MODERN DIAMOND CUTTING

AND POLISHING
By Akiva Caspi

This article examines the sophisticated

techniques and equipment currently used
to fashion a polished gem from a rough
diamond. The basic manufacturing techniquessawing, bruting, blocking, and
polishingare described with regard to
the decisions that must be made to obtain
the greatest value from a specific piece of
rough. Over the last 25 years, the diamond-cutting industry worldwide has
been revolutionized by sophisticated
instruments for marking, laser sawing
machines, laser kerfing machines, automatic bruting machines and laser bruting
systems, automatic centering systems,
and automatic polishing machines.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mr. Caspi, an electronics engineer, is general
manager of Advanced Diamond Technology Ltd.,
Holon, Israel (fax: 972-3-5595139; e-mail:
[email protected]). As a member of the Israel
Diamond Institute in Ramat-Gan from 1987 to
1997, he was closely involved in adapting modern
technological manufacturing procedures and
equipment to the process of cutting gem diamonds.
Acknowledgments: The author thanks Dr. James
E. Shigley of GIA Research for his dedication and
assistance in the preparation of this article.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 102121
1997 Gemological Institute of America

102

Modern Diamond Cutting

o many, a rough diamond looks like any transparent crystal or even a piece of broken glass. When
cut as a faceted gemstone, however, it becomes a
sparkling, shimmering object that is unique in appearance.
Yet most of the people who are involved with gem diamondsjewelers, gemologists, and the jewelry-buying publicare unfamiliar with many of the details involved in that
transformation (figure 1).
The manufacturing of gem-quality diamonds has
advanced more since 1980 than in the preceding 100 years.
During the past two decades, a quiet revolution has taken
place in much of the diamond-manufacturing industry. By
adapting computer-imaging techniques, precision measurement systems, lasers, and other modern technological
equipment, many manufacturers have improved their ability to cut gem diamonds in ways unimaginable only a few
short years before. A significant result of this revolution is a
diamond industry that is now better able to operate profitably. In addition, modern manufacturers can handle rough
diamonds that would have been difficult, if not impossible,
to cut by traditional manufacturing techniques.
This article has two purposes. The first is to describe
this technological revolution by discussing the key steps in
the manufacturing process and describing the recent technological improvements that have been made at each step.
Although this article is based primarily on the authors
experience in the Israeli diamond industry over the last 10
years, most of the advanced technology discussed can now
be found in major manufacturing centers worldwide. The
second purpose is to discuss the critical decisions that a
manufacturer must make during the cutting process to
obtain the maximum value from the finished stone.
BACKGROUND
The manufacture of a diamond into a faceted gemstone (figure 2) presents some very special challenges, including:
1. As the hardest known substance (10 on the Mohs

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1997

Figure 1. The cutting process is critical to the

transformation of a diamond from a simple crystal to a brilliant faceted
gem in a beautiful piece
of jewelry. The faceted
diamonds in these contemporary rings range
from 1.04 ct for the
smallest oval to 1.96 ct
for the largest marquise.
Courtesy of Hans D.
Krieger, Idar-Oberstein,
Germany; photo
Harold & Erica Van Pelt.

scale), diamond is also one of the most difficult gem materials to facet.
2. Although diamond is optically isotropic
(i.e., it has only one refractive index), its
hardness varies with crystallographic orientation, such that it can only be polished in
certain crystallographic directions. These
directions have traditionally been referred
to as the grain (see, e.g., Vleeschdrager,
1986, p. 37).
3. The cutting process seeks to take advantage
of the critical angle of total light reflection
within the faceted diamond to achieve the
maximum amount of light return through
the crown facets. Diamond has a very high
refractive index (2.42), and a mathematical
basis for the shape and facet arrangement of
the round brilliant cut was established

Modern Diamond Cutting

early in this century by M. Tolkowsky

(1919). Today, many other cutting styles
are also used, including a variety of fancy
cuts (see G. Tolkowsky, 1991).
4. The differences between the various color
and clarity grades for faceted diamonds can
be quite subtle, and very slight variations in
cutting style and weight retention can
result in significant differences in value.
All of these challenges must be addressed
throughout the cutting process. Today, as it has for
decades, gem diamond manufacturing involves the
following basic steps:
1. Selecting (or sorting) the diamond rough.
This includes examining each diamond for
its potential color grade, clarity grade, and
cutting style.
2. Marking the rough for manufacturing.

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103

3. Cleaving and/or sawing the rough crystal.

4. Bruting the girdle.
5. Polishing the facets.
For large diamonds, some of these steps are repeated
a number of times, for example: sawingtable
polishing brutingblocking (polishing four or
eight facets)[repolishing the table rebruting
provisional polishing (8 facets)]final table
polishingfinal bruting final polishing. This
comes from a constant effort to improve the final
appearance of the stone and the yield from the
rough. The conventional means of manufacturing
diamonds, and the various cutting styles used, have
been described in several texts, including those of
Bruton (1981), Watermeyer (1991, 1994), Ludel
(1985), Vleeschdrager (1986), and Tillander (1995).
The goal in cutting a rough diamond is to maximize the market value of the faceted stone or stones
produced from that piece of rough. This value is
based on the well-known 4 Cs: Carat weight, Color,
Clarity, and the less easily evaluated Cut. To illustrate, figure 3 shows where diamond manufacturing
takes place on what can be thought of as an economic conveyor belt. In this figure, the assumption is made that the final selling price of a cut diamond in a piece of jewelry is $100. Before the diamond is mined, it has no value ($0). When the original piece of rough is discovered in the mine, extracted from the host rock, and sorted, it has an estimated value of $26. The cut diamond is sold to the jewelry manufacturer for $30, and then to the retail
jeweler for $50. Thus, in this example, one sees that
the manufacturers component is only $2, a very
small percentage of the total retail value (but about
7% of the price of the loose diamond as it is sold to
the trade). Typically, the actual profit would repre-

