
porridge. Thoroughly mix in the leaf concentrate and serve warm.
note: This basic porridge can be made with any locally available grain or with
starchy roots like cassava or potatoes.
* PORRIDGES AS WEANING FOODS
Both atol and porridges are frequently used as weaning foods for infants. The addition of
leaf concentrate to the traditional porridges can make a tremendous difference in the
health of infants during this time of extreme nutritional vulnerability.
A very serious problem with porridges as weaning foods is that young children usually
don't get enough calories and nutrients from the volume of porridge they will eat. This is
because the nutrient density, or amount of essential nutrient per volume of food, is too
low. If parents try to increase the nutrient density of the porridge by adding more solids it
becomes very thick and gloppy and the children will eat less of it. If the porridge is made
thinner with more liquid, children will consume a larger volume but most of the
difference is simply water, so the intake of nutrients is about the same. The nutrient
density can be improved by adding leaf concentrate, and oil, or sugar.
An alternative strategy involves breaking up the starch bonds that make porridge thick and
gloppy. This can be done by adding 5 - 20% flour from sprouted corn or sorghum. These
sprouted grains are rich in amylase which breaks the starch bonds and makes the porridge
more liquid. By using these sprouted grains much more flour can be added to the
porridge which increases the nutrient density up to three times. The amylase is inactivated
at temperatures above 70 degrees C. (160 degrees F.) so the sprouted grain flour needs to
be added to the porridge after it has cooled a bit.
The grains should be washed then soaked 8-10 hours in clean water. After that they need
to be left in a warm dry place and rinsed twice a day for three days. The sprouted grains

are then sun dried. When they are very dry the grains should be rubbed between your
hands to remove all the root hairs and shoots. THIS IS VERY IMPORTANT WITH
SORGHUM BECAUSE THE VEGETATIVE PORTIONS OF SPROUTED SORGHUM
GRAIN CONTAINS TOXIC HYDROCYANIC ACID. DO NOT EAT SPROUTED
SORGHUM WITHOUT CAREFULLY
REMOVING THE ROOT HAIRS AND SHOOTS. White sorghum works far better than
brown or purple types of sorghum. I recommend using sprouted corn to avoid any danger
from sorghum. After the sprouted grains are fully dry they can be ground like any other
grain. The amylase activity of the sprouted grain flour gradually diminishes with time, so
it should be used within two weeks of when it is sprouted. While this may be extra work,
in many areas grain sprouting is already widely practiced at the household or small
business level. for various reasons including the brewing of beers.

Soymilk Shake
250 ml (1 cup) moist leaf concentrate or 100 ml dry
2 1/2 liters soymilk (or cows' milk)
1 1/4 sugar
2 tsp vanilla extract or flavoring.
Blend the leaf concentrate well in 1 liter of soymilk, then blend the sugar well with another
liter of soymilk.. Mix these two and the remaining soymilk together well in a large enough
container. Makes 10 glasses.
Frozen Snack
250 ml (1 cup) moist leaf concentrate or 100 ml dry
250 ml (1 cup)sugar
2 bananas
1250 ml (5 cups) soymilk (or cows' milk)
Blend all the ingredients together well. Pour into 10 small plastic bags and tie firmly
closed, then freeze. These can be removed from the bags and eaten with a spoon, or they
can be sucked through a hole bitten in the corner of the bag.
Laddu (India)
1 kg flour
1 kg brown sugar
1 kg moist leaf concentrate or 80 grams dry
200 grams vegetable oil
Dissolve the sugar in a little water; add the flour and oil. Cook for 15 minutes. Mix in the
leaf concentrate and let cool to near room temperature. Form the mixture into little balls
(about 25 g each). These can be rolled in sugar if desired.
note: any locally available flour can be used to make the laddu. Flavorings like
ginger can be added as can chopped nuts or fruit

.Tortillas (Mexican and Central American corn flatbread)

1/2 kg corn flour
100 g wheat flour
100 g moist leaf concentrate or 40 grams dry
Mix all the ingredients and knead for 5 minutes. Form small balls and press flat by hand or
with awooden or metal tortilla press. Grill on both sides until cooked through. Serves 5
adults or 10 children.
Tamales (Mexico)
500 ml (2 cups) corn flour (masa harina)
125 ml (1/2 cup) moist leaf concentrate or 50 ml dry
2 teaspoons baking powder
1 teaspoon salt
80 ml (1/3 cup) lard or vegetable shortening
1 1/2 cup soup stock or water
Combine dry ingredients. Beat the lard until creamy, then gradually beat in the dry
ingredients. Slowly add the soup stock or water, stirring constantly. Spread about 1
tablespoon of this dough in the center of a clean corn leaf. Wrap the dough in the corn
leaf by neatly folding in the edges. Repeat until all the dough is wrapped. This should
make around 25 tamales. Steam the tamales for 40 - 60 minutes. Serve hot. About 3 per
person.
note: The tamale dough can be flavored with chili or other flavorings, or
sweetened. A tablespoon of various types of fillings can also be enclosed by carefully
placing it on the center of the dough before it is wrapped.
Uchepos (Mexico)
Uchepos are made the same way as tamales except they use a dough made from
corn that is not fully ripened or dry. They has a unique flavor and are a traditional dish of
Michoacan, Mexico.
Kola Kenda (Sri Lanka)
500 ml (2 cups) dry rice
250 ml (1 cup) grated coconut
250 ml (1 cup) moist leaf concentrate 0 100 ml dry
Cook the rice and coconut until a thick porridge is formed. Mix the leaf concentrate in
thoroughly. Serve warm.
note: Kola kenda is a traditional dish of Sri Lanka, where it is normally made with
fresh green leaf juice. The version made with leaf concentrate is well accepted there.
Curried Potato Soup
1 1/2 kg potatoes
250 ml (1 cup) moist leaf concentrate or 100 ml dry
3 medium onions

60 ml (1/4 cup) butter, margarine, lard, or oil

2 tsp curry powder
1 tsp salt
1 tsp dill seed
Peel, cut and boil potatoes. Add onion to boiling water for about 5-10 minutes. Strain
and add leaf concentrate, butter, and spices. Blend until creamy, adding more water or
milk if needed. Serve hot or cold. Different spices may be used for variations.

Lemon Trail Bars

250 ml (1 cup) moist leaf concentrate or 90 ml dry
250 ml (1 cup) sugar
125 ml (1/2 cup) shortening
125 ml (1/2 cup) flour
125 ml (1/2 cup) rolled oats
125 ml (1/2 cup) raisins
1 1/2 tsp lemon extract or grated lemon peel
Mix all the ingredients together well. Spread 1 1/2 cm (1/2 inch) thick layer of mixture on
greased cookie sheet. Bake for 40 minutes in slow oven. Slice into bars then let cool.
Other flavorings, like almond, can be substituted for lemon.
Barfi (India)
50 g
150 g
125 g
250 g
50 g
25 g
5-6

LC (fresh)
Bengal gram flour
oil
sugar
potato flour
milk powder
cardamoms

Roast Bengal gram flour in half the oil, add milk powder. Saute potato flour and LC in
remaining oil. Mix enough water to sugar to make thin syrup. Add Bengal gram flour and
LC mixture to this. Stir constantly while heating. When about to set mix in crushed
cardamoms and spread evenly on greased tray. Cut into 20 diamond shaped pieces.
LC Rice (India)
1 cup
1/4 cup
1
3 tablespoons
2-3
1/2 tsp
2

rice
fresh LC
onion
oil
green chilies
curry powder
tomatoes

1/2 tsp
salt to taste

chili powder

Brown onion and curry powder. Add rice and fry for 10 minutes. Add LC, chilies, chili
powder and salt and enough water to cook the rice. When rice is half done add tomatoes.
Serve hot.

