THE PETROCHEMICAL

INDUSTRY
GROUP C REPORT
COURSE TITLE: CHEMICAL
PROCESS INDUSTRIES
COURSE CODE: CHE 581

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Names
Mat number
ANYACHEBELU OBICHIGEME E. ENG
1002106
OJEKOMHAN OMODION F.
1002160

ENG

NGBODI ANTHONIA OZIOMA

1002146

ENG

EKHUOBA .O. JOHN

1002122

ENG

OMOBOLAJI ADEWOLO
1002095

ENG

ERESE NOSAKHARE MIGHTY

ENG 1106004
ASEKOMHE I. CORNELIUS
ENG 1002108
IMAFIDON MICHAEL BRIGHT
ENG 1002139
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 EYOAWAN IME UTUK

0902153

ENG

ABSTRACT
Nigeria has a robust petrochemical sector that has been evolving over the last fifteen years.
The petrochemical industry is focused around the three centres located at Kaduna, Warri
and Eleme.

Petrochemical products are intermediates or semi-finished products

derived from petrochemical or oil shale or tar sands. They are
intermediates between the chemical process industries and the petroleum
industries, examples are polypropylene, carbon black, polyisoprene, etc.
While chemical products are finished or end products of a chemical
process industry, they are the final consumable and marketable products
for the public. Examples are polish, plastics, paints, battery cell, etc.
Warri Refining and Petrochemical co (WRPC) designed to produce
polypropylene and Carbon Black.

The EPCL was designed to produce the following petrochemical products:

such as polyethylene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride in the first
phase of the plant.

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Kaduna Refining and Petrochemical co. (KPRC) was designed to produce

Linear Alkyl Benzene, benzene, and kerosene solvents. KRPC is a subsidiary of NNPC.
During the 1990s there have been (LAB) to be used in the manufacture of

detergents.
Therefore, the low crude oil refining capacity has affected negatively the
production of petrochemical products.

INTRODUCTION
PETROCHEMICALS
Just a few years back, it was easy to define petrochemicals as relatively
pure, identifiable substances from petroleum and is used in the chemical
trade. Before now we know that oil companies were only concerned with
refining of crude oils, but now oil companies are entering the chemical
business while chemical companies are entering the oil business too,
making the whole group expand. Therefore, most organic chemical
substances could be considered petrochemicals.
The growth of enormous plastic industries and other very large scale
organic chemicals (ethylene glycol, methanol, ethanolamine, etc.) has
brought the view points of the two industries much closer together. At first
chemical companies bought simple raw materials of the required purity
directly from oil companies, then oil and chemical companies formed a
joint venture. Now, integration from underground oil to finished product is
taking place with both oil and chemical companies becoming
indistinguishable i.e. most oil companies now have petrochemical
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department which is usually separated from their refining department.

Therefore, the interest of petroleum companies in chemical production
and selling their off-gas to chemical industries gave rise to chemical
industries which quickly developed to petrochemical industries.
Petrochemicals are chemical compounds made from petroleum and are
also obtained from other fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas, or
renewable sources such as corn or sugar cane. Currently, over 80% of all
organic chemicals are petrochemicals.
The two most common petrochemical classes are olefins (including
ethylene and propylene) and aromatics (including benzene, toluene and
xylene isomers).
Oil refineries produce olefins and aromatics by fluid catalytic cracking of
petroleum fractions. Chemical plants produce olefins by steam cracking of
natural gas liquids like ethane and propane. Aromatics are produced by
catalytic reforming of naphtha.
Olefins and aromatics are the building-blocks for a wide range of materials
such as solvents, detergents, and adhesives. Olefins are the basis for
polymers and oligomers used in plastics, resins, fibres, elastomers,
lubricants, and gels.
Primary petrochemicals are divided into three groups depending on their
chemical structure:
I.

Olefins includes ethylene, propylene, and butadiene. Ethylene and

propylene are important sources of industrial chemicals and plastics
products. Butadiene is used in making synthetic rubber.

II.

Aromatics includes benzene, toluene, and xylenes. Benzene is a

raw material for dyes and synthetic detergents, and benzene and
toluene for isocyanates MDI and TDI used in making polyurethanes.
Manufacturers use xylenes to produce plastics and synthetic fibres.

III.

Synthesis gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen used

to make ammonia and methanol. Ammonia is used to make the
fertilizer, urea and methanol is used as a solvent and chemical
intermediate.

The products of petrochemical industry are used in end-user markets such

as paints, plastics, explosives and fertilizers.

Differences between a petrochemical and

chemical industry
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Petrochemical products are intermediates or semi-finished products

derived from petrochemical or oil shale or tar sands. They are
intermediates between the chemical process industries and the petroleum
industries, examples are polypropylene, carbon black, polyisoprene, etc.
While chemical products are finished or end products of a chemical
process industry, they are the final consumable and marketable products
for the public. Examples are polish, plastics, paints, battery cell, etc.

HISTORY OF PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY

More than 4,000 years ago, according to Herodotus and confirmed by
Diodorus Siculus, asphalt was employed in the construction of the walls
and Towers of Babylon.
In 1858, an oil was drilled by James Miller Williams in Oil Springs, Ontario,
Canada; and this made the area developed into a large petrochemical
refining centre and exchange.
The business of refining oil was largely the domain of John D. Rockefeller.
The New York born industrialist financed his first refinery in 1862,
alongside his brother William, they bought out competitors and created
Standard Oil Company and they controlled 90% of the oil refineries in
the U.S.
Drilling of oil quickly spread beyond U.S. into Russia, Italy, Poland, Peru,
Venezuela, Mexico, Argentina and Iran (1908), Iraq (1927), and Saudi
Arabia (1938).
Kerosene, a fuel for heating and cooking was the main primary product of
the petrochemical industry in the 1800s. Rockefeller and other refinery
owners considered gasoline a useless by-product of the distillation
process. But all that changed around the 1900s when electric lights
began to replace kerosene lamps, and automobiles came on the scene.
New After the war, an increasing number of farmers began to operate
tractors and other equipment powered by oil. The growing demand for
petrochemicals and the availability of petroleum and natural gas caused
the industry to quickly expand in the 1920s and 1930s. In 1925, annual
crude oil production surpassed a billion barrels.

HISTORY OF PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY IN

NIGERIA
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The petroleum industry in Nigeria, Africa is the largest industry and main
generator of GDP in the continents most populous nation.
Oil was discovered in Nigeria in 1956 at Olobiri in Niger Delta after a
century of exploration. The discovery was made by Shell-BP, at the time
sole concessionaire. Nigeria joined the ranks of oil producers in 1958 when
its oil field came on steam producing 5,100 bpd. After 1960, exploration
rights in onshore and offshore areas adjoining the Niger Delta was
extended to other foreign companies. In 1965, the EA field was discovered
by Shell in shallow waters Southwest of Warri. Nigeria joined the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1971 and
established the Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) in 1977.
In the late 60s and early 70s, Nigeria attained production level over 1
Million barrels of Crude Oil a day. 2004 saw a total rejuvenation of oil
production to a record level of over 2 million barrels per day. Current
development strategies are aimed at increasing production to 4 million
barrels per day by the year 2015.

DEVELOPMENT OF PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY IN

NIGERIA
A good historical account of the Nigerian petrochemical industry will
not be complete if we do not talk about its precursor the Nigerian oil
industry. The advent of the oil industry can be traced back to 1908, when
a German entity, the Nigerian Bitumen Corporation, commenced
exploration activities in the Araromi area, West of Nigeria. These
pioneering efforts ended abruptly with the outbreak of the First World War
in 1914.Oil prospecting efforts resumed in 1937, when Shell D'Arcy (the
forerunner of Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria) was
awarded the sole concessionary rights covering the whole territory of
Nigeria. Their activities were also interrupted by the Second World War,
but resumed 1947. Concerted efforts after several years and an
investment of over N30 Million Naira, led to the first commercial discovery
in 1956 at Oloibiri in the Niger Delta. This discovery opened up the Oil
industry in 1961, bringing in Mobil, Agip, Safrap (now Elf), Tenneco and
Amoseas (Texaco and Chevron respectively) to join the exploration efforts
both in the onshore and offshore areas of Nigeria. This development was
enhanced by the extension of the concessionary rights previously a
monopoly of Shell to the newcomers. The objective of the government in
doing this, was to speed up the pace of exploration and production of
Petroleum and petrochemicals. Even now more companies, both foreign
and indigenous have won concessionary rights and are producing
Petroleum and petrochemicals. Actual oil production and export from the
Oloibiri field in present day Bayelsa State commenced in 1958 with an
initial production rate of 5,100 barrels of crude oil per day. Subsequently,
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the quantity doubled the following year and progressively as more players
came onto the oil scene, the production rose to 2.0 million barrels per day
in 1972 and a peaking at 2.4 million barrels per day in 1979. Nigeria
thereafter attained the status of a major oil producer, ranking 7th in the
world in 1972, and has since grown to become the sixth largest oil
producing country in the world.
From the 1970s, the world petrochemical industry has changed
drastically including the Nigerian petrochemical industry, partly due to
increased demand for petrochemical products. Since the 1970s, various
laws have been enacted to ensure the continual growth of the
petrochemical industry and oil industry at large. The growth of the
petrochemical industries has been one the fabulous stories connected
with modern chemicals and chemical engineering research. Petroleum
companies were uninterested in chemical production, but gave the
industry a great boost by selling their off-gas to chemical companies at its
fuel value. Cracking furnaces put reactive olefins in these gases, which
chemical companies quickly developed into petrochemicals. Today some
oil companies for example, shell and standard oil of New Jersey (now
Exxon) are increasingly becoming a major player in the petrochemical
industry.

