Cell Division
Cell Division
Cell Division
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states or periods, a long nondividing growth I-phase and a short dividing Mphase. Both have substages. I-phase represents interphase.
The regular sequence of G1, S, G2 ( interphase) and M phase ( mitotic phase) is
called the cell cycle.
Interphase is called resting stage, but it is in fact a period of great activity.
Three important process, which are preparatory to cell division, take place
during interphase. Thus it is also known as preparatory phase. These
processes are
- Replication of DNA along with the synthesis of nuclear proteins such as the
histones
- In animal cells, duplication of centriole takes place by the outgrowth of
daughter centrioles from the parent centrioles, which are at right angle to
each other.
- Synthesis of embryo rich compounds, which provide energy for mitosis,
and synthesis of proteins at the end of interphase
Interphase ( L.inter-in between, Gk-phase-stage) is intermitotic stage of cell
division in which a series of changes occur in newly formed cell and nucleus
undergoes certain changes to be fit for division. Non dividing state of mature
cell or nucleus is called interphase. It is also called energy phase.
Interphase of dividing cell has been classified into three subphases - G1Phase, S-phase and G2-phase
G1-phase
G1 phase is also known as first growth phase or post mitotic gap phase. It is
the longest phase of cell division. In this phase different types of RNA (mRNA,
tRNA, rRNA) and proteins are synthesized.
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AMITOSIS
Amitosis ( greek, a-without, mitos thread, osis-state). It is a method of direct
cell division in which the nucleus constricts into two daughter without
showing differentiation of chromosomes and development of spindle. Nuclear
division is followed by cytokinesis ( division of cytoplasm)
Amitosis was first described by Robert Remak (1855 ) in red blood corpuscles
of chick embryo. The term was coined by Flemming ( 1882 )
Occurrence
It occurs through cleavage or constriction example cartilage cell degenerate
cells meganucleus of Paramecium, cells of foetal membranes of vertebrates
Moneran cell division is sometimes included under amitosis due to absence of
spindle.
Drawbacks
As Amitosis does not distribute chromatin equitably, it results in structural
and functional abnormalities in the cell.
MITOSIS
Mitosis is a type of cell division in which chromosomes of parent cells are
duplicated ( by replication of DNA) and equally distributed ( quantitatively and
qualitatively) into two daughter nuclei. Term mitosis is derived from Greek
word Mitos means thread or fibril
Mitosis was first observed by Strassburger in plant cells (1870) and Boveri and
Flemming in animal cell ( 1879 ). The term was coined by Flemming in 1882. It
is also known as equational division due to equal distribution of chromosomes
in daughter nuclei. It is often known as somatic cell division due to occurrence
in somatic cells. It is about 1-5% of the total duration of cell cycle. On the basis
of different types of cells and the species, mitosis takes 30 minutes to 3 hours
for completion.
In plants all meristematic regions are the sites of mitosis e.g. root ape, shoot
apex, intercalary meristem, lateral meristem, leave, flowers, fruits, embryo,
seeds etc.
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In animals embryo, skin, bone marrow etc are the sites of mitosis
Mitosis is completed in two steps karyokinesis and cytokinesis.
Karyokinesis
Mitosis starts with the nuclear division of parent cell known as karyokinesis (
Gk, karyon -nucleus, kinesis movement) . The four phases of karyokinesis
are prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
Prophase
Prophase ( Gk Pro-first, phase stage ) is often divided into three substages early
prophase, mid prophase and late prophase. It is the first stage of mitosis proper. It is
the longest phase of Karyokinesis
Early prophase
In this sub-stage nucleus and cell become spheroid and nucleus appears as
boll of wool. Chromatin fibre condense to form elongated chromosome and
this increases viscosity and refractivity of cytoplasm
In animal cells duplicated centrioles. ( S phase of interphase) start to move
towards opposite poles of the cell. Each centriole radiates out fine
microtubular fibrils called astral rays. In animal cells and cells of lower plants,
fibrils appears like spokes of a wheel around each centriole to form an aster.