Tikki (India)
200 g
150 g
50 g
2 Tbsp
200 g
2
4
150 g
1 tsp
1 tsp
salt to taste

potatoes
LC (fresh)
potato flour
sugar
Bengal gram flour
onions
green chilies
oil
curry powder
garam masala

Mash potatoes and add LC, potato flour, sugar, garam masala, salt, green chilies, and one
chopped onion. Saute remaining onion with half the curry powder. Add LC mixture and
cook 5 minutes on low fire. Remove from heat and let cool. Form into 20 balls. Flatten
the balls a little and dip them in a light batter made from the Bengal gram flour, the
remaining curry powder, salt, and enough water for a light consistency. Fry till crisp.
Serves 10 people.
Tamarind Jelly (Nicaragua)
1 kg
sugar
250 g
tamarinds
1 liter
water
2 Tbsp
fresh LC
1 tsp.
cloves

Soak tamarinds in water. Remove seeds. Slowly cook sugar in water and tamarind extract.
Add Cloves and LC. Heat slowly till thick.
Green Salsa (Mexico)
300 g
tomatoes
1/2
onion
4
chili serranos
2 small
chili perones
60 g
LC (fresh)
1 piece
cilantro
1 clove
garlic
salt to taste
Cook the chilies and tomatoes for 10 minutes. Add all the remaining ingredients and mix
briefly ina a blender or with an egg beater or spoon.
Churritos (Latin America)
350 g
corn (maize) flour
125 g
LC (fresh) or 45 g dried
100 g
wheat flour
1/2 tsp
baking powder
salt to taste
enough oil to deep fry
Mix all the ingredients well. Drive through holes in a meat grinder with the knife removed
(.5-1 cm holes). Fry the worm like churritos and serve as a snack.

Potato - Carrot Pancakes (Mexico)

3/4 kg
potatoes
3/4kg
carrots
1 cup
bread crunbs
2
eggs
1/4 kg
grated cheese
3 Tbsps.
LC (fresh)
salt to taste
Wash and peel the potatoes and carrots, then grate them into the same bowl. Mix LC,
bread crumbs and salt together. Then mix in the cheese and the beaten eggs. Drop on hot
frying pan by the tablespoon and cook like a pancake.

Swedish Meat Balls

1/2 cup
fresh LC (or 1/4 cup dried)

1 cup
1
1
1 clove
1/4 cup
1 tsp.
1 tsp

dry bread crumbs

egg
onion (chopped)
garlic (chopped)
peanuts (chopped)
salt
chili powder

Mix togeter all ingredients. Form into balls and fry in hot oil till crisp.
Leaf Burger
375 ml (1 1/2 cups) dried bread crumbs
250 ml (1 cup) moist leaf concentrate or 100 ml dry
1 egg
60 ml (1/4 cup) wheat flour
1 tsp mustard
1 clove garlic chopped fine
1 tsp salt

Mix all ingredients well. Form into flat patties about 8 cm in diameter. Fry these on both
sides until they begin to brown. Serve on bun with catsup. This mix can be made into
meatless `meatballs' as well, by forming balls instead of flat patties.

Fiona's Vegan Leaf Burgers

1 cup
fresh LC
1 cup
rolled oats
1 cup
chopped onions
1/2 cup
peanuts (soaked)
cumin, chili, and salt to taste
Combine all ingredients. Form into patties and fry.

DEVELOPMENT CRITERIA
FOR LC FOODS
In testing different LC foods we are looking mainly for improvements in economics,
acceptance, or nutrition. Although Leaf for Life is ultimately concerned with improving
nutritional well being, in my opinion the priorities for testing are in the order given above.
As we present the case for greater use of leaf concentrate to funders and policy makers,

the most serious doubts raised are generally concerning economics, followed by
acceptance. The nutritional value of leaf concentrate is challenged less frequently. While
most changes that affect any one of these factors will affect the other two, useful
attributes for LC foods are sorted into these three categories below.
Economics
- Long shelf life.
In many areas this means products that can be made during the rainy season and marketed
six months later. A variation on this is making foods year round from dried LC.
- Inexpensive, readily available ingredients.
Special attention to foods that tend to be inexpensive where malnutrition is prevalent, ie.
cassava, yams, plantains, corn, sorghum, rice and potatoes.
- Simplicity of process.
To be of much use in either fighting malnutrition or income generation for women LC
foods must be fairly easy to make using inexpensive equipment that can be reasonably
maintained in village conditions. Labor requirements should be well thought out, as should
the need for technical expertise or precision.
- Substitution for expensive foods.
It may be easier to market a cheaper substitute for a high demand food like meat or ice
cream, than a premium priced enriched staple food like pasta or porridge.
- Packaging.
Packaging can make up a big part of the cost of a food. Liquids and foods that are brittle
or sticky, for example, can present costly problems.
Acceptance
- Ready to Eat.
Foods that require no cooking are generally easier to introduce. Generally, people are
more adventuresome about trying a snack food in the plaza than trying to integrate a new
staple food into the traditional diet at home. Snack foods appeal more to the young, are
identified with fun, and are usually sold in very small units, all of which encourages
people to give them a try. Snacks represent the fastest growing part of the diet in many
developing countries. They are usually not very nutritious, especially relative to their cost.
Much of the snack market is controlled by companies from developed countries. So
displacing a snack food with a new LC one would usually have a clear benefit both
nutritionaly and economically for the community. Development policies are beginning to
question how introductions of foods might damage local production of staples.
- Flavor.
Generally we view the flavor of LC as something that should be kept to minimum so that
other more popular flavors can dominate even when foods contain significant amounts of
LC.
- Color.

Normally the dark green of fresh LC is a liability as is the very dark, almost black, green of
dried LC. Various schemes to lighten the color or alter it (such as with Pitahaya
(hylocereus ocamponis), an intensely colored dark red fruit from a cactus like plant, in
Nicaragua) are worth looking into.
Nutrition
- Contains Substantial Amount of LC.
Many foods have been introduced through various projects that contained token amounts
of LC. Probably 4 grams dry weight LC or 10 grams fresh per portion is a minimum if we
are expecting much nutritional benefit. Malnourished children should get 25 grams fresh
LC per day.
- Doesn't destroy or bind nutrients.
Some processes, like exposure to prolonged high temperatures or sunlight can lower the
nutritional value of the ingredients in foods.
- Makes nutrients more available.
The addition of ascorbic acid makes it easier to utilize iron from LC. Some minerals are
better absorbed in certain proportions to each other. Dried LC is more nutritious if it is
ground extremely finely.

Course Outline
Suggestions for 5 Day Course for Leaf Concentrate Field Workers
Monday AM:
Minutes
"Leaf For Life" film
Orientation
Make LC with macerator
120

30
45

Make and taste atol (a thick warm drink) and porridge

PM
Agricultural aspects of LC

30

180
Questions and Answers
Tuesday AM
Make LC with blender and with grinder
150
Make tamales or basic Indian dishes
PM
Seminar on nutritional problems in developing countries
and nutritional aspects of LC
120
Hygiene and safety
Wednesday AM
Make LC with macerator
150
Make drink syrup and discuss sugar preservation
PM
Byproducts (feeding ruminants,improving soil,
biogas, ethanol and other possible uses
Economic aspects of LC and basic calculations
Questions and Answers
Thursday AM
Make LC with macerator
120
Dry LC
PM
Social and cultural aspects of LC programs
LC machinery
Questions and Answers
Friday AM
Reporting, Records Keeping, Accounting, and Communications
Make noodles and spaghetti
Frequently asked Questions, Frequently Encountered Problems
PM
EXAM
PARTY

SAMPLE EXAMINATION
1. What is the most common nutritional deficiency in the world?

60

30

45

90
90

60
90
90

90
60
60
60
??

2. Give 3 characteristics of plants that make good leaf concentrate.

3. Give 2 characteristics of plants that don't make good leaf concentrate.
4. What nutrient corrects night blindness?
5. Why is it important to bring leaf juice to the boiling point?
6. Name 2 things that can give leaf concentrate a bad flavor.
7. Why do women need more iron in their diets than men?
8. What is wrong with cutting leaves the evening before you process them?
9. Why is it better to heat leaf juice quickly than slowly?
10. What is the main advantage of a macerator or meat grinder over a blender for
preparing leaf concentrate?
11. What other food processes can be done in a 5 gallon leaf blender?
12. Why do children not eat enough greens to provide significant amounts of protein in
their diets?
13. If I process 50 kg of fresh alfalfa leaves, how much leaf concentrate should I make.?
14. Which 2 of these animals make the most efficient use of the fiber left from leaf
concentrate processing?
Rabbit?
Pig?
Turkey? or Cow?
15. Why are leguminous crops like cowpeas and alfalfa good for the soil?
16. What is the biggest advantage of perennial crops over annual crops?
17. What is the youngest age that a child should begin getting leaf concentrate in his diet?
18. Which of these foods would help the body absorb iron the best?
Tortilla? Milk? Guavas? or Beans?