SOURCES OF PETROCHEMICALS

Methane

RAW MATERIAL GAS

NATURAL GAS
PROCESSING

STEAM
CRACKE
R

Ethylene propane butane

OPTIMAL LIQUID FEED

CRUDE OIL

PETROLEUM
REFINERY

NAPHTH
A

Ethylene
Propylene
Benzene
Butadiene

GAS OIL

Byproducts

PETROCHEMICAL
INTERMEDIATES
BENZENE, TOLUENE,
XYLENE

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PETROCHEMICAL FEEDSTOCK SOURCES

The adjacent diagram schematically depicts the major hydrocarbon
sources used in producing petrochemicals.
These are:
1. Methane, ethane, propane and butanes: obtained primarily from
natural gas processing plants.
2. Naphtha: obtained from petroleum refineries.
3. Benzene, toluene, and xylene: usually referred to as BTX and
primarily obtained from petroleum refineries by extraction from
reformate produced in catalytic reformers.
4. Gas oil obtained from petroleum refineries.
Methane and BTX are used directly as feedstock for producing
petrochemicals. However, ethane, propane, butanes, naphtha and gas oil
serve as optimal feedstock for steam assisted thermal cracking plants
referred to as steam crackers that produce these intermediate
petrochemical feedstock:

Ethylene
Propylene
Butanes and butadiene
Benzenes.

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PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRIES IN NIGERIA

Port-Harcourt Refinery I 60,000 bpd
Port-Harcourt Refinery II: 150,000 bpd
Kaduna refining and Petrochemical Co: 100,000 bpd
Warri Refining and Petrochemical Co:

110,000 bpd

Private initiatives in establishment of petrochemical plants in Nigeria

include:
i

Chevron Nig. Ltd with a Gas-to-liquid GTL plant in Escravos.

ii

Viva Methanol in Lekki (Lagos) Export Free Zone.

iii

Axinova Polyolefin.

Structure of the Petrochemical Industry.

The Petrochemical complex involves the manufacture of a combination of
the following products:

The manufacture of basic raw materials like syn gas, methane, ethylene,
propylene, acetylene, butadiene, benzene, toluene, xylenes, etc.

Manufacture of intermediate chemicals derived from the above listed

basic chemicals by various unit processes like oxidation, hydrogenation
chlorination, nitration, alkylation, dehydrogenation along with various unit
operations like distillation, absorption, extraction, adsorption etc.

Manufacture of target chemicals and polymers that may be used in the

manufacture of target products and chemicals to meet consumer needs
such as plastics, synthetic fibres, synthetic rubber, detergents, explosives,
dyes, intermediate and pesticides.
Petroleum and petrochemical industries have close links and have always
benefited from their symbiotic relationship, where any variation in the cost
of crude oil and petroleum products will have a direct impact on the
overall economy of petrochemicals.

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In

the

changing

scenario,

petroleum

refining

and

petrochemical

production integration is of vital importance for maximizing the use of

byproducts and improving the overall economy of a petroleum refinery.

Feedstock and Product Profile of the

Petrochemical Industry
One of the major issues responsible for the worldwide growth of
petrochemical industry has been the availability of feedstock, which has
led to replacement of the natural resources such as coal, molasses, fats,
etc.
Basic feedstock used in the petrochemicals industry for manufacture of
olefins and aromatics are derived either from natural gas or crude oil
petroleum fractions.
These include natural gas (associated and non-associated), condensate,
naphtha, kerosene, catalytic cracking and reformer gases, waxes,
pyrolysis gasoline. Petrochemical products derived from natural gas.
Nigeria currently has proven Crude oil reserves of 37.2 billion barrels, this
is expected to increase to increase to 40.0 billion barrels in 2015. Crude oil
production is between 2.1 and 2.5 million barrels per day. Nigeria is the
highest crude oil producer in Africa and the 11th highest producer in the
world.
Nigeria has a proven reserve of 185 trillion cu. Ft of Natural Gas, and
currently up to 35% of Associate Natural Gas produced is flared. The flared
Natural Gas is a potential feedstock for the petrochemical industry.

Feed stocks and Technology.

Several processes, both thermal and catalytic occur in the
conversion of feed stocks and intermediate products. These processes are
listed in Figure 1 and 4. (Mall 1994).
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Few years back, naphtha was the dominant feedstock for petrochemicals;
however, recent trends have been for more utilization of Natural Gas,
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and Pyrolysis Gasoline.
Many Licensor companies offer their technologies for the production of
petrochemical products from variety of feed stocks.

Some of the licensor companies include:

Process Technology Licensors (McGraw-Hill, 1983)
Ammonia: M.W. Kellogg Co.
Aromatics from Hydrocarbon Mixtures: UOP
Benzene: Air Products and Chemicals (Houdry Division)
Butylene (Acetylene-Free): Atlantic Richfield Co. (ARCO) and Engelhard
Carbon Black: Phillips Petroleum
Chlorine/ Sodium Hydroxide: Occidental Chemical Corp.

Hooker Industrial & Specialty Chemicals

Ethanol: Huels
Methylbenzene: UOP Process Division
Ethylene/ Propylene: C-E Lummus Div. of Combustion Engineering
Ethylene Glycols: Shell Development Co.
Ethylene Oxide: Shell Development Co.
Linear Alkyl Benzene: ARCO
Methanol: ICI
Nitric Acid: Stamicarbon
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Nylon 6: Zimmer
Cis-Polybutadiene: Phillips Petroleum Co.
Polybutene: Cosden Technology Inc.
Polyethylene (High Density): Phillips Petroleum Co.
Polyethylene Terephthalate: Zimmer
Polypropylene: Hercules
Polystyrene: Cosden Technology Inc.
Polyvinyl Chloride: Mitsui Toatsu Chemicals Inc.
Styrene: Monsato and C-E Lummus
Styrene-Butadiene Rubber: Phillips Petroleum Co.
Urea from Ammonia and Carbon Dioxide: Stamicarbon B.V.
Vinyl Chloride: Stauffer Chemicals
Xylenes: Atlantic Richfield Co. (ARCO)

TYPICAL PETROCHEMICAL PRODUCTION

PROCESS
(Novel and efficient methods of manufacturing petrochemicals
continue to be devised by the research and development department of
the various companies. The total production system must incorporate
information processing to sell and service, adapt the whole to the
environment, and manipulate the summed information to maximize the
desired parameters.
The major processes in the petrochemical production processes are:
1. Alkylation, de-alkylation, and hydro de-alkylation: Used in the
producing benzene derivatives.
2. Cracking or pyrolysis: Used in producing carbon blacks, olefins and
di-olefins.
3. Dehydration: Used in the production of ether.
4. Esterification: Used in the production of solvents, monomers,
medicines, perfumes and explosives.
5. Halogenations and hydro halogenation.
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6. Hydration and hydrolysis : Used in the production of synthetic ethyl

alcohol
7. Hydrogenation and dehydrogenation.
8. Nitration: Used in making unreactive paraffins into reactive
substances without cracking.
9. Amination or reaction with ammonia: Used in the production of
aliphatic and aromatic amines.
10. Hydroformylation: Used in converting alpha olefins to aldehydes and
or alcohols containing an additional number of carbon atoms.
Others include Oxidation, Polymerization, etc.