sent only about 0.5% of the value of the cut stone

in a finished piece of jewelryabout 50 cents in this
example.
As a second example of this same idea, assume
that a 0.50 ct faceted diamond will sell at retail for
$4,500 when set in a standard ring, that the rough
diamond was sold to the manufacturer for about
$1,170, and that after cutting its value was $1,260.
The $90 window for the manufacturer must be
enough to cover the cost of production, capital
investment, risks (some diamonds are damaged during cutting), and profit. To ensure profit, therefore,
the manufacturer has to be very efficient when he
cuts the diamond. As will be illustrated later in this
article, minor errors in diamond manufacturing can
cause major losses in value.
In the mid-1980s, the Israel Diamond Institute
was one of a few groups in the international diamond industry that made a conscious decision to
pursue the use of sophisticated technology in the
local manufacturing sector. The Israeli industry at
that time was based largely on conventional methods. Earlier attempts to introduce automatic polishing machines had not been totally successful,
because the manufacturers lacked not only the
knowledge but also any understanding of the available technology.
Recognizing both that the Israeli diamond-manufacturing industry was very conservative and that
the sophisticated techniques used in other industries could not readily be applied to the problems of
cutting diamonds, the institutes engineer first analyzed the processes and established which areas
would benefit most from technological innovations.
Gradually, new manufacturing methods were introduced, including computer-aided evaluation of the
rough crystals, lasers for precision sawing, automat-

Figure 2. Many decisions

are required to turn a
rough diamond like the
macle on the left into a
fine triangular brilliantcut diamond like the
stone on the far right.
Courtesy of Kleinhaus,
New York; photo Harold
& Erica Van Pelt.

104

Modern Diamond Cutting

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

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Figure 3. This economic "conveyor belt" illustrates the added value that a diamond attains as it passes
through the manufacturing process from the mine to the retail jewelry store. Typically, within this
conveyor belt, the diamond manufacturers component is only a very small portion of the ultimate
retail value, about 2%. Within this narrow range, all manufacturing costs must be included as well as
some profit for the manufacturer.

ed bruting and polishing equipment, and computer

imaging for more accurate measurement of the polished stones. These changes have resulted in significant improvements in the manufacturing process,
and have been adopted throughout the Israeli industry and in other cutting centers such as India.
The introduction of new manufacturing technologies is ongoing, with much effort currently
under way to educate other diamond manufacturers
on how to use these technologies effectively in their
own facilities. Since these efforts are still relatively
new, few articles describing them have appeared in
the trade press (see, e.g., Lawrence, 1996). At present, the best source of information is the proceedings volume published following the October 1991
International Technical Symposium sponsored by
the De Beers Central Selling Organisation (CSO) in
Tel Aviv, Israel (Cooke and Caspi, 1991). According
to Lawrence (1991, p. 13) in this proceedings volume, there are many important benefits to using
modern technology for diamond manufacturing:
1. Reduced manufacturing costs
2. Improved quality of the finished diamond
3. Increased efficiency, to compensate for the
lower labor costs in other manufacturing
centers
4. Better decision making regarding the manufacture of a particular piece of rough
5. Increased profits for the manufacturer
THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Sorting the Diamonds. Rough gem-quality diamonds are sorted in several ways. The main sorting
categories are size, shape, color, and clarity. At the

Modern Diamond Cutting

CSO, rough diamonds are sorted by hand and by

machine into more than 5,000 categories (Stewart,
1991, p. 32). Most diamond manufacturers have far
fewer categories, and they use one or more of a variety of sorting techniques, depending on the quantities they are handling and the typical sizes.
Size. All rough diamonds are sold by weight.
However, large parcels of small rough diamonds
normally are sorted first by sieving techniques
(Bruton, 1981). That is, diamonds are passed
through a series of sieve plates, each with holes of a
given diameter. Smaller diamonds fall through the
holes in the plate, while the larger ones remain
trapped in the sieve. Several layers of sieve plates
are stacked together, with decreasing hole diameters at each level downward. This enables the sorter
to create packages of diamonds of approximately
the same size prior to weighing. A scale is usually
used to weigh the rough diamonds, although the
CSO has some very sophisticated equipment for
this purpose.
Shape. Rough diamond crystals occur in nature in
different shapes. The diamond manufacturer traditionally describes these shapes using the following
three general terms:
1. Sawablerough diamonds, often octahedral or
dodecahedral in shape, that will yield more total
weight as polished stones if they are sawn or
cleaved in two before being polished.
2. Makeablerough diamonds that are polished as
a single cut stone without first being sawn or
cleaved. They usually require more work than

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105

sawable rough and have a lower yield. Sometimes their grain structure cannot be determined
easily. Both macles and flats would typically
fall within this group.
3. Cleavageirregularly shaped rough that requires
special attention, as was the case with the original Cullinan rough diamond.
Sorting by shape enables the manufacturer to
decide how best to cut the diamond and which
manufacturing process to use.

ences, such as in the number, visibility, position,

and size of internal features (inclusions, fractures,
etc.), as these features would appear in the final
faceted stone. The uneven surface of the rough diamond often makes internal features difficult to see.
The manufacturer must envision the shape and orientation of the stone within the rough crystal, and
judge where these internal features may be located
and how visible they will be, or whether any or all
can be removed by cutting.

Color. Color sorting (using a standard color-grading

system) is done in natural daylight. In many diamonds, though, color is quite subtle. In addition,
colors that result from atomic-level impurities or
defects may be evenly or unevenly distributed within the rough crystal. Color can also result from the
presence of a colored inclusion(s), or from staining
(usually brown) by a foreign material within a surface-reaching fracture. Some diamond crystals have
a surface coating or frosting that may be all or partially removed during cutting. Thus, the manufacturer must evaluate all these situations when considering how to cut a particular diamond to obtain
the best color possible.

Marking the Rough Diamond. The decision as to

whether or not to divide the diamond crystal is
made by an individual called the marker. This is
usually the most experienced person in the manufacturing company (very often the owner of the
company), a specially trained employee, or even a
subcontractor. This step is crucial because it represents the major decision on how to manufacture a
given piece of diamond rough. As stated by Grochovsky (1991, p. 101), the marking of a stone
comes only after considerable evaluation, as any
error made at this stage (of the manufacturing process) is irreversible.
To outsiders, marking appears to be a very simple process. The marker examines the rough diamond with a loupe and, frequently, measures the
dimensions of the diamond with a gauge. He then
marks a black line on the diamond crystals surface
(figure 4). In the next step of the manufacturing process, the crystal will be either sawn or cleaved along
this line (Bruton, 1981, p. 235; Watermeyer, 1991, p.
22). In actuality, however, marking is really the
most complicated step in diamond cutting (see Grochovsky, 1991, pp. 101 to 105). This is because the
marker must optimize the value of the two finished
stones. To understand the markers decision in
marking a particular crystal, we must again review
the influence of each of the 4 Cs on the value of the
cut diamond.