19. Is it possible to get enough protein for excellent health without eating meat?
20. If I process 100 kg of fresh leaves with a moisture content of 80%, how much fiber
should I end up with?

21. Why is calcium important to the human body?

22. What is the minimum length of time to wait before using leaves that have been sprayed
with an insecticide?
23. Why is folic acid important?
24. What is the first thing to do when you come into the leaf concentrate workshop?
25. Why should leaf crops not be cut off at the ground
26. What is neem?
27. What can bio-gas be used for?
28. What is the main drawback with very small projects?
29. What are antioxicants, and why are thery important?
30. Which of the following is most likely to improve teh economics of an LC program
a. lowering fuel use by installing a bio-gas generator
b. saving elecricity witha improved motor
c. making the work day shorter
d. increasing the % of LC yielded from the leaves.

OTHER LEAF CONCENTRATE

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT & TECHNIQUES
LEAF PULPERS
THE BLENDER METHOD

The leaf concentrate blender is a fairly simple and inexpensive machine. It is similar to a
household blender except that it has a 5 gallon or (20 liter) hexagonal container, a 1 -2
horsepower motor, and only one speed (3450 RPM).
Two to four liters of clean water (depending on the moisture content and toughness of the
leaves) is poured into the blender, the top is fitted on, then the switch is turned on. The
operator feeds the washed, cut leaves into the blender using a wooden push stick. How
fast the leaves can be pushed into the blender depends on the type of leaf used and how
wet or fibrous it is. The quantity of leaf that one can put into a single blender run is
dependent on the same factors.
Usually about 3 kg (6.6 lb.) can be put into 3- 4 liters of liquid in about two minutes. The
blender should run about 20 seconds after the last leaves are put in to make sure all the
leaves are ground up finely. If the leaves are especially dry or fibrous it pays to run the
blender for a full minute after all the leaves are added and to use a little more liquid in
processing. With a little experience it is possible to tell when to stop putting leaves into
the blender by listening to the motor. As it works harder to chop the leaves it makes a
lower pitched sound.
If the leaves are not coming out of the blender well pulped, you need to use more water or
fewer leaves or allow them to be blended for a longer time. The leaves should be ground
into an homogeneous slurry. If there is a lot of liquid it means that more leaves could
have been blended in the water.
Next you empty the blender into a 5 gallon bucket then let it sit a few minutes.
Experiments have shown that the yield of leaf concentrate increases if the ground leaves
are allowed to remain in the water for up to ten minutes before being pressed. After ten
minutes there is no further gain in yields. Then you pour the bucket slowly over the press
table. There are several designs for press tables. There are drawings of press tables at the
back of this manual.
The blender breaks the leaf cell walls well because the hexagonal shape of the container
and the leaves circulating in a liquid medium bring the leaves into repeated contact with
the high speed (3450 RPM) blades. If one added 2-4 liters of water to each batch of leaves
blended the resulting leaf juice would be very diluted and a great deal of extra fuel and
time would be needed to heat the juice to the boiling point. This problem can be avoided
by blending the leaves in juice from earlier runs. So as soon as you have a gallon (4 liters)
or so of juice pressed you can begin using it instead of water as the liquid medium for
blending the leaves. Whey from earlier processing can also be used but we have had some
problems with it, including very strongly flavored curd. Using water for each batch will
result in a slightly greater recovery of curd than using leaf juice. This is because when the
juice is pressed from the blended leaves a certain amount of moisture remains in the fiber.
If the moisture remaining in the fiber is pure leaf juice rather than very diluted leaf juice,
the fiber will contain slightly more protein at the expense of the leaf curd or LC. Except

when fuel costs are very low and leaf costs very high it is not normally economical to
process the leaves only in water instead of leaf juice.
The 5 gallon leaf liquidizers are very useful for a variety of food processing tasks in
addition to making leaf concentrate. They are well suited to making soymilk, which can in
turn be made into tofu or soy bean curd. They are also good at preparing fruits drinks
rapidly or in great quantity for group feeding situations. The liquidizers are very fast at
breaking the pressed leaf curd into fine pieces for drying as well. There may be situations
in which secondary uses such as these will influence the choice of leaf processing
equipment.

The MEAT GRINDER Method

Hand operated meat grinders are inexpensive commercially available machines that do a
good, if somewhat slow, job of pulping leaves for leaf concentrate preparation. Usually
the meat grinders are marked with the numbers #32, #22, or #333. The #32 is the largest
of the common meat grinders. The #333, the smallest, is too small for leaf concentrate
processing except in the home. Any of these grinders can be powered by hand, by bicycle,
or by electric motor. When they are motor driven the motor speed should be reduced to
60-80 RPM by gears or pulleys.
The mouth of the grinders should be extended at least 15 cm (6 inches) with a sheet metal
guard to prevent hands from accidentally entering the grinder. A wooden or plastic push
rod should always be used to push the leaves into therinder. The push rod should have a
head wide enough to prevent it from being pulled into the grinder.
The leaves should be cut or torn into pieces the length of a finger or shorter and fed slowly
into the grinder to avoid it clogging. A custom made curved metal wrench that can offer
some leverage is very handy for removing the retaining disc when the grinder gets
clogged. The grinder powered by a motor with a speed reducer has enough torque to get
very jammed up. Bits of juice and leaf are sometime shot more than a meter out of the
grinder. For this reason, it is advisable to have a plastic skirt in front of the grinder to
avoid getting green stains on everything.
When using a bicycle or an electric motor to power the grinder it is very important that the
shaft of the grinder is precisely aligned with the power source. The speed of the motor
(usually 1700 RPM) can be reduced with either gears or pulleys. The best method, but the
most expensive is to use a sealed speed reducer, which has lubricated gears in a sealed
steel casing. These cost between $150 - 250 US at the time of this writing. Sometimes
you can buy the motor and speed reducer as an integrated unit, and this reduces the
problem of alignment. However, the integrated units can be hard to work on and you may
need to replace both components if one fails.

A series of pulleys can also be used to reduce the motor speed. It is less expensive but
more difficult to use than the geared reducer. The pulleys must be firmly mounted and
well aligned. The pulleys and the belts must be completely covered with some type of
protective covering to keep hair or clothes from being caught.
You can adjust how finely the meat grinders pulp the leaves by putting in discs with
different size holes. A disk with smaller holes will pulp the leaves more finely than a disc
with larger holes. Unfortunately, the smaller holes also mean even slower grinding and
they increase the problem of clogging. Remember to attach the grinder knife with the
blades facing the disc. These knives can be sharpened periodically if necessary.After a
bucket of leaves has been pulped, a liter or so of water should be added and well mixed in.
The leaf pulp can then be treated the same as the pulp from the blender method.
The advantages of the meat grinders are that they are relatively inexpensive, and they can
be found in a hardware store, rather than custom built. They can be used in remote
regions without electricity and in homes. The meat grinders do a good job of pulping the
leaves and use less water in processing than the blender method. This reduces the fuel
necessary to heat the leaf juice. The meat grinders also adapt well to other food
processes, like extruding churritos, mixing dough, and of course grinding meat.
The meat grinders also have some serious disadvantages. They grind leaves more slowly
than blenders, hammermills or shredders. It is expensive and complicated reducing motor
speeds from 1700 RPM to 60 -80 RPM. Meat grinders work poorly or not at all with
very high moisture crops like young alfalfa or mustard. Rather than being driven through
the dieplate, very moist leaves are juiced in the grinder and the juice backs up and fills the
grinder chamber. Meat grinders also present a danger of hands, hair, or clothes being
pulled into either the grinder itself or the gears or pulleys. In addition, meat grinders are
more difficult to clean than blenders.