Mid prophase
In mid prophase chromosomes shift towards the periphery and leave a clear
central area. It becomes shorter and thicker. Each chromosome consists of
two longitudinal threads called chromatids. Both chromatids are attached to
each other by centromere and are known as sister chromatids
Late prophase
In this substage spindle fibres start appearing around the nucleus. The size of
chromosomes is much reduced as compared to early prophase . Spindle poles
are formed without asters in plant cells and with asters in animal cells.
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Nucleolus and other cell organelles ( like mitochondria, Golgi complex, ER,
vacuoles etc) disappear. The presence of the spindle is essential for mitosis. If
cells are treated with colchicines, which inhibits spindle formation, anaphasic
movement of the two groups of chromosomes to the poles does not take
place.
Prometaphase
Prometaphase ( Gk Pro- before, meta-second, phase stage) is intermediate
stage of prophase and metaphase and hence acts as connecting link between
them. Nuclear membrane completely degenerate in this stage. So mixing of
cytoplasm with nucleoplasm occurs. It is known as extranuclear mitosis or
eumitosis.
In many protozoan, fungi and some animal cells, nuclear membrane does not
degenerate throughout cell division known as intranuclear or premitosis.
A spindle fibres consists of 4-20 microtubules formed of protein tubulin.
Spindle fibre converge at two end or pole. It has the maximum diameter in the
middle known as equator.
Metaphase
In metaphase ( Gk meta-after or second phase stage) discontinuous fibres
radiate out from two poles and get connected to the disc shaped structure at
the surface of the cenromere called kinetochores. A kinetochore is complex
protein structure that is analogus to ring for the microtubule hook; it is the
point where microtubules attach themselves to the chromosome.
Chromosomes or kinetochore fibres contract and bring chromosome over
equator this phenomenon is called congression.
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Smaller chromosomes directed towards the centre while larger ones are
peripheral in position on equator. The centromeres of all the chromosomes lie
on the equator forming an apparent plate called metaphasic or equatorial
plate while arms are directed towards the poles
The kinetochores have two functions. The main function apparently is that
they serve for the attachment of microtubules of the chromosomal spindle
fibres. They might also be involved in the formation of the chromosomal
spindle fibres during prometaphase and metaphase by serving as centres for
polymerization of the protein of microtubules.
Metaphase is the best phase to count total number of chromosomes in any
species and details study of morphology of chromosomes. Idiogram
(arrangement of chromosomes in a series of decreasing length) can be drawn
in this stage.
Anaphase
In anaphase ( Gk ana up, phase stage) chromosomes are arranged on the
equatorial plate for a short period. The centromeres of chromosomes starts to
divide into two, forming daughter chromosomes with centromere in each.
Daughter chromosomes are repulsive so, migrate towards opposite poles.
Spindle fibres attached to the centromeres shorten and pull the chromosomes
to the poles. The velocity of anaphasic movement does not depend on the size
of the chromosomes. In anaphasic movement of chromosomes, the
centromeres lead the path while the limbs trails behind. So anaphasic
chromes, the centromeres lead the path while the limbs trail behind. So
anaphasic chromosomes appear as V-, L-, J- and I- shaped
Type of chromosome
Shape
Centromere position
Metacentric
V
Median
Submetacentric
L
Subnedian
Acrocentric
J
Sub-terminal
Telocentric
I
Terminal
At the end of anaphase two groups of chromosomes are formed, one at each
pole. The number and types of chromosomes at each pole is the same as in
the parent nucleus.
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Telophase
During telophase ( Gk. Telos-end, phase stage) of mitosis viscosity of
cytoplasm decrease. A new nuclear membrane is formed ( either from older
nuclear envelop or ER) around each set of chromosomes. Chromosomes
overlap one another forming chromatin. The nuclear organizer region of
satellite chromosomes produce nucleolus for each daughter nucleus.
Nucleoplasm surrounds in the area of chromatin. The gel state of spindle is
converted into sol state and disappears.
