Trickling Filters

Trickling filter is an attached growth process i.e. process in which

microorganisms responsible for treatment are attached to an inert
packing material. Packing material used in attached growth processes
include rock, gravel, slag, sand, redwood, and a wide range of plastic
and other synthetic materials.

Process Description
The wastewater in trickling filter is distributed over the top area

of a vessel containing non-submerged packing material.

Air circulation in the void space, by either natural draft or

blowers, provides oxygen for the microorganisms growing as an

attached biofilm.
During operation, the organic material present in the wastewater

is metabolised by the biomass attached to the medium. The

biological slime grows in thickness as the organic matter
abstracted from the flowing wastewater is synthesized into new
cellular material.
The thickness of the aerobic layer is limited by the depth of

penetration of oxygen into the microbial layer.

The micro-organisms near the medium face enter the endogenous

phase as the substrate is metabolised before it can reach the

micro-organisms near the medium face as a result of increased

thickness of the slime layer and loose their ability to cling to the
media surface. The liquid then washes the slime off the medium
and a new slime layer starts to grow. This phenomenon of losing
the slime layer is called sloughing.
The sloughed off film and treated wastewater are collected by an

underdrainage which also allows circulation of air through filter.

The collected liquid is passed to a settling tank used for solidliquid separation.
Types of Filters
Trickling filters are classified as high rate or low rate, based on the
organic and hydraulic loading applied to the unit.
S.N
Design Feature
o.

Low Rate
Filter

High Rate Filter

1.

Hydraulic
1-4
loading, m3/m2.d

2.

Organic
loading,kg
BOD / m3.d

0.08 - 0.32 0.32 - 1.0

3.

Depth, m.

1.8 - 3.0

0.9 - 2.5

4.

Recirculation
ratio

0.5 - 3.0 (domestic wastewater)

upto 8 for strong industrial
wastewater.

10 - 40

The hydraulic loading rate is the total flow including recirculation

appied on unit area of the filter in a day, while the organic loading
rate is the 5 day 20C BOD, excluding the BOD of the recirculant,
applied per unit volume in a day.
Recirculation is generally not adopted in low rate filters.
A well operated low rate trickling filter in combination with

secondary settling tank may remove 75 to 90% BOD and produce

highly nitrified effluent. It is suitable for treatment of low to
medium strength domestic wastewaters.
The high rate trickling filter, single stage or two stage are

recommended for medium to relatively high strength domestic

and industrial wastewater. The BOD removal efficiency is around
75 to 90% but the effluent is only partially nitrified.

 Single stage unit consists of a primary settling tank, filter,

secondary settling tank and facilities for recirculation of the

effluent. Two stage filters consist of two filters in series with a
primary settling tank, an intermediate settling tank which may be
omitted in certain cases and a final settling tank.
Process Design

Generally trickling filter design is based on empirical relationships to

find the required filter volume for a designed degree of wastewater
treatment. Types of equations:
1. NRC equations (National Research Council of USA)
2. Rankins equation
3. Eckenfilder equation
4. Galler and Gotaas equation
NRC and Rankin's equations are commonly used. NRC equations give
satisfactory values when there is no re-circulation, the seasonal
variations in temperature are not large and fluctuations with high
organic loading. Rankin's equation is used for high rate filters.
NRC equations: These equations are applicable to both low rate and
high rate filters. The efficiency of single stage or first stage of two
stage filters, E2 is given by

E2=

100
1+0.44(F1.BOD/V1.Rf1)1/2

For the second stage filter, the efficiency E3 is given by

E3=

100
[(1+0.44)/(1- E2)](F2.BOD/V2.Rf2)1/2

where E2= % efficiency in BOD removal of single stage or first stage of

two-stage filter, E3=% efficiency of second stage filter, F1.BOD= BOD
loading of settled raw sewage in single stage of the two-stage filter in
kg/d, F2.BOD= F1.BOD(1- E2)= BOD loading on second-stage filter in kg/d,
V1= volume of first stage filter, m3; V2= volume of second stage filter,
m3; Rf1= Recirculation factor for first stage, R1= Recirculation ratio for
first stage filter, Rf2= Recirculation factor for second stage, R2=
Recirculation ratio for second stage filter.
Rankins equation: This equation also known as Tentative Method of Ten
States USA has been successfully used over wide range of temperature.
It requires following conditions to be observed for single stage filters:
1. Raw settled domestic sewage BOD applied to filters should not
exceed 1.2 kg BOD5/day/ m3 filter volume.
2. Hydraulic load (including recirculation) should not exceed 30
m3/m2 filter surface-day.
3. Recirculation ratio (R/Q) should be such that BOD entering filter
(including recirculation) is not more than three times the BOD
expected in effluent. This implies that as long as the above
conditions are satisfied efficiency is only a function of
recirculation and is given by:
E=