PRODUCTS OF PETROCHEMICAL
INDUSTRY
The following is a partial list of the major commercial petrochemicals and
their derivatives:
(a)ETHYLENE-: the simplest olefin; used as a chemical feedstock
and ripening stimulant. Its derivatives include Polyethylene, ethanol,
ethylene oxide, ethylene glycol, engine coolant, polyesters and glycol
ethers.
(b)PROPYLENES -Used as a monomer and a chemical feedstock .Its
derivatives includes Isopropyl alcohol, acrylonitrile, propylene glycol,
glycol ethers, acrylic acids, alkyl chloride.
(c)C4 HYDROCARBONS - A mixture consisting of butanes, butylene
and butadiene. Isobutylene, a feed for copolymerisation of1, 3-butadiene,
which is often used as a monomer for elastomers.
(d)MIXED XYLENES- Any three dimethyl benzene isomers. Its
derivatives are Phthalic anhydride, dimethyl terephthalate, polyesters,
alkyd resins and polyamide resins.
(e)TOLUENE- This is also known as methylbenzene. It can be used
as a solvent or precursor for other chemicals. Its derivatives includes
Benzene, toluene diisocyanate, benzoic acid and nylon.
(f)BENZENE-: The simplest aromatic hydrocarbon. Its derivatives
includes Ethyl benzene, styrene, cumene, acetone, epoxy resins and
polycarbonates
In summary, some of the products from the petroleum plants in
Nigeria includes:
Carbon black
Polypropylene
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Linear alkyl benzene

Benzene, ethylene, and other olefins
Phenol
Heavy alkylates
Deparaffinated kerosene, kero-solvent (is a by-product)

CASE STUDY
1.WARRI REFINING AND PETROCHEMICAL
INDUSTRY
The production process of Warri refining and petrochemical company are
classified into primary and secondary processes.
Primary processes use distillation principles to separate crude into
intermediate and some finished products while the Secondary processes
use catalyst to convert the intermediate to higher quality finished and
value added petrochemical products.
The primary processes are carried out at the:
1. Atmospheric Distillation Unit
2. Vacuum Distillation Unit, and
3. The Gas Plant
The secondary process unit are:
1. Naphtha Hydro treating Unit (NHU)
2. Catalytic Reforming Unit (CRU)
3. Kerosene Hydro treating Unit (KHU)
4. The Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU)
5. HF Alkylation Unit
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6. Polypropylene and Carbon Black Plants

The products gotten from the petrochemical plants are polypropylene

pellets and carbon black pellets.
The feed stocks are decant oil from the fluid catalytic unit (FCCU) for the
carbon black plant and polypropylene rich feedstock from FCCU for the
polypropylene plant.

MISSION STATEMENT
To efficiently and profitably process crude oil into Petroleum products,
Manufacture and Market Petrochemical Products through effective
resource utilization, while exploiting new business opportunities.
VISION STATEMENT
To be a leader in the Petroleum processing business in Africa.

OVERVIEW OF THE CARBON BLACK PLANT

The carbon black plant is one of the two plants of the Ekpan Complex that
produce the various types of carbon black.
Carbon black which is an industrial equivalent of soot or charcoal is a
black dusty powder produced from the incomplete combustion of a
hydrocarbon. Therefore the primary purpose of the carbon black plant is
to convert liquid hydrocarbon decant oil, its primary feedstock from the
fluid catalytic cracking unit to carbon black pellets by the process of
incomplete combustion and thermal decomposition. Thermal
decomposition means separating the elemental carbon from hydrogen by
subjecting the hydrocarbon to heat. While incomplete combustion means
burning the hydrocarbon incompletely in order not to obtain ashes but
soot.

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The importance of carbon black may be indicated briefly by stating that

30-90KG of the rubber in a tyre consists of carbon black per 100kg. Other
uses of carbon black are in printing inks, paints, pigments, plastics, etc.
The process unit of the plant are subdivided into the following sections:
1. Reaction
2. Quench and Cooling
3. Filtration
4. Pulverizing
5. Pelleting
6. Cooling and drying
7. Bagging and Storing

Utilities and general service units included in the unit are:

1. Feed storage
2. Product storage and warehouse
3. Process waste water treatment
4. Control room
5. Laboratory
6. Gatehouse and weigh station
7. Firewater loop
8. Incinerator
9. Additives storage.
The process is based on a technology licensed by PHILLIPS Petroleum
Company. The plant is designed to bag the entire carbon black production.
At full capacity 2800 bags per day are produced each bag weighing 25kg.

FEEDSTOCK

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3.0.1. The carbon black plant uses various feed stocks in the production
process, some of which are supplied from the utility plant, Fluid catalytic
cracking Unit and others are self- generated by the carbon black plant.
The various feed stocks of the carbon black process plant are:
3.0.2. Decant oil: This is the primary feedstock of the carbon black
process plant. It is a residual hydrocarbon oil from the fluid catalytic
cracking unit which undergoes reaction in the carbon black plant and is
being converted to carbon black pellets.
3.0.3. Propane: Another feedstock from the FCC unit which was used as
fuel gas in the reactor of the carbon black process to provide fire
necessary for the combustion of decant oil. Propane later found use in the
Polypropylene plant.
3.0.4. Fuel Gas: This is a feedstock from the Nigerian Gas Company
(NGC) which replaces propane as a source of fuel to provide combustion in
the carbon black reactors, incinerator and furnace.
3.0.5. Nitrogen: An inert gas which is a feedstock from the utility plant,
is required in the bag filters of the carbon black plant to blanket explosive
off gases from air in order to prevent explosion in the bag filters.
3.0.6. Steam: is needed to heat up pumps to keep them rotating. Also
needed to purge lines to prevent blockage and also used to raise the
temperature of the feedstock through the heat exchanger.
3.0.7. Flush oil: is needed to flush lines if there be any blockage.
3.0.8. Molasses: It is an additive containing sugar, water, minerals,
gums and certain other substances. It is usually mixed with hot water and
kerosene to form a pelleting solution which is fed to the pelleting unit.
3.9 Process Water: It is needed in:
i. The pre- quench and primary quench sections of the reactor to control
the reactors
temperature and to prevent complete combustion.
ii. The secondary quench tower to flush out organic and inorganic grits
from the carbon black.
iii. The mixing and pelleting unit to mix the black in order to obtain a
homogenous mixture.

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3.0.10. Raw Water: Used as utility in the control room and laboratory for
drinking, washing etc.
3.0.11. Plant Air: Needed for blowing or cleaning dust from materials,
e.g for cleaning the blower GB 201 filters. Plant air contains little
amount of moisture.
3.0.12. Instrument Air: Needed to operate certain instruments within
the plant, e.g for opening and closing of pneumatic valves. Instrument
air has no moisture content.
3.0.13. Process Air: This air is self- generated by the carbon black
plant by the air blower GB 201. Process air is needed to support
combustion in the reactors, incinerator and the furnace.
3.0.14. Potassium Nitrate (KNO3): This is an additive which is
mixed with the decant oil before it is passed into the reactor. The
potassium nitrate helps to reduce the carbon black agglomeration and
gives it the desired grade.
The point where carbon black plant receives its various feedstock and
utilities from other plants is called the battery limit. This is the starting
point of the CB plant. It consists of valves which controls the lines (pipes)
through which the various feedstock and utilities flow, each line to its
valve.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Although the carbon black process appears to be simple, the extreme
degree of control that must be maintained in order to obtain a quality
product from the reactors makes the process complex. The production of
carbon black in the reactor is accomplished by the combustion and
thermal decomposition of hydrocarbon in a reducing atmosphere. This
section of the process is characterized by its high temperature low
pressure, and a short reaction time.

FEEDSTOCK (CONVERSION OIL)

Decant oil from the catalytic cracking unit of Warri Refinery is the
feedstock used in the Ekpan CB plant. Other types of conversion oil could
be used. Feedstock is the most important material used in the CB plant. It
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is very important to maintain a consistent quality feedstock in order to

produce a high quality product at the maximum efficiency.

GULFTRONIC SEPARATION
The Gulftronic separator receives the decant oil from the battery limit and
separates out catalytic particles from the decant oil. The catalytic particles
are remains of catalysts used in FCC unit.
STORAGE TANKS
The filtered decant oil is discharged into storage tanks FB 408 , FB 406A
and B AND FB 403 A and B where it is stored before it is discharged into
the reactors for the actual reaction process. Within the Storage tanks are
steam spacers (thin pipes through which steam flows) which transfers
heat to the decant oil in order to maintain the viscosity needed by the oil
to flow. The temperature in the storage tanks ranges from 93-100oC. Too
high a temperature in the storage tanks will cause the decant oil to
exceed its flash point which is 130oC consequently leading to explosion.

