Radiation

Safety Officer

Nevada
Technical
Associates
Radiation Safety Training

P.O. Box 93355 Las Vegas, Nevada 89193-3355

1-702-564-2798 www.ntanet.net

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Radiation Safety Officer

Robert Holloway, Ted Allen, and Eva Mart
16 July, 2015

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CONTENTS

RSO

Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Radiation Safety Officer Training Course Roadmap
1.2 What is Radioactivity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Atomic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Chemical Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 Modification to the Bohr Atomic Model . .
1.4.2 Periodic Table of Elements . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Mass & Energy Equivalency . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Binding Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 Naturally Occurring Radionuclides . . . . . . . . .
1.7.1 Cosmic Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.2 Cosmogenic Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.3 Primordial Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.4 Areas of Unusually High Levels of NORM .
1.7.5 Natural Reactor at Oklo . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.6 Consumer Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Historical Highlights Related to Nuclear Science . .

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11
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2 Radioactive Decay
2.1 Radioactive Decay Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Serial Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Parent-Daughter Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Radioactive Decay Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Alpha Particle Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Beta Particle Decay & Internal Conversion . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Positron Decay & K-Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Photons Emitted During Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.5 Spontaneous Fission: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Chart of the Nuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Decay Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Reducing Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Computing Uncertainty in Background Corrected Values

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3 Interactions of Radiation with Matter

3.1 Energy Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Alpha Particle Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Alpha Particle Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Alpha Particle Kinetic Energies & Velocities
3.2.3 Alpha Particle Specific Ionizations . . . . . .
3.2.4 Alpha Particle Range . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Beta Particle Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Beta Particle Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Beta Particle Kinetic Energies & Velocities .
3.3.3 Beta Particle Specific Ionization . . . . . . .

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CONTENTS

RSO

3.4
3.5

3.6

3.3.4 Beta Particle Energy Dissipation . . . . . . . .

3.3.5 Beta Particle Range: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Positron Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
High-Energy Photon (Gamma and X-ray) Interactions
3.5.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2 Photon Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.3 Gamma and X-ray Specific Ionization Rates . .
3.5.4 Gamma and X-ray Interactions with Matter . .
3.5.5 Photoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.6 Compton Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.7 Pair Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.8 Combined Gamma-ray Cross Sections . . . . . .
3.5.9 Gamma and X-ray Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . .
Neutron Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.1 Neutron Energies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.2 Types of Neutron Interactions . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.3 Neutron Specific Ionization . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.4 Neutron Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.5 Neutron Specific Ionization . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Radiation Detection and Measurement

4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Basic Survey Instruments Parts . . .
4.1.2 Types of Radiation . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Operating Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Gas Filled Cylinders . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Operating Voltages - Gas Filled . . .
4.2.3 Nuclear Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4 Scintillation Detectors . . . . . . . .
4.2.5 Semiconductor (solid-state) Detectors
4.3 Instruments Classified by Function . . . . .
4.3.1 Beta Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Alpha Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3 Photon Detectors . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.4 Neutron Detectors . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Survey Instrument Concerns . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Survey Instrument Calibration . . . .
4.4.2 Background Radiation . . . . . . . .
4.4.3 Minimum Detectable Levels . . . . .
4.4.4 Survey Instrument Limitations . . . .
5 Biological Effects of Radiation
5.1 History of Radiobiology . . .
5.2 Dose Terms . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Dose Pathways . . . . . . . .
5.3.1 External Pathways . .
5.3.2 Internal Pathways . . .

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CONTENTS

RSO

5.4
5.5
5.6

5.7

5.8

5.9

5.3.3 Bio kinetic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.3.4 Effective half-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.5 Protective Measures after Intake . . . . . . . .
5.3.6 Internal Dose Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effects of Radiation on Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cell Survival Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.1 Factors Affecting Amount of Cellular Damage
5.6.2 Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE) . . . .
Human Health Effects from Radiation Exposure . . .
5.7.1 Non-stochastic (Deterministic) Effects . . . .
5.7.2 Stochastic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7.3 Prenatal Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7.4 Life Shortening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7.5 Genetic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8.1 Risk Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8.2 Risk Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8.3 Risk Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8.4 Risk Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dose Terms & Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6 Shielding
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Ionizing Radiation Shielding . . . . .
6.2.1 Shielding of Charged Particles
6.2.2 Shielding of Photons . . . . .
6.2.3 Shielding of Neutrons . . . . .
6.3 Facility Shielding . . . . . . . . . . .

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155
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7 Personnel Dosimetry Devices and Methods

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 External Personnel Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1 Charged Particle Equilibrium and Bragg-Gray . . .
7.2.2 Photodosimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.3 Thermoluminescence Dosimetry . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.4 Neutron Dosimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.5 Pocket Dosimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.6 Other External Dosimetric Devices and Instruments
7.2.7 Performance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 External Dose Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1 Point Source Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.2 Other Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.3 Neutron Dose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.4 Dose from Beta Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Internal Personnel Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.1 Monitoring Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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192

CONTENTS

RSO

7.4.2

Internal Dose Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

8 Regulations and Guidance

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 Chronology of Protection Standards in the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Sources of Standards, Recommendations, and Requirements . . . .
8.3.1 ICRP, ICRU, NCRP, and ANSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.2 HPS, ACR, and CRCPD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.3 Regulatory Guides, Notices, and Bulletins . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 Basis for Current Protection Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 Current Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.1 10 CFR 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.2 Additional Radiation Safety Regulations . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6 Licensing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.1 Applicable Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.2 Licensing Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7 10 CFR 20 Summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.8 Typical RSO Duties And Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . .
8.9 BROAD SCOPE LICENSE APPLICATION SUMMARY .
8.10 AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.11 US NRC Regulatory Guides Series Division 8 - Occupational Health

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9 Radiological Safety Surveys, Control, and Documents

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Surveys and Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 Types of Surveys with Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2 Radiation Level Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.3 Radioactivity Contamination Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.4 Airborne Radioactivity Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 Radiological Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.1 Work Area Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2 Work Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3 Containment and Ventilation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.4 Decontamination Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.5 Security and Other Physical Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.6 Administrative Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.7 ALARA and Best Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4 Records and Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.1 Radioactive Material License/Registration . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.2 Radioactive Material Receipt, Transfer, and Disposal Records
9.4.3 Radioactive Material Inventories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.4 Sealed Source Leak Test Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.5 Radiation and Contamination Survey Records . . . . . . . . .
9.4.6 Personnel Dosimetry Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.7 Instrument Calibration and Safety Test Records . . . . . . . .
9.4.8 Personnel Selection, Training, and Supervision Records . . . .
9.4.9 Audits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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RSO

9.4.10 Notifications, Documentation, and Reporting of Radiation Accidents . . . . 259

9.4.11 Operating and Emergency Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.4.12 Document Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
10 Transportation and Disposal Regulations
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Packaging of Radioactive Material for Shipment . . . .
10.2.1 Transportation Package Categories . . . . . . .
10.2.2 Radiation and Contamination Limits . . . . . .
10.2.3 Transport Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.4 Receiving and Opening Packages . . . . . . . .
10.2.5 Manifest and Hazardous Material Documents .
10.2.6 Package Marking, Labels, and Vehicle Placards
10.3 Radioactive Waste Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.1 Solid Radioactive Waste Disposal . . . . . . . .
10.3.2 Liquid Radioactive Waste Disposal . . . . . . .
10.3.3 Airborne Radioactive Waste . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.4 Radioactive Waste Disposal Sites . . . . . . . .
11 Radiological Emergencies
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Preparedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5 Classification of Incidents . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.1 Classification by Location . . . . . . . .
11.5.2 Classification by Radiological Condition
11.5.3 Classification by Degree of Severity . . .
11.6 Incident Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.7 Incident Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.7.1 Scene Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.7.2 Radiation and Medical Evaluations . . .
11.7.3 Personnel Decontamination . . . . . . .
11.7.4 Notifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.8 Review of Radiological Incidents . . . . . . . . .

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261
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12 References

293

13 NCRP Publications

315

14 License Examples

325

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Introduction

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Introduction - 1

RSO

1.1

Radiation Safety Officer Training Course Roadmap

Radiation safety (aka Health Physics) draws from many different scientific disciplines in developing
principles, procedures and techniques for the protection of personnel, the public, and the environment from the effects of radiation. This course presents theoretical concepts, practical information,
and real-life examples to equip you to fulfill essential Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) duties.
Some subjects may be repeated in separate lessons under different contexts. Such repetition is
intended, and should help you master certain key concepts. The following table summarizes the
contents of each lesson.

Table 1: Radiation Safety Officer Training Roadmap

Section 1

Section 2

Introduction

Radioactive Decay
Processes

Chemical Interactions
Mass-Energy Equivalence
Binding Energy
Naturally Occurring Radionuclides
Historical Highlights
Radioactive Decay Equilibrium
Decay Processes
Chart of the Nuclides
Decay Statistics
Modes of Interaction and Ranges for
Xalpha particles
Xbeta particles
Xgamma & x-rays
Xneutrons

Section 3

Interaction of
Radiation with Matter

Section 4

Radiation Detection &

Measurement

Operating Principles of Instrumentation

Detection Issues Related to Type of Radiation

Biological Effects of
Radiation

Dose Units
Mechanisms of Biological Damage
Deterministic Effects
Stochastic Effects
What is Risk?

Section 5

Section 6

Shielding

Shielding Related to Types of Radiation:

Xcharged particles
Xgamma rays
Xneutrons
General Issues in Facility Shielding

13

Introduction - 1

RSO

Table 1: Radiation Safety Officer Training Roadmap Cont.

Section 7

Section 8

Section 9

Section 10

Section 11

Personnel Dosimetry

Regulations & Guides

External Dosimeters
External Dose Evaluations
Internal Dose Evaluations
Chronology
Sources
Current Regulations
NRC Licensing Procedures

Surveys, Records &

Documentation

Surveys & Inspections

Radiological Controls & Work Practices
ALARA
Record-keeping & Documentation
Operating & Emergency Procedures

Transportation &
Disposal Regulations

Applicable Regulations
Packaging for Transport
Package Marking and Labels & Vehicle Placards
Radioactive Waste Disposal

Radiological
Emergencies

Emergency Classification
Accident Phases
Notifications
Assistance Teams
Emergency Response
Accident Causes & Examples
Mailing Lists & Websites
Glossary
Abbreviations
List of Elements
Conversion Factors
References

Section 12

Reference Info

Section 13

Reference Info

NRC Publications

Section 14

Reference Info

NRC Materials License Application Example

Section 15

Reference Info

Safety Videos & Training CDs Available from

Nevada Technical Associates

14

Introduction - 1

RSO

1.2

What is Radioactivity?

Although radioactivity has existed since the Earths formation, the discovery of this phenomenon
is a recent event. Radioactive processes involve atomic nuclei, in contrast to chemical reactions
which involve changes in the arrangement of outer electrons.
Chemical reactions can result in the formation of new compounds due to the rearrangement of
elements, such as HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2 O. Nuclear processes, on the other hand, typically,
result in the formation of new elements (for example, 14C 14N + electron).
Table 2: Radiation & Radioactivity Definitions
Radioactivity

The spontaneous process by which unstable atoms emit or radiate excess energy from their nuclei, and thus, change or decay
to atoms of a different element or to a lower energy state of the
same element.

Radionuclide

Unstable atomic species which spontaneously decay and emit

radiation.

Radiation

High energy particles and electromagnetic rays emitted from

atomic nuclei during radioactive disintegration.
However, the term radiation, is also often used instead of the
longer term, electro-magnetic radiation (aka electromagnetic
rays or photons), whether or not they originate in the nucleus.
And, there are two broad categories or electromagnetic radiation (ionizing and non-ionizing). For example, x-rays originate
outside of nuclei and typically have sufficient energy to ionize
atoms.

Electromagnetic Radiation

Another term for photon which is an electromagnetic particle or corpuscle that always travel in waves at a velocity
of 3 108 m/ s in a vacuum. Each particle has zero mass, no
electric charge, and an indefinitely long lifetime. The energy of
a photon is inversely proportional to its wavelength.

Ionizing Electromagnetic
Radiation

Ionizing electromagnetic radiation consists of photons possessing

enough energy to completely free electrons from atoms, thereby
producing ions. An ion is an atom which has lost or gained one
or more electrons, making it negatively or positively charged.

Non-Ionizing
Electromagnetic Radiation

Non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation consists of photons that

do not possess sufficient energy to ionize atoms. However, nonionizing electromagnetic radiation may have enough energy to
excite electrons, that is cause them to move to a higher energy
state. Examples include near ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared light, microwaves, and radio waves.