HAMMERMILLS AND SHREDDERS

In several locations at several different scales of operation, hammermills and shredders
have been used to pulp leaves for leaf concentrate. Both machines are essentially fast
moving steel hammers or blades spinning on either a horizontal or vertical shaft. The leaf
crop is fed into the chamber where the spinning hammers or blades hit it repeatedly until it
drops out a shoot in the bottom or side of the chamber. Often the leaves need to be
passed repeatedly through the chamber to rupture enough leaf cells for good leaf
concentrate extraction.
The main advantages of the hammermills and shredders are that they can chop a lot of
leaves very quickly and they don't require expensive speed reducers. There are many low
cost commercially available machines that are designed to shred dry leaves to make mulch
or to make animal feeds from forage or hay. Some of these can be modified to pulp fresh
green leaves for leaf concentrate.

On the negative side, hammermills and shredders don't tend to break the leaves up enough
to get good yields of leaf concentrate even with several passes. After the first pass it can
be a sloppy operation passing wet pulp through the machines several times. Most
hammermills are designed for grinding much drier materials and they can be nearly
impossible to clean. Hammermills are used in a lot of industrial operations and are
available in many sizes. Some of these machines are very noisy to be using indoors, and
most of the leaf shredders have narrow exit holes that quickly clog with wet leaf pulp. It
is important to remember, however, that development work, if on a somewhat limited
budget, is continuing on these machines as well as all the other possible leaf concentrate
making devices.

LEAF JUICE PRESSES

THE LEVER PRESS TABLE

A relatively simple and inexpensive table can be built without a jack to speed up the
separation of the juice from the fiber. It is useful for small scale work. The table can be
made from steel or sturdy wood, though the grate where the pressure is applied and the
lever should be steel. The drawings that follow give a good idea how a press table can be
built. It is possible to alter the plans somewhat to suit your particular needs, but a few
important points should be kept in mind:
- The table should be at a height that is comfortable for the people that are using
it.
- The lever needs to be at least 2.1 meters (7 feet) long and very stout. Smaller,
lighter people need longer not shorter levers to exert the same pressure on the fiber.
- The steel bars or rods that make up the top of the lever press table need to be
strong enough to resist the pressure applied by the lever. (see drawing in appendix).
- The table needs to be either bolted down or weighted to keep it from moving
when pressure is applied. I prefer using sand bags for weight so the table can be moved
for cleaning or reorganizing the workshop without the need for bolts in the floor.
- The workers must be able to move freely around the press table. The weight of
the lever needs to be offset by a counterweight hanging from a rope on the other side of a
pulley. This makes it much easier for the workers to lift the lever repeatedly. A sandbag
counterweight can be adjusted to match the weight of the lever.
- The press table needs to be large enough to drain a 5 gallon bucket of pulped
leaves. I suggest about 90 cm X 90 cm (3 feet X 3 feet).
- A frame made from 4 cm X 4 cm ( 1 1/2" X 1 1/2") wood with 6 mm (1/4 inch)
metal screen firmly attached to the bottom should fit over the press table; and nylon filter
cloth should be laid over this frame before the pulped leaves are poured onto the table.
- The juice needs to flow freely onto the sheet of metal or plastic under the press
table, then into a bucket. The outlet of the metal or plastic sheet must be high enough to
allow a bucket to be slid under for collecting the juice.
- The press table needs to be easy to clean. There should be no surfaces that will
hold the juice and no surfaces that can't be reached for easy cleaning.
Using the Press Table:
A. Make sure that the wooden frame with hardware cloth or screen is in position
and that filter cloth is laid over the frame

B. Slowly pour a 5 gallon bucket of leaves that have been pulped in a blender or in
a macerator or meat grinder onto the table. If the leaves were pulped in a meat grinder or
macerator they need to be mixed well with an equal volume of water before being poured
onto the press table.
C. Spread the pulped leaves out evenly over the table with a smooth spreading
stick or with clean hands.
D. Grab all 4 corners of the filter cloth and twist them together to make a bag
with all the pulped leaves inside.
E. Place the bag you've just formed under the lever press with the twist facing up.
Gradually apply pressure by pressing down on the end of the lever. Maintain pressure for
about 10 seconds.
F. Reposition the bag and repeat this step 3 or 4 times. The leaf pulp remaining in
the cloth should now be too dry to easily squeeze liquid out with your hand.
G. The press table can also be used to press the 'whey' from the curd that has
been strained into a cotton filter bag. Pressure needs to be applied more gradually and for
a longer time than when pressing juice from pulped leaves. Avoid pressing curd that is
still very hot as this tends to tear the filter bags.
H. Clean the press table well after each use.

THE Motorized Hydraulic PRESS TABLE

We also made and tested a variant on this press that employed an hydraulic piston
powered by a 2 HP motor. The table is designed so that a motorized hydraulic piston and
the manual hydraulic jack are interchangeable by removing 4 bolts. This press seemed
faster and physically less demanding than the jack press. Alfalfa pressed with this press
produced slightly more curd than that pressed with the jack in a very limited test. This
system clearly needed modification before we could recommend its use. Mainly we need
to exchange some of the system's speed for power. The pump may need to be adjusted to
match the piston's capacity. A pressure relief valve could be installed to allow the system
to hold its pressure at 8 or 10 tons for a few seconds before the return stroke.
The motorized hydraulic system costs about $600-700 US more than the jack press. When
the relatively simple modifications are made it should be a fast, easy to operate, batch type
press. It seems unlikely that a program processing 200 kg per day could justify the
additional expense, but programs working with 500 kg or more daily might find it well
worthwhile. It is a system that could probably be upscaled to at least double its output
fairly easily by adding T's and a second piston. The easy interchangeability seems
advantageous. This way a group could begin processing with a jack and switch to a
motorized piston later if production warranted it. They would then have the jack as a
backup if repairs or modification in the motorized system were ever needed. Hydraulic
systems are known for being low maintenance once set up. The extensive use of hydraulics
in tractor work means that rural areas frequently have some people with expertise in
motorized hydraulic systems. Food grade hydraulic fluid can be purchased to minimize any
possibility of contamination. Quick release couplings are very useful if the piston is going
to be interchanged with a bottle jack.

Small Hydraulic Jack Plate PRESS

A simple and inexpensive version of the hydraulic jack press table can be built from steel..
It has a 30 X 30 cm press plate and uses a 4 ton hydraulic jack. Rather than use springs to
return the jack to its original position, the cross beam can be pushed down against the jack

after the pressure is released. Then the jack and the wooden press plate to which it is
attached can be removed and the process repeated. It sits on a counter top rather than
requiring a base. It is too small for general LC production but could be very useful in pilot
programs, crop testing, and for doing demonstrations away from a workshop.

HYDRAULIC Jack Cylinder PRESSES

A number of relatively simple and inexpensive juice presses have been designed that use a
hydraulic jack to apply pressure to leaf pulp in a perforated cylinder. Some of these utilize
sturdy plastic PVC drain pipe of 15-30 cm (6-12) diameter with numerous small holes to
allow the leaf juice to flow out when the pressure is applied. The pulp is held in a nylon
bag that is placed inside the pipe to prevent the pulp from being driven through the holes.
In another variation of this press, the chamber is metal with a fine metal screen fixed
inside. Unlike the screw presses the hydraulic presses can also be used for separating the
`whey' from the curd.
Some work has also been done with using hydraulic cylinders driven by an electric motor
to accomplish the same thing more quickly. The motorized hydraulic presses appear to be
too complex and expensive relative to how well they perform at removing leaf juice from
pulp. A very similar juice press has been developed using a hand cranked arbor press
rather than an hydraulic jack to apply pressure. It had very nearly the same advantages
and drawbacks as the hydraulic units, though it did not apply as much pressure.
While the hand operated hydraulic presses are fairly simple and inexpensive, they are not
without what we consider to be serious problems. They tend to be slow because they are
batch rather than continuous presses. Our experience has been that if the disc that is
driven into the cylinder is slightly too large or too small or misaligned, it is slow and
frustrating getting it back out to reload the chamber with more pulp.
Hydraulic cylinder presses tend to apply a great deal of pressure on a fairly thick layer of
leaf pulp, rather than gentler pressure over a larger area. One drawback of this is that as
the leaf juice is driven out of the pulp nearest the cylinder holes, that pulp becomes dry
enough to absorb the juice being driven out of the center of the cylinder.
A closely related problem is that the juice driven off with the initial light pressure is much
richer in protein than the juice driven off towards the end with intense pressure. Some of
the large protein molecules are filtered out of the juice when it is driven through a tight
mat of drier fibrous leaf pulp at the edge of the cylinder. This problem can be greatly
reduced by putting a disk of grooved wood or plastic with grooves cut into them to
separate layers of leaf pulp an inch or so thick in the cylinder. Then the pressure is applied
to several thin layers of leaf pulp stacked on top of each other. Unfortunately, this
aggravates the first problem of slow reloading of leaf