Clarity. Last, rough diamonds are sorted in terms of

their potential clarity grade (again, according to a
standard system). As with color grades, the better
clarity grades are only distinguished by slight differ-

Figure 4. The most critical stage in diamond

manufacturing, marking the diamond for sawing
or cleaving, requires a complex decision-making
process to optimize the value of the finished
stones.

Carat Weight. When working with sawable rough,

the marker must maximize the weight of the two
finished diamonds. By examining the rough crystal
with a loupe, the marker usually sees several alternatives. However, the marker must keep in mind
the value information presented in figure 5 (although
the individual prices are fictitious, the relative prices
are based on pricing lists over several months in
1996). These two graphs illustrate the relative price
change for cut diamonds as carat weight increases
(while the color and clarity grades are kept con-

106

Modern Diamond Cutting

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1997

Figure 5. These graphs show the relative prices per carat and per piece for cut diamonds with weights
primarily below (top) and above (bottom) approximately 1.00 ct. Note how the price differential
increases significantly as carat weight increases (assuming other factors are identical; for the purpose of
this illustration, the diamonds are all round brilliants and all have the same color and clarity grades).
At certain key points (such as near 1.00, 2.00, and 3.00 ct), price jumps sharply. In the diamond-manufacturing process, the price per piece of the single stoneor total price for the two stonescut from the
original piece of rough is the crucial value to maximize. Even though case B will yield a 0.75 ct stone,
case A provides the greater total value for the original piece of rough. However, the added value for the
1.15 ct stone that case C will yield makes it the better choice than the two equal-size stones in case D.

stant). In both graphs, one line represents the price

per carat and the other represents the price per
piece (found by multiplying the price per carat by
the weight). In figure 5 (bottom), note the significant
difference in these two prices as the carat weight
increases. In both graphs, also note that the two
lines are not smooth; at certain carat weights, the

Modern Diamond Cutting

value jumps sharply (nearly vertical line segments).

For example, from 0.98 ct to 1.02 ct, where the
weight change is only about 4%, the price per piece
may change by almost 35%. The marker is mainly
interested in maximizing the total value for the two
pieces cut from the original piece of rough.
To get a better idea of the alternative value

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107

Figure 6. The marker uses the Sarin Dia-Expert

system (here, with Dia-Mension hardware) to
help identify the best position to mark a rough
diamond for sawing or cleaving. The system consists of a sample stage, light source, and camera
(inset), as well as a computer system. Within an
image of the cross-section of the rough diamond
that is depicted on the computer screen, the operator may ask the computer to superimpose computer-generated outlines of possible cut stones
that could be manufactured from this particular
piece of rough. In the option shown here, the
solution is unusual, since the table facets of the
two proposed cut stones are not adjacent to the
sawing plane, which is the most common
arrangement. Photo by James E. Shigley.

choices a marker has when examining a piece of

rough, consider the case of a 2.00 ct well-formed
octahedral crystal. Furthermore, assume an idealized situation where the two stones fashioned from
this crystal will end up having the same color and
clarity grades. The marker has many options available, but let us examine two (assuming here a 50%
yieldthat is, 50% of the original crystal is lost as
powder or dust during the manufacturing process,
so that the two final cut diamonds total 1.00 ct):
Option 1: To cut the crystal into two identical
pieces that will yield two polished diamonds, each weighing 0.50 ct (case A
in figure 5)
Option 2: To cut the crystal in such a way that it
yields two polished stones of very different weights, 0.75 and 0.25 ct (case B
in figure 5)
In this situation, it appears that the two 0.50 ct

108

Modern Diamond Cutting

stones will yield the maximum total value (see

again figure 5).
As another example, if the rough crystal weighs
3.00 ct, the marker again has to decide between
similar options (assuming a 50% yieldor a total
weight of 1.50 ct for the two cut stones):
Option 1: Two stones weighing 1.15 ct and 0.35
ct (case C)
Option 2: Two identical 0.75 ct stones (case D)
Referring again to figure 5, the first choicethat of
manufacturing two diamonds that differ in weight
(case C)will yield the maximum total value.
Of course, real situations are not this simple.
The weight, shape, potential color and clarity
grades, and current situation in the retail marketplace all influence the very important decision of
how to mark a particular rough diamond. The
marker must take into consideration all of these
factors.
To estimate the polished weight, the marker
uses a special tool known as a Moe gauge. This
measuring device is calibrated in Moes, units of
measurement that are unique to the instrument.
The weight of the final cut diamond can be estimated by cross-referencing Moes dimensions for diameter and total depth to a set of tables supplied with
the instrument.
A new computer-based system has recently been
introduced to help the marker (figure 6). Known as
Dia-Expert and manufactured by Sarin, a Ramat-Gan
company, this equipment is used as follows:
1. The marker sets the rough diamond on the
systems sample stage.
2. He selects the faceting proportions to which
he thinks the diamond should be cut.
3. If he chooses, he can define the quality of
the cut stone in terms of color and clarity.
4. The system measures the geometric proportions of the rough crystal in a number of
orientations, so that a detailed three-dimensional description or model of the crystal is
then known to the computer.
5. The marker may ask the computer system
certain questions, such as what the largest
stone and the remainder will be, or what
two cut stones will result if the rough diamond is sawn or cleaved along a defined
line.
6. For each option, the system will show the
potential shapes and sizes of the cut stones

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Summer 1997

TABLE 1. Sample information provided by the Sarin Dia-Expert system.