15

Introduction - 1

RSO

Figure 1: Bohr Atomic Model

1.3

Atomic Structure

An atom is considered the most basic and fundamental particle of matter, although its made up
of subatomic particles (e.g. electrons, protons & neutrons, which in turn consist of even smaller
particles). When radioactivity was first discovered, little was known about the structure of an
atom.
Models are theoretical constructs developed to explain the manner in which things happen.
Since no one can see an atom, let alone a nucleus, our ability to understand an atom is based
on observing what they do when placed under certain conditions. Models are then developed by
figuring backwards. For example, Rutherford surmised that an atom consists mostly of a very
dense nucleus surrounded by empty space and an electron cloud, because of the way alpha particles
were deflected when they impinged upon a thin gold sheet. Models are useful in that they describe
observed phenomena and permit prediction of the consequences of certain acts.
Philosophically, most scientists subscribe to a school of thought called logical positivism. According to this philosophy, reality (model or theory) cannot be verified with certainty. Therefore,
science is instead concerned with the simplest possible unified description of as many experimental
findings as possible. According to this philosophy of science, ascribing to even different models to
explain one phenomenon is acceptable provided each theory is capable of describing experimental
facts the others cannot explain. Thus, models stand, are enhanced, or even entirely debunked as
knowledge increases and new instrumentation enhances our powers of observation. For example,
based on newly published quantum mechanics (first by Plank and then added to by Einstein),
Bohr expanded upon Rutherfords initial solar system type atomic model.
Bohrs model illustrates that electrons orbit the nucleus in differing energy regions called orbits
or shells (analogous to planets orbiting the sun, but not in a single plane). Bohrs Model is
considered a planetary-type model because the attractive gravitational force in a solar system
and the attractive Coulomb force (between the positively charged nucleus and the negatively
charged electrons) in an atom are mathematically of the same form. However, these forces differ.
The intrinsic strength of the Coulomb interaction is much larger than that of the gravitational
interaction. In addition, Coulomb forces can be attractive or repulsive, whereas the gravitational
1

A schematic illustration of the Bohr model of the atom by Adrignola available at https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bohr%27s_model.svg under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0. Full terms at
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
16

Introduction - 1

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force is always attractive. The key feature of quantum mechanics that is incorporated in the Bohr
Model is that electrons are restricted to certain discrete energy values (called shells or orbits).
The energy associated with a given shell is said to be quantized. This means that only certain
electron orbits with certain radii are allowed; orbits in-between do not exist. Electrons can make
transitions between the shells allowed by quantum mechanics by absorbing or emitting exactly the
energy difference between the orbitals. By absorbing an energy equal to, or more than, what is
called the ionization potential, an electron can become freed from an atom and no longer bound to
it leaving the atom ionized. Amazingly, Bohrs 1913 atomic theory still approximates the current
most accepted atomic model, where:
There are two sets of forces acting upon the nucleus. 1) ordinary coulomb forces of repulsion
between the positively charged protons in close proximity; and 2) a strong nuclear force
holding the protons and neutrons together.
The combined effects of these two forces enable only certain neutron to proton ratios
to be stable.
The majority of an atoms mass is contained within a small, dense nucleus (on the order of
10 mega-tons/cm3 ).
The diameter of a nucleus is on the order of 1 1012 cm. Its surrounded by a largely empty
region 1 108 cm in diameter in which electrons orbit the nucleus. Thus, the diameter of a
nucleus is around 10,000 times less than the overall atom diameter.
The nucleus contains positively charged protons (each 1.6 1019 C) and neutrally charged
neutrons. The masses of protons and neutrons are: 1.6726 1024 g and 1.6749 1024 g,
respectively.)
The number of extranuclear electrons equals the number of protons within the nucleus. Each
electron carries the same charge as a proton, but negative instead of positive. Thus, the net
charge of an atom is zero.
Electrons have a mass around 9.11 1028 g.
Electrons orbit nuclei in fixed energy shells (quantized orbits); with each shell having a
characteristic binding energy for a given element.

Table 3: Important Atomic Terms & Concepts

Atomic Number (Z)

The number of protons and hence positive charges in a nucleus.

Elements are defined by their atomic number (regardless of the
neutron number), so all atoms of a given element have the same Z
number. Since a neutral atom has a net zero charge, Z is also the
number of electrons orbiting the nucleus.

Neutron Number (N)

The number of neutrons in a nucleus (N= A-Z).

Nucleon

Generic term for protons and neutrons.

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Table 3: Important Atomic Terms & Concepts Cont.

Mass Number (A)

Atom Symbolization
A
ZX

The total number of nucleons in a given nuclide. It is always an integer (whole number) and should not be confused with the nuclides
precise mass, which is not a whole number. (A= N + Z)
X is the element symbol - such as Sr for Strontium
A is the mass number - such as 90 in Strontium 90
Z is the atomic number - such as 38 for Strontium

90
38Sr
90
38Sr

Isotope

Isotopes are different forms of a given element; where each has the
same atomic number (Z) but different neutron numbers (N). For
example, a 2H (deuterium - with 1 proton and 1 neutron) is an
isotope of 1H (hydrogen - with 1 proton and 0 neutrons).

Nuclide

A nuclide is a generic term for any atomic nucleus specified by its

atomic number, mass number and charge. The term isotope is
often used loosely instead of nuclide. Isotope is best used when
referring to different atomic species of the same element.

Atomic Mass Units

[Nuclear Mass Scale]

Atomic mass units (amu) provides the means for citing masses
relative to 12C unbound, at rest, and in its ground state. By
definition 12C has 12amu; correspondingly one amu equals the mass
in 1/12 of a 12C atom. The actual mass of one amu is based on the
6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 6 electrons in one 12C atom and equals
1.66 1024 g.
An atoms atomic weight is its amu number; which is its mass
relative to 12C or: atomic weight = 12 x (mass A / mass 12C)
The atomic weight of an element is a weighted average, accounting for the natural abundance of all the elements isotopes.

Moles and
Avogadros Number

One mole = atomic weight-g and contains Avogadros number

of entities. Where: Avogadros number= 6.022 1023 atoms (or
molecules)
Since one mole of an element is its atomic weight in grams and will
contain 6.022 1023 atoms, the number of atoms in any given mass
can readily be computed. For example, since 12 g of 12C contains
6.022 1023 atoms as does 235 g of 235U:
100 g of 235U contains 100/235 6.022 1023 = 2.56 1023 atoms,
and 100 g of 12C, 100/12 6.022 1023 atoms = 50.18 1023 atoms

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1.4

Chemical Interactions

Radioactive processes alter atomic nuclei, while chemical reactions involve changes in the arrangement of valence electrons, rather than nuclei. The chemical properties of an atom are determined
by characteristics of its outermost electrons, and formation of chemical compounds involve minor
rearrangements of these electronic structures.
Although chemical interactions do not affect the nucleus, the converse is not true. That is,
ionizing radiation disrupts orbital electrons and radioactive decay often results in new elements
being formed (e.g. change in Z number).
Table 4: Basic Chemistry
Electron Shells

Extranuclear electrons ( e ) can be conceptualized as orbiting a

nucleus like planets around the sun, except not in a fixed plane.
Electrons arrange themselves in fixed orbitals (quantized energy
shells) according to well-established laws. The closest electron orbital is labeled K (and can only hold two electrons). The next
orbital is L (and can hold only 8 electrons). The outer most shell
is called the valence shell. Electrons in the closer shells having
higher binding energies, and those in the valence shells the least.

Electronic Neutrality

One of the basic physical laws of nature is that like charges repel
and opposite charges attract. Thus, atoms move towards electronic
neutrality and an ionized atom is very reactive.

Full Valence Shells

Another basic tendency is that towards a full valence shell. This

tendency plus that towards electric neutrality, govern the chemical
behavior of elements. For example: Elemental fluorine ( 9F) has
two electrons in its K- shell, and 7 in its L- shell. Thus, it only
needs one electron to fill its L-shell (i.e. 8 electrons). However,
if it gained one electron, it would have a net negative charge since
its nucleus has 9 protons. Elemental hydrogen ( 1H), on the other
hand, needs one electron to fill its valence shell. Thus, if a hydrogen
atom forms a bond with a fluorine atom (HF), these two- basic
tendencies are satisfied for both elements.

Ionization & Excitation

When a sufficient amount of energy is imparted to an electron to

remove it entirely from the electrical field of a nucleus, the atom
becomes ionized. The free electron and positively charged atom
together are called an ion pair. The ionization potential of an
element is the amount of energy necessary to ionize the atom by
freeing the least tightly bound electron.
The orbital shell an electron normally occupies is called ground
state. Excitation refers to an electron that is still bound to
the atom but has moved to a higher-energy, less stable shell by
absorbing energy.
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Introduction - 1

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1.4.1

Modification to the Bohr Atomic Model

Bohrs atomic model (mathematical equations) explain the principal (ground state) electron orbitals, but not the sub-levels within orbitals that are observed. For example, inspection of hydrogens spectral lines using high resolving power spectroscopes, indicate the lines have a fine
structure. That is, the spectral lines are in reality many lines very close together, which implies
there are sub levels of energy within the principal orbital shells. These sublevels can be further
explained by assuming that within them, electrons orbit the nucleus in an elliptical rather than
circular pattern. The nucleus is at one of the foci and ellipses of different eccentricities have slightly
different energy levels which are restricted by quantum conditions. To adequately explain orbital
electrons, four different quantum numbers need to be described involving angular momentum,
elliptical momentum, spin and magnetic moment.
1.4.2

Periodic Table of Elements

The Periodic Table displays the elements in a tabular manner, arranging the elements in order of
increasing atomic number (i.e. number of protons). There is a periodicity to the elements because:
1) the number of electrons follows the number of protons, 2) no valence shell contains more than
eight electrons, and 3) electrons fill orbitals in an orderly, prescribed manner, as explained by
Bohrs atomic model and by the Pauli Exclusion Principle. This principle indicates that no two
electrons in any atom may have the same set of four quantum numbers. The horizontal rows in
the Periodic Table are called periods (of which there are seven) and the vertical rows are called
groups or families. Families of elements behave similarly since they have the same valence shell
structure. For example, the noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe & Rn) have full valence shells (eight
electrons) and chemically are very nonreactive. Some noteworthy points regarding the Periodic
Table of Elements:
No valence shell has more than 8 electrons
The first 20 elements successively add electrons to their outermost shells
Transition elements (starting with Sc to Ni) add to the third orbital, instead of to the outer
fourth orbital, to a maximum of 18 electrons. Elements from Y to Pd follow the same pattern
except add the fourth orbital, instead of the outer fifth orbital gets filled to a maximum of
18 electrons.
The Lanthanides, also called the Rare Earths, (elements from Ce to Lu) differ from transition
elements in that the fourth and fifth shells contain essentially the same electronic structures,
while the third shell gets filled as the atomic number increases.
Actinides are elements starting with thorium. All isotopes of these elements are radioactive
and this group includes the elements used to fuel nuclear reactors.