OIL PRE-HEATERS
Before the oil enters the reactor, it passes through the oil pre-heaters
where it is pre heated by the heat effluent from the reactor to a
temperature of about 800oC. It is necessary to pre heat the oil in order to:
i. Reduce its viscosity so as to obtain the standard spray pattern with
which the oil goes into the reactor from the oil gun.
ii. Raise the temperature of the incoming oil so that it wont reduce the
reactors temperature as a result of heat exchange.
AIR PRE-HEATERS
The process air generated by the air blower GB 201 which is needed in the
reactors first passes through the air-heaters where it is pre-heated by the
heat effluent from the reactor to:
i. To increase its temperature closer to the temperature of the reactor so
as to prevent thermal shock.
ii. To raise the temperatures of the incoming air so that it will not reduce
the temperature of the reactor as a result of heat exchange.
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OIL COOLER
In a situation where production is suspended, the pre-heated oil which is
not needed in the reactor is directed to the oil cooler which reduces the
temperature of the pre-heated oil to about 93-100oC before discharging it
back to the storage tanks.

REACTION
The actual reaction process takes place in the reactor which is the heart of
the oil furnace process. The reactor is fed with fuel gas which is the source
of combustion and the pre-heated air which supports combustion. The
reactor is lighted prior to production and its temperature is raised
gradually to a range of 1350oC-1500oC its standard operating
temperature. Once this set temperature is reached, the oil gun through
which the decant oil enters into the reactor by a spray pattern is inserted
into the reactor.
Two processes takes place in the reactor which are incomplete
combustion and thermal decomposition. Incomplete combustion
involves burning the decant oil in a reducing atmosphere to obtain soot or
carbon black while thermal decomposition involves separating hydrogen
from elemental carbon (carbon black).
The pre-heated air and fuel gas enters the reaction zone through two
ports the upper and lower tangential amps in order to cause a turbulent
flow which helps to carry the produced carbon black particles on the
surface of the inner linings of the reactor.
Carbon black properties, yield, and production rate can be adjusted by
changing the reactor feed variables, and the type and position of the oil
burner. Therefore, the reactor is the heart of the whole process; it is in the
reactor that the carbon black quality is obtained. It should be noted that if
the desired quality and high yields of the carbon black are not attained in
the reactor, it is impossible to do so at any other time in the process, and
the off specification product ends up be recycled into the process.
The CB plant comprises of five (5) reactors all linked to a common roof
header, presently only three of the reactors are in use.
PRE- QUENCH

21 | P a g e

This consists of two (2) water inlet inserted by the side of the tail pipe. It
works by spraying water into the tail pipe in a co-current direction to the
flow of the effluent so as to reduce the temperature of the effluent.
PRIMARY-QUENCH
This consists of three (3) water inlet inserted by the side of the tail pipe. It
works by spraying water into the tail pipe in a counter-current direction to
the flow of the effluent so as to reduce the temperature of the effluent.

SECONDARY QUENCH TOWER

The carbon black produced in the reactors are carried by the off gases
also produced in the reactors by decomposition of process air, to the
secondary quench tower (FA 205) by a common roof header which the five
reactors are linked to. The function of the secondary quench tower is to
separate organic and inorganic grits from the black, and also to control
the temperature going to the primary bag filter (FD 205).
The secondary quench tower is flushed every twelve hours (12hrs) to
remove accumulated grits.

BAG FILTRATION
The collection of the carbon black is accomplished in a large structure
containing several hundred specially treated fiberglass filter bags, termed
bag filters. This is the only collecting device which can remove essentially
100% of the carbon black from the off gases.
The incoming off gases along with the carbon black, from the secondary
quench tower, carried through the header, enters into the primary bag
filter through the hopper. The off gas escapes through the pores of the
bag while the black is retained inside the bag.
The primary bag filter is made up of nine (9) compartments each
compartment having 492 bags arranged vertically. In order to clean the
bags after a period of filtration, on a set schedule regulated by a timer,
the outlet valve on one compartment closes thus stopping the flow of
22 | P a g e

smoke to these bags. At the same time and regulated by the same timer,
a back flow or re-pressuring valve opens. This reverse flow of off-gases
cleans the carbon black from the bags and discharges it into the hopper
and screw conveyor at the bottom of the hopper. After a few seconds, the
valve action is reversed, and the compartment is filtering again.
Immediately after this compartment is placed back into operation, another
is cleaned; therefore, one compartment in sequence is out of service
almost all the time. Since the off-gases contain combustible gases, no air
is allowed into the system during to avoid fires in the filter. The clean off
gases from each compartment are collected in a large common duct and
piped to the incinerator where it is burnt before venting to the atmosphere
to be in line with local environmental standards.
Insufficient re-pressuring gas, leaking bags, failure to remove the black at
the same rate as it is being produce, leaking re-pressuring or outlet valves
are but a few of the problems that can cause shutdown of the filter .The
fiberglass bags are fragile and if damaged will leak black into the off gas
burning equipment. Also when unburned off gas is vented to the
atmosphere; the carbon black in it may cause the plant to be in violation
of local air pollution regulation.
The temperature of the primary bag filter is always on check. Too high a
temperature will destroy the fiberglass filter bags and too low a
temperature will cause excessive corrosion, mudding, and decrease in the
life of the bags by depositing salts on them which weakens the cloth. The
filtered black from the bag filter are withdrawn by the blowers GB202A
and GB202B and are conveyed by the conveyors - JD 201 and JD 202 and
passed to the pulverizers.

MOLECULAR WT. %
COMPONENTS
CO2

4.05

C2H2

1.05

H2

16.96

CO

14.56

CH4

0.74

23 | P a g e

N2

62.64

Table 2. Components of off gases from the bag filter.

PULVERIZER
Inside the pulverizer are sets of rotating hammers which grinds lumpy or
large carbon black particles coming from the bag filter to obtain a
homogenous and finely grounded particles. The black from the pulverizer
is pneumatically conveyed by the blower GB 203 to a cyclone.
CYCLONE AND SURGE VESSEL
The cyclone acts as a separator. It separates the carbon black from
effluent gases and returns these gases to the process bag filter entering
into the smoke header just prior to the quench tower. The cyclone
discharges the black through a rotary valve into the loose black surge
tank from where it is then passed to the pelleting unit.
MIXING/PELLETING
Since the carbon black in the surge tank will have a density of only about
50 to 100 kilograms per cubic meter, it must be densified for ease of
handling. This is accomplished in a process called wet pelleting. The black
which flows at a regulated rate from the surge tank is mixed with a
pelleting solution, usually composed of hot water, mixed with kerosene
and molasses to form a viscous paste which is then cut into small round
pellets.
DRYING
The wet pellets flow from the mixer into the dryer (FF 201) feed conveyor
and dryer where the pellets are further rounded and the moisture content
reduced to less than 1% by weight. The indirect fired dryer is a large
rotating drum that is heated by hot combustion gas from a furnace BC 201
located near the dryer.
Excess water in the form of steam along with some gases and enstrained
CB particles is withdrawn from the dryer and blown by an air blower (GB
206) to the secondary bag filter just above the cyclone, which recover the
black before venting the steam and gases to the atmosphere.

24 | P a g e

Product temperature at the dryer discharge should be controlled in the

range of 150 to 260oC. Any deviation in pellet size will cause a
corresponding change in drying rate. Too low a temperature can cause
excessive moisture in the final product and too high a temperature may
cause oxidation of the black particles and even create a fire hazard.
Excess heat in the dryer is vented to the atmosphere through a vent tower
whose venting rate is controlled by a manual damper.
FINAL PRODUCT HANDLING, STORAGE, AND PACKAGING
When the product leaves the dryer, it is picked up by bucket elevators JD
204 and JD 208 and lifted to the drum magnet FL 201. The drum magnet
separates the rust or iron particles (magnetic) contained in the carbon
black pellets and sends them to portable reject tank PA-210. Rust and
refractory particles are dangerous for the application of CB with rubber
into the tyres.
From the magnetic drum, the pellets are carried by a screw conveyor (JD
205) to two storage tanks (FB 202 and FB 203) where they are stored
awaiting bagging. Each tank is divided into four compartments, one of
them used for off specification product. The off specification product is
usually recycled.
Bagging is performed by a portable bagging machine. The bags are
collected together in the form of pallets, i.e. on a portable platform for
transporting and storing them more easily. Each pallet weighs about one
ton.

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

25 | P a g e

APPLICATIONS OF CARBON BLACK

1. Colouring agent for ink and paints: Because of its high tinting strength
compared to iron black or organic pigment it is widely used for newspaper
inks, printing inks.
2. Resins and film colouring agents: Because of its thermal stability, it is
suitable for colouring resins and films that are heat formed. Carbon black
is also excellent for absorbing ultraviolent light, providing both a superb
resistance against ultra-violent rays.
3. Since they have graphite type crystalline structure providing an
excellent electric conductivity, therefore, carbon blacks is widely used as
conductive fillers.