(R/Q) + 1
(R/Q) + 1.5

Design Example

Trickling Filter Design

Problem: Design a low rate filter to treat 6.0 Mld of sewage of BOD of 210 mg/l.
The final effluent should be 30 mg/l and organic loading rate is 320 g/m 3/d.
Solution: Assume 30% of BOD load removed in primary sedimentation i.e., = 210
x 0.30 = 63 mg/l. Remaining BOD = 210 - 63 = 147 mg/l.
Percent of BOD removal required = (147-30) x 100/147 = 80%
BOD load applied to the filter = flow x conc. of sewage (kg/d) = 6 x 10 6 x
147/106 = 882 kg/d
To find out filter volume, using NRC equation
E2=

100
1+0.44(F1.BOD/V1.Rf1)1/2

80 =

100
1+0.44(882/V1)1/2

Rf1= 1, because no circulation.

V1= 2704 m3
Depth of filter = 1.5 m, Fiter area = 2704/1.5 = 1802.66 m 2, and Diameter = 48
m < 60 m
Hydraulic loading rate = 6 x 106/103 x 1/1802.66 = 3.33m3/d/m2 < 4 hence o.k.
Organic loading rate = 882 x 1000 / 2704 = 326.18 g/d/m 3 which is approx. equal
to 320.

UASB Units
UASB type units are one in which no special media have to be used since the
sludge granules themselves act as the 'media' and stay in suspension. UASB
system is not patented. A typical arrangement of a UASB type treatment plant
for municipal sewage would be as follows:
1. Initial pumping
2. Screening and degritting
3. Main UASB reactor
4. Gas collection and conversion or conveyance
5. Sludge drying bed
6. Post treatment facility
In the UASB process, the whole waste is passed through the anaerobic reactor in
an upflow mode, with a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of only about 8-10 hours
at average flow. No prior sedimentation is required. The anaerobic unit does not
need to be filled with stones or any other media; the upflowing sewage itself
forms millions of small "granules" or particles of sludge which are held in
suspension and provide a large surface area on which organic matter can attach
and undergo biodegradation. A high solid retention time (SRT) of 30-50 or more
days occurs within the unit. No mixers or aerators are required. The gas
produced can be collected and used if desired. Anaerobic systems function
satisfactorily when temperatures inside the reactor are above 18-20C. Excess
sludge is removed from time to time through a separate pipe and sent to a
simple sand bed for drying.
Design Approach
Size of Reactor: Generally, UASBs are considered where temperature in the
reactors will be above 20C. At equilibrium condition, sludge withdrawn has to be
equal to sludge produced daily. The sludge produced daily depends on the
characteristics of the raw wastewater since it is the sum total of (i) the new VSS
produced as a result of BOD removal, the yield coefficient being assumed as 0.1
g VSS/ g BOD removed, (ii) the non-degradable residue of the VSS coming in the
inflow assuming 40% of the VSS are degraded and residue is 60%, and (iii) Ash
received in the inflow, namely TSS-VSS mg/l. Thus, at steady state conditions,
SRT= Total sludge present in reactor, kg
Sludge withdrawn per day, kg/d
= 30 to 50 days.
Another parameter is HRT which is given by:
HRT= Reactor volume, m3
Flow rate, m3/h

= 8 to 10 h or more at average flow.

The reactor volume has to be so chosen that the desired SRT value is achieved.
This is done by solving for HRT from SRT equation assuming (i) depth of reactor
(ii) the effective depth of the sludge blanket, and (iii) the average concentration
of sludge in the blanket (70 kg/m3). The full depth of the reactor for treating low
BOD municipal sewage is often 4.5 to 5.0 m of which the sludge blanket itself
may be 2.0 to 2.5 m depth. For high BOD wastes, the depth of both the sludge
blanket and the reactor may have to be increased so that the organic loading on
solids may be kept within the prescribed range.
Once the size of the reactor is fixed, the upflow velocity can be determined from
Upflow velocity m/h = Reactor height
HRT, h
Using average flow rate one gets the average HRT while the peak flow rate gives
the minimum HRT at which minimum exposure to treatment occurs. In order to
retain any flocculent sludge in reactor at all times, experience has shown that
the upflow velocity should not be more than 0.5 m/h at average flow and not
more than 1.2 m/h at peak flow. At higher velocities, carry over of solids might
occur and effluent quality may be deteriorated. The feed inlet system is next
designed so that the required length and width of the UASB reactor are
determined.
The settling compartment is formed by the sloping hoods for gas collection. The
depth of the compartment is 2.0 to 2.5 m and the surface overflow rate kept at
20 to 28 m3/m2-day (1 to 1.2 m/h) at peak flow. The flow velocity through the
aperture connecting the reaction zone with the settling compartment is limited to
not more than 5 m/h at peak flow. Due attention has to be paid to the geometry
of the unit and to its hydraulics to ensure proper working of the "Gas-LiquidSolid-Separator (GLSS)" the gas collection hood, the incoming flow distribution to
get spatial uniformity and the outflowing effluent.
Physical Parameters
A single module can handle 10 to 15 MLD of sewage. For large flows a number of
modules could be provided. Some physical details of a typical UASB reactor
module are given below:
Reactor
Rectangular or circular. Rectangular shape is preferred
configuration
Depth

4.5 to 5.0 m for sewage.