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Introduction - 1

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Figure 2: The Periodic Table of the Elements

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1.5

Mass & Energy Equivalency

Einstein made the revolutionary proposal in his Theory of Relativity that mass and energy are
equivalent and convertible, according to:
E = mc2

(1.1)

Where:
E = ergs(g cm2 /s2 )
(1.2)

m0 = mass at rest(g)
c = speed of light in a vacuum (2.9979 1010 cm/s)

This mass-energy equivalency is startling when stated in actual numbers. For example, the
energy equivalency of 1 kg (2.2 lb) of matter (completely annihilated) is 1.977 1024 ergs (or
25 109 kW h). This is 2,941,176,000 times the amount of energy that would be produced by
burning the same amount of coal. With no real proof, at first Einsteins equation created much
speculation by philosophers, engineers, scientists and even comic strip developers. However, around
1930, evidence supporting its validity began to emerge rapidly; and now this mass-energy relationship is accepted as a law of physics.
Nuclear processes are normally measured in electron-volts (eV) defined as the energy acquired
by an electron when it is accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt (V). Often, electron volts are expressed in terms of kilo (1000) or mega (1,000,000) electron volts, keV or MeV,
respectively. There are 1.6022 106 ergs/MeV (1.6022 1013 J/MeV).
Example: The energy equivalence of an electron can be computed from its rest mass (m) as
follows:
mc2

9.1095 1028 g (2.9979 1010 cm/s)2

8.1861 107 ergs

8.1861 1014 J

divide by 1.6022 1013 J/M eV

8.1861 1014 J
1.6022 1013 J/M eV

0.51093M eV 0.511M eV

22

(1.3)

Introduction - 1

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Example: The energy equivalence of one amu can be computed as follows:

mc2

1.660524 g (2.9979 1010 cm/s)2

1.4924 103 ergs

1.4924 1010 J

(1.4)

divide by 1.6022 1013 J/M eV

1.4924 1010 J
1.6022 1013 J/M eV

1.6

931.47M eV /amu 931.5M eV /amu

Binding Energy

The mass of an atom is always less than the sum of its constituent parts. That is the sum of an
atoms proton and neutron masses when computed by individual nucleon weights, will always be
more than the actual mass of the atom containing the same number of nucleons. This difference in
mass is termed mass defect. Since energy and mass are equivalent and convertible, the energy
equivalent of an atoms mass defect can be determined; it is called binding energy since it
represents the energy with which the nucleus is held together. Binding energy can also be thought
of as: 1) the energy released when a nucleus is formed from its parts; or 2) the energy required to
break down a nucleus into its components. The mass defect () can be computed by the following
equation:
= ZMp + N Mn + ZMe Ma

(1.5)

Where:
= mass defect
Z = atomic number
N = neutron number
Mp = atomic mass one proton, amu
Mn = atomic mass one neutron, amu
Me = atomic mass of one electron, amu
Ma = atomic mass of the bound atom, amu
The binding energy can then be computed from the mass defect by the previously established
relationship of 931.5 MeV/amu. The mass defect can also be used to compute the energy of emitted
particulate radiation, as will be explained further in Section 2.
Example: The mass defect () and binding energy (Q) of
8 protons and 9 neutrons, and:
Atomic weight of

17

O = 16.999133 amu

Atomic weight of one proton = 1.0078252 amu

Atomic weight of one neutron = 1.0086654 amu
Atomic weight of one electron = 0.0005486 amu
23

17

O can be computed. Given it has

Introduction - 1

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Average Binding Energy per nucleon (in MeV)

9
O16
8 C12
He4
7
6

Fe56

U236

U238

Li7
Li6

5
4
H3
He3

3
2

H2

H1

0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

242

Protons + Neutrons

Figure 3: Avg. Nucleon Binding Energy vs Mass Number (No. of nucleons)

= 8 (1.0078252 amu) + 9 (1.0086654 amu) + 8 (0.0005486 amu) 16.999133 amu

(1.6)

= 0.145845 amu
The binding energy is then:
931.5 MeV/ amu 0.145 845 amu = 135.85 MeV
And, the binding energy per nucleon is
135.85 / 17 = 7.99 MeV/ nucleon
Figure-3 plots average binding energy per nucleon versus mass number. While total binding
energy is an increasing function of the mass number, the average binding energy per nucleon
increases from mass numbers of 1 (hydrogen) to around 60 and then slowly decreases from there.
Those elements represented by the highest average binding energies are the most stable since they
are the most tightly bound. The figure also indicates that stability is gained when two nuclei with
low mass combine into one element (e.g. 2H and 2H fusion) as well as when heavy nuclei split into
two more tightly bound nuclei (e.g. 235U fission). Thus, both fission and fusion reactions result in
the release of energy.

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Introduction - 1

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Stable nuclides can exist for elements with Z numbers of 82 and below; all nuclides with Z
numbers of 83 or greater are radioactive. When evaluating stable nuclides as a function of the
ratios of neutrons numbers (N) to proton number (Z) a few tendencies become evident:
1. The ratio of neutron to protons for elements with Z numbers of 20 (calcium) or below stay
fairly close to 1 (albeit the mean ratio deviates slightly above 1).
2. The ratio of neutrons to protons for elements with Z numbers above 20 become increasingly
higher.
3. Certain combinations of neutrons and protons are more stable than others. For example,
more stable nuclides exist when both neutrons and protons are even numbered than odd-even,
or odd-odd pairs.
Even N, Even Z - 159 stable nuclides
Odd N, Even Z - 53 stable nuclides
Even N, Odd Z - 50 stable nuclides
Odd N, Odd Z - 5 stable nuclides
4. There are certain neutron or proton magic numbers that are especially stable. These
magic numbers are: 2, 8, 20, 50, 82 and 126 - etc. For example, all three natural decay
chains end in stable lead (Z = 82). This magic number phenomenon suggests there may be
shells within the nucleus somewhat analogous to the electron orbital shells; within certain
nuclear shell configurations being more stable than others.
5. Transuranic fission reactions result in neuron emissions since a lower neutron to proton ratio
is necessary for stability in lower atomic mass nuclides.
6. Figure-4 plots stable nuclides as a function of neutron and proton number. It graphically
illustrates the relationship of the neutron to proton ratio and stability as a function of atomic
number.

1.7

Naturally Occurring Radionuclides

The earth is naturally radioactive. The air we breathe, food we eat, rocks and soil we walk on, all
contain radionuclides. In addition, we are continually exposed to secondary cosmic radiation, and
to gamma rays emitted by radionuclides all around us. In fact, around 340 naturally occurring
radionuclides have been identified (NORM is an acronym for Naturally Occurring Radioactive
Material). The sources of naturally occurring radiation can be categorized into three groups:
Cosmic rays
Cosmogenic radionuclides
Primordial radionuclides

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Introduction - 1

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130

Neutron Number N

120

n/p ratio = 2

110
100
90
80
70
60

n/p ratio = 1

50
40
30
20
10
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Atomic Number Z
Figure 4: Neutron No. vs Atomic No. - Band of Stability
In addition to naturally occurring radiation, man-made radionuclides can contribute to background levels. These man made radionuclides include those generated from weapons testing and
nuclear power generation. Also, some technologies can enhance background levels, at least locally
(e.g., coal burning).
Levels of naturally occurring radiation can vary by over two orders of magnitude, depending on
factors including type of adjacent rock, soil constituents, altitude, latitude, and even meteorological
conditions. As an RSO it is essential to know when the radioactivity being encountered is more
than the levels naturally present at your location.
1.7.1

Cosmic Rays

Cosmic rays (also called galactic radiation) originate in outer space and impinge isotropically on
top of the earths atmosphere at around 15.5 mi (25 km) up. They consist of high energy particles:
85% protons, 14% alpha particles and about 1% of nuclei with atomic numbers between 4 and
26 (beryllium to iron). An outstanding characteristic of these cosmic rays is that even though
they are particulates, they are very penetrating due to their extreme energies. The average energy
is 1 104 MeV, with maximum energies around 1 1013 MeV. In comparison, alpha particles
rarely exceed 8 MeV. Cosmic rays do not directly reach the earths surface, being intercepted by
atmospheric gases. However, a small percentage of their secondary reaction products (gamma
rays, neutrons, protons, alpha particles, pions, electrons and muons) rain down upon the earths
surface. The dose rate from secondary cosmic radiation varies in different parts of the globe,
based largely on geomagnetic fields and altitudes. Secondary cosmic radiation contributes from
about 10% to 30% of the total annual dose delivered from all natural sources. Altitude has the
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Introduction - 1

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Table 5: Cosmogenic Radionuclides

Cosmogenic
Radionuclides

Half-Life

Avg Tropospheric Concentration (pCi/kg air)

12.3 years

3.2 102

53.6 days

0.28

14

5730 years

3.4

22

2.6 years

3.0 105

32

14.3 days

3.4 103

35

2.87 hours

3.5 103

36

3.1 105 years

6.8 109

H
Be
C
Na
P
S
Cl

From Eisenbud (1973). Environmental Radioactivity.

largest impact on the dose delivered from secondary cosmic radiation. For example, this dose
component is four times higher in Leadville, Colorado (at 10,000 ft elevation) than in Los Angeles,
California, and the dose rate from cosmic radiation on airplanes is so high that according to the
United Nations UNSCEAR 2000 Report, airline workers receive more dose on average than any
other type of worker.
While the sun also emits particulate radiation (mostly protons), the energy spectrum is significantly lower than that from galactic origin. Solar particulates vary widely in intensity and
spectrum, increasing in strength after some solar events such as solar flares. However, an increase
in solar cosmic ray intensity is often followed by a decrease in the intensity of galactic rays impinging upon the earths atmosphere. This effect is called a Forbush decrease. This phenomenon
is thought to occur from elevated solar winds expanding the suns magnetic field, and thereby
providing additional shielding against cosmic radiation.
1.7.2

Cosmogenic Radionuclides

Cosmogenic radionuclides are those that are formed by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric gases. These high energy interactions result in the liberation of neutrons from nuclei,
which in turn are captured by atmospheric gases creating certain radionuclides (for example, 14N
+ n 14C + p). Essentially, almost all the dose delivered from cosmogenic radionuclides is due
to 14C. Nevertheless, 14C delivers only around 0.3% of the total annual background dose.
Carbon-14 produced in the atmosphere quickly oxidizes to CO2 . The equilibrium concentrations
14
of C in the atmosphere are controlled primarily by the exchange of CO2 between the atmosphere
and the ocean; and oceans are the major sink for atmospheric removal of 14C. Table-5 lists a few
cosmogenic radionuclides.

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Introduction - 1

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1.7.3

Primordial Radionuclides

Primordial radionuclides include those in the earths crust that have been around since it was
formed. The levels of primordial radionuclides vary within location, depending mostly on the type
of rock; and there are a few places on earth with exceptionally high concentrations. Primordial
radionuclides are typically divided into two groups:
Singly occurring radionuclides
Decay chains
Potassium-40 The most important singly occurring radionuclide is 40K; which exists as
a constant fraction of stable potassium. Its a beta and gamma emitter and decays to stable
40
Ar. Even though only 0.012 % of natural potassium is the seventh most abundant element in the
earths crust and the sixth most abundant in the oceans. Potassium-40 behaves in the environment
the same as other potassium isotopes, being assimilated into all plant and animal tissues through
normal biological processes. Because of its relative abundance and energetic beta emission (1.3
MeV), 40K is easily the predominant radioactive component in normal foods and human tissues.
A 154-lb man contains around 140 g of potassium (and consequently 0.1 Ci of 40K) mostly in
muscle tissue (which means over 200,000 atoms of 40K decay per minute). In all (externally and
internally), 40K generates about 10% of the total naturally occurring annual dose.
Decay Chains There are three long, ubiquitous naturally occurring parent-daughter decay
chains. Decay chains form when an initial radionuclide (parent) decays (or transforms) into a
radioactive daughter , which likewise transforms into a radionuclide, and so-on so-forth until generation of a stable nuclide. Radioactive daughter nuclides may have different chemical properties,
decay at different rates and emit different types and energies of radiation. The three naturally
occurring chains start with 238U, 232Th and 235U, where:

238

232

235

U decays through 15 daughters to

206

Pb,

Th decays through 10 daughters to

U decays through 12 daughters to

208

Pb,

207

Pb,

Each chain decays through isotopes of radium and radon.

Uranium Three isotopes of uranium are found in nature (234, 235 and 238). Two are
primordial radionuclides ( 238U at 99.28% and 235U at 0.71%), where 234U is a daughter of 238U.
Uranium concentrations vary in the different types of rocks and soil. Average concentrations vary
from 0.03 ppm in ultrabasic igneous rocks to 120 ppms in Floridas phosphate rocks. The high
levels in phosphate rock result in correspondingly elevated uranium and daughter concentrations
in commercial phosphate fertilizers. Because uranium is found to some extent in all types of soil,
uranium and daughter nuclides are also in food and subsequently, human tissues.
Thorium Thorium is also found throughout rocks and soil in varying concentrations (ranging
from about 8 to 33 ppm.) However, thorium is less soluble than uranium and, thus, is not taken
up by vegetation nearly as readily. Furthermore, thoron ( 220Rn) does not migrate as readily as
radon ( 222Rn) because of its extremely short half life. Overall, thorium and daughters deliver a
much lower dose than that from the 238U decay series.
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Introduction - 1

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Table 6: Naturally Occurring Decay Chains