Option
A
A
B
B
C
C

Stone

Weight

1
2
1
2
1
2

1.12
1.05
1.82
0.54
1.67
0.73

Cut quality

Price per
carat

Stones price

Very
Very
Very
Very
Very
Very

$ 9,300
9,300
10,700
5,900
10,700
6,100

$ 10,416
9,765}
19,474
}
3,186
17,869
}
4,453

good
good
good
good
good
good

Total

$ 20,181
$ 22,660
$ 22,322

For an assumed cutting style and color and clarity grades, the system has made three recommended options (labeled
A, B, and C) for manufacturing cut stones from the sawn pieces of this crystal. Cut quality is defined by the operator,
and price per carat is taken from a table in the system. With this information, the system calculates the two weights
for each option. Thus, the operator can see the results for each of the three marking options.

superimposed on an image of the rough

(again, see figure 6). It also indicates the
resulting weight of each cut stone and the
total value of each option.
7. When the marker selects a particular
option, the system in cooperation with the
operator will physically place a black line
on the rough crystal, along which the diamond will be sawn or cleaved.
Table 1 presents the type of information that
the Dia-Expert system would produce. The system
has suggested a particular cutting style and three
possible options (here labeled A, B, and C) to manufacture two cut stones from a particular crystal. In
each case, the quality of cut for the two future
stones was selected as very good, and the prices
per carat were determined from another table (not
shown, where the marker has made assumptions
regarding the clarity and color grades of the two cut
diamonds; the basis for the decision as to what qual-

ity of cut to specify is described below). Note that

inclusions are not taken into consideration in this
example, and the system operator might have to
change the anticipated clarity grade if inclusions
would affect any of the options. The Dia-Expert system gives the estimated weight and orientation of
both cut stones within an outline of the rough crystal. Again, the price per piece of each cut stone is
derived by multiplying its price per carat by its estimated weight. In this example, the system recommends option B, which gives the maximum value
for the original piece of rough. Although use of this
system reduces marker uncertainty in evaluating a
rough diamond, the Dia-Expert does not replace the
marker. At present, the system operator must still
consider the presence of inclusions and fractures
within the rough crystal that the Dia-Expert equipment cannot resolve.
Using the same relative prices as are given in
figure 5, figure 7 demonstrates how sensitive the

Figure 7. The marker must carefully

evaluate where to place the marker
line on the rough diamond so as to
achieve the maximum yield from
that piece of rough. As this illustration shows, even a small, 0.05 mm,
change in the placement of this line
can result in a major difference in the
total price of the two final cut diamonds. To determine the price per
piece, the final carat weight of each
stone is multiplied by the price per
carat (using the same relative prices
as are given in figure 5).

Modern Diamond Cutting

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109

Good saw plane

Bad saw plane

Real

Reflected

Figure 8. One of the greatest challenges facing

the marker is the location of inclusions in the
rough diamond and how to avoid or place them
in the polished stone. This illustration shows
the locations of a real inclusion in a diamond
crystal and a reflection of this same inclusion
produced by the refraction of light. The diamond could be sawn through either location,
depending on where the marker line is placed.
If the crystal was sawn through the imaginary
"inclusion" (the reflection), the result would be
a larger lower-clarity stone and a smaller higher-clarity stone. If the crystal was sawn through
the real inclusion, however, it would yield two
stones similar in weight to those in the first
option, but both would be of higher clarity
and, therefore, would have a higher total value.

markers decision is. In this representative example,

a small inaccuracy of 0.05 mm in positioning the
marker line would cause a major loss in value.
As noted earlier, a further challenge associated
with marking a rough diamond is the crystal that
has a coated or frosted surface, which may greatly
limit the markers ability to see the stones internal
characteristics. With such a stone, it may be necessary to polish one or more flat facets (windows)
for these observations.
Color. Estimation of the final color appearance is
very important in the markers decision whether to
polish the diamond to good proportions (high color)
or to poorer proportions (lower color grade but higher weight yield). As any of the major diamond price
guides will show, the price of a cut diamond drops
steadily from one color grade to the next until about
S. At the higher end of the scale (DG) especially, a drop in color by one grade can change the
price by as much as 20%.

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Modern Diamond Cutting

Clarity. Clarity is the most difficult feature to

assess. The marker must determine not only the
existence of an inclusion (which may be very
small), but also its exact location within the future
cut stone, since he has to decide whether or not to
remove it during the cutting process. There often is
a trade-off between achieving a smaller, inclusionfree stone and a larger stone that contains an inclusion. If the inclusion is to be left in, every effort
must be made to position it within the stone so as
to minimize its visibility and optical effect. A small
mistake in locating an inclusion or other imperfectionand hence, in placing the marker linecan
have disastrous consequences once the rough crystal is cleaved or sawn.
Because of light refraction within a diamond
crystal, it is sometimes difficult to decide which
inclusions are real and which are reflections (there
may be more than one). Figure 8 illustrates such a
situation. Lets assume that either option would
produce two stones, one weighing 1.10 ct and the
other, 0.90 ct. If the marker decides to saw the crystal along the good line (i.e., through the real
inclusion), he will get two inclusion-free stones. But
if he makes the wrong decision, and saws along the
bad line (i.e., through the imaginary inclusion),
the larger, 1.10 ct, stone from the top half will contain the real inclusion; only the 0.90 ct stone from
the bottom half will be inclusion-free. Such a misjudgment could result in a significant financial loss,
especially if the stone was of good color. Price differences between clarity grades can be substantial,
especially for the higher grades (as much as 18%
between IF and VVS grades).
Cut. Last, the marker must decide whether to fashion the rough as a round brilliant, into one of the
well-known fancy shapes (i.e., marquise, oval, etc.),
or into one of the newer cutting styles (see, e.g.,
Tolkowsky, 1991). The choice of shape will influence
the overall appearance (i.e., brilliance, dispersion,
etc.), face-up color, and visibility of inclusions (these
features would also be influenced by the size of the
faceted diamond).
The same faceting shape can be manufactured
with different proportions (which define the geometric relationships between different parts of the
cut diamond). Achieving better proportions usually
results in a lower yield from a given piece of rough.
Sometimes going from one set of proportions (an
excellent cut) to another set (a fair cut) can increase