26 | P a g e

2.ELEME PETROCHEMICAL COMPANY

LIMITED
Indorama Eleme Petrochemical Ltd (IEPL), located in Port
Harcourt, Rivers state, Nigeria, a member of Indorama Corporation,
is a Poly-Olefins producer of a range of Poly-Ethylene and PolyPropylene products. IEPL was a 100% subsidiary of Nigerian
Government owned Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC)
with the name Eleme Petrochemicals Company Limited (EPCL).
When the erstwhile EPCL was privatized, under the Privatization
Program, the Indorama Group emerged as the core investor and
acquired the Unit in August 2006.
Corporate Vision & Values
Our Corporate vision is to attain Business Leadership. In line with the
Groups vision, the IEPL has set its vision as to build the largest
Petrochemicals hub in Africa! And help to build an economy that would
provide better life for Nigerians today and future generations.

These twelve
Effectiveness,
Effectiveness.

values catapult the company to

Performance
Effectiveness
and

usher Personal
Organizational

Personal Effectiveness

Respect: Empathy, Kindness, Sensitivity, Diversity, Multiculturalism

27 | P a g e

Openness: Honesty, Introspection, Positive Attitude, Openness to

Change & New Ideas.

Teamwork: Sharing, Collaboration, Harmony, Winning Together,

Personal Initiative

Motivation: Trust, Empowerment, Positive Reinforcement,

Engagement.

Performance Effectiveness

Excellence: Continuous Improvement, Quality, Planning, Execution,

Passion, Systems-Driven

Knowledge: Expertise, Teaching, Training, Mentorship, Learning,

Competency Development.

Leadership: Inspire, Create Value, Lead by Example,

Communication, Grooming Talent.

Courage: Bold, Risk Taking, Grace Under Fire, Sacrifice

Organizational Effectiveness

Commitment: Belongingness, Ownership, Loyalty, Relationships

Innovation: Vision, Ideas, Do Things Differently, Change, Creativity

Environment: Safety, Sustainability, Corporate Social Responsibility

Governance: Ethical conduct, Transparency, Checks & Balances,

Stakeholders

Plant & Technology

Olefins Plant
The Olefins Plant uses the technology licensed by Kellogg Brown & Root
(KBR) of USA. The plant has six SCORE furnaces of millisecond technology,
of which five are usually operated and the sixth is used for de-coking or as
standby. The feed stock Natural Gas Liquid (NGL) is fed into the
fractionators where C5+ hydrocarbons are recovered at the bottom and
28 | P a g e

C2 to C4 fractions are fed to the cracker furnaces along with recycle gases
ethane, propane and butane. Ethylene and Propylene are the main
products of Olefins plant, while pentane, hydrogen and fuel gas are the
by-products.
Olefins Plant
Capacity

: 440 KTA

Technology
Polyethylene Plant

: M.W. Kellogg, USA

The Poly Ethylene Plant uses Sclairtech Technology licensed by DuPont

(Novachem) of Canada. Ethylene is the raw material for PE plant. The
Swing-Plant was built by Kobe Steel of Japan and is capable of producing
both High and Linear Low Density categories of Poly Ethylene. The
capacity
of
the
plant
is
360
KT
per
annum.
The technology uses two different catalyst systems to tailor-make grades.
Based on the use of different catalyst, the plant can go from High to
Linear Low Density PE. The unique feature of this process is the ability to
swing from High to Linear Low and vice versa in short spans of time.
Polyethylene Plant
Capacity

: 360 KTA

Technology

: Nova Chemicals, Canada

Butene

: 22 KTA

Polypropylene Plant
Poly Propylene Plant is based on the Basell (Montell) Spheripol Technology,
which is the leading PP technology in the world. The plant was constructed
by Technimont, an Italian company that has built a number of Basell
plants worldwide. Propylene and PRF are the raw materials for PP plant
which is designed to produce up to 120 KT per annum. The plant can
produce homo-polymers, random-polymers as well as co-polymers that
are used in wide range of applications, from woven sacks to household
goods.
Polypropylene Plant
Capacity

: 120 KTA

Technology

: Lyondell Basell, Italy

POLYPROPYLENE PLANT

29 | P a g e

Polypropylene plant has an installed capacity of 35 000MT and is designed

to produce both polypropylene homo-polymer resins. It utilizes propylene
obtained from the refinery fluid catalytic cracking unit as feedstock.
Polypropylene is based on liquid pool high yield catalyst technology for
the polymerization of propylene in continuous stirred tank reactor. Due to
the high activity and selectivity of the catalyst, removal of catalyst residue
from the polymer and the atatic by-product separation are not necessary.
PP plants consists of four main sections, namely;
I. Purification
II.
Reaction
III. Extrusion, and
IV.
Bagging sections.
PURIFICATION SECTION OF THE POLYPROPYLENE PLANT
In this section, raw propylene from refinery FCC plant undergoes
treatment and separation processes in a fixed bed reactor and
distillation columns respectively to produce polymer grade
propylene of purity. The propylene so obtained is dried in a
molecular sieve drier before sending to storage. High purity
propylene of 94% minimum is required for polymerization.
THE REACTION SECTION OF THE POLYPROPYLENE PLANT
Polymer grade propylene is fed continuously into the reactor, where
polymerization takes place in liquid propylene medium and in the
presence of a three-component catalyst system consisting of TEAL
or TIBAL, FT-1 and MPT. Hydrogen is injected into the reactor to
maintain the desired polymer melt flow. Ethylene can also be added
to produce a random copolymer of propylene and ethylene with
modified physical properties.
The reaction is exothermic; hence, reactor temperature is carefully
controlled to avoid runaway. Polymer slurry discharged from the
reactor passes through a bag filter for the separation of extrusion
section.
THE EXTRUSION SECTION
The polymer powder pre-mixed with suitable additives is
continuously fed to the two extrusion units where it is melted,
homogenized and then cut into pellets under water. The additives
are mixed with polymer to stabilize and prevent product oxidation.
The pellet under water separation and drying in centrifugal dryers
are classified with vibrating screens and are pneumatically
conveyed to the weighted test bins. The product is analysed,
classified and stored in silos ready for bagging.
THE BAGGING SECTION
30 | P a g e

By pneumatic haulage, the product is delivered to a surge silo,

which feeds the baggong customers.

3.
Kaduna Refining & Petrochemical
Company (KRPC)
VISION
To be the pride of the Nation
MISSION
To Refine Crude Oil into high Value Petroleum and Petrochemical Products
and also Manufacturing Packaging Products efficiently.
PERSPECTIVE
REFINERY PROJECT DECISION
The decision to construct the third Nigerian National Petroleum
Corporation (NNPC) refinery in Kaduna was taken in 1974 along with that
of the second NNPC refinery located at Warri. However, it was decided
that work would commence on the construction of the third refinery
whenever the projection of the consumption of petroleum products
justifies it.
By early 1975, in view of the fuel shortages experienced then, the Federal
Government decided that work on the third refinery should be advanced.
It was envisaged that the refinery was to be a simple hydro skimming type
refinery in order to meet up with the fuel demand then.
Based on the feasibility studies carried out, which took into consideration
the consumption of the various petroleum products within the Northern
31 | P a g e

Zone, and adequate means of disposal for the surplus products, a Refinery
with crude oil capacity of 42,000 barrels per stream day (BPSD) could be
easily justified. Hence, the refinery was designed for a capacity of 60,000
BPSD. It was much later that the Federal Government decided that the
capacity for any refinery in Nigeria should not be below 100,000 BPSD.
However, this would have led to the production of large quantity of heavy
ends. And one practical and viable solution is reprocessing the heavy fuel
oils.
In order to do this, the whole project plans had to be modified so that
what initially was planned to be simply a hydro skimming type refinery,
developed into an integrated refinery. The refinery would now be able to
produce a wider variety of petroleum products, some of which should be
lubricating base oils. Hence, it became necessary to import suitable
paraffinic based crude oil from Venezuela, Kuwait or Saudi Arabia.