SCREW PRESSES

Several presses for separating leaf juice from fiber have been tried. One of the most
frequently used employs a cylindrical screw or worm that drives leaf pulp against a screen
of some kind. The juice passes through the screen and is collected on a tray that sits
below the screw cylinder. Some of the screw presses are set up so that the pulped leaves
remain in contact with the screen until a certain pressure is built up by the screw. It then
passes as fibrous residue out the end of the screw cylinder.
When they are carefully designed and tooled, screw presses are very good at separating
the juice from the fiber in pulped leaves. They can be fed continually rather than in
batches like the hydraulic and lever presses. On the other hand, they can be prone to
clogging and can be very difficult to clean. Quite a bit of careful machine work needs to
be done to make sure the clearances of the screw and the screen chamber are correct.
Because of this skilled work and the cost of a motor and a speed reducer, the screw press
can be a very expensive piece of machinery for a small project .
Hand operated screw presses are often used in wine presses and cider presses. In India we
have combined a very heavy screw type truck jack with a table like the one described
earlier (hydraulic jack press table). The advantages of hand driven screw presses is that
they are extremely simple machines that are easy and cheap to maintain. One drawback of
the hand operated screw is that it needs to be manually lifted off the pulp after each run.
This can become slow and tiring. The hydraulic jack press avoids this problem by using
springs to lift the press plate.
Testing is currently being done with a broad flat vertical axis screw press that could
mount directly under the macerator. It turns slowly, about 4 RPM, but in theory could
turn the macerator into a continual process operation.

Combined Pulpers and Presses

One line of development in leaf concentrate processing equipment basically combines a
meat grinder with a screw press into a single machine. The leaves are fed into the grinder
or pulper. After they are pulped they drop into a screw press chamber immediately below.
The primary advantage of this machine is that a single person in a single continuous
operation can remove the juice from leaf crops. Because it has only one motor and one
speed reducer, it should be less expensive than the two component machines built
separately.
These machines have been somewhat disappointing in use so far. It has been difficult to
adjust the relative speed of the pulper and juicer section to compensate for differing
moisture and fiber

content of the leaves. Many small projects don't have an adequate supply of leaf crop to
justify the cost and electrical capacity of these machines. They are heavy and quite
difficult to clean or to do repair work on. However, they are being constantly modified
and redesigned and they may still live up to their promise of becoming a relatively
inexpensive machine that can process 100 kg of leaves an hour.

OTHER Leaf Pulpers AND JUICERS

There are several other machines that have been used experimentally or in small projects
to make leaf concentrate. Work is being done on a modified shredder designed by Glyn
Davys that moves the leaves down a spiral series of short hammers so that they have been
hit many times before they exit the chamber. Another pulper that shows great promise is
based on extrusion. Here the leaves are driven through holes in a die plate by a piston arm
or through holes in an outer cylinder by a revolving eccentric cylinder within. It has been
calculated that the extrusion method should be the most efficient technique for pulping
leaves in terms of the energy required to pulp a given weight of leaves. Village scale
extruders are not available, to the best of my knowledge. It has been estimated, by
workers at the University of Wisconsin, that a processing rate of about one ton of fresh
leaf crop per hour would be necessary before extruders would be the leaf pulpers of
choice.
A manually operated extruder was built in England by modifying plans for a Bielenburg
oil press. A small amount of leaf crop is pushed into a chamber and a long lever arm
drives it through a narrow slot, rupturing the leaf cells. It appeared to be too slow and
physically demanding to process on more than a household level, and probably too
expensive to be reasonable for that scale of operations.
The range of devices that has been called upon to remove leaf juice from the pulp is quite
extensive. Modified sugar cane rollers are used in a project in Pakistan. Small screw
presses designed for village scale oil extraction have also been used. Commercial
machinery designed for making fruit juices has similarly been put to this use. Electric
washing machines have been slightly modified to spin the juice out of the pulp. The pulp
is poured into a mesh bag inside the washing machine and run a couple of minutes on the
spin cycle. Often washing machines discarded because their transmissions are broken can
still run on the spin cycle, making for inexpensive centrifuges. These probably present
difficulties in cleaning.
On a larger scale, a few different devices have been custom built for separating juice from
leaf fiber. Continuous feed belt presses may be the most promising of these. These
compress the pulp between a heavy food grade belt and a perforated rotating stainless
steel cylinder. The leaf juice is driven into the cylinder through the perforations and runs
out into a catch tank. The belt is held under tension between the perforated roller and
another roller with heavy springs. Large scale leaf concentrate production is beyond the

scope of this manual, and people interested in large scale production should contact Leaf
For Life's London office.
The wide variety of custom made machinery for leaf concentrate production is an
indication of the resourcefulness, creativity and dedication of the hundreds of people who
have worked on this food technology since the Second World War. This ingenuity is
clearly a strength; but it also reveals a serious failing. For leaf concentrate production to
become economic in thousands of towns and villages in the developing world, one or two
standardized designs for low cost machinery will need to be selected. Only then will it be
possible to manufacture on a limited scale, rather than custom build machines. Only then
will the price of equipment drop off and parts become interchangeable. Until there is
some degree of standardization of equipment it will be difficult and complicated training
people to use a wide variety of machines, most of which they will never see.

LEAF CONCENTRATE DRYERS

Indirect Solar Dryers
There are several designs for solar assisted tray dryers. These use a solar collector to heat
air that then rises through the chamber with the trays. The main appeal of these is that the
heat source doesn't have an operating cost. Some of these type of dryers use fans to force
the sun heated air over the drying trays. There are, of course, some drawbacks with solar
energy as a heat source for drying LC. As mentioned earlier, leaf production tends to be
best when the weather is rainy and cloudy. Even in the tropics solar energy is quite diffuse
and in order to maintain relatively high temperatures (40-50C [120 -140 F]) with an
adequate airflow the solar collection area needs to be large. Glazing for large collector
surfaces is difficult because glass is expensive, heavy and fragile, and polyethylene
photodegrades rapidly (even more so as the ozone layer is depleted). Good insulation and
sealants are not readily available in most developing countries and without them it is hard
not to lose the heat collected before it flows thru the LC. The large areas involved in the
solar drying of 10 -25 kgs of LC create handling problems and wind and rain protection
become more expensive and complicated.

Electric Heated Tray Dryers

Similar trays were placed in a box heated with a 1500 W electric space heater and a small
fan. These dryers worked fairly well with small quantities of LC, but the time and electric
use were problems and the temperatures generated (c. 40 C [100 - 110 F]) were too
low for fast drying. This dryer had the advantage of being inside the workshop so it was
independent of the weather. Heavy winds and rains are serious problems for large outdoor
dryers. The trays need to be arranged in such a way that the heated air passes over each
tray on its way out the vent at the top. We offset each tray 10 cm (4") so that the air had

to pass under each tray before rising to the next one. Even with offset trays, the LC closer
to the source of heat will dry much faster than that furthest away in this type of dryer. It is
advantageous to rotate the trays at least once during drying to move the trays furthest
from the heating element in closer. This is an additional labor cost. If this rotating of trays
can be done during normal working hours it is not much problem. However, often the
drying will be going on in the evening after the workers have left the workshop, and
having someone return to the workshop just to rotate the trays will be an irritating task.
One of the nice features of this type of dryer is that it can be hooked up to a timer and a
thermostat, so that as you gain some experience in drying LC you can begin setting the
thermostat for 50 C and the timer for how ever many hours you need for drying. The
heater and fan can then be automatically turned off when the curd is dry even if that is in
the middle of the night. This can reduce electric bills and prevent overdrying or burning of
the curd. If the electric wiring in the workshop is not great or the timer, thermostat and
heating element are not very well made, you may not want to be running this much
electricity without someone around because of the possibility of a fire starting. The dryer
we built in Nicaragua had 6 trays, each 80 X 80 cm (32 X 32"). I think it would have
worked much better with a 3 kW heater. Of course, this would double the electricity
usage and cost.
Many brands of electric food dryers can be purchased off the shelf in the US. Most of
these are intended for household use and designed for drying a kilogram or two of fruit.
Some can be expanded by adding trays. Unfortunately, because they don't add to the
heating element or air flow, this simply slows down the drying. These can be purchased
for $50 -500 US depending on the size and quality. The better ones have built-in timers
and thermostats. These are probably only an option for very small projects or people doing
experimental work.