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1997

the yield by as much as 15%, but the price per carat

then decreases.
The main problem for the marker is that the
above 4Cs are dependent on one another. Attempts
to maximize the value from one factor must often
be done at the expense of one or more of the others.
If the marker wants to increase clarity, he may have
to remove material and thus decrease the size (carat
weight). Cutting for better proportions also means
tighter tolerances, and thus less weight retention.
Consequently, markers must stay constantly in
touch with the current market demand for various
sizes, shapes, proportions, and color and clarity
grades of cut diamonds. This demand can change
daily, seasonally, or according to the preferences of
the different international markets.
Cost. To these 4Cs, we must add a fifth C: the cost
of production. This C is used only by manufacturers. For example, depending on the marking, sawable stones can be turned into makeable ones
(with no defined grain orientation), which often
require more work to manufacture and thus are
more expensive. Also, a fancy cut, as compared to a
standard round brilliant, is more expensive to produce. Most manufacturers specialize in certain
shapes, which their machines and labor handle
most efficiently. A marker working for such a manufacturer will prefer his specialized shape to other
alternatives if the difference in value is not significant. Last, laser sawing (see following discussion) is
more expensive than mechanical sawing.
The main effect of this fifth C is seen in the
geographic locations where diamonds are cut today.
Smaller, less-expensive diamonds, where the value
added by manufacturing is about 15%, are handled
in the Far EastIndia, Thailand, China, and other
countries (known as lower-cost centers, where the
cost of a worker is about $30 to $200 per month).
Larger, more expensive diamonds are cut in the
United States, Antwerp, and Israel, where the added
value is low (from 2% to 5%).

grain directions can be identified by the shape of the

crystal, by certain surface features (such as trigons),
or by the internal structure of the crystal. The experienced diamond manufacturer knows the effect of
crystal grain on the cutting process. However, problems can arise when: (1) there are no surface or internal features that indicate grain orientation, (2) a crystal changes its orientation (referred to as being in a
twisted form), and (3) one crystal is embedded in the
main crystal (known as a naat or knot).
In each of these cases, the manufacturer may
not be able to complete some mechanical operations successfully. This happens, for example, in
sawing or when a facet is being polished and there is
a naat present. Then, the diamond has to be polished in two different directions. A detailed description of diamond crystal grain and its features is
found in Ludel (1985, Chapter 7).
Sawing the Rough Diamond. Mechanical Sawing.
Diamonds are sawn today as they have been for
many years (for further details, see Bruton, 1981;
Ludel, 1985; Vleeschdrager, 1986; Grochovsky,
1991; and Watermeyer, 1991). In mechanical sawing, the rough diamond, held in a dop, is slowly
lowered onto a high-speed (~10,000 revolutions per
minute) revolving blade (figure 9). The pressure of

Figure 9. In this photo of a mechanical sawing operation, two machines are shown. The sawing machine controls the lowering of the crystal, attached
to a dop, onto a thin copper blade that is revolving
at a high speed. Photo by James E. Shigley.

Crystal Grain. Before examining the actual manufacturing of the cut diamond, we must first understand how the crystal grain affects the cutting process (Bruton, 1981, p. 238; Watermeyer, 1991, p. 18).
Because of crystal grain (in this context, directional variations in hardness relative to crystallographic orientation), a mechanical operation (such as
polishing) on a diamond often can take place only in
certain directions. In some rough diamonds, these

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Twopoint
(sawing) plane

Fourpoint
(sawing) plane

Figure 10. The sawing plane used for an octahedral diamond crystal is indicated by outline B.
Mechanical sawing commonly takes place along
such planes (ones parallel to cubic faces). This
plane is also known as the "four point" plane,
because the sawn surface has four equidistant
corners. Outline A indicates another sawing
plane, a two-point plane; such planes are parallel to dodecahedral crystal faces.

the diamond on the thin (about 0.06 mm) blade is

controlled by a manually adjusted screw. The crystal is sawn along the direction indicated by the
markers line.
Sawing must be performed in certain orientations to the grain (figure 10), often called the twopoint plane (parallel to a dodecahedral face) and the
four-point plane (parallel to a cubic face). Planes can
also be labeled by the number of places along the
girdle where naturals can occur (see, e.g., Sevdermish and Mashiah, 1996, p. 718).
Recently, mechanical sawing has also benefited
from new technology. The mechanical screw that
lowers the diamond onto the sawing blade has been
replaced by a computer-controlled system, attached
to the traditional machine, that is able to sense the
pressure of the diamond on the blade (figure 11).
When the pressure drops below a predetermined
limit, the system lowers the diamond further onto
the blade and increases pressure on the stone. This
system also prevents the diamond from moving
downward beyond a predetermined speed, so that
the blade does not penetrate the stone at an undesired plane. An experienced sawer usually can handle 20 to 30 machines at the same time.

(yttrium aluminum garnet) laser with a computercontrolled sample holder and a lens that can focus
the laser beam up or down. As figure 13 illustrates,
in the special holder or cassette (which may hold
several diamonds), the diamond can be moved in a
two-dimensional, or X-Y, plane (i.e., side to side or
back and forth) under the fixed position of the laser
beam. Once the laser beam strikes the diamond, it
heats that spot to a very high temperature, burning or vaporizing it. As the rough diamond moves
beneath the laser beam, a narrow slice through the
diamond is created.
Laser sawing has the following important
advantages (see also Cooper, 1991; Davis, 1991;
Prior, 1991):

Figure 11. Modern sawing machines, like this

Dialit AS500, have a pressure controller. After
setting the diamond in the machine, the operator sets the required pressure of the diamond on
the blade and the maximum velocity in which
the diamond will be sawn. The control system
continuously checks and adjusts the pressure.

Laser Sawing. Laser sawing, in which a laser replaces the metal blade to saw the diamond crystal
(figure 12), was first introduced 20 years ago (see
Cooper, 1991). The equipment consists of a YAG

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also has several drawbacks vis vis mechanical

sawing. These include both (1) the greater expense
of purchasing and maintaining laser equipment, and
(2) the critical need for safety in operating the laser
equipment.
These drawbacks can be overcome by one manufacturer specializing in the use of this technology,
and offering it to a number of other manufacturers.
However, because of the greater capital costs, currently this equipment is primarily used on those
rough diamonds for which mechanical sawing is
not possible. It is worth noting, though, that the
author knows of one large-volume manufacturer in
India who saws all of his diamonds by laser and currently has approximately 30 laser-sawing machines.
Figure 12. In this laser-sawing operation, a YAG
laser is being used to saw two dark yellow diamond crystals. The laser beam is oriented vertically, and it strikes the upper surface of each
crystal as the latter is moved back and forth by
a motorized cassette. Photo by James E. Shigley.