Uranium
Decay Series
Isotope
238

234
Th

234m
Pa

234
U

230
Th

226
Ra

222
Rn

218
Po

214
Pb

214
Bi

214
Po

210
Tl

210
Pb

210
Bi

210
Po

206
Tl

206
Pb

Half-Life

Thorium
Decay Series
Rad

4.47109 yr

24.1 days

1.17 min

2.45105 yr

7.54104 yr

1.62103 yr

3.82 day

3.11 min

26.8 min

19.9 min

<< 1 sec

1.3 min

22.3 yr

5.0 days

138 days

4.2 min

Stable

Isotope
232

Th

228
Ra

228
Ac

228
Th

224
Ra

220
Rn

216
Po

212
Pb

212
Bi

212
Po

208
Tl

208
Pb

Half-Life

Actinium
Decay Series
Rad

1.391010 yr

6.7 yr

6.13 hr

1.90 yr

3.64 days

54.5 sec

0.16 sec

10.6 hr

60.6 min

<< 1 sec

3.1 min

Stable

29

Isotope
235

231
Th

231
Pa

227
Ac

227
Th

223
Fr

223
Ra

219
Rn

215
Po

211
Pb

211
Bi

207
Po

207
Tl

207
Pb

Half-Life

Rad

7.13108 yr

25.6 hr

3.48104 yr

22 yr

18 days

22 min

11.7 days

4.0 sec

<< 1 sec

36 min

2.0 min

0.52 sec

4.8 min

Stable

Introduction - 1

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Radium Radium isotopes are found in all three naturally occurring decay chains. Radium
is chemically similar to calcium and thus, up-taken by plants in the same manner. Also, when
consumed, radium is metabolized by the body similarly to calcium and deposits preferentially in
bone matrices. Because of the considerable variability in soil, radium levels in food also fluctuates.
An interesting bit of trivia is that due to radium, Brazil nuts tend to be much more radioactive
than most foods (on the order of 1000 times greater). This is because the extensive root system of
the Brazil nut tree concentrates barium, which is a cogener of radium (both are Group II on the
Periodic Table).
Radon ( 222Rn) is in the decay chain of 238U. It is an inert, noble gas with a half-life of 3.82
days. Once formed by 226Ra decay, it readily migrates out of soil and collects inside buildings.
Radon (and daughters) is by far the largest contributor to the dose received from all sources of
naturally occurring radiation, generating around two-thirds of the total dose. It contributes such
a large fraction of the does because:
It is a noble gas causing it to readily seep out of the ground and then mix with air,
Its half-life is long enough to enable migration into air and become available for inhalation,
Its half-life is short enough to increase the probability of decay once inhaled,
Radons daughter products are electrically charged solids that quickly adhere to airborne
particulates (e.g. dust) which can be inhaled,
Radon is an energetic alpha emitter as well as the parent of five short lived daughters, three
of which also emit high energy alphas.
Indoor radon levels have attracted much interest since the 1970s due to concerns about its ability
to potentially cause cancer. In the US, radon levels in homes average about 1.5 pCi/L (55 Bq / m3 ),
with an EPA action level of 4 pCi/L (148 Bq / m3 . Nearly 1 in 15 US homes are estimated to exceed
this EPA action level, and levels as high as 2700 pCi/L (100.000 Bq / m3 ) have been measured.
Correspondingly, thoron ( 220Rn) is thoriums decay chain. Far lower concentrations of thoron are
found in air than radon. Its extremely short half-life (54.5 sec) precludes much migration out of
the ground between birth and decay. Thoron decays through four very short-lived daughters to a
stable isotope of lead ( 208Pb).
1.7.4

Areas of Unusually High Levels of NORM

There are a few inhabited areas renown for their exceptionally high levels of terrestrial radionuclides, they are:
Ramsar, Iran
Guarapari, Brazil
Kerala, India
Yanjian, China
In some localizations near Ramsar, Iran, external dose rates can be 55 to 200 times higher
than normal. These elevated levels are primarily due to 226Ra having been concentrated at the
earths surface by hot springs. The elevated regions in Brazil, India and China are mainly due
to monazite deposits and monazite beaches. Monazite is an insoluble rare earth mineral which
30

Introduction - 1

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is rich in 232Th and its daughter products. Monazite beaches in Brazil can register dose rates as
high as 5 mrem/hr (which if exposed to chronically would result in an annual external dose of 44
rem/yr). Many mineral springs also contain relatively high concentrations of radium and radon.
In fact, several hot springs have exploited these higher levels of radioactivity for alleged curative
powers (e.g. Bad Gastein in Austria). The levels of 226Ra in mineral waters can reach as high as
100 pCi/L, about 1 million times higher than average values for public water supplies.
1.7.5

Natural Reactor at Oklo

In the 1970s, a discovery was made that suggests a self sustaining nuclear reaction occurred in
nature about 1.7 billion years ago at Oklo (in the West African Republic of Gabon). French scientists observed uranium samples extracted from the Oklo mine that had abnormally low percentages
of the 235U isotope. Uranium isotope ratios are normally consistent throughout nature ( 235U at
0.711%, 238U at 99.28%).
However, in these samples the percentage of 235U was less than half the normal amount. Because
similar ratios are found in spent nuclear fuel, the scientists surmised that a chain reaction process
must have occurred naturally within the Oklo mine. French scientists theorized that 1.7 billion
years ago, the normal fraction of 235U would have been 3%; which is high enough to permit
critically, provided there is adequate moderation of fission neutrons. Water filtering down through
rock crevices could have provided the necessary moderation. Such a natural reactor would likely
have cycled in that it would automatically quit when heat boiled the water to steam, thereby
reducing moderation, and commencing once enough water condensed and re-accumulated. An
interesting note is that, as in modern nuclear power plants, fission products and transuranics
would have been created. Investigations indicate that the transuranics created by this natural
reactor never moved far beyond their place of origin.
1.7.6

Consumer Products

Radionuclides have been used in various consumer products, such as:

Watches and clocks sometimes contain a small quantity of 3H (tritium) or 147Pr for their
luminescent qualities. Older (for example, pre-1970) watches and clocks often used 226Ra.
Smoke Detectors with 241Am alpha particles from 241Am ionize air. A steady amount of
ionization occurs and is collected. However, if smoke appears, it will absorb alpha particles
reducing the amount of current collected and thereby trigger a smoke: alarm.
Uranium in Depression Glass Depression glass (also called Vaseline Glass ) glass owes its
yellow-greenish color to its uranium content.
Lantern Mantles with 232Th Thorium is added to lantern mantles because when heated the
thorium emits an incandescent glow.
Thorium in Camera Lenses In designing optical, it is often desirable to employ glass with
a high index of refraction. By adding thorium to the glass, a high refractive index can
be achieved while maintaining a low dispersion. Older camera lenses (1950s-1970s) often
employed coatings of 232Th to alter the index of refraction.
Uranium in ceramic glazes uranium added to ceramic glaze can result in vibrant colors (for
example the bright red-orange color in some vintage dishes).

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1.8

Historical Highlights Related to Nuclear Science

The earliest atomic hypotheses are attributed to ancient Greek philosophers. In the Fifth century
B.C., Democritus believed that elementary substances (earth, water, fire and air) were formed by
minute invisible particles called atoms. However, concrete evidence for this theory did not occur
until the early 1800s when Dalton showed how to determine masses of different atoms relative to
one another.
Then the discovery of both x-rays and radioactivity in the 1890s began a period of intense
investigation and discovery, culminating just fifty years later with the creation of the first atomic
bomb. The following table presents historical highlights from this remarkable era of nuclear science.
1895

Wilhelm Roentgen

When studying cathode rays (i.e. electrons), determined that

the fluorescence glowing on a nearby screen resulted from invisible
rays being emitted from the Crookes tube. He named them xrays. Took the first x-ray photo of his wifes hand.

1896

Henri Becquerel

Discovered that uranium (U) emitted radiation, which he at first

erroneously attributed to absorption of the suns energy by U and
then emission of this energy as x-rays.
Becquerel later proved that the radiation he discovered could not
be x-rays since x-rays have no charge and cannot be bent in a
magnetic field.

1897

J. J. Thomson

Identified the first subatomic particle (the electron), which he

termed negative corpuscles and thereby provided justification
for the particulate theory of matter. He showed that the glowing
beam in a cathode-ray tube was not from light waves, but instead
negatively charged particles. They could be deflected by an electric field and bent into curved paths by a magnetic field. They
were much lighter than hydrogen and were identical whatever
the gas through which the discharge passed. To honor Thomas
success the following was sung at the annual Cavendish dinner:
The corpuscle won the day, And in freedom went away, And
became a cathode ray.

1898

Pierre & Marie

Curie

Coined the term radioactivity. Discovered after chemical extraction of U from ore, that the residual material was more radioactive than U; this led to the discovery of radium and polonium.
It took four more years of processing tons of ore to isolate enough
of each element to determine their chemical properties.
Marie Curie- I have no dress except the one I wear every day. If
you are going to be kind enough to give me one, please let it be
practical and dark so that I can put it on afterwards to go to the
laboratory.

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1900

Earnest Rutherford

Reported the discovery of a radioactive gas (thoron) emanating

from thorium.

1901

Max Planck

In quantum theory of heat radiation, introduced the concept

of discrete amounts (quanta) of energy. This theory states that
electromagnetic radiation must be emitted or absorbed in integral
multiples of these energy quanta. Planck- A new scientific truth
does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them
see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and
a new generation grows up that is familiar with it.

1902

Charles Wilson

Found that rain was radioactive and that this activity disappeared
within a few hours

1903

Sir William
Crookes and
independently,
Elster and Geitels

Discover zinc sulfide crystals emit tiny flashes of visible light when
struck with alpha particles.

1903

Ernest Rutherford
and Frederick
Soddy

Develop laws of radioactive decay & proposed that radioactivity

produced changes within the atom. Published a paper Radioactivity change that offered the first informed calculations of the
amount of energy released by radioactive decay. Rutherford- If
your result needs a statistician then you should design a better
experiment.

1903

Hantaro Hagaoka

Postulated a Saturnian model of the atom with electrons orbiting a nucleus in flat rings as the rings of Saturn.

1904

J. J. Thomson

Proposed the plum pudding atomic model. This model depicted the atom as a homogeneous sphere of positive electric fluid
imbedded with negatively charged electrons (analogous to plums
surrounded by pudding

1905

Albert Einstein

Published the Theory of Relativity; developed the mass energy

equivalency equation; E = mc2 . Suggested that proof might be
found be studying radioactive substances. Einstein- Gravity cannot be held responsible for people falling in love.

1909

Frederick Soddy

Wrote a book Interpretation of Radium which later influenced

H.G. Wells to write a science fiction novel involving atomic bombs.
Soddy- Chemistry has been termed by the physicists as the messy
part of physics, but the is no reason why the physicists should be
permitted to make a mess of chemistry when they invade it.

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1909

Ernest Rutherford

From alpha scattering experiments developed a planetary model

of an atom (apparently did not know of Hagaokas 1903 model).
Bombarded a thin gold foil with alpha particles and the manner
in which they deflected suggested positive charges in atoms were
confined to a very small nucleus. Rutherford- Anyone who expects a source of power from the transformation of the atom is
talking moonshine

1910

Radiology Congress

Chose the curie as the basic unit of radioactivity; which was the
activity in one gram of radium (later the definition of curie was
refined to equal 3.7 1010 dps).

1911

Robert Millikan

Using oil droplets measured the electron charge.

1913

Hans Geiger

Unveiled a prototype gas-filled radiation detector.

1913

Niels Bohr

Coupled Rutherfords atomic model with the newly proposed

quantum theory and developed an updated planetary-type
atomic model. Applied quantum theory to electron orbitals. BohrIf anybody says he can think about quantum physics without getting giddy, that only shows he has not understood the first thing
about them.

1914

H.G. Wells

Published The World Set Free a science fiction novel that depicts
atomic bombs. Wells claims his inspiration for the book came from
Soddys 1909 book Interpretation of Radium. The novel opens:
The history of mankind is the history an attainment of external
power. Man is the tool-using, fire-making animal. The atomic
bombs depicted in this novel are unique in that they continue to
explode for days, although they have no more power than ordinary
high explosives.

1916

Arnold
Sommerfield

Refined the quantum theory to account for discreet ellip tical elec
tron orbits (in addition to circular orbits).

1916

Gilbert Lewis

Wrote an article The Atom and the Molecule which included

a rule of chemical behavior where atoms tend to hold even numbers of electrons in an orbital shell and especially to hold eight
electrons.

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1919

Francis Aston

Developed first functional mass spectrograph by which to measure

the relative mass of elements. This invention led to the discovery
of isotopes. Aston- It has been long known that the chemical
atomic weight of hydrogen was greater than one-quarter of that
of helium, but so long as fractional weights were general there
was no particular need to explain this fact, nor could any definite
conclusions be drawn from it.

1919

Ernest Rutherford

Demonstrated artificial radioactivity by bombarding nitrogen

( 14N) with alpha particles ( 4He), resulting in 17O and 1H.

1923

Louis DeBroglie

Postulated that matter (analogous to photons), in addition to being particulate should also behave as a wave.

1925

Wolfgang Pauli

Building on Sommerfields 1916 (and others) views, formulated

the Pauli Exclusion Principle. This principle was developed to
explain some experimental results and how the periodic table is
regulated by the electron structure of atoms. This explains why
matter occupies space exclusively for itself and does not allow
other material objects to pass through it, while at the same time
allowing light and radiation to pass. It indicates that no two
electrons may occupy the same quantum state simultaneously. For
atomic electrons, it means that no two electrons in a single atom
can have the same four quantum numbers at the same time; for
example, if n, l and ml are the same, ms must be different such
that the electrons have opposite spins.