Width or
diameter

To limit lengths of inlet laterals to around 10-12 m for

facilitating uniform flow distribution and sludge
withdrawal.

Length

As necessary.

Inlet feed

gravity feed from top (preferred for municipal sewage)

or pumped feed from bottom through manifold and
laterals (preferred in case of soluble industrial
wastewaters).

Sludge
blanket
depth

2 to 2.5 m for sewage. More depth is needed for

stronger wastes.

This is a deflector beam which together with the gas

hood (slope 60) forms a "gas-liquid-solid-separator"
(GLSS) letting the gas go to the gas collection channel
at top, while the liquid rises into the settler
Deflector/GL
compartment and the sludge solids fall back into the
SS
sludge compartment. The flow velocity through the
aperture connecting the reaction zone with the settling
compartmentt is generally limited to about 5m/h at
peak flow.
Settler
2.0-2.5 m in depth. Surface overflow rate equals 20-28
compartment m3/m2/d at peak flow.
Process Design Parameters
A few process design parameters for UASBs are listed below for municipal
sewages with BOD about 200-300 mg/l and temperatures above 20C.
HRT

8-10 hours at average flow (minimum 4 hours

at peak flow)

SRT

30-50 days or more

Sludge blanket
concentration
(average)

15-30 kg VSS per m3. About 70 kg TSS per m3.

Organic loading on
sludge blanket

0.3-1.0 kg COD/kg VSS day (even upto 10 kg

COD/ kg VSS day for agro-industrial wastes).

Volumetric organic
loading

1-3 kg COD/m3 day for domestic sewage (1015 kg COD/m3 day for agro-industrial wastes)

BOD/COD removal
efficiency

Sewage 75-85% for BOD. 74-78% for COD.

Inlet points

Minimum 1 point per 3.7-4.0 m2 floor area.

Flow regime

Either constant rate for pumped inflows or

typically fluctuating flows for gravity systems.

Upflow velocity

About 0.5 m/h at average flow, or 1.2 m/h at

peak flow, whichever is low.

Sludge production

0.15-0.25 kg TS per m3 sewage treated.

Sludge drying time

Seven days (in India)

Gas production

Theoretical 0.38 m3/kg COD removed. Actual

0.1-0.3 m3 per kg COD removed.

Gas utilization

Method of use is optional. 1 m3 biogas with

75% methane content is equivalent to 1.4
kWh electricity.

Nutrients nitrogen and

5 to 10% only.
phosphorus removal
Describe the differences in the nature of recycling between activated
sludge process and trickling
filter.
(3)

Solution:

Activated Sludge Process

Trickling Filter

The sludge or biomass is

recycled in the activated sludge
process

Treated wastewater is recycled

in the trickling filter

Purpose of recycling is to
maintain a high biomass
concentration in the aeration tank

Purpose of recycling is to
maintain adequate hydraulic loading
rate, without changing organic
loading rate, so that all portions of
the filter may be wetted adequately
all the time.

2.
A tricking filter with the following dimensions is available. Depth: 2 m,
Surface area: 150 m2. The media consists of stones of 7-10 cm diameter. This
filter will be used to treat 0.6 MLD wastewater with BOD 5 = 300 mg/L. The
trickling filter will be operated in the high-rate mode, i.e., OLR: 0.48 0.96
Kg/m3/d, HLR: 10 40 m3/m2/d, re-circulation ratio: 1-2. Based on this
information, calculate the expected BOD5 removal efficiency.

Hint:

,
Where,
Se =

,
So =

BOD5 in Raw Wastewater, mg/L

Total BOD5 of settled effluent from the filter, mg/L

Sa =

Total BOD5 of wastewater applied to the filter, mg/L

k=

Treatability constant, 2.36

D=

Depth of the Trickling Filter, m

Q=

Total Flow rate applied to the filter without recirculation, m 3/d

A=

Surface Area of the Trickling Filter, m2

n=

0.5

V=

Volume of the Trickling Filter,

(7)

Solution:

Volume of trickling filter = D.A = (2).150 = 300 m 3

Organic Loading Rate (OLR) =

(within limits)

Without recycle, Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) =

(The above value is inadequate and hence must be increased). So, let R = 2

Hence, HLR =

. This value is adequate.