Products from the Refinery include;

Fuels for use as Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG),

Premium Motor Spirit (PMS),
Automotive Gas Oil (AGO) or Diesel oil,
Kerosene,
Fuel Oil,
Sulphur

And those from the lubricating oils complex are

Base Oils,
Asphalt (Bitumen) and
Waxes.
The lubricating oil complex of Kaduna Refinery is the first of its kind in
West Africa and one of the largest in Africa. The consulting firm, KING
WILKINSON of Hague, Holland, in conjunction with NNPC engineers,
developed the plan for the refinery. The contract for construction was
awarded to CHIYODA CHEMICAL ENGINEERING & CONSTRUCTION
COMPANY OF YOKOHAMA, Japan in 1977.
The Refinery project was completed and the Fuels Plant was
commissioned in 1980. However the Lubes Plant was commissioned in
1983 and Petrochemical Plant much later in 1988. The initial operation
and maintenance was carried out by Nigerian Staff and expatriate
personnel as technical back up. By 1985, Nigerian staff had virtually taken
over all the maintenance and operations.
32 | P a g e

SITE LOCATION
From the results of an extensive market research carried out on the
petroleum products demand pattern throughout the whole country, the
northern zone showed an increasing demand pattern. Through research, it
became apparent that it would cost less to transport the crude oil by
pipeline than it would to transport the refined products to growing
Northern markets by rail or road. This factor contributed greatly to the
decision to construct the third refinery. Kaduna proved to be a central
location for distributing petroleum products to depots in the northern
zone, as the Warri and Port Harcourt refineries proved for the supply of
petroleum products to depots in the southern and middle belt zones.
PLOT PLAN
Kaduna Refinery occupies an area of 2.89 Square Kilometers. The plot plan
is designed with safety and ease of maintenance in mind. The design also
attempts to minimize operating costs. While it is necessary to minimize
pipe length to facilitate quick delivery of products from one process unit to
another, it is nevertheless not advisable to transport highly viscous fluid
over long distances. To achieve this, intermediate tanks are placed close
to the various process units in the plot plan thus using minimum length of
pipe, which, to a large extent reduce cost of piping.
OUR BUSINESS
KRPC LIMITED is in the business of refining crude oil into high quality
petroleum products and the manufacturing of petrochemical and
packaging products to the satisfaction of her customers
The refinery was designed to process both imported paraffinic and
Nigerian crude oils into fuels and lubes products and was constructed by
Chiyoda Chemical Engineering and Construction Company (now Chiyoda
Corporation) of Japan. In December 1986, the design capacity of the fuels
plants of the Refinery was successfully increased from 50,000 BPSD to
60,000 BPSD, bringing the total refinery installed capacity to 110,000
BPSD.
In March 1988, the 30,000 MT/Yr. Linear Alkyl Benzene Plant under the
then PETROCHEMICAL Sector of NNPC was commissioned. The Plant is
designed to derive its entire raw materials including utility supplies from
the Refinery.
In 1988, it was decided that the two plants should merge into a single
subsidiary company of NNPC in view of their interdependence, common
goal and proximity. The company thus formed is the Kaduna Refining and
Petrochemical Company Limited (KRPC).
OPERATIONS DIVISION
33 | P a g e

PROCESS PLANTS & OIL MOVEMENT UNITS

KRPC's operation is highly dependent on adequate supply of water and
power for these utilities. Water is obtained from Kaduna River at the Raw
Water Intake facilities located at about 13 kilometers from KRPC
installations. The water is chemically treated to meet quality specifications
for the various process units and steam generation.
FUELS PROCESS PLANT:
The Fuels Plant of KRPC is designed to process Nigerian crude oils in the
No.1 Crude Atmospheric and Vacuum distillation Units (CDU 1) while the
rest of the Fuels section is designed to process a mixture of light and
medium fractions from the domestic crude as well as from the imported
crude oil used in the Lubes Plant. Products from the Fuels Plant are:
Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG), Premium Motors Spirit (PMS), Dual
Purpose Kerosene (DPK) for household and aviation usage, Gas Oils, Fuel
Oils and Sulphur Flakes.
LUBES PROCESS PLANT:
The Lubes Plant, consist of eight (8) units as shown in the diagram below
has the capacity to process 50,000 BPSD of imported crude oil into Lube
base oils, Asphalt and waxes. Sulphur is also produced from the off gases
derived from the imported crude. The Lubes Plant is designed to process
heavy crude oil from Kuwait, Venezuela (Lagomar), Saudi Arabia (Arabian
Light Crude) or Russian (Urals).
The Arabian Light crude oil is currently being processed, the change over
from the Lagomar crude, processed since plant inception, to Arabian Light
crude was in October, 1988 to solve the bottom of the barrel problem.
THE LINEAR ALKYL BENZENE (LAB) PROCESS PLANT:
The Linear Alkyl Benzene process used in KRPC Petrochemical Plant is
licensed from Universal Oil Products (UOP) of Des Plaines, Illinois, USA.
The plant has a capacity to produce 30,000 metric tons of Linear Alkyl
Benzene a year, enabling Nigeria to substantially reduce import of this
product for the local manufacture of detergents.
The plant comprises of five process units namely:

Kerosene Hydrosulphurisation,
Molex,
Thermal Hydrodealkylation (THDA),
Paraffin Conversion to Olefins (PACOL) and
Detergent Alkylate units.

34 | P a g e

Commissioned in March 1989, the plant was designed to produce 30,000

metric tons/year of Linear Alkyl Benzene from Kerosene and Reformate
feedstock from the Fuels plant.
Hydrodesulphurization (HDS) is a catalytic chemical process widely used to
remove impurities mainly sulphur containing compounds from hydrocarbon
products such as gasoline or petrol, jet fuel, kerosene, diesel fuel, and fuel oils.
Sulphur, Nitrogen and Oxygen are already present in crude oil while unsaturated
components are produced at the refineries. The purpose of removing the
impurities mainly sulphur is to reduce the sulphur dioxide(SO2) emissions that
result from using those fuels in automotive vehicles, aircrafts, rail/road
locomotives, ships, gas or oil burning power plants, residential and industrial
furnaces, and other forms of fuel combustion. An HDS unit in the petroleum
refining industry is also often referred to as a hydrotreater [1]. Hydrotreating or
hydroprocessing refers to a variety of hydrogenation processes which saturate
unsaturated hydrocarbons and remove Sulphur [by hydrodesulphurization
(HDS)],
Nitrogen
[by
hydrodenitrogenation
(HDN)],
Oxygen
[by
hydrodeoxygenation (HDO)] and metals [byhydrodemetallization (HDM)] from
different petroleum product streams in a refinery. The main aim of hydrotreating
is to minimise air pollution emissions, to avoid poisoning of noble metals and
acid catalysts used in catalytic reforming and cracking and to improve the fuel
quality [2]. The Kerosene hydrodesulphurization process is a catalytic
hydrogenation method used to upgrade and desulphurize the kerosene feedstock
with negligible effect on the boiling range of the feed, in the presence of large
amount of hydrogen. The reaction is carried out at high pressure and moderate
temperature [3]. Liquid hydrocarbon fuel such as Kerosene is promising energy
source of fuel cell owing to their high energy density and easy handling. [4] and
[5], although sulphur compounds in commercial Kerosene are more refractory
than those in city gas or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) [4]. The industrial
hydrodesulphurization processes include facilities for the capture and removal of
impurities such as hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas, ammonia (NH3) and steam
(H2O). In petroleum refineries, the hydrogen sulphide gas is then subsequently
converted into byproduct elemental sulphur or sulphuric acid (H2SO4). In fact,
the vast majority of sulphur produced worldwide was byproduct of sulphur from
refineries and other hydrocarbon processing plants [6] and [7]. The Kerosene
hydrodesulphurization unit can be subdivided into three sections namely
reaction, compression and stripping sections respectively. In every section an
operation or a definite number of related operations are carried out [3]. The
impurities such as Sulphur, Nitrogen and Oxygen found in crude oil and its
byproducts cause serious impact on both environment and plant operation and in
turn on the companys economy.

FINISHED PRODUCTS FROM THE REFINING & PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS

PREMIUM MOTOR SPIRIT (PMS)

KEROSINE (AVIATION AND DOMESTIC)

LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)

35 | P a g e

AUTOMOTIVE GAS OIL (AGO-DIESEL)

LOW POUR FUEL OIL (LPFO)

HIGH POUR FUEL OIL (HPFO)

LUBE BASE OILS

HYDRO-FINISHED WAX

ASPHALT

LINEAR ALKYL BENZENE

BENZENE

HEAVY ALKYLATE

KERO SOLVENT

NORMAL PARAFFINS

TOLUENE

AROMATIC SOLVENT

HEAVY PARAFFINS

SULPHUR FLAKES

No

Product

Production Rate

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

PMS
KEROSENE
AGO [DIESEL]
ASPHALT
LAB
BASE OILS
LPG
FUEL

3,857 MT/DAY
1,686 MT/DAY
3,000 MT/DAY
1,796 MT/DAY
91 MT/DAY
657 MT/DAY
620 MT/DAY
2,100 MT/DAY

POWER PLANT & UTILTIES SUPPLY

The objectives of the Power Plant and Utilities Department are Provision
of:
36 | P a g e

(a)

(b)

Electrical Power, steam of various pressures and temperatures,

compressed air, nitrogen for smooth and continuous operation of
the process plants and PPU.
Various grades of water including portable water and

(c)
Treatment of the Refinery and Petrochemical effluents to the
statutory quality specifications.