1932

James Chadwick

Discovers the neutrons by bombarding beryllium with alpha particles. Chadwick (in 1941): We had quite a lot of bombing raids.
Practically all the windows in my laboratory were blown out, fortunately very little damage was caused. The cyclotron was partly
below ground it was in the basement, For about a week they were
blown in every direction in every night, and we put up cardboard
shutters. Every night they would be blown in again. Wed just
put them up in the morning and go on.

1933

Leo Szilard

Influenced by H.G. Wellss book The World Set Free, developed

the concept of a nuclear chain reaction. Patented this concept the
next year.

1933

Enrico Fermi

Started neutron-bombardment experiments, which involved systematically bombarding each element (including uranium) with
neutrons. The results of the U irradiation produced unexpected
results, various half-lives, which was first attributed to transuranic
elements.

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1934

Enrico Fermi

By serendipity discovered neutron capture becomes more effective

when neutrons are slowed down, such as by hydrogenous materials.
Fermi had made a last minute substitution of paraffin for lead in
an experiment involving neutron activation, which produced the
astonishing effect of enhancing the level of activation. Fermi and
his team delivered a paper Influence of Hydrogenous Substances
on the Radioactivity produced by Neutrons - I.

1938

Otto Hahn & Fritz

Strassman

The unexplained uranium effects first observed by Fermi in 1933

(upon neutron activation) were studied for the following several
years by various investigators. Prevailing theories included that
the various half-lives were transuranics and/or that double alpha
decay produced radium isotopes.
Hahn & Strassman set about chemically separating radium after
bombardment of U with neutrons, and discovered the separated
material behaved like barium instead. Upon rechecking their results and refining the techniques, they surmised that the radium
that acted like barium, was in fact barium. They postulated
that U must have split into two roughly equal parts. In reporting
their results, they stated:
We come to the conclusion that our radium isotopes have
the properties of barium. As chemists, we should actually
state that the new products are not radium, but rather barium itself. Other elements beside radium or barium are out
of the question.
However, they were cautious in reporting these findings as
they stated, their findings went against the previous laws
of nuclear physics. For this reason they added a note to
their paper:
There could perhaps be a series of unusual coincidences
which has given us false indications.

1938

Lise Meitner &

Otto Frisch

Described the theoretical mechanisms of fission and calculated the

amount of binding energy released in the process (on the order of
200 MeV). Termed the process of U splitting fission.

1939

Albert Einstein

Prompted by Fermi & Szilard, sent a letter to President Franklin

D. Roosevelt informing him of German atomic research and the
potential for a bomb. This letter then prompted Roosevelt to
form a special committee to investigate the military implications
of atomic research.

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1939

Enrico Fermi &

Leo Szilard

After learning about nuclear fission, concluded that uranium

would be the element capable of sustaining a chain reaction. Conducted a simple experiment at Columbia and discovered significant neutron multiplication in uranium, proving that criticality
was possible and opening the way to nuclear weapons.

1939

Niels Bohr

Proposed that fission was much more likely to occur in 235U

than in 238U and that fission would occur more effectively with
slow-moving neutrons than with fast neutrons. Published (with
Wheeler) a classical paper analyzing the fission process. The paper was published only two days before the official start date of
WWII.

1939

Otto Frisch &

Rudolph Peierls

Gave a major impetus to the concept of the atomic bomb in a

document called the Frisch-Peierls Memorandum. They predicted that about 5 kg of pure 235U could make a very powerful
atomic bomb equivalent to several kilotons of dynamite. They
also suggested how to detonate such a bomb and how 235U might
be enriched.

1939

Francis Perrin

Introduced the concept of the critical mass of U required to

produce a self-sustaining reaction. Showed that a chain reaction
could be sustained in a U and water mixture. Also demonstrated
the neutron absorbing material could be added to control neutron
multiplication.

1940

Glen Seaborg,
Arthur Wahl, &
Joseph Kennedy

Created plutonium by bombarding uranium oxide with high energy deuterons at the Berkeley cyclotron.

1942

Franklin Roosevelt

Authorizes the formation of the Manhattan Project. This project

was committed to secret, expedient research and production to
produce a viable atomic bomb before the Germans.

1942

Enrico Fermi

Created the first graphite moderated reactor called a pile in a lab

under the squash court at the University of Chicago.

1945

Harry Truman

Ordered the dropping of the first atomic bombs on Japan. In press

release states: Sixteen hours ago an American airplane dropped
one bomb on Hiroshima, Japan, and destroyed its usefulness to
the enemy. That bomb had more power than 20,000 tons of TNT.
It had more than 2000 times the blast power of the British Grand
Slam, which is the largest bomb ever used yet in the history of
warfare.

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Section 1 Exercise
1. What is the isotopes mass number and identification symbol that has 55 protons and 82
neutrons.

2. Calculate the number of atoms in one (1) gram of gold, given its atomic weight is 196.9665.

3. Most stable isotopes have N values and Z values. (Odd or even).

4. Which naturally occurring decay chain contributes the most to natural background radiation?

5. The naturally occurring decay chains all end in what stable element(s)?

38

Radioactive Decay

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2.1

Radioactive Decay Kinetics

Radioactive decay refers to the spontaneous disintegration of a radionuclide accompanied by the

emission of ionizing radiation. Through decay a nuclide transforms into a different element, or to
a lower energy state of the same nuclide. For example, 90Sr (parent) emits a beta particle and
transforms in 90Y (daughter). You cannot predict when any one radioactive atom will spontaneously disintegrate. However, each radionuclide has its own unique decay probability, and this
probability is independent of physical or chemical parameters (such as temperature). Thus, for
a large population of atoms, statistical behavior(a) ensures that the decay process follows a well
described pattern (i.e. equation). The rate of decay is proportional to the concentration and since
concentration decreases with decay, the number remaining nuclei decreases exponentially with
time. Figure-5 (relative activity as a function of time) illustrates this concept for 131 I.
Label
1
0.9

relative activity

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

time in days
Figure 5: For a large number of events, there is a tendency towards long-term stability of a random
variable. Given a large sample of independent random variables with a finite expected value, the
average of these observations will eventually approach and stay close to the expected value.

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Table 8: Important Decay Terms & Equations

T1/2 = half-life in unit time
= decay constant
g = grams
N = number of atoms at time t
No = initial number of atoms at time 0
Decay Constant ()

A = activity at time t
Ao = initial activity at time 0
n = number of half-lives
= average life

The probability that a nucleus will decay per unit time.

=

0.693
T1/2

(2.1)

Activity (A)

The number of decays per unit (dps, dpm) for a population of

size N; with units of Becquerel (Bq) = 1dps or Curie (Ci)
= 3.7 1010 dps. Note this is the transformation rate, not
emission rate. For example, two gamma rays result from each
60
Co disintegration.
A(dps) = N
(2.2)

Decay with Time Equations

The number of atoms and activity remaining after any given

decay duration can be computed by the following equations:

Half-Life T1/2

N = N0 et

(2.3)

A = A0 et

(2.4)

Time required for half of a population of atoms to decay.

T1/2 =

0.693

(2.5)

The relationship between relative activity and half-lives in given

by:
A/A0 = 1/2n , A0 /A = 2n
(2.6)
Mean-Life ( )

Given a large population, the average life-span is the sum

of the individual atoms lifetime divided by the total number
originally present. Mean (average) life can be computed by:
=

Specific Activity (SA)

1
= 1.44 T1/2

(2.7)

The activity per unit mass (Bq/q, Ci/g).

SA = N/g

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(2.8)

Radioactive Decay - 2

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relative activity

0.1

0.01
0

# of half lives
Figure 6: Relative Activity (A/A0 ) vs Number of Half-lives
The relationship of relative activity (A/A0 ) to the number of half-lives follows a semi-log curve
regardless of the actual half life value, as illustrated in the following figure.
Example: By using a nuclides half-life, its activity after any given decay period can be computed.
For example, after five months the activity of a 60 Co source (half-life of 5.26 years) with an initial
activity of 1 Ci can be computed by:

A = 1 Ci e

The decay correction factor (A0 /A) for a

computed in one of the following ways:

5yr 0.693
12 5.26yr
60

= 0.95 Ci

(2.9)

Co source after 0.5 of a half-life (2.63 years) can be

Method 1 from A = A0 e , A0 /A = et .
Then for this case A0 /A = e(0.6930.5) = 1.414
Method 2 from A/A0 = 1/2n thus A0 /A = 2n .
Then for this case A0 /A = 2(0.5) = 1.414
Method 3 take the inverse of the extrapolated value from the relative activity vs half life figure.

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Example: The specific activity (SA) per gram of pure

(87.74 yr) and atomic weight (238.04956 amu).

238

Pu can be computed given its half-life

SA = N/g

(2.10)

Where:
0.693
= 2.50 1010 /s
87.74 year 365.25 day/year 24 hour/day 3600 s/hour
6.022 1023 atoms/mole
N =
= 2.53 1021 atoms/g
238.049 56 g/mole
=

(2.11)

SA = 2.5 1010 /s 2.53 1021 atoms/g

= 6.33 1011 dps/g = 6.33 1011 Bq/g = 17.1 Ci/g
2.1.1

Serial Decay

Serial decay occurs when the disintegration of a radionuclide results in an unstable daughter that
also decays. Thus, while a daughter radionuclide is being created by a rate based on the parents
half-life, it is also decaying by a rate determined by its own half-life; and the decay equation
previously presented needs to be adapted to account for the formation and decay of the daughter
nuclide.
For computing just the amount of the first daughter after a given decay time, the following
serial decay equation can be used:
N2,t =

1
N1,0 (e1 t e2 t ) + N2,0 (e2 t )
2 1

(2.12)

Where:
N1,0 = Number of parent atoms at time 0
N1,t = number of parent atoms at time t
N2,0 = number of daughter atoms at time 0
N2,t = number of daughter atoms at time t
t = decay duration
1 = parent decay constant
2 = daughter decay constant
The last term in the equation accounts for decay of any daughters present at time zero, while
the first term accounts for the production and decay of daughters produced during time 't'. (For
more complicated decay chains, Bateman Equations can be applied to compute the amounts of
various daughter nuclides at any given time.)

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Table 9: Types of Parent-Daughter Equilibrium

Type of
Equilibrium

Parent-Daughter Half Life

Relationship

Resulting Activity Relationship

Secular
Equilibrium

Parent half life is much longer than

daughters (1  2 )
Example, 30 yrs vs 30 hrs

Parent and daughter activities are equal

after radioactive equilibrium is reached.

Transient
Equilibrium

Parent half life is somewhat longer

than daughters: (1 < 2 )
Example, 8 hrs vs 0.8 hrs

After the point of transient equilibrium,

the ratio of the parent and daughter
activities is constant with the daughter
activity being the greater of the two;
Both have the slope of the parents half
life.

No
Equilibrium

Parent half-life is shorter

than daughters. (1 > 2 )

No equilibrium between parent

and daughter at any time.

Activity (A) = N where is the decay constant and t is decay duration.