Now, to calculate BOD5 removal efficiency.

It is known that,

, Where,

Also,
or,

or,

or,

Therefore, BOD5 removal efficiency:

96.64%

or,

Explain why attached growth anaerobic reactors are designed based on organic
loading rate (OLR) and hydraulic retention time
(HRT).
(2)

Answer:
The performance of an attached growth anaerobic reactor having a fixed amount
of biomass per unit volume depends on how much substrate is available to the
microorganisms, and how much time is available for consumption/degradation of
this substrate. Organic loading rate (OLR) is a measure of how much substrate is
available to the microorganisms. Hydraulic retention time (HRT) is a measure of
the amount of time available to the microorganisms for the
consumption/degradation of the substrate.

3.
Explain why a fluidized bed reactor is expected to be more efficient, (i.e.,
operate at higher OLR for a particular HRT and give comparable removal
efficiency) as compared to a down-flow or up-flow anaerobic
reactor.
(2)

Answer:
Other things (OLR and HRT) remaining same, the performance of an anaerobic
reactor depends on the amount of biomass that is retained per unit volume of
the reactor. In a fluidized bed reactor, the reactor configuration and mode of
operation ensures that a larger amount of biomass can be maintained per unit
volume of the reactor due to the larger area provided for attachment of
biomass. Hence the improved performance.

4.
Explain why treatment of domestic wastewater by anaerobic methods is
practical using only UASB
reactors.
(2)

Answer:
Obtaining low effluent COD concentration is a requirement of any domestic water
treatment method. Obtaining low COD concentration is possible only is the

specific substrate utilization rate

in the reactor is low, while the

overall substrate utilization rate

is high. This is only possible if the
biomass concentration in the reactor (X) is high. Among anaerobic reaction
configurations, UASB process is the only one that enables the maintenance of
high enough biomess (X) concentration to make domestic wastewater treatment
practical.

5.
Draw a neat sketch and explain the utility and working principle of a gasliquid-solid separator (GLSS) in a UASB
reactor.
(2)

Gas Domes

Answer:

Biomass/sludge particles often escape from the sludge blanket, especially when
they get buoyant due to the attachment of gas bubbles. The idea behind
providing GLSS is to ensure that such buoyant sludge particles impact the GLSS
surface. The impact of this collision is sufficient to ensure that the gas bubbles
and sludge particles are separated. The sludge particles then come less buoyant
and tend to settle back to the sludge blanket, while the gas bubbles escape and
are collected in the gas domes. The settling of sludge particles are further
assisted by the provision of a quiescent sludge settling zone as shown in the
figure above. All these measures ensure that sludge retention in an UASB
reactor is very high.
Explain why while oxidation ponds are efficient for BOD removal, aquatic plant
ponds are inefficient for BOD removal and hence used only for nutrient removal
Answer:
In aquatic plant ponds, the plants take carbon dioxide directly from the
atmosphere for photosynthesis. Oxygen produced is directly released to the
atmosphere. Hence no enhancement of aqueous oxygen concentration, which is
required for microbial degradation of aqueous BOD, is achieved. Hence systems
with such plants can only be utilized for nutrient removal.
In oxidation ponds, algae use dissolved carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and
release oxygen into aqueous phase, which is used by microbes for degradation of
aqueous BOD.
A.

Why is recycling necessary in activated sludge process

(2)

Solution:
In activated sludge process we try to increase the substrate utilization rate
without increasing the specific substrate utilization rate, i.e., in the equation,

, we want to increase
cannot be increased, because,
which is undesirable.

by lowering . However, q

, and thus increasing q will increase S,

Hence X has to be increased. This is achieved by collecting the biomass leaving

the aeration tank and re-circulating it back to the aeration tank.

B.
What are the differences between microbial physiology in high rate and an
extended aeration activated sludge processes.
(2)
Solution:
Assuming Q, So and Va (hence

) to be the same in both cases,

In high rate aeration,

is low, hence m and q are high. Since q is high, S is
high. Since m is high DX is high. X in the aeration tank is comparatively
low. Oxygen requirement is low, as rate of biomass production is high. Nutrient
requirement is high.

In extended aeration,
is high, hence m and q are low. Since q is low, S is
low. Since m is low DX is low. X in the aeration tank is comparatively
high. Oxygen requirement is high, as rate of biomass production is low. Nutrient
requirement is low.
Describe the difference between the recycling in the activated sludge and
trickling filter
processes.
(2)
Solution:
The settled sludge is recycled in ASP, while the treated effluent is recycled in
TF. The objective of recycling in ASP is to maintain the desired biomass
concentration in the aeration tank, while in TF, recycling allows the HLR to be
varied independent of the OLR, thus allowing uniform wetting of the filter media.