1. The laser can saw a rough diamond in any

crystallographic direction (you are not limited to the directions of cleaving or mechanical sawing). This permits greater accuracy,
greater yield, and greater versatility in handling complex crystals that could not be
sawn easily by mechanical means.
2. There is no contact of a tool (such as the
sawing blade) with the diamond, which
eliminates the expense of periodically
replacing a worn-out tool.
3. There is the possibility of both greater and
constant speed for sawing. For example, a
1.00 ct crystal can be laser sawn in about 20
minutes, as compared to about 120 minutes
for mechanical sawing, without hindrance
from any grain obstacle (such as a naat).
4. The weight loss is similar to that experienced with mechanical sawing.
5. The laser equipment can be operated continuously: As many as 30 rough diamonds
can be lined up in a cassette and sawn one
after another without any operator involvement after the computer has been programmed with the special parameters of
each diamond (i.e., its height and other
dimensions). This lowers labor costs.
However, the use of lasers for sawing diamonds

Modern Diamond Cutting

Figure 13. In laser sawing, a wide "path" (about

0.2 mm across) is made by moving the diamond
back and forth beneath the fixed position of the
laser beam. Then, the focal point of the laser
beam is lowered and a second, narrower path
(about 0.17 mm across) is formed. This process
is repeated several more times, with the width
of the path decreasing gradually to yield a Vshaped groove by the time the laser beam reaches the bottom edge of the rough diamond.

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113

Figure 14. A diamond is cleaved along a different grain orientation than it is sawn. Compare,
for example, the cleaving plane marked on this
octahedral diamond crystal with the sawing
planes marked on the illustration in figure 10.
(Note that the cleaving plane is also known as
the "three point" plane because of the three corners of the cleaved surface.)

Cleaving the Rough Diamond. Cleaving is the traditional method for dividing a rough diamond into
two parts (see Bruton, 1981; Ludel, 1985; Vleeschdrager, 1986; Watermeyer, 1991). Cleaving is performed along a different grain orientation than sawing, as seen in figure 14 (compare with figure 10).
The markers decision to cleave rather than saw a
diamond depends on the shape of the rough and the
location of inclusions.
The cleaving process has two stages. The first is
preparing the kerfa small V-shaped groove carved
into the diamonds surface along a specific direction. The laser kerf is the best, as it is a narrow,
straight-sided groove that is squared off at the bottom. The second stage is splitting the rough diamond with a special knife. The cleaver taps on the
shoulder of the blunt blade with a small hammer,
and the diamond is divided instantaneously.
Kerfing. Traditionally, kerfing was a very fatiguing
process that was done totally by hand. The cleaver
first glued the diamond to a special rod and then
used another diamond with a sharp edge to scratch
the surface of the first diamond until a groove (the
kerf) was created. Preparing the kerf in this manner was an exacting occupation that required years
of study. In addition, the procedure was very timeconsuming.

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Today, lasers have revolutionized kerfing (see

Cukrowicz and Jacobs, 1991; Doshi, 1991). Modern
kerfing is performed in the following steps:
1. The rough diamond is installed in a special
dop.
2. The setter places 20 or more diamonds in a
cassette so that the marker line on each is
aligned and is at the same height (the same
focus position for the laser beam).
3. The cassette is loaded into the laser system.
4. The cassette is moved along the markers
lines in a special pattern so that the laser
creates the required kerf in each.
Once the kerf is prepared, the rough diamond is
set in a plastic-like material. A thin metal blade is
inserted into the kerf, and the shoulder of the blade
is struck with a hammer. If the kerf has been positioned correctly, the diamond will split easily.
Laser kerfing has the following advantages over
manual kerfing:
1. It can follow the marker line more precisely.
2. The kerf is narrower and shallower, which
is all that is needed for cleaving,
3. Because laser kerfing is much faster than
the traditional manual method, it is less
expensive for manufacturers who handle
large quantities of diamonds.
4. Productivity is high: One person using a
laser system can kerf more rough diamonds
than can 60 individuals using the manual
method.
However, there are potential problems with
laser safety and damage to the diamond. In addition,
the marker still must identify the best cleaving
direction by the morphology and surface characteristics of the rough diamond in order to place each
kerf correctly.
Bruting. It is with this step that the diamond
receives its basic shape (round, marquise, etc.; see
Bruton, 1981; Ludel, 1985; Vleeschdrager, 1986;
Watermeyer, 1991). Bruting is done by rotating one
diamond against another diamond that may also be
rotating or may be stationary in the hand of the
bruter (figures 15 and 16). Thus, the two diamonds
are progressively ground away by mutual abrasion.
The bruters task is two-fold: first, to fix the center
of the diamond on the dop and, subsequently, to fix
the diameter of the cut stone. As with previous
steps in the manufacturing process, the bruter must

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answer one or more of the following questions to

maximize the value of the final cut stone: (1) What
should be the shape of the final stone? (2) What
should be the faceting proportions? (3) What should
be the position of the table facet within the piece of
rough being worked? Depending on the shape and
the proportions chosen, a wide range of price-percarat values can be achieved from the same piece of
rough.
For round diamonds, the size of the cut stone is
determined during this critical stage. Yield is affected by two factors: the diameter to which the diamond is cut, and the center of symmetry around
which the diamond is bruted. A minor mistake
made in either of these factors because of excessive
bruting can produce a significant loss in yield.
Traditional bruting uses a machine with a
small motor that rotates at about 3,000 rpm. The

diamond to be bruted is cemented onto a dop that is

then inserted into a spindle (which will be rotated
at high speed). Another diamond is cemented onto a
second dop, which in turn is attached to the end of a
long rod; this is used as the bruting diamond. The
bruter holds this rod by hand and presses the bruting diamond against the spinning diamond so that
abrasion takes place (figure 15). During the process,
the bruter stops frequently to check the results. If it
appears that the stone is not being bruted around
the required axis of symmetry, the bruter taps on
the spindle to change the axis of the bruted diamond slightly and thus align it properly.
In practice, the traditional mechanical bruting
technique was an inexact science. It was based
largely on trial and error: bruting, stopping, checking the position of the diamond, changing the center if necessary, and rebruting to achieve the desired

Figure 15. With a manual bruting machine, the

diamond is glued to a dop that is set in the
machine. In his hand, the bruter holds a stick
with another dop to which a diamond has been
glued. As the diamond in the machine is rotated, the other diamond is bruting it.