Gas Dryers
We also made a dryer that uses gas heat rather than solar energy. This provides a measure
of security against moldy or inadequately dried curd on cloudy humid days. We built this
dryer to fit over a gas cooker and to use drying trays that are interchangeable with the
solar dryers. It is a box of light gauge galvanized sheetmetal, that captures heat from the
cookers gas jets on the lowest setting. It has a capacity of about 8 kg (17.6 lb) fresh curd.
After 2 hours the LC was 6% moisture. It heated up to 70 - 80 C, which is higher than
ideal for drying curd. It would probably do a better job quicker with a small exhaust fan
attached to the top of the dryer. It may be possible to utilize the waste heat from heating
leaf juice to power a dryer of this type, but it is difficult to keep steam from juice heating
from rewetting the drying curd, unless they are separated by a wall of some kind.

Tumble Dryers
A heated tumble dryer with a fan was built in Nicaragua. It shows some promise but is a
somewhat complicated gizmo with a geared motor to turn the drum, rollers, a heater, and
a fan. Pete Fellows, with the Intermediate Technology Development Group, described
using a drier like this with a 3 kW electric heater to dry about 3 kg of LC in a couple of

hours. If you can adjust the temperature of your dryer, for example with an thermostat
controlled electric heater,
the LC can be dried more quickly by beginning with a higher temperature. Temperatures
as high as 70 C [158 F] will not damage the nutritional value of the LC as long as it is
moist. Once the curd becomes dry to the touch, the temperature must be kept below 50
C [140 F] or some of the amino acids may be damaged and the quality of the protein can
be affected. In field applications it will usually be more practical to try to hold a steady
temperature near 50C. The saving in time would be quickly offset by overheating and
ruining a couple of batches of LC. Generally, the simpler the technology the greater the
likelihood of it actually functioning in developing countries.

CONTACTS
Leaf Concentrate Information:
LEAF FOR LIFE - USA
260 Radford Hollow Road
Big Hill, KY 40405 USA
tel-fax 606 986 5418
LEAF FOR LIFE - UK
37-39 Great Guilford St.
London, SE1 OES
UNITED KINGDOM
Fax 44171 261 9291
Leaf For Life - Bolivia
Soria Galvarro 5333
Casilla 783
Oruro,
BOLIVIA
Leaf For Life - Sweden
Banergatan 85
11526 Stockholm
SWEDEN
Society for Green Vegetation Research
Central Food Technology Research Institute
Mysore 570 013
INDIA

(publishes newsletter)

Other Organizations Involved in Leaf Concentrate Projects:

Pastoral Social- Caritas

1 de Mayo # 335
Morelia, Michoacan CP 58000 MEXICO
telefono: 52 43 12 98 90 fax: 52 43 12 10 00

52 43 12 70 40

SOYNICA
Aptdo RP-05
Managua NICARAGUA
FAX - 011 505 2 89 49 41
Leaf Nutrient Program, Inc.
1203 N. Expressway 77
Box 334
Harlingen ,Texas 78552
USA

(project in Coahuila, Mexico)

Groups Doing Related Health and Nutrition Work:

Hesperian Foundation
PO Box # 1692
Palo Alto, CA 94302
USA

(Publishes "Where There is No

Doctor" and other excellent
books for health care workers in
developing countries)

Clearinghouse on Infant Feeding

and Maternal Nutrition
American Public Health Assn.
1015 15th Street NW
Washington, DC 20005
USA

(Publishes newsletter)

International Vitamin A Consultative Group

& International Nutritional Anemia
Consultative Group
Nutrition Foundation
1126 16th Street NW
Washington, DC
USA
Johns Hopkins Hospital
120 Wilmer Eye Institute
600 N. Wolfe Street
Baltimore, MD 21205
USA

(Research on Vitamin A Deficiency)

Helen Keller International

15 W. 16th Street
New York, NY 10011
USA

(Fights Nutritional Blindness)

La Leche League International

PO Box # 1209
Franklin Park, IL 60131-8209
USA

(Promotes Breast Feeding)

Related Agricultural Information:

ECHO
17430 Durrance Rd.
North Fort Myers, Fl 33917
USA
fax 941 543 5317

(publishes excellent newsletter

offers small packets of seed)

Bean/Cowpea CRSP
200 Center for Intermnational Programs
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48824-1035
USA

(Publishes Newsletter)

Liphatech
3101 W. Custer Ave.
Milwaukee, WI 53209
USA

(Sells Legume Inoculants)

International Agriculture Sieve

Rodale Institute
222 Main Street
Emmaus, PA 18098
USA

(Publishes Newsletter)

TRIADES
Pacific Neem Project
Box E
Hakalau, HI 96710
USA

Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center

PO Box # 42
Shanhua, Tainan
(Publishes Newsletter)
Taiwan,
REPUBLIC OF CHINA 74199

Food Processing Equipment:

Unichop
140 E. Commercial Dr.
Wooddale, IL 60129
USA
Grace Valenti
PO Box 105
54-36 Flushing Ave.
Maspeth, NY 11378
USA
Lehman Hardware
PO Box #41
4779 Kidron Road
Kidron, OH 44636
USA
Professor H.D. Bruhn
Dept. of Agricultural Engineering
460 Henry Mall
University of Wisconsin
Madison, WI 53706
USA
INTSOY
Dept. of Food Sciences
University of Illinois,
Urbana-Champagne
1304 W. Pennsylvania Ave.
Urbana, IL 61801
USA

(Inexpensive Meat Grinders)

(Sells Pasta Machines, all Sizes)

(low tech food processig equipment)

(Has worked on leaf concentrate

machinery for many years)

(Develops Soy Processing Equipment

for Developing Countries)

note: Many of these organizations are non-profit groups with very limited
budgets. When asking for information, please enclose a self addressed stamped envelope.

BOOKS
Leaf Concentrate
Graham, H.and L. Telek. Leaf Protein Concentrates ed. AVI Publishing Co., Inc.
Westport,
CT USA. 1983 840 pages
Pirie N.W. Leaf Protein and Its By-products in Human and Animal Nutrition
University Presss Cambridge, UK 2nd Ed. 1987 209 pages

Cambridge

Agriculture and Environment

Duke,James A. Handbook of Legumes of World Economic Importance. Plenum Press.
227 W. 17th Street New York, NY and London 1981 345 pages
Facciola,Stephen. Cornucopia: A Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications
1870 Sunset Dr. Vista, CA 92084 USA 1990 677 pages
Sarrantonio, Marianne. Methodologies for Screening Soil Improving Legumes. Rodale
Institute 611 Siegfriedale Road Kutztown, PA 19530 USA. 1991 310 pages
Price, Martin ECHO Development Notes ed. 17430 Durrance Rd. North Fort Myers,
FL 33917-2200 USA Subscription $10 US per year
Myers,Norman The Primary Source: Tropical Forests and Our Future
Co, NY and London 1992 416 pages

WW Norton &

Edwards, Clive A.and Rattan Lal and et. al. Sustainable Agricultural Systems Soil and
Water Conservation Society 7515 Northeast Ankeny Rd. Ankeny, Iowa 50021 1990
696 pages
Flint, Mary Louise Pests of the Garden and Small Farm: A Grower's Guide to Using Less
Pesticide University of California, Davis Ca. 1990 276 pages.