Half-life (T) = 0.693/

2.1.2

Parent-Daughter Equilibrium

Depending on the ratios of their half-lives, constant (equilibrium) activity-time relationships can
result between the parent and daughter nuclides. Equilibrium relationships can occur when the
parent half-lives are significantly longer than the daughters. Two types have been described:
Transient and Secular. In both types of equilibrium, with time parent and daughter activities
become either equal or proportional to each other. These two equilibrium states are summarized
in the following table.
Secular Equilibrium When the parents half-life is much greater than the daughters (1 
2 ), secular equilibrium can occur. Given no daughter nuclide initially, the daughter activity starts
from zero, rises and then achieves an activity equal to the parents. This equilibrium state can
endure for many years.
Once secular equilibrium is achieved, the decay equation simplifies because 1 is so small
compared to 2 , as follows:
N1 1 = N2 , 2
Where:
N1 = number of parent atoms
N2 = number of daughter atoms
1 = parent decay constant
2 = daughter decay constant

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(2.13)

Radioactive Decay - 2

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Secular Equilibrium Example: The decay of 90 Sr (with a 29-yr half-life) to 90 Y (with a 90-yr
half-life) exemplifies a situation where secular equilibrium can occur. Another classic example
results from naturally occurring 226 Ra decay (1600-yr half-life) to 222 Rn (3.8-day half-life), as
illustrated by Figure-7 where activity of the daughter isotope increases to match the activity of
the parent isotope.
Transient Equilibrium Transient equilibrium can occur when the parents half-life is somewhat longer than the daughters (2 << 1 ). In this type of equilibrium, the daughter activity
starts from zero, rises to a maximum, and then decays with the same slope as its parent. That is,
only at the moment of transient equilibrium, the daughter is decaying at the same rate as it is being
produced. After the point of equilibrium, the ratio of parent-daughter activities is a constant, with
the daughters activity being greater than the parents. For example, transient equilibrium would
occur if parent and daughter half-lives were 8 hr and 0.8 hr, respectively.
When transient equilibrium conditions are present, the serial decay equation can be simplified to:
N2,t =

1 N1,0 (e1 t )
(2 1 )

(2.14)

Where:
N1,0 = number of parent atoms at time 0
N2,t = number of daughter atoms at time t
t = decay duration
1 = parent decay constant
2 = daughter decay constant
And since N1,t = N1,0 (e1 t ), this equation can be further reduced to:
(2 1 )
N1,t
=
N2,t
1

(2.15)

Transient Equilibrium Example: 140 Ba (with 12.75-day half-life) decaying to 140 La (with a
40.27-hr half-life) is a good example of conditions where transient equilibrium can result, as illustrated by Figure-8.
Time Interval for Daughter Levels to Peak Under conditions of transient equilibrium,
provided no initial daughter nuclides, the time (tm ) required for the daughter levels to peak is
finite in the transient equilibrium case and can be computed by the following:
Tm =

2.303 log(2 /1 )
(2 1 )

Where:
Tm = time required for daughter levels to peak
1 = parent decay constant
2 = daughter decay constant
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Radioactive Decay - 2

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1000

Total Activity (Ra-226 + Rn-222)

Ra-226

Relative Activity

100

Rn-222
Parent: Ra-226 584,000 day half life
Daughter: Rn-222 3.8 day half life
10

1
0

10

20

30

40

Time (Days)

Figure 7: Secular Equilibrium

47

50

60

70

Radioactive Decay - 2

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10

5
4
3

Ba-140 + La-140

Relative Activity

Parent: Ba-140 12.75 day half life

La-140

Daughter La-140 1.678 day half life

0.5
0.4
0.3

Ba-140
0.2

0.1
0

10

20

30

40

Time (Days)

Figure 8: Transient Equilibrium

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50

60

70

Radioactive Decay - 2

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The need to determine maximum daughter levels may arise when measuring air sample activities. For instance, the contributions from short lived radon daughters may need to be determined
and subtracted out so that accurate assessments can be made of potential airborne contamination
from work processes.

2.2

Radioactive Decay Modes

Radioactive Decay (Radioactivity): The spontaneous process by which unstable atoms

emit radiation.
Radiation: High energy particles and/or electromagnetic rays emitted from the atoms nucleus during radioactive disintegration. Four types of radiation are most commonly emitted from
decay processes: alpha particles (), beta particles ( ), positrons ( + ), and photons (labeled as
gamma or X-rays). Neutrons are emitted during fission.
Decay Modes & Decay Schemes: The decay mode is the manner in which a nuclei decays,
gaining a more stable configuration. The most common decay modes are:
Charged Particle Decay , , or + particle emission
Isometric Transition -ray emission
Internal Conversion electron and X-ray emission
Electron Capture and X-ray emission
Spontaneous Fission fission fragments, neutrons, and -ray emission
The exact mode of decay depends on two factors: 1) the neutron proton ratio (i.e. whether
the nucleus needs to gain neutrons or protons for increased stability); and 2) the mass-energy
relationship between the parent nuclide and decay products. Although typically only one type of
charged particle will be released for a given atomic species, decay can occur via more than one
mode involving different radiation energies and probabilities.
Decay schemes illustrate types and energies of radiation emitted along with probabilities (also
called branching ratios or abundance), as shown for 198Au in Figure-9.

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198Au, 2.7d

0.985%

2.5 ps

1087.7 keV

98.99%

23 ps

411.8 keV

0.025%

198Hg
Figure 9:
2.2.1

198

Au Beta Decay Scheme

Alpha Particle Decay

Alpha Particles (a): Alpha particles are heavy, energetic charged particles. With rare exception,
they are emitted by nuclides heavier than lead (i.e. Z > 82) when the neutron to proton ratio is
too low.
Two positive charges
Stripped He2+ nucleus (2 neutrons & 2 protons)
Emitted in Discrete Energies from about 4 to 9 MeV
Turn into neutral He atoms by gaining electrons
Gamma rays only accompany a small fraction of alpha decays
Daughter Nuclide Species: The resulting daughter nuclide can be determined by subtracting
four from the parents atomic mass number (A) and two from its proton number (Z). For example:
210
84Po

42He +

206
82Pb

Conversion of Mass to Energy: Combined, the resultant decay products will have a lower mass
than the initial parent nuclide. The energy equivalency (Q) of this mass defect can be computed,
as described in Section 1. This energy is mostly converted into the ejected alpha particles kinetic
energy and any released gamma rays will also share this energy.
Q = 931.5 M eV /amu (MP MD M 2Me )
Where:
MP = mass of parent (amu)
MD = mass of daughter (amu)
M = mass of an alpha particle = 4.00277 amu
50

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Figure 10:

210

Po Alpha Decay Scheme

2Me = mass of two electrons (2 0.0005486 amu) = 0.0011 amu

Q = energy equivalence of mass defect
Geiger-Nuttall Rule: A relationship exists between the emitted alpha particle energy and parent
half-life. That is, the parents half-life is inversely proportional to the alpha particles energy
according to:
log T1/2

1
log E

(2.18)

Where:
T1/2 = parents half-life
E = alpha particle energy
The validity of this relationship is demonstrated in Table-10 by a compilation of nuclide halflives and associated alpha particle energies. As shown in this list, as alpha energy increases the
parent half life decreases.
2 210

Po Alpha Decay Scheme by HPaul available at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Polonium_

210.png under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. Full terms at https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/en:GNU_Free_Documentation_License

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Nuclide
216

Alpha Particle Energy (MeV)

Parent Half-Life

8.05

<1 sec

Rn

210

Po

5.30

134 days

239

Pu

5.15

24,000 years

235

4.39

710 million years

238

4.19

4.5 billion years

232

Th

4.01

14 billion years

144

Nd

1.83

2.29 1015 years

Table 10: Alpha Particle Energy vs Parent Half-Life

Demonstrating the Geiger-Nuttal Rule
Example - Computing Particle Decay Energy: The 210 Po mass defect energy equivalency (Q)
can be computed from the masses of 210 P o (Mp) and resultant decay products given the following:
Atomic weight of

210

Po = 210.04850 amu

Atomic weight of daughter (206 Pb) = 206.03883 amu

Atomic weight of an alpha particle = 4.00277 amu
Atomic weight of one electron = 0.0005486 amu
Q = MP - MD - M - 2Me
Q = 210.04850 - 206.03883 - 4.00277 - 2 (0.0005486) = 0.0058 amu
Q = 931.5 MeV/ amu 0.0058 amu = 5.4 MeV
The 5.4 MeV represents the total energy associated with 210 Po decay. Since no gammas are
emitted in this case, the energy (5.4 MeV) is only divided by the alpha particle and recoil nucleus
as follows:
Q = 5.3 MeV (alpha particle) + 0.1 MeV (206 Pb recoil nucleus)
2.2.2

Beta Particle Decay & Internal Conversion

Beta Particles: Beta particles (aka negatrons) are free electrons that have either been kicked out of
their orbit or emitted from a nucleus. Nucleus decay by beta particle emission is the most common
decay mode; and can occur when the neutron to proton ratio is too high. A neutron is converted
into a proton (charge of +1) and an electron (charge of -1). Beta particle summary:
One negative charge
Small mass (0.0005486 amu)
Emitted in an energy continuum
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Energy divided between maximum beta energy ( max) and an anti-neutrino

Average beta energy is 30% - 40% of the max energy
Gamma rays typically accompany beta decay
Daughter Nuclide Species: The resultant daughter nuclide has the same atomic mass
number (A) as its parent, but is the element created when one proton is added. For example:
32
15P

32
16S

+ 1 (electron) + (anti-neutrino)

(2.19)

Energy Considerations: This kinetic energy of the maximum beta particle is the energy
equivalence of the mass defect (Q). However, a beta particle is seldom emitted mono-energetically
with this maximum energy. Rather, the decay energy is distributed between the beta particle,
an antineutrino and any emitted gamma rays; and beta particles appear in an energy continuum
(spectrum). Note: by convention, the energies listed for beta-emitters are for the max energy,
unless otherwise specified.
As with alphas, decay energy can be computed by the parent daughter mass defect. However,
the equation can be simplified by assuming neutral atoms (because the particle mass is then
included in the daughters mass), as follows:
Q = 931.5 M eV /amu (MP MD )

(2.20)

Where:
MP = mass of parent
MD = mass of daughter (amu)
The antineutrino can be excluded because it essentially has no mass.
Beta-Gamma Emitters: A few nuclides (e.g. 3H, 14C, 32P) are pure beta emitters, with
no accompanying gamma-rays. Typically gamma rays also occur with beta decay; and these
radionuclides are called beta-gamma emitters.

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Nuclide
3

Half-Life

Max beta energy (keV)

12.33 years

19

14

5,730 years

156

32

14.28 days

1720

35

86.51 days

167

36

301,000 years

1142

45

163.8 days

257

63

100.1 years

66

90

28.5 years

546

90

64 hours

2282

99

213,000 years

294

147

2.62 years

225

204

3.78 years

763

C
P
S
Cl
Ca
Ni
Sr
Y
Tc
Pm
Tl

Table 11: Important pure -emitters

Internal Conversion: Internal conversion is a process where a nuclide rids itself of excitation
energy by kicking an electron out of its orbital (e.g. 131mXe). A high-energy electron is ejected that
appears to be a classical beta particle. However, these electrons differ from those emitted during
beta decay in that they are mono-energetic (without sharing energy with an antineutrino). X-rays
are then generated because outer shell electrons sequentially replace the missing inner electrons.
Because atomic mass (A) and proton number (Z) do not change, with internal conversion the
atomic species remains the same.
2.2.3

Positron Decay & K-Capture

Positrons: A positron is an electrons anti-particle (same mass, opposite charge). Once formed,
a positron quickly combines with an electron and both annihilate (disappear) forming two photons
with energies equivalent to the pairs rest masses. Thus, a positron has an extremely short existence
after formation. Nuclear decay by positron emission is primarily found in man-made isotopes; it
can occur when the neutron to proton ratio is too low. A proton (charge of +1) is converted into
a neutron and a positron (charge of +1). Positron summary:
One positive charge
Small mass (0.0005486 amu)
Emitted in an energy continuum
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Transformation energy divided between maximum energy and a neutrino

Average positron energy is 40% of the max
Annihilation gamma rays always occur from positron decay
Daughter Nuclide Species: The resultant daughter nuclide can be determined by subtracting one from the parents proton number (Z) and nothing from its atomic number (A). For
example:
22
11Na

22
10Ne

+ + (positron) + (neutrino)

(2.21)

Since the daughter has one less proton, it must also lose an electron that is not represented by
Equation-2.21
Energy Considerations: Because a positron will annihilate with an electron, positron decay
can not occur unless the mass of the parent nucleus is greater than its decay products by at least
two times an electron mass (for a mass defect energy equivalency of at least 1.022 MeV). As in
beta decay, the transformation energy is the energy equivalence of the mass defect which appears
as the maximum positron kinetic energy; and the positron shares this transformation energy with
a neutrino. The small positron mass precludes much of the decay energy from being distributed
to the recoil nucleus. The transformation energy (Q) can be computed by:
Q = 931.5M eV /amu (MP MD 2Me )

(2.22)

Where:
MP = mass of parent (amu)
MD = mass of daughter (amu)
Me = mass of electron (0.00055 amu)
Positron emitters can be detected by the distinct annihilation gamma rays (with energies of
0.511 MeV). PET scans make use of this by coupling biologically active compounds with positron
emitters and measuring annihilation gammas.
Electron Capture (aka K-Capture): Electron Capture is a decay mode for proton rich
nuclei. An orbital electron (usually K shell) is captured converting a proton into a neutron and
resulting in gamma ray and neutrino emission. The ejected inner electrons are replaced by those
from the outer shell resulting in characteristic X-rays (with energies equal to the differences in
orbital binding energies). As in positron decay, the resultant daughter is the element formed when
one proton is removed.