In this way two daughter nuclei are formed at the poles of spindle. Hence this
phase is just reverse of prophase. Golgi complex and endoplasmic reticulum
are reformed. Cytokinesis starts either by cleavage or constriction.
Cytokinesis
Mitosis ends with division of cytoplasm known as cytokinesis. It is derived
from greek word cytos means hollow or cell, kinesis: means movement. It
starts towards the middle of anaphase and is completed with the telophase. It
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Meiosis is a type of cell division that is vital for sexual reproduction. Meiosis
takes place in the reproductive organs. It results in the formation of gametes
with half the normal chromosomes number. Therefore, haploid sperms are
made in the testis and haploid eggs are made in the ovaries. In flowering
plants, haploid gametes are made in the anthers and ovules.
Meiosis involves two divisions of the cell. These two division are termed
meiosis I nad meiosis II. Each one includes prophase, metaphase, anaphase
and telophase.
Meiosis I consists of separating the pairs of homologous chromosomes, each
made up of two sister chromatids, into two cells. One entire haploid content
of chromosomes is contained in each of the resulting daughter cells; the first
meiotic division therefore reduces the ploidy of the original cell by a factor of
2.
Meiosis I
In meiosis I, the homologous pairs in a diploid cell separate, producing two
haploid cells, so it is also referred to as a reduction division. Like mitosis, it is
studied under for stages prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Prophase I
Prophase I is more complicated and prolonged as compared to the siliar stage
of mitosis. For the sake of convenience, prophase I is divided into five subphases: Leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotenme and diakinesis. Another
sub-phase called preleptoneme is sometimes recognized prior to leptonema.
In this phase chromosomes are not distinguishable because of their thinness
but sex chromosomes (if present) are often seen as heterochromatic (
heteropyknotic) bodies.
Leptotene
Leptotene also known as leptonema is a first stage of prophase I during which
individual chromosomes begin to condense into long strands within the
nucleus which are loosly interwoven. However the two sister chromatids are
still so tightly bound that they are indistinguishable from one another.
Leptotene chromosomes may be irregularly arranged or may be polarized
towards the centrioles forming a bouquet. Electron microscope studies have
shown that bouquet formation results when a group of chromosomes is
attached close together on the nuclear membrane . In plant cells the
chromosomes may sometimes form a tangle of threads, called the synizetic
knot, on one side of nucleus.
There are two sets of chromosomes in a diploid cell undergoing meiosis, one
set contributed by the male parent and other by the female parent. These are
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always two similar chromosomes, having the same size, form and structure.
They are called homologous chromosomes. One of them is paternal
chromosome and the other maternal chromosome.
Zygotene
During zygotene or zygonema the chromosomes become shorter anad thicker.
The homologous chromosomes come to lie side by side in pairs . ( G. zygon =
yolk; tene = thread). This pairing of homologus chromosomes is known as
synapsis or syndesis. A pair of homologous chromosomes lying together is
called a bivalent. The chromatids are still not visible. A fibrillar, somewhat
ladder-like , organelle, called synaptonemal complex, develops between the
synapsed homologous chromosomes. It is thought to stabilize the paired
condition of chromosomes till crossing over is completed.
Pairing of two homologous chromosomes begins when their corresponding
ends come together on the nuclear matrix. Pairing may occur in one of the
following three ways(i)
Proterminal pairing : It starts at the ends and proceeds towards the
middle
(ii)
Procentric pairing: it begins at the centromeres and progresses towards
the ends.
(iii) Random ( intermediate) pairing: It commences at many point towards
the ends.
The synaptonemal complex is attached at both ends through its lateral
element to the inner surface of the nuclear membrane. The central elements
is not attached directly . Also arising from the lateral elemnent is another
series of smaller loops. These loops fuse in the middle line to make up the
central element.
Pachytene
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Diplotene
During diplotene or diplonema the synaptic forces keeping the homologous
chromosomes together come to an end. The homologous chromosomes start
separating ( G. diplos = double; tene = thread). This is called disjunction. It
makes chromatids more distinct and the tetrads very clear. Separation of
homologous chromosomes does not take place at the points called chiasmata
(singular, chiasma). The chiasmata make the sites where crossing over
occurred during pachytene ( Gr . chiasma = crosspiece). They help in holding
homologous chromosomes together.