Legel, Siegfried Tropical forage legumes and grasses Plenum Press, New York 1981.
Smith, Nigel J. and J. T. Williams and et. al. Tropical Forests and Their Crops Cornell
University Press, Ithaca N.Y. 1992 568 pages.
Quimo, T.H. and S.T. Chang and et. al. Technical Guidelines for Mushroom Growing in
the Tropics Production and Protection Paper 106., Food and Agricultural Organization
of the United Nations, Rome, Italy 1990 155 pages
Better Pastures for the Tropics Yates Seeds P.O. Box 616 Toowoomba, Qld., 4350
Australia 1975 60 pages
Ponting, Clive A Green History of the World: The Environment and the Collapse of Great
Civilizations Penguin Books, New York, N.Y. 1991 432 pages
Lavabre, E.M. Weed Control: Tropical Agriculturist Series MacMillan Press, London
1991
90 pages
McRobie, George, Editor Tools for Organic Farming
Publications London 1990 77 pages

Intermediate Technology

Williams, C.N., Uzo, J.O. and Peregrine, W.T.T. Vegetable Production in the Tropics
Longman Scientific and Technical Publishing London 1991 179 pages

Processing
Mazur, Glen A.and Thomas E. Proctor. Troublehooting Electric Motors. American
Technical Publishers, Inc.,Homewood, IL 60430 USA 1993 299 pages
Fellows, Peter and Hampton, Ann Small-Scale Food Processing: A Guide to Appropriate
Equipment Intermediate Technology Publications London 1992 158 pages
Fellows, Peter and Axtell, Barry Appropriate Food Packaging
Technology for Development Amsterdam 135 pages

published by Transfer of

Nutrition
Cameron, Margaret and Yngve Hofvander Manual on Feeding Infants and Young
Children Third Edition Oxford University Press, Toronto, Ontario Canada 1983 214
pages
King, Maurice and Felicity King. Primary Child Care: A mANUAL FOR hEALTH cARE
wORKERS
Book One and Two. Oxford Medical Publications, Toronto, Ontario Canada 0X2 6DP
1991 311 pages and 194 pages.

Natow, Annette B. and Jo-Ann Heslin. Nutritional Care of the Older Adult
press NY 1986 306 pp

MacMillan

Nutrition Screeening Manual For Professionals Caring For OLder Americans Nutrition
Screening Initiative Washington, DC 1991
A Resource Guide for Nutrition Management Programs for Older Persons US Dept. of
Helath and Human Services (Administration on Aging) 1985
Simco, M. D. and C. Cowell, On Assessment: A Comprehensive Guide for Planning
Intervention .Aspen System Corp. 1600 Research Blvd. Rockville, MD 20850 $35
Munro and Schliere, Nutrition of the Elderly . Nestle Nutrition Service Raven Press
1185 Avenue of The Americas NY, NY 10036 1991

Management, Marketing, Training, Communications

Werner, David and Bill Bower Helping Health Workers Learn The Hesperian
Foundation, Palo Alto, Ca. 1982
Boyden, Jo and Brian Pratt The Field Directors' Handbook: An Oxfam Manual for
Development Workers Oxford University Press Toronto, Ontario Canada 1985 512
pages
Buzzard, Shirley and Elaine Edgcomb, eds. Monitoring and Evaluating Small Business
Projects: A Step by Step Guide for Private Development Organizations. PACT, New
York, 1987 262 pages
de Wilde, Ton; Schreurs, Stigntje; and Richman, Arleen Opening the Marketplace to
Small Enterprise Intermediate Technology Publications London 1991 155 pages
Kindervatter, Suzanne with Range, Maggie Marketing Strategy: Training Activities for
Entrepreneurs Overseas Education Fund New York 93 pages
Rittner, Don Ecolinking: Everyone's Guide to Online Environmental Information
Peachpit Press Berkely, CA USA 351 pages

MAKING LEAF CONCENTRATE AT HOME

1. Wash and cut leaves. Use only fresh green leaves known to be edible, such as alfalfa,
Swiss chard, lambsquarters, blackeye peas, wheat, mustard, kale, or collards. While many
other plants make good concentrate, it is safer for beginners to stick with commonly eaten
leaf crops. Wash in cool water to remove dust and dirt and cut into pieces 2 - 3" long.

2. Grind the leaves to a pulp. This can be done with a manual meat grinder or flour
grinder, a wheat grass juicer, or a household blender. Fruit and vegetable juicers usually
clog up quickly from the large amount of fiber in leaves. I prefer using a blender on the
highest speed 1/3 full of water. This step ruptures the cell walls of the leaves liberating
protein and other nutrients.

3. Press as much juice as possible from the pulped leaves. Pour the pulped leaves into
a sheer nylon or polyester cloth of the type used for curtains. Squeeze out as much juice as
possible. You should not be able to squeeze any juice out of a handful of this pulp when
you are done.

4. Heat the juice rapidly to the boiling point. Stir very gently to prevent burning and
remove from heat as soon as the leaf juice boils. A green curd should float to the top.

5. Separate the curd that forms in the heated juice in a closely woven cloth. When
this wet curd has cooled squeeze the "whey" out of the curd. It should be dry enough to
crumble. You may want to make a very simple press with a 2" X 4" X8' lever to apply
more pressure than you can with just your hands. This can be used for pressing the juice
from the pulped leaves as well.

6. What remains in the cloth is LEAF CONCENTRATE!

- 10 lbs of leaves should give you roughly lb leaf concentrate; 4
lbs of fiber for mulch, compost, rabbits or goats; and 5 lbs of "whey" for watering plants.
Leaf concentrate can be dried at about 120 F, ground to a fine powder and stored for
later use in airtight plastic bags away from any light. Good Luck!

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABOUT THIS MANUAL
INTRODUCTION
SECTION I

1
1

HOW TO MAKE
LEAF CONCENTRATE
HARVESTING LEAVES
PULPING LEAVES
(The Impact Macerator)
PRESSING LEAF JUICE
(THE Hydraulic Jack PRESS TABLE)
HEATING LEAF JUICE

PRESERVING LEAF CONCENTRATE

7
8
12
16
17
20

SECTION II

NUTRITION

28

SECTION III

AGRICULTURE
USING LEAF CONCENTRATE BYPRODUCTS

38
79

SECTION IV

ECONOMICS
MAKING THE BEST USE OF LEAF CONCENTRATE
LEAF CONCENTRATE AND OLDER ADULTS
CULTURAL ASPECTS
THE COMMERCIAL MARKET
THE SOCIAL MARKET
MARKETING FIBER

85
93
96
99
100
104
105

SECTION V

DISCUSSION TOPICS

106

SECTION VI

GENERAL INFORMATION
TROUBLE SHOOTING
SAFETY AND HYGIENE

BASIC RELATIONSHIPS
COMMUNICATIONS
CONSIDERATIONS IN SETTING
UP PROJECTS
RECIPES
COURSE OUTLINE
SAMPLE EXAMINATION

120
124

126
132
134
137
146
147

OTHER LEAF CONCENTRATE

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT
CONTACTS
BOOKS

149
162
166
169

APPENDICES

Macerator Components
PIECE
1. Feed Hopper
2. PVC Cylinder
3. Frame
4. Motor (2HP
3600 RPM) &
switch
5. Shaft, bearings,
hub, blade and

WHERE MADE ESTIMATED COST ESTIMATED WEIGHT

Local
$ 30 US
6 kg
Local or Import
$ 30
10 kg
Local
$ 125
20 kg
Local or Import
$ 220
24 kg

Import

$ 300

10 kg

mounting assembly
TOTAL

$705

70 kg

Assembly of Macerator
1. You can purchase piece # 5, the shaft, bearings, hub, blade and mounting assembly
from Leaf For Life for $300 US plus shipping. This includes a heavy stainless steel shaft,
two bearings,( the top one being nickel plated food grade), a mounted pulley and 12.5 mm
(") high density nylon blades covered with 16 gauge stainless steel. These are set in a
steel bearing support that can be welded to a locally built frame. This assembly also
includes an aluminum cover to protect the drive belt. This is the only piece that is difficult
to build locally in many locations.
2. If you decide to purchase this assembly follow the steps below:
a. Disassemble the bearings and aluminum cover, noting how they fit back
together.
b. After welding the bearing support to the built frame, reassemble the aluminum
cover and bearings. Any lips or edges of the aluminum cover should face down to collect
the least amount of pulp.