Figure 16. In this photo of an automated bruting

machine built by Milano Industries in Israel,
two diamonds are mounted for bruting to create
a girdle surface on each by mutual abrasion. By
viewing the screen, the operator can correctly
position each stone and then monitor the
progress of the bruting process. Photo courtesy
of Milano Industries.

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Figure 17. A manual centering system has two

video cameras, so that the operator can view
the piece of rough from the side and the top. By
rotating the image of the rough diamond, the
operator can center it on the dop before the glue
holding the diamond is hardened. First, an outline of the future cut stone is superimposed on
the outline of the crystal. Then, the diamond is
centered so that the maximum diameter and
maximum yield are achieved. The operator
makes sure that the image of the cut stone will
fit within the outline of the rough diamond.
Photo by James E. Shigley.

shape. To this end, the bruter must also look for

signs and marks on the bruted area (such as symmetrical naturals on opposite sides).
Toward the end of the 1980s, a new, fully automated approach to bruting was invented. A number
of bruting machines are now in use (see Cooke,
1991a), but they are generally based on the same
principle. With these new machines, the two stones
are bruted simultaneously (figure 16). Each stone
rotates around its own axis of symmetry and, in so
doing, each brutes the other.
These new bruting machines operate with little
or no supervision. The bruter need only install the
diamonds in the machines, center the stones, and
stop the bruting when one of the stones reaches its
required diameter (in the newest equipment, this
last function is performed by the machine). This
stone is then replaced by another stone and the process is repeated. One person can operate up to 10
machines simultaneously.
Centering Systems. The introduction of automatic
bruting machines has stimulated the use of other

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Modern Diamond Cutting

modern systems to help the manufacturer increase

a diamonds yield. Before the stone is placed in a
bruting machine, some manufacturers use a centering system to align the center of the future polished
diamond (in the rough) with the center of the bruting machine. These centering systems were developed in two generations: manual and automatic.
A manual centering system has two video cameras for viewing the rough diamond from the side
and from the top. A person referred to as the centerer glues the sawn or cleaved diamond onto a special
dop. On the output screen, the centerer sees both
the shape of the rough diamond and a superimposed
graticule (image) of the future cut stone that can be
adjusted to fit the size of the rough crystal (figure
17). The operator positions the image of the cut
stone until it reaches its maximum size, just fitting
within the piece of rough. Then, the dop is heated
in an oven to harden the glue. After this, the dopped
diamond is installed in the bruting machine, for
which the axis of rotation has previously been properly centered. At that point, all three axes (i.e., the
centering axes of the machine, the dop, and the
future cut stone) are aligned.
Use of this manual system offers several advantages over centering while bruting in the machine
(see Caspi, 1991):
1. The stone is centered according to the structure of the rough diamond.
2. The proportions of the cut stone can be
made to match the manufacturers requirements more closely than if the stone is not
centered before bruting.
3. Most diamonds that have been centered can
be bruted without requiring any adjustments to their position on the dop.
4. Both productivity and yield are increased, as
a skilled operator can center many more
stones in the same amount of time, and the
operator of the machine does not waste the
time required to center in the machine.
The latest development, the automatic centering system, does all the above procedures automatically (see figures 18 and 19). The system has one or
two video cameras and special computer software,
which enable it to do all of the following functions
without the involvement of the operator:
1. Photograph the rough diamond from many
angles and integrate this information into a
three-dimensional image of the rough.

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scaife, a special metal polishing wheel powered by

an electric motor at speeds of up to 4000 rpm (for
further details, see Bruton, 1981; Vleeschdrager,
1986; Watermeyer, 1991; Curtis, 1991; Schumacher,
1991; GIA Diamond Dictionary, 1993).

Figure 18. The Sarin automatic centering system

(Dia-Center) consists of a sample chamber, light
source, camera, computer, and monitor. On the
right of the sample chamber (shown above) is
the light source, and on the left is the camera.
In front of the holder is the mechanical apparatus that moves the holder and centers the diamond. The camera measures the dimensions of
the rough diamond, which is glued to a special
dop, from a number of orientations. After the
computer decides where the optimal center of
the future cut stone will be, it moves the upper
part of the dop so that the center of the diamond and the center of the bruting machine are
co-axial. Photo by James E. Shigley.

2. Identify the largest diamond with the

required proportions that can be cut from
the particular piece of rough.
3. Move the holder to which the stone is glued
so that the center of the optimal cut stone is
co-axial with the centers of both the dop
and the bruting machine. This process takes
about 30 seconds per diamond.
The automatic system provides the best center
position and requires no expertise on the part of the
operator. Once the diamond is centered, the operator simply sets the holder in the bruting machine,
watches the diamonds in the machine, and then
stops the bruting procedure when a diamond reaches the diameter specified by the computer.

The Polishing Process. Round brilliant-cut stones

are typically polished in the following sequence:
1. The table facet
2. The eight main facets on the pavilion
3. The eight main facets on the crown
4. The eight star facets on the upper crown
5. The 16 upper-girdle (top-half) facets on the
crown
6. The 16 lower-girdle (bottom-half) facets on
the pavilion
To achieve a good cut (which affects the final
carat weight, as well as the color and clarity grades),
the following features must be kept in mind (see
Schumacher, 1991):
1. The symmetrical arrangement of the facets,
facet junctions, and corners (i.e., the quality
of the corresponding parts of a stone)
2. The quality of the facet surfaces, that is,
their surface texture
3. The overall proportions, such as table size,
crown angle, pavilion depth percentage, etc.
4. The girdle size

Figure 19. The automatic centering system also

constructs a three-dimensional image of the
rough diamond on which it superimposes an
image of the future cut stone that gives the best
possible fit. Photo by James E. Shigley.

Laser Bruting. In 1992, a new, laser method of bruting emerged. The main advantage of this method,
which is used primarily for fancy cuts, is that the
shape is symmetrical and exactly as planned by the
bruter or marker. In Israel, most fancy-shaped diamonds with rounded outlinessuch as marquises,
ovals, and pear shapesare bruted by this method.
Polishing. This is the final stage in diamond cutting. The polisher uses a special tool called a tang
(figure 20) to hold the diamond and polish it on a

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Figure 20. Polishers use a

wide variety of tangs
(shown here in the foreground and hanging on
the central bars), depending on the facets being
polished, the shape of the
stone, and the like.