The number and position of chiasmata varies with the length of the
chromosomes and with the species. Chiasmata are found in the meiosis of
almost all eukaryotic organism. However, achiasmatic meiosis ( meiosis
without chiasma) has been reported in some organisms, e.g. males of higher
dipteral ( includeing Drosophila), Panorpa ( scorpion fly), many mantids and
roaches, some grasshoppers and scorpions. A chiasma formed at the ends of
chromosomes is called termical chiasma. Chiasmata formed along the lengths
of chromosomes are called interstitial chiasmata.
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During diplotene the chiasmata begins to be displaced along the length of the
chromosome. The terminal chiasma slips off the ends of the chromosomes,
and its position is taken up by an interstitial chiasma, which is now called the
terminal chiasma. This process is called terminalization. As diplotene
progresses the number of interstitial chiasmata becomes lesser in number.
The terminalization may be due to electrostatic force or despiralization of
chromosomes.
When terminalization is completed the homologous remain in contact
through the terminal chiasma. The degree of terminalization is expressed by
the terminalization coefficient (T).
The synaptonemal complexes mostly disappear during diplotene. In certain
regions short segments may persist. The most common regions where the
complexes persists are, near the ends of the bivalents where the lateral
elements are attached to the nuclear membrane, and at the sites of chiasmata
formation. With the disappearance of the synaptonemal complexes the axial
filaments become unpaired.
In diplotene, the chromosomes may unfold to nearly normal form and start
transcription of mRNA and rRNA to build up food reverves in the cytoplasm.
This process is most profound in the primary ooctytes of amphibians, reptiles
and brids. In some species, the chromosomes enlarge greatly, assuming
lampbrush form.
Diakinesis
Diakinesis is not sharply differentiated from diplotene. The chromosomes
become more conctracted. The bivalents are more evenly distributed in the
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nucleus and migrate towards the periphery. RNA synthesis stops. Nucleolus
degenerates. A spindle begins to develop, with or without centrioles.
Prometaphase I
The nuclear membrane disappears in prometaphase I and the chromosomes
reach their maximum contraction. Spindle formation begins
Metaphase I
The chromosomes now become arranged on a equator of the cell, The spindle
is formed. Spindle fibres becomes attached to the centromeres of the two
homologous chromosomes. The two centromeres of each bivalent lie on
opposite side of the equatorial plate.
The attachment of tetrads to the spindle fibres in metaphase I is different
from that of mitotic metaphase chromosomes. Each homologous
chromosome has two kinetochore, one for each of its two chromatids. Both
the kinetochores of a homologous chromosome connect to the same spindle
pole. The two kinetochores of its homologous join the opposite spindle pole.
In metaphase I of meiosis there are bivalents, each bivalent consisting of two
centromeres.
Anaphase I
During anaphase I, from each tetrad two chromatids of a chromosome move
as a unit ( dyad) to one pole of a spindle, and the remaining two chromatids of
its homologue migrate to the opposite pole.
Thus, the homologous chromosomes of each pair, rather than the chromatids
of a chromosome, are separated. As a result, half of the chromosomes, which
appear in early prophase, go to each pole. It is here in the anaphase I that the
real reduction in the poles is still double and consists of two chromatids. This
is in contrast to the single-stranded chromosomes of mitotic anaphase
The paternal and maternal chromosomes of each homologous pair segregate
during anaphase I independently of the other chromosomes. Anaphase I is
cytological event that corresponds to Mendels law of independent
assortment. Although the paternal and maternal chromosomes of a
homologous pair have the genes for the same traits, either chromosome of a
pair may carry different alleles of same genes. Therefore, independent
assortment of homologous chromosomes in anaphase I introduces genetic
variability.