c. Before mounting the cylinder and cylinder supports , assemble the blade and
mount it on the shaft. This will allow for the correct positioning of the cylinder. There
should be about 6.25 mm (1/4") between the tip of each blade and the inside cylinder wall.
3. For safety make sure the drive belt is covered both under and outside of the cylinder.
4. The outside diameter of the blade shaft pulley is 70 mm (2.8 "). The pulley on the motor
should be the same size or as close as possible. If the pulley on the motor has a much
larger diameter it will cause unacceptable vibration.
5. The motor should be a good quality two horsepower 3450 RPM electric motor. Most
motors this size can be set to run on either 110 Volt or 220 Volt current. Make sure that
the motor is set for the wall current that you are using. If you have the choice use 220
Volts as the motor will run cooler and last longer. Also be sure that your motor is built for
the frequency of electricity that you will be using. Most of the world uses 50 Hz
frequency, but the United States, Mexico and parts of Latin America use 60 Hz. A 60 Hz
motor running on 50 Hz electricity will run about 17% slower and will overheat easily.
6. A plastic washtub as large as will easily slide under the pulley and belt should be used.
For a smooth operation you'll probably want two or three of these, so they can be
switched quickly without stopping the leaf pulping.
7. You may want to attach flexible plastic flaps to the frame to prevent bit of pulp from
flying out over the top of the washtub. This is especially important if you plan to use the
macerator to granulate leaf curd as well as pulp leaves.
8. To reduce noise, vibration, and movement of the macerator, rubber feet of some type
should be fitted to the legs of the frame. The frame should also be secured to the floor or a
wall in some manner.

Development policies are beginning to question how introductions of foods might damage
local production of staples.
- Flavor.
Generally we view the flavor of LC as something that should be kept to minimum so that
other more popular flavors can dominate even when foods contain significant amounts of
LC.
- Color.
Normally the dark green of fresh LC is a liability as is the very dark, almost black, green of
dried LC. Various schemes to lighten the color or alter it (such as with Pitahaya
(Hylocereus ocamponis), an intensely colored dark red fruit from a cactus like plant, in
Nicaragua) are worth looking into.
Nutrition
- Contains Substantial Amount of LC.
Many foods have been introduced through various projects that contained token amounts
of LC. Probably 4 grams dry weight LC or 10 grams fresh per portion is a minimum if we
are expecting much nutritional benefit. Malnourished children should get 25 grams fresh
LC per day.
- Doesn't destroy or bind nutrients.
Some processes, like exposure to prolonged high temperatures or sunlight can lower the
nutritional value of the ingredients in foods.
- Makes nutrients more available.
The addition of ascorbic acid makes it easier to utilize iron from LC. Some minerals are
better absorbed in certain proportions to each other. Dried LC is more nutritious if it is
ground extremely finely.

Pirie N.W. Leaf Protein and Its By-products in Human and Animal Nutrition
University Presss Cambridge, UK 2nd Ed. 1987 209 pages

Cambridge

Agriculture and Environment

Duke,James A. Handbook of Legumes of World Economic Importance. Plenum Press.
227 W. 17th Street New York, NY and London 1981 345 pages

Facciola,Stephen. Cornucopia: A Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications

1870 Sunset Dr. Vista, CA 92084 USA 1990 677 pages
Sarrantonio, Marianne. Methodologies for Screening Soil Improving Legumes. Rodale
Institute 611 Siegfriedale Road Kutztown, PA 19530 USA. 1991 310 pages
Price, Martin ECHO Development Notes ed. 17430 Durrance Rd. North Fort Myers,
FL 33917-2200 USA Subscription $10 US per year
Myers,Norman The Primary Source: Tropical Forests and Our Future
Co, NY and London 1992 416 pages

WW Norton &

Edwards, Clive A.and Rattan Lal and et. al. Sustainable Agricultural Systems Soil and
Water Conservation Society 7515 Northeast Ankeny Rd. Ankeny, Iowa 50021 1990
696 pages
Flint, Mary Louise Pests of the Garden and Small Farm: A Grower's Guide to Using Less
Pesticide University of California, Davis Ca. 1990 276 pages.
Legel, Siegfried Tropical forage legumes and grasses Plenum Press, New York 1981.
Smith, Nigel J. and J. T. Williams and et. al. Tropical Forests and Their Crops Cornell
University Press, Ithaca N.Y. 1992 568 pages.
Quimo, T.H. and S.T. Chang and et. al. Technical Guidelines for Mushroom Growing in
the Tropics Production and Protection Paper 106., Food and Agricultural Organization
of the United Nations, Rome, Italy 1990 155 pages
Better Pastures for the Tropics Yates Seeds P.O. Box 616 Toowoomba, Qld., 4350
Australia 1975 60 pages
Ponting, Clive A Green History of the World: The Environment and the Collapse of Great
Civilizations Penguin Books, New York, N.Y. 1991 432 pages
Lavabre, E.M. Weed Control: Tropical Agriculturist Series MacMillan Press, London
1991
90 pages
McRobie, George, Editor Tools for Organic Farming
Publications London 1990 77 pages

Intermediate Technology

Williams, C.N., Uzo, J.O. and Peregrine, W.T.T. Vegetable Production in the Tropics
Longman Scientific and Technical Publishing London 1991 179 pages

Information Centre for Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture in the Netherlands

Farming for the Future: An Introduction to Low-External-Input and Sustainable
Agriculture Macmillan Press Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS UK
U.S. National Research Council Saline Agriculture: Salt-Tolerant Plants for Developing
Countries National Academy Press Washington, DC USA 1990 143 pages

Processing
Mazur, Glen A.and Thomas E. Proctor. Troublehooting Electric Motors. American
Technical Publishers, Inc.,Homewood, IL 60430 USA 1993 299 pages
Fellows, Peter and Hampton, Ann Small-Scale Food Processing: A Guide to Appropriate
Equipment Intermediate Technology Publications London 1992 158 pages
Fellows, Peter and Axtell, Barry Appropriate Food Packaging
Technology for Development Amsterdam 135 pages

published by Transfer of

Nutrition
Cameron, Margaret and Yngve Hofvander Manual on Feeding Infants and Young
Children Third Edition Oxford University Press, Toronto, Ontario Canada 1983 214
pages
King, Maurice and Felicity King. Primary Child Care: A mANUAL FOR hEALTH cARE
wORKERS
Book One and Two. Oxford Medical Publications, Toronto, Ontario Canada 0X2 6DP
1991 311 pages and 194 pages.
Natow, Annette B. and Jo-Ann Heslin. Nutritional Care of the Older Adult
press NY 1986 306 pp

MacMillan

A Resource Guide for Nutrition Management Programs for Older Persons US Dept. of
Helath and Human Services (Administration on Aging) 1985
Munro and Schliere, Nutrition of the Elderly . Nestle Nutrition Service Raven Press
1185 Avenue of The Americas NY, NY 10036 1991

Management, Marketing, Training, Communications

Werner, David and Bill Bower Helping Health Workers Learn The Hesperian
Foundation, Palo Alto, Ca. 1982
Boyden, Jo and Brian Pratt The Field Directors' Handbook: An Oxfam Manual for
Development Workers Oxford University Press Toronto, Ontario Canada 1985 512
pages

Buzzard, Shirley and Elaine Edgcomb, eds. Monitoring and Evaluating Small Business
Projects: A Step by Step Guide for Private Development Organizations. PACT, New
York, 1987 262 pages
de Wilde, Ton; Schreurs, Stigntje; and Richman, Arleen Opening the Marketplace to
Small Enterprise Intermediate Technology Publications London 1991 155 pages
Kindervatter, Suzanne with Range, Maggie Marketing Strategy: Training Activities for
Entrepreneurs Overseas Education Fund New York 93 pages
Rittner, Don Ecolinking: Everyone's Guide to Online Environmental Information
Peachpit Press Berkely, CA USA 351 pages

IMPACT MACERATOR
(measurements in inches; 1 inch = 25.4 mm)

Monthly
Report
Form
Month

Year

Year
Location
Responsible
Person
Date
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

Kg Leaf Crop

Kg Leaf Concentate

Kg Fiber

Total Hours