The Plant has five (5) steam generating sets or boilers. Each boiler has a
design capacity of 120 tons/hr. of steam. The installed capacity is 600
tons/hr. Design Pressure/Temperature is 46kg/cm at 412oC. There are four
(4) 14MW/hr. Steam Turbines with total capacity of 56mw/hr.

RAW WATER INTAKE FACILITIES

Raw Water Intake facilities are located beside Kaduna River, about 13
kilometers from the KRPC complex. The river water is pre-treated at the
Intake before being pumped through a 13km water pipeline into two large
storage tanks on site. Each of the raw water tanks has a storage capacity
of 75,000 cubic meters. The stored water can meet the demands of the
refinery and petrochemical complex for a period of 10days.

INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS FROM

PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY
In the process of converting crude oil into petroleum products (liquefied
petroleum gas, naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil, and residual oil), and
petrochemical products (polypropylene, polyethylene), wastes of different
kinds are generated. In each of carbon black production, wastes are
generated which have impact on the environment and human health.
These wastes can be broadly categorized into oily materials. These wastes
are released to the environment in the form of gases, particles and liquid
effluent (liquid consisting of surface runoff water, sanitary waste water,
solid waste and sludge. These effluents form petrochemical industries can
be discussed under the following headings:
AIR POLLUTION

37 | P a g e

There are several air pollutants from carbon black production. Their
sources are from:

Oil storage tank vent gas- Methane

Vent gas from reactor oil furnace process- CO2
Fugitive emission from all processes- hidden emissions
Pneumatic system vent gas and particulate matter- SO2
Flue gas from flow which may contain NO2- oxides of nitrogen
Carbon black process- CO

Thus, the gases released from the petrochemical industry include CO,
CO2, SO2, NO2, NO and have various impacts on the environment at
large. Some of these cases have destroyed the fragile, protective ozone
layer in the atmosphere which protects the earth from harmful effects of
ultra-violet rays from the sun. This thinning of the ozone is becoming a
danger to human health.
WATER POLLUTION
Generally, sources of water pollution are:

High temperature water from cooling tower and equipment cooler

unit
Blow down water from back wash boiler
Back wash water which contains high concentration of minerals
Ground washing waste water
Domestic waste water

Petrochemical effluents pose serious problem to both the aquatic and

human life. Drinking contaminated water can cause various diseases such
as typhoid and fever, dysentery, cholera, and other intestinal diseases.
Availability of safe and reliable source of water is an essential perquisite
for sustainable development.
SOLID WASTE
The solid wastes from the petrochemical industry are scrap plastics, and
rubbers which are non-biodegradable and some liquid effluent which have
coagulated to form solid substances e.g. bitumen, asphalt, etc. These nonbiodegradable substances pose hazards to the environment and to human
health. Solid waste from carbon black processes are classified into two
categories namely: General and Hazardous waste.

General waste- from offices and canteens

Hazardous waste (carbon black) - from waste water treatment plant.

38 | P a g e

NOISE POLLUTION
Unpleasant noise pollution arises from the petrochemical industry which
employs large machinery to effect transformation into finished products.
These can be very harmful as they can cause an increase in the flow of
adrenaline and also forces the heart to function at a faster pace. Examples
of noise pollution from carbon black processing includes Pneumatic
conveyor, Blower, Mixer, and Dryer. All these can be life threatening as
these factors can lead to heart attacks and strokes.
Due to the adverse effect of pollution on our environment and
human life, control measures have been put in place to reduce or
minimize its effect. These control measures include:
I.
II.
III.
IV.

Government policies.
Sensitization and orientation of people about the effect of pollution
on our environment and human life.
Recycling and treatment of industrial waste.
Burning of industrial waste in an incinerator.

Types of Waste Generated by the Industry

While almost all the industrial activities cause pollution and producing
wastes. On the basis of this industry (Kaduna refining and petrochemical
company), a table is made to show the types of waste generated by the
industry.
The type of wastes product, produce in Kaduna refining and petrochemical company are mainly solid waste, is formed as a result of
treatment of liquid effluent, treatment of aid emission. While liquid waste
is a material from liquid effluent which can be regarded as pollutant. It
usually formed as a result of physical and chemical impurities through the
process of refining crude oil. The liquid waste in the study area includes
kerosene, diesel, fuel etc. Finally, the gas which is more than the other
types of pollutants is formed as a result of industrial production and fuel
39 | P a g e

combustion which produces smoke in the study area for example carbonmonoxide, carbon dioxide, chlorofluoro-carbon and hydrocarbon etc. It
should be noted that all the above wastes produced by the industry are
very disastrous and hazardous which affect human health, water bodies
and the state of environment at large (Rowland and Cooper 1983).

Types of Waste Generated

The following are Types of Waste and the Nature of Waste Source.
(i)

(ii)

(iii)

S/N
1

Solid Waste
Nature of solid waste: Oily, sludge, mud with oil Gasoline
storage tank, purification etc.
Liquid waste
Nature of liquid waste: Kerosene, motor oil, diesel fuel etc.
Refining, storage and transportation.
Gaseous waste
Nature of gaseous waste: Carbon-dioxide motor burn,
carbon monoxide, chlorofluorocarbon, hydrocarbon, etc.
Industrial production, fuel combustion, liquefied natural
gas, gases etc.

PRODUCT
Polyproylene
( PP)B(Warri)
(35,000MTPY)

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END USE APPLICATION

1.woven sacks for packaging.
2.Crates for bottles.
3. Ropes, yams, textile and fishing nets.
4. Automotive componets (battery casing,
holes etc.
5. Floor carpets and tiles.
6. Chair back covers.
7. Htpodermic syringes.
8. Jerry cans, caps, plates.
9. Food and drug packaging containers.
10. prayer/beach mats.
11. geotextiles (used for road stabilization

and erosion control.)

Carbon (CB) (Warri)

(18,000 MTPY)

Linear Alkyl
benzene (Kaduna)
(30,000 MTPY)
Heavy Alkylates
(Kaduna) (2700
MTPY)
Deparaffinated
Kerosene (kaduna) (
3800MTPY)

Benzene (Kaduna)
(15,000 MTPY)

1.Types and tubes.

2. Hoses.
3. Fans and conveyor belt.
4. Shoe polish.
5. Printing ink.
1.Active material for biodegradable
detergents.
2. Liquid detergents.
1.Lube oil additives
2. Transformer Oil
1.Insecticides
2. Degreaser
3. Metal cleaner
4. Paint and varnishes.
1.LAB manufacture
2. Aviation Gasoline

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF
PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY IN NIGERIA
Petrochemical industries in Nigeria have a significant impact on the
economy as industries that produce petrochemicals for industrial and
consumer needs have contributed to the growth of the Nigerian Economy.
Therefore the trade in petrochemicals has gone a long way in contributing
towards the development of Nigeria and its economy. These advantages
can be grouped into TWO, which are:
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 Contributions to Nigerians, we have,

(a) Employment Opportunities
(b)Local Expenditure On Goods and services
(c) Household revenues/ income
Contributions to National Economy, we have,
(a) Contributions to Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
(b)Contributions to Government Revenues

1. EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
The discovery of crude oil in Nigeria at Olobiri in 1859 has led to the
explosion of the petrochemical industry in Nigeria. Since then, there has
been a significant increase in petroleum-based products which have
contributed positively to the Nigerian economy.
The need for the treatment and conversion of refinery products for the
creation of petrochemicals has led to an increase in employment
opportunities nationwide for about 10% of the pollution. This has led to an
increase in job opportunities for young job seekers looking for gainful
employment, thus leading to an increase of savings towards investment
and per capital income for their employees. This has led to an overall
increase in the standard of living.
One of the first contributions of the petrochemical industry to the Nigerian
economy was the creation of employment opportunities. From the start,
Nigerians were employed in a variety of non-basic activities such as the
building of roads and bridges, the clearing of drilling sites, transportation
of materials and equipment, and the building of staff housing and
recreational facilities. As time went on and as the industrys training
program, regressed, they began to be employed in different units of the
petrochemical industry, and in supervisory and managerial function.
However, direct petrochemical industry, employment in Nigeria is not
likely to expand significantly in the future because the industry is very
highly capital intensive as is illustrated by the high capital labour ratio in
the industries compared with other industries.
The very high capital-labour ratio in the petrochemical industry means
that growth in oil operations is generally reflected not in the relative
expansion of employment, but in the expansion of capital investment. This
will be particularly the case when, with the passage of time and increased
extraction, the need arises for increased investment in costly techniques
of secondary recovery.