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2.2.4

Photons Emitted During Decay

Gamma Decay: Gamma-rays () are high energy photons. They always accompany fission
and charged particle decay. Upon decay, the resultant daughter nuclide is often created in an
excited state which then nearly simultaneously (< 109 sec) decays via gamma emission or by
internal conversion. When the isometric transition time is extremely short, these gammas are
usually considered part of the parents decay. For example, the Chart of the Nuclides does not
even list an isometric state for 60 Ni (daughter of 60 Co) and the emitted gammas are instead listed
in the 60 Co block.
An isomer is a nucleus in a higher energy state than ground with a sufficiently long half-life,
some even on the order of years (e.g. 192m Ir). The Chart of Nuclides (16th edition) identifies 580
isomers.
Gamma ray decay summary:
High energy photons in discrete energies
Energy is inversely proportional to wavelength
No charge or mass
Always accompany fission and charged particle decay (e.g. , + , and decay)
Characteristic X-rays: Like gamma-rays, X-rays are high energy photons. They are distinguished from gamma rays primarily due to their source. X-rays also generally have lower energies
than gamma rays. Gamma rays are emitted from nuclei, whereas characteristic X-rays (aka fluorescent radiation) are emitted when electrons fill vacated orbitals. The characteristic energies
of these X-rays are nuclide-specific being equal to the differences in the electron orbital binding
energies.
Energy Considerations: During isomeric transition, the y-ray energy equals the difference
in the nuclides excited and ground states. When gamma rays accompany charged particle decay,
some of the total decay (Q) energy is taken up by the gamma ray. For example, >94% of the
time, 226Ra decays directly to 222Rn via a 4.785 MeV alpha with no associated -rays. However,
226
Ra can first decay via a 4.602 MeV alpha to a 222Rn isomer which then decays to ground via
a 0.186 MeV -ray. The combined energy of these two decay products (4.602 MeV a + 0.186 )
approximately equals the energy of the alpha released when 226Ra decays directly to the 222Rn
ground state (the recoil nuclei also receive some of the decay energy).
Gamma rays released during radioactive decay range from about 5 KeV to 7 MeV.
Characteristic X-ray energies range from about 5 to 80 KeV.
2.2.5

Spontaneous Fission:

Fission is the splitting of a nucleus generating two smaller nuclides, neutrons, gamma rays, and
other subatomic particles. For example, 235U fission can produce 92Kr and 141Ba, gamma rays,
and two fast neutrons.
Spontaneous fission is distinguished from nuclear fission only in that it occurs naturally
without inducement by extra-nuclear neutrons.
For spontaneous fission to be possible, the following relationship must exist:
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Table 12: Examples of Beta, Alpha, Positron & Gamma Only Emitters
Radionuclides
137

Half-Life

Type of Radiation Emitted

30.17 yrs

Beta

109.8 min

Positron

Po

138 days

Alpha

206

Tc

6 hours

Gamma

99

Tc

Cf

2.645 yrs

Alpha & Neutron

248

Cm

Cs

18
210

99m
252

Daughter Nuclide
137m
18

Ba

Pb

Z 2 /A 15
Where: Z is the proton number and A the atomic mass number.
Example for

238

U: Z 2 /A = 36 (Z = 92 and A = 238)

Because 36 is greater than 15,

238

U can spontaneously fission.

Even when spontaneous fission is possible, the rate is very low compared to competing decay
modes, for example:
Fission Products: The fission of a given nuclide will not always produce the same byproduct nuclides (called fission products). Rather, fission of given nuclides can generate various
combinations of fission products. Also the number of neutrons released varies (typically from 2 to
3). In fission, conservation of total nucleons involved must be maintained. Most of the resultant
fission products are also radioactive (typically beta-gamma emitters).
Energy Considerations: An extreme amount of energy is released with each fission (on the
order of 200 MeV). Most of this energy appears as fission fragment kinetic energy. The rest is
divided among: fission product decay, prompt -rays, fission neutrons, and neutron capture -rays.
Neutron Emitters: A few extreme short lived fission products release neutrons during decay
(called beta delayed neutrons). The daughter nucleus is produced in a metastable stable, and its
decays to ground state via neutron emission. Neutrons have no charge and a mass of 1.67 1024 g.
Neutron Sources: Mixing alpha emitters (e.g. 238 Pu) with beryllium (a stable low Z materials) creates an effective neutron source due to n reactions.
Because of its high spontaneous fission rate, 252 Cf is also sometimes used as a source of neutrons.

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Beta Decay Example: The maximum beta energy associated with

the masses of 32P (MP ) and resultant daughter ( 32S) as follows:
Atomic weight of

32

P decay can be computed from

32

P = 31.973908 amu

Atomic weight of daughter ( 32S) = 31.972074 amu

Q = MP - MD
Q = 31.973908 - 31.972074 = 0.001834 amu
Q = 931.5 MeV / amu x 0.001834 amu = 1.7 MeV
Positron Decay Example: A positron emitter can be identified by measuring 0.511 MeV gamma rays
due to positron-electron annihilation. That annihilation gamma rays have this energy effectively
demonstrates the validity of Einsteins mass energy equivalency equation (i.e. E = mc2 ), as follows:
E = mc2
Where:
E = ergs (gcm2 / s2 )
m = electrons + positron rest mass = 2 9.1095 1028 g = 1.822 1027 g
c = speed of light in a vacuum (2.9979 1010 cm/ s)
And, there are 1.6022 106 ergs / MeV
E = 1.822 1027 g (2.9979 1010 cm/ s)2 = 1.637 106 ergs
1.637 106 ergs / 1.6022 106 ergs / MeV = 1.022 MeV
1.022 MeV / 2 gamma rays = 0.511 MeV per gamma ray

2.3

Chart of the Nuclides

The Chart of the Nuclides is a tabular grid presenting all known nuclides based on proton and
neutron numbers. The Y-axis (vertical column) values mark the rows by proton number (Z).
Hence each horizontal row represents one element, with isotopes ordered by their neutron number
along the x-axis. The 2003 Knolls Atomic Power Laboratorys 16th edition contains 3100 nuclides
and 580 isomers. When a sufficiently long lived isomeric state can exist, the nuclide block is
vertically divided into two (e.g. 85 Kr).
The Chart of the Nuclides also provides information on half-lives, decay modes, thermal neutron
cross sections (indicating probability of neutron capture), and elemental atomic weights.
The chart uses color to enable rapid identification of certain physical parameters (e.g. radioactivity). A solid gray block indicates stability. Yellow, green, orange or blue in the top is used to
broadly group half-lives; similarly the same colors in the bottom half delineate thermal neutron
absorption cross sections.

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Table 13: Color Designations in Knolls Chart of the Nuclides

Color

Location in Block

Color-Code Designation

White

Entire Block or Partial Block

Unstable nuclide (e.g.

Gray

Entire Black or Top half of Block

Stable nuclide (e.g.

Black

Top Part

Naturally occurring radioactive nuclide

(e.g. 14 C)

Orange

Top Part

Half-life from 1 to 10 days

Orange

Bottom Part

Thermal neutron cross section: > 1000

barns

Yellow

Top Part

Half-life of 10 to 100 days

Yellow

Bottom Part

Thermal neutron cross section: 500 to

1000 barns

Green

Top Part

Half-life from 100 days to 10 years

Green

Bottom Part

Thermal neutron cross section: 100 to 500

barns

Blue

Top Part

Half-life from 10 to 10,000 years

Blue

Bottom Part

Thermal neutron cross section: 10 to 100

barns

2.4

64

88

Kr,

Zn,

35

93

Zr)

Cl)

Decay Statistics

Since radioactivity decay is a random process with a per unit time probability, two things are
true: 1) you cannot predict when any one specific atom will spontaneously decay; and 2) for a large
population of atoms you can approximately determine the number of atoms that will have decayed
after a given time. For example, consider coin flips and the prediction of how many times heads
will turn up. With 10 trials of 10 perfectly random flips, you would expect to see a distribution
(no. of heads vs observations) such as:

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Table 14: Trial Coin Flips

Trial #

# of Heads per 10 Flips

Trial #

# of Heads per 10 Flips

10

In this example, on average 46% of the time heads turned up. If 1000 trials were made instead
of only 10, you would expect the average heads outcome to be much closer to 50% (or more precise,
less uncertain). This same principle applies to the measurement of radioactivity. The larger the
number of counts measured, the less uncertain the results will be.
In another example, consider the following data and the variations in the number of counts
detected. The table reports five subsequent one minute counts of the same sample.
Table 15: Trial Count Measurements
Trial Number

Counts per Minute

89

120

94

110

105

Total Counts

518

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Table 16: Important Statistical Terms & Concepts

Although measurement uncertainty can never be entirely eliminated, it can be: reduced and
described through statistics. Statistics is the mathematics of the collection, organization and
interpretation of numerical data.
Probability &
Probability
Distribution

Probability is the likelihood or chance that something will happen. A

probability distribution describes the values and probabilities that a random event can take place.

Mean

The Experimental Mean (Xe ) is the sum of the measured values ()

divided by the number of measurements made (n). The True Mean is a
hypothetical concept being defined as the mean that would be derived
if an infinite number of data points were collected.

Gaussian (Normal)
Distribution

A probability distribution that closely matches the standard bell-shaped

curve with an expected symmetrical distribution about the true mean.
A Gaussian (i.e. Normal) distribution can be assumed for most activity
measurements (i.e. > 100 counts collected)

Standard Deviation
()

A measure of dispersion about the mean value, hence an indicator () of

the measurements precision. With respect to activity measurements, the
standard deviation () describes how much the counts vary around the
experimental mean. The larger the standard deviation value, the greater
the range (difference between the highest and lowest counts). Assuming
a normal distribution the standard deviation quantifies the probability
that a single measurement will fall within a given range, as follows:
68% probability of falling within 1
90% probability of falling within 1.645
95% probability of falling within 2
99.7% probability of falling within 3

Variance

Variance quantifies the amount of amount of internal fluctuation in the

data set. It is determined by how far measured values fall from the mean
and is usually the square of the standard deviation. Standard deviation
can be computed from the variance.

Where variance = 2 and therefore = variance

Propagation of
Measurement &
Background
Standard Deviation

Count data is often expressed in terms of a back-ground corrected value

and 2- about that value (e.g. 256 18). The of both (measured
count and background count) must be accounted for in the reported
measurement value.

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Table 17: Important Statistical Equations

Count data is usually expressed in terms of the background corrected value plus or minus two
standard deviations (2-). In the case of a measurement result of 11014, the true value should
range from 96 to 124 (with 95% confidence). It is essential to know how to compute the standard
deviations of a measured count taking into account natural background levels.
Gaussian Probability
Distribution also called
Normal Distribution

G(N ) = e((mN )

2 /2M )

/ 2M

(2.23)

Where: G(N) is the probability of observing a rate count of value N

Experimental Mean

The Experimental Rate (R) is the sum of the measured values divided
by the number of measurements made ( n ):
R=

N
n

(2.24)

N = Total Number of Counts

n = Number of Measurements Made
Standard Deviation
for Poisson
Distributions

T otalCount =
r
CountRate =

(2.25)

R
T

(2.26)

T = Count duration
R = Count Rate
N = Total Counts
Be careful not to confuse the computation of total count standard
deviation versus the count rate standard deviation.
Combining
Measurement and
Background Standard
Deviations

Typically gross counts must be corrected by subtracting out the background, and the reported net count uncertainty must account for the
sample N and background b .
N et 2 = N 2 + b 2
p
N et = (N 2 + b 2 )
Rs
Rb
and b 2 =
Ts
Tb
r
Rs Rb
N et =
+
Ts
Tb
Ts = sample count duration
Tb = background count duration
Rs = sample count rate
Rb = background count rate
N 2 =

62

(2.27)
(2.28)
(2.29)
(2.30)

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2.4.1

Reducing Uncertainty

Uncertainty (i.e. standard deviation) can be reduced by increasing the total number of counts
collected. Note that sometimes uncertainty is referred to by the term error. Uncertainty (errors)
can be reduced by:
Increasing detector efficiency
Increasing sample size
Increasing sample/and or background count duration
Lowering background levels
Using Count Data presented in Table-15: You must compute the experimental count and
count rate (R) and standard deviation (N ) (on assuming 518 counts collected in five 1-minute
measurements), as follows:
R=

518
N
=
= 103.6
n
5

(2.31)

Where:
N = total number of counts collected in 5 minutes
n = number of one minute count measurement trials

T otalCount =

N=

518 = 22.8

(2.32)

Where:
T otalCount = one standard deviation of the total counts
The total count can be expressed as 518 plus minus 22.8
Thus with all things the same, 68% of the time youd expect to detect 495.2 to 540.8 total
counts (in 5 minutes). This range is plus or minus one standard deviation. It is important to note
that the standard deviation of the count rate is calculated in a different way from the standard
deviation of the total counts.
The standard deviation of the count rate can be computed as follows:
r
r
R
103.6
=
= 4.55
CountRate =
t
5
Where:

(2.33)

CountRate = one standard deviation of the count rate

With the same measurement parameters, 68% of the time you would expect to detect a count
rate of from 99.05 to 108.15 cpm. This range is one standard deviation.