Telophase I
During telophase I the chromosomes at each pole of the spindle uncoil and
elongate, but remain straight and often do not assume interphase form. The
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Meiosis II
The second meiotic division is essentially similar to mitosis. In this division, the
two chromatids of each chromosome separate from each other and go to
separate daughter cells. With the result, the number of chromosomes remains
the same as produced by meiosis I, Meiosis II is, therefore, known as
homotypic division. If however, differs from mitosis in that DNA does not
duplicate, while centromere do so. It has 4 phases Prophase II, metaphase II,
anaphase II, and telophase II.
Prophase II
Prophase II takes an inversely proportional time compared to telophase I. In
this process we see the disappearance of nucleoli and the nuclear envelop
again as well as the shortening and thickening of chromatids. Centrioles move
to the polar region and are arranged by spindle fibres.
Metaphase II
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Anaphase II
Anaphase II, where the centromeres are cleaved, allows the kinetochores to
pull the sister chromatids apart. The sister chromatids by convention are now
called sister chromosomes, and they are pulled towards opposite poles
Telophase II
In telophase II the group of chromosomes at each pole of the spindle gets
enclosed by a nuclear envelope. Nucleoli are laid sown, Astral rays and
spindles are lost
Cytokinesis
Cytoplasm divides at its middle by furrowing in an animal cell and by cell plate
formation in a plant cell. This produces two daughter cells. The latter have half
the number of chromosomes and half the amount of nuclear DNA. These cells
are mature gametes in animals and spores in plants.
Cytokinesis may occur after each nuclear division. In such cases, it is said to be
of successive type. First the diploid parent cell divides by heterotypic division
into two haploid cells, which then produce four haploid cells by homotypic
division. The four daughter cells may form a linear or isobilateral tetrad. Often
cytokinesis is delayed until both the nuclear divisions are completed, so that
four cells are simultaneously formed, each with a haploid nucleus. The
cytoplasmic division in such cases is said to be of simultaneous type
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Significance of meiosis
Formation of gametes Meiosis forms gametes that are essential for sexual
reproduction .
Genetic information It switches on the genetic information for the
development of gametes or gametophytes and switches off the sporophytic
information
Meiosis facilitates stable sexual reproduction Without the halving of ploidy,
or chromosome count, fertilization would result in zygotes that have twice the
number of chromosomes than the zygotes from the previous generation.
Successive generations would have an exponential increase in chromosome
count, resulting in an unwildy genome that would cripple the reproductive
fitness of the species. Most importantly, however, meiosis produces genetic
variety in gametes that propagates to offspring. Recombination and
independent assortment allows for a greater diversity of genotype in the
population. As a system of creating diversity, meiosis allows a species to
maintain stability under environment changes.
Crossing over- It introduces new combination of traits or variations.
Mutations Chromosomal and genomatic nutations can take place by
irregularities of meiotic divisions. Some of these mutations are useful to the
organism and are perpetuated by natural selection.
Evidence of basic relationship of organisms Details of meiosis are essentially
similar in the majority of organisms showing their basic similarity and
relationship.
ABNORMAL CELL GROWTH
Cell division is a gene controlled process. The telomere of chromosomes
contains repetitive sequence of six nucleotide. These regions code for an
enzyme telomerase which control cell division. As cells go on dividing with
each division the number of nucleotide decreases and ultimately cells stop
dividing.
Uncontrolled cell division may lead to the formation of undifferentiated
aggregate of cells termed tumor or neoplasm.
Uncontrolled cell division leads to hyperplasis, hypertrophy, metaplasis,
neoplasia, and He La cell.
The increased production and growth of normal cells in a tissue or organ is
termed hyperplasia. It is an accelerated rate of cell division resulting from an
increased level of cell metabolism. This generally results in an enlargement of
tissue mass and organ size. It occurs only in tissues capable of mitosis such as
the epithelium of skin, intestine and glands. Some cells do not divide and thus
can not undergo hyperplasia, for example nerve and muscle cells.
An increase in the size of a tissue or organ brought about by the enlargement
of its cells is termed hypertrophy. When cells hypertrophy, components of the
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