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2. CONTRIBUTION TO GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCTS

At the time of independence in 1960, Nigeria received a large proportion
of their revenue from the agricultural sector but this has since reduced
since the discovery of oil. It accounted for 64% of the GDP share during
the time of independence but has dropped to paltry 6.4% lately. The
petrochemical industry has since boosted the GDP of the country,
accounting for 38.9% of the GDP of the country to date and as such, is
seen as a vital part of the Nigerian Economy. Its importance cannot be
overemphasized.
In general, the petrochemical product in Nigeria has increased the
National income of the country through increase in Gross Domestic
Product and as such has increased the standard of living of the populace
in Nigeria.

3. LOCAL EXPENDITURE ON GOODS AND SERVICES

The petrochemical industrys injection of purchasing power through its
local expenditure on goods and services is another important
contributions to the Nigerian economy. Petrochemical industry
expenditure in Nigeria takes the form of payments of wages and salaries,
payments of local contractors, local purchases of goods and services,
vehicle licenses, telephone and poster charges, local rents, educational
grants and scholarship awards, donations and subventions, and other
minor social charges. Apart from the direct stimulation given to the
producers of the goods and services such injections also exert secondary
influences, through the multiplier process, on the level of output and
employment in other related sectors of the economy, the magnitude of
the overall effect depending on the initial injection and the extent of
leakages out of the local economic system that may exist.

4. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GOVERNMENT REVENUE

With the sales of petrochemical products over the years, the Nigeria
government has increased its revenue which in turn has assisted the
Nigerian government in the areas of payments of wages and salaries,
provision of basic amenities and poverty alleviation.
The above brief review shows that the petrochemical industry is making a
variety of revenues, employment opportunity and increase in consumption
of local content.
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But when we move iron life immediately apparent to the long lasting
impact from the largely monetary contribution to the real economic
impact-a completely different picture emerges which show that,
notwithstanding the massive increase in the revenue realized from the
industry has yet to make a significant impact on economic development in
Nigeria.

5. HOUSEHOLD REVENUE/INCOME
As stated above, petrochemical industries create employment
opportunities for the workforce of the Nigerian Economy. Workers in this
industry have a stable source of income for their respective households,
thus leading to a gain in revenue in households. Business men and
Women who also deal with the industry in the form of packaging, sales,
branding and commercialization earn a living through this sector as well.
The establishment of the Petrochemical industry has led to an overall
increase in the per-capital income of the people and have opened up the
possibilities for increased savings and investment opportunities.

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CHALLENGES FACING PETROCHEMICAL

INDUSTRY IN NIGERIA
For any country, having a large indigenous petrochemical producing
industry, maximum utilization of the resources, tends to lead to raised
prosperity, improved average standard of living for the population and the
introduction of associated modern- technology locally. However, such
benefits in Nigeria have not been forthcoming to significant extents.
Nigeria has the potential of becoming a major petrochemical producer in
Africa, but this dream is constantly held back by a number of problems
and challenges which include:
I.

II.

III.

IV.

MAINTENANCE CHALLENGES
This problem is discussed under the following headings:
a. Lack of Regular Equipment Checking: Organizations need to
regularly check equipment to ensure that they are functioning
effectively. The absence of regular checking could lead to the
breakdown or malfunctioning of the equipment. This becomes
a big problem which consequently affects the organizations
ability to continue production.
b. Lack of turn-around Maintenance: It is expected that at regular
intervals, equipment should be maintained through servicing
and replacement of work-out parts. The absence of this leads
to equipment breakdown which eventually affects the
equipments capacity to perform.
c. Inadequate Maintenance Budget: Organizations should have
an adequate budget to maintain equipment but many dont
attach much importance to it. As a result, funds available
becomes insufficient. This therefore becomes a problem to
operation capacity.
d. Long neglect of infrastructure due to frequent unplanned shut
down.
e. Poor maintenance culture and Mismanagement of Assets.
NON-DOMESTICATION OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL EQUIPMENT
USED FOR PLANT DESIGN
Most of the equipment used for the refinery are imported.
Hence these equipment are very expensive and are not
readily available. This tends to affect production and increases
cost of maintenance and products per unit output.
INADEQUATE INFRASTRUCTUAL FACILITIES
Infrastructural facilities such as good roads tend to affect the
amount of products such as petrol cannot reach consumers
thus hindering the progress of the industry.
Corruption.

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V.
VI.
VII.

Non-domestication of the technology used for the plant design.

Non-Optimization of petrochemical plants.
Government monopoly of the Industry.

PROPOSED SOLUTIONS TO
PROBLEMS FACING PETROCHEMICAL
INDUSTRY
The solutions to the prevailing Challenges of the
petrochemical industry in Nigeria are itemized below.
Possible solutions to maintenance problems include the following:
I.
Standby or backup equipment that can be quickly be harnessed
for service.
II.
Inventories of spare parts that can be installed as needed
thereby avoiding breakdown of process when such equipment
starts malfunctioning.
III.
Operators who are able to perform at least minor repairs on their
equipment.
IV.
Service people who are well trained and readily available to
diagnose and correct problems with equipment.
V.
Technological equipment used for plants should be manufactured
and coupled here in Nigeria. This will reduce the overall cost of
production and cost of products per unit.
VI.
Good road network should be made available to aid the
transportation of petrochemical products as well as establishing
new methods of transporting these goods cost efficiently such as
trains.
Others include:
a. Strict penalties should be meted to Managers, Directors and
anyone if he/she is found to have corruptly mismanaged funds.
b. The Government should deregulate the sector in-order to
investigate competition while they monitor the prices so that
more layers will be attracted to this strategic business and a
general level playing field will be created for the industry.
c. Indigenization of technology should be emphasized as technology
transfer is enhanced by Government Policy.
d. The Federal Government should be serious about indigenous
production of petrochemicals.
e. The Petrochemical plants should be diversified in its output
produced.

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STRATEGY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF

THE PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY IN
NIGERIA.
Many factors have been identified as being critical in the establishment
and operation of petrochemical industry.
The factors include:
i
ii

Availability of feed stocks such as crude oil and natural gas.

Crude oil refining capacity for the production of petrochemical

iii

feedstock and intermediates.

Well-developed manufacturing sector to serve as market for

iv
v
vi

petrochemical products.
Market for manufactured goods from petrochemical products.
Availability of appropriate processing technology.
Financing of capital-intensive projects.

A quick SWOT analysis of some petrochemical projects will show that

there are good prospects in the establishment of petrochemical projects in
Nigeria.
SWOT (Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, Threats)
Strengths:

Availability of feed stocks such as crude oil and natural gas.

Existing Refining capacity.
Sizeable market for finished products.

Weakness:

Rather weak manufacturing sector.

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Low level of infrastructure (especially in power supply).

Low level of available appropriate technology.

Opportunities:

Diversification of the Nigerian economy.

Opportunity to save foreign exchange.
Opportunity to acquire modern technology and know-how.
Job opportunities as on the average, there are 7 additional jobs
outside due to downstream activities.

Threats:

Financing of capital intensive projects.

National security issues.

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RECOMMENDATIONS
The areas of Weakness and Threats should be addressed seriously.
1 The issue of weak manufacturing sector is tied partially to the low
level of available infrastructure especially in the transportation of
finished products.
2 Low level of appropriate technology calls for a national strategic
approach to technology acquisition.
3 Issues concerning national security will discourage foreign
investments and joint ventures opportunities.
4 Financing of capital intensive projects could be undertaken by
getting members of industry sectorial groups to mobilize funds for
projects relating to production of petrochemical products used by
the group.
For example, members of Agricultural and Agro-processing Group
can mobilize funds for the kick-off of the establishment of Ammonia
plant.
This is an idea that the Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (MAN)
can develop for implementation.
The same goes for the paints, packaging, pharmaceuticals, textile,
minerals etc. Groups companies that are currently involved in the
importation of fuel products should be encouraged to mobilize funds
for the rehabilitation of the existing refineries.

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CONCLUSION
The relevance of the petrochemical industry in Nigeria cannot be
overemphasized. Since the advent of the industry in Nigeria, we have had
a significant amount of growth and development in across several sectors.
At the same time, it has had a great positive impact on the lives of
Nigerians who have become workers in this great industry.
The sector has been plagued with several problems stemming from a lack
of commitment from the Government to fully harness the power of the
sector to nation building. Several solutions have been proposed to curb
the problems of the sector however, until the government shows a
renewed commitment to the sector, it will continue to languish in
mediocrity, leaving the Nigerian Economy without a vital industry that
could improve the Economy of the nation.

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