An important consideration when planning this

process is the polishing direction. As with cleaving
and sawing, polishing can only be performed in a
certain direction for each facet. This direction is
defined as the angle between the linear velocity
direction of the polishing wheel and the grain (crystal) orientation of the particular facet. In most other

directions, polishing will not occur (Watermeyer,

1991).
An experienced polisher identifies the polishing
direction for each facet by recognizing certain features on the rough, such as trigons. In some diamonds, however, this direction cannot be determined from surface features, and the polisher has to

Figure 21. The Dialit GS7000 automated polishing machine (left) can polish the crown (excluding the stars)
and pavilion facets on a stone. The control panel is on the left. The holder is set in the machine, with a few
additional holders in the wooden cassette. The Dialit GSB800 automated blocking machine (right) can block
eight facets on the crown or the pavilion. Photos courtesy of Dialit Ltd.

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Figure 22. When polishing a

diamond by manual methods (left), one first polishes
the eight main pavilion
facets, and then proceeds to
the 16 lower-girdle (half)
facets on the pavilion. With
automated facet polishing
(right), the reverse sequence
is followed: the 16 lowergirdle (half) facets of the
pavilion are polished first,
followed by the eight main
pavilion facets.

look for the direction of the grain (for details, see

Ludel, 1985, Chapter 7, and Watermeyer, 1991).
This requires simple trial-and-error (first attempting
to polish the facet and then examining the stone to
see if polishing has occurred).
For polishing, the diamond is held by a tang.
Used for many years, tangs are still seen today even
in the most advanced cutting factories. A wide variety of tangs are used, depending on the facet(s) being
polished, the shape of the stone, and the like (again,
see figure 20). Modern tangs look basically like the
older versions, except for minor changes that help
the polisher set the angle of the facets and divide
the diamond into exactly eight or 16 sections.
Automatic Polishing Machines. Automatic polishing machines are essentially robots that manufac-

ture round cut diamonds (figure 21). These

machines initially appeared in the early 1970s. The
first was the Piermatic, which was designed to handle regular four-point sawn goods (Bruton, 1981;
Vleeschdrager, 1986; Cooke, 1991b). The basic difference between conventional hand polishing and
automatic polishing is the order in which polishing
takes place (figure 22). The automatic machine, by a
single setting of a holder, can polish two different
angles (i.e., eight main pavilion facets and 16 lowergirdle facets). The diamond is set in a special holder,
which enables the system to sense when one facet
is fully polished and then automatically change to
the next facet. Using this equipment, a trained operator can polish 16 diamonds simultaneously.
The holder has two means to halt the further
polishing of a facet (see figure 23). When either the

Figure 23. This diagram illustrates how a diamond is set in a holder (left, full holder; right, upper part) for automatic polishing. The angle for polishing the 16 lower-girdle facets is indicated. When the ring comes into physical
contact with the scaife, and electrical contact is made, the computer automatically halts the polishing of that particular facet and moves on to the next. When the 16 half-facets are completed, the angle is lowered by approximately 1 and the eight main pavilion facets are polished. For this procedure, an electrical contact is made (and
the computer moves to the next facet) when the pot comes into contact with the scaife.

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119

Figure 24. With the new

technology and equipment available throughout the diamond-cutting
process, modern diamond manufacturers can
produce better-quality
stones and higher yield
from many different
types of rough diamonds.
Photo Harold & Erica
Van Pelt.

ring or the pot of the holder touches the scaife, an

electrical contact is made, which tells the computer
to halt the polishing process of a particular facet
immediately and move on to the next facet.
To set the polishing angle, the setter places the
diamond in a setting system. The operator finds the
angle that matches the required proportions of the
finished stone, and makes sure that it is contained
within the rough. Then the ring is adjusted axially
to coincide with the selected angle. The holder is
set into the machine, and the machine polishes the
diamond.
Two methods are used to handle the grain. In
regular (four-point) sawn goods, the polishing direction of the 16 lower-girdle facets repeats itself every
group of four facets. The machine, after polishing a
facet, changes to the next polishing angle (the
angles between the velocity vector of the scaife and
the grain for the 16 lower-girdle facets are 90, 150,
210, and 270). The polishing direction of the eight
main facets repeats itself every two facets (for these

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Modern Diamond Cutting

facets, the angles are 120 and 240).

For diamonds other than four-point sawn
goods, a new grain-seeking capability has been
introduced into the automatic polishing machines
(Cooke, 1991b; Caspi, 1991). The diamond is lowered to make gentle contact with the scaife, and
the polishing rate is measured. A special sensor
detects if polishing has taken place. If the facet is
not oriented in the correct direction, the sensor
indicates that the facet did not take the polish, at
which point the machine will automatically
change the facet orientation and re-measure until
it finds the optimum polishing position. This
grain-seeking capability enables the modern polishing machines to polish:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Makeables
Naated stones
Two- or three-point stones
Four-point stones that have been sawn offgrain

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Summer 1997

CONCLUSION
The revolution in diamond cutting started less than
two decades ago, but already it has completely
changed the diamond industry in several major cutting centers. With such advances as the decision support system for marking, laser kerfing, mechanical or
laser sawing, automatic bruting machines, and automatic polishing machines, diamond manufacturers
can obtain better-quality diamonds, with a higher
yield per stone, in a more productive operation (figure
24). The main disadvantage of these modern systems
is their cost: The capital investment required to start
up a modern factory is usually 10 times more than
that needed to set up a traditional factory. In most
cases, however, the cost of producing an individual
diamond with this technology has gone down,

because one operator can operate several machines

simultaneously and the cost of production is amortized over several diamonds.
Like other revolutions, this one has created
some new jobs, but there are also situations where
workers who could not adjust to the new technology have had to abandon the industry. It is interesting to note that the new cutting factories have better working conditions, because the machines perform better when operated in a cleaner, air-conditioned environment.
Today, diamond technology is most highly
developed in Israel and Belgium, but there are very
modern operations in South Africa and Russia. Such
technology is rapidly spreading in other centers,
such as India and China, as well.

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