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2.4.2

Computing Uncertainty in Background Corrected Values

You can propagate the uncertainty (N +b ) associated with both measured sample and background
count rates. Assume a sample is counted for 50 minutes yielding 137 gross counts (2.74 cpm); and
15 background counts were collected from one 10-min count (1.5 cpm):
r
Rs Rb
+
(N +b) =
Ts
Tb
r
2.74 1.5
(2.34)
(N +b) =
+
50
10
(N +b) =

0.055 + 0.15 = 0.45 cpm

Where:
Rs = Sample count rate (cpm)
Rb = Background count rate (cpm)
Ts = sample count duration (min)
Tb = background count duration (min)
Thus with all things the same, 95% of the time (i.e. 2 6) you would expect a net sample
count rate of 1.24 0.9 cpm (from 0.34 to 2.14 cpm). This is using two standard deviations as
the uncertainty. The net count rate is obtained by subtracting a background of 1.5 cpm from a
gross count rate of 2.74.
If we reduce the counting time for the sample, it changes the standard deviation considerably.
In this case we assume that the count rate of the sample remains the same. If we reduce the sample
count duration to 2 minutes instead of 50.
r
Rs Rb
+
(N +b) =
ts
tb
r
2.74 1.5
(2.35)
(N +b) =
+
2
10
(N +b) =

1.37 + 0.15 = 1.23 cpm

The net count rate should be recorded as 1.24 1.23 cpm. The one sigma confidence interval
(68% probability) would be from 0.01 to 2.47 cpm. Notice that in this example, the standard
deviation is more than twice as large as compared to the previous example. This is because
uncertainty always becomes large when counting for very short counting times.

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Section 2 Exercise
1. Compute the decay constant for

239

Pu with a half-life of 24,110 years.

2. Calculate the radioactivity in Ci and Bq for a 10,000 dpm sample.

3. What fraction of

137

Cs is present after 1 year? What fraction would have decayed?

4. Calculate the maximum energy (MeV) of the beta particle produced in the decay of
(14.0032419 amu) to 14 N (14.0030741 amu).

65

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5. Complete the following table for changes in A and/or Z for the listed decays.
Decay

Change in A

Change in Z

alpha
beta
positron +
gamma
neutron n

6. A sample containing only long-lived radioactivity is counted 10 times for 100 minutes and
once for 1000 minutes. The total counts in both cases are 35000. What are the standard
deviations of the sample count rates?

7. A sample counted for 60 minutes yields a total count of 1800 and the background count is
800 in 500 minutes. Determine the net count rate and the standard deviation of the net
count rate.

8. Indicate whether the radioactivity decay particle or ray energy is discrete or continuous.
alpha ()
beta ()
gamma ()

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3.1

Energy Transfer

Fundamental to personal dosimetry and the application of shielding is an understanding of how

the different types of radiation interact with matter. Ionizing radiation imparts energy to matter
in a variety of ways, the extent of which depends upon:
Type of radiation
Energy of the radiation
Material being impacted
While charged particles primarily affect orbital electrons and neutrons impact nuclei, highenergy photons can interact with both. Atomic excitations and ionizations are the primary result;
and molecular bonds can be broken with new chemical entities formed. When the matter being
impinged upon is biological, cell damage or death can occur with possible resultant health
impacts (covered in Section 5).
Energetic charged particles are considered directly ionizing radiation and interact with matter
differently than high-energy photons and neutrons (indirectly ionizing radiation)
Table 18: Overview
Charged
Particle
Interactions

Energetic charged particles mainly interact with orbital electrons and rarely
with nuclei. Because of coulomb forces, charged particles generate a large
number of ion pairs per unit length traversed. Electrons ejected via charged
particle forces are called primary electrons, which in turn may have sufficient
energy to further excite and ionize atoms.
Charged particles have definite ranges in matter, with the actual distance based
on charged particles energy and type of material being traversed.

Gamma
Ray
Interactions

Gamma rays interact with orbital electrons or atomic nuclei. Gamma rays may
lose all or part of their energy in a single interaction. The number of ion pairs
formed per unit path length is much lower than for charged particle radiation
(e.g. 1/10 to 1/1000 of that from a similar energy beta particle).
Gamma rays do not have definite ranges and can travel very far before dissipating all their energy in matter. Therefore, they are referred to as penetrating
radiation.

Neutron
Interactions

Because neutrons are uncharged particles, they can be highly penetrating.

They mainly impact atomic nuclei. Neutron energies can span over eight
decades; and the various possible interaction probabilities are complicated.
After elastic or inelastic scattering, neutrons are eventually captured by nuclei
resulting in new nuclides or fission, and typically the emission of gamma rays
and other nucleons.

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Table 19: Important Terms & Concepts

Coulomb Force

The electrostatic force between charged particles.

Directly Ionizing
Radiation

Charged particle radiation that can directly ionize and excite atoms
via coulomb forces.

Indirectly Ionizing
Radiation

Uncharged radiation (gamma rays, X-rays, and neutrons) that can

only ionize and excite atoms indirectly, through secondary processes.

Range

Range can be considered the absorber thickness needed to attenuate

all of a given radiations energy

Specific Ionization

Specific Ionization (SI) is the number of ion pairs produced per

unit path traveled by a particle (e.g. MeV/cm). Specific ionization
increases with: 1) mass, 2) charge, and 3) decreasing kinetic energy.

Stopping Power

Stopping Power (S) is the total energy lost (from both collisions
and radiative effects) per overall path length; or the total rate of
decrease in the energy of a particle along its path.
S = E/x(M eV /cm)

(3.1)

For charged particles, S is a function of the electron density; and since

the number of electrons equals the atomic number (Z), the electron
density per area is approximately proportional to the product of the
material density and thickness.
Mass stopping power (Sp ) is the stopping power per unit density
of the absorber material:
Sp = (E/x)/(g/cm3 ) = M eV /(g/cm2 )

(3.2)

While stopping power depends upon the absorber, mass stopping

power can be used without specifying any given material. A given
materials density can then be applied to determine the linear thickness needed to totally attenuate a given radiation.
Relative stopping power (Sm ) is the ratio of the stopping power
in the given absorber to that in air:
Sm = Smaterial /Sair
Linear Energy
Transfer (LET)

(3.3)

Linear Energy Transfer is the energy absorbed per unit path

length
LET = SI W
(3.4)
SI = specific ionization (keV / m)
W = average energy required to produce an ion pair
LET is used in evaluating biological effects from radiation.

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3.1.1

Range

Range can be considered as the absorber thickness at which radiation intensity is effectively reduced
to zero. Range assessments are necessary for determining appropriate amounts of shielding covered
in Section 6. Range can be described in terms of either a linear (i.e. cm) or density thickness (i.e.
mg/cm2 ), where: mg/cm2 = cm mg/cm3 . Defining range in terms of density thicknesses allow
specification of values independent of type of absorber.
Table 20: Overview - Range
Attenuation

Attenuation refers to the removal of radiation from a beam via passage

through an absorber.

Cross Section

A cross section () value indicates interaction probability which can

be applied to obtain the expected number of interactions for a beam of
radiation.
Cross section values are specific for:
Type of radiation
Radiation energy
Type of interaction (e.g. elastic scattering)
A given cross section value can also be thought of as the effective area
of the nucleus (or atom) for the given type of interaction. Hence, cross
sections are in units of area called barns, where:
1barn = 1 1024 cm2

Charged
Particle Range

(3.5)

Charged particles (i.e. alphas, betas) have definite ranges specific to type
of absorber and particle energy. This is because charged particles attenuate their energy via many reactions as they traverse an absorber, but
are not considered removed from a beam until all their energy is fully
dissipated (and specific ionization drops to zero).
Therefore, charged particle ranges are considered the absorber thickness
required to reduce the specific ionization rate to zero.

Uncharged
Radiation
Ranges

The range for uncharged (neutral) radiation (i.e. - and x-rays and neutrons) is qualitatively different than for charged particles. Because these
neutral radiations only undergo chance encounters with matter, they do
not have finite ranges. Instead they are attenuated in an exponential
manner.
Neutral radiation has a given probability of passing through any medium
of any depth.

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3.2

Alpha Particle Interactions

Alpha particles (-particles) are heavy and energetic with the following characteristics:
Two positive charges (3.2044 1019 C)
Stripped 4 He nucleus (2 neutrons & 2 protons)
Emitted in discrete kinetic energies from about 3 to 8 MeV
Decay energy shared with recoil nuclei
Gamma rays only accompany a small fraction of alpha decays
Can generate H2 gas via radiolysis of hydrogenous materials
3.2.1

Alpha Particle Paths

Because of their masses, -particles are only slightly deflected by electron clouds as they pass
through matter. Therefore, they tend to move in a straight line blasting their way through electron
clouds like cannon balls, exerting strong coulomb forces upon the electrons they encounter.
3.2.2

Alpha Particle Kinetic Energies & Velocities

Alpha particles are emitted with high kinetic energies, ranging from about 3 to 8 MeV. Even with
such large energies, however, their large mass precludes them from having relatively fast (on an
atomic scale) velocities. Alpha particle speeds can be estimated by the following kinetic energy
and velocity relationship (which only useful when speeds are less than 10% that of light):
1
Ek = mv 2
2

(3.6)

Where:
Ek = kinetic energy (J)
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)
For example, 1MeV = 1.602 1013 J and a 5 MeV -particle has a mass of 6.645 1027 kg
would have an initial speed of 5% the speed of light (i.e. 1.5 107 m/s) which is much slower
than initial beta particle velocities. Therefore as an estimate:
1
Ek = (5)(1.602 1013 J) (6.645 1027 kg)(1.5 107 m/s)2
2
13
Ek = 8.01 10 J 7.48 1013 kg m2 /s2
3.2.3

Alpha Particle Specific Ionizations

Because of their low velocities and two charges, the specific ionization for -particles is very high,
on the order of thousands of ion pairs per centimeter of air. The following figure illustrated a Bragg
curve of -particle energy loss as a function of distance traversed (MeV/cm). The characteristic of
Bragg Peak occurs right before -particle comes to rest. This peak illustrates that the probability
of interaction (and accordingly specific ionization) increases as the -particles energy decreases.
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Figure 11: Bragg Peak located between 3.5 and 4 cm

3.2.4

Alpha Particle Range

An alpha particle range can be thought of as the straight line distance traversed in a given material,
in the initial direction. Because of their large mass and two positive charges, alpha particles are
readily absorbed and only penetrate short distances. For instance, even the most energetic particle will traverse a few centimeters in air and will be entirely stopped by a sheet of paper.
Therefore, typical -particles cannot penetrate into living skin tissue and do not pose a health risk
unless taken into the body. To completely penetrate past the dead skin layer, an -particle energy
of at least 7.5 MeV is required.
Alpha particles lose energy via formation of ion pairs as they traverse matter, and eventually
capture an electron forming a neutral helium atom. An -particle absorption curve (i.e. relative
alpha beam intensity vs absorber thickness, as shown on the following page) is initially flat and
then drops abruptly. This is because: 1) -particles are essentially mono-energetic, sharing only a
small amount of decay energy with recoil nuclei; and 2) increasing absorber thicknesses just serves
to reduce -particle energies but not reduce the number of alpha particles, unless a thickness is
reached where the -particle kinetic energies are entirely dissipated. As a result, -particles have
a well-defined range in a given absorber.

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Mean Range

Relative Count Rate

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

Extrapolated Range
Absorber Thickness, cm of Air

Figure 12: Alpha Particle Absorption Curve

The finite -particle range is affected by: 1) mass number (A), and 2) -particle energy. The
mean range (Rm ) is the absorber thickness that will stop half of the -particles. The mean
range is more accurately determined than the extrapolated range (Re ) which represents the
most probable maximum absorber thickness required to stop all -particles. The extrapolated
range is 1.1 times the mean range; it can be obtained by extrapolating the -particle absorption
curve to zero, as illustrated in the main figure. Range straggling occurs because of the statistical
nature of the energy dissipation process involved. That is, not all -particles will extend the same
distance before losing their kinetic energy.
Table-21 represents -particle energy-range equations that approximate the mean ranges (to within
10%). Notations for these ranges are:
R = range (cm)
Rair = alpha particle range in air
E = alpha particle energy (MeV)
A = atomic mass number of absorbing medium

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Table 21: Alpha Particle Absorption Curve

-particle Energy

Absorbing Medium

Range Equation (within 10%)

E < 4 MeV

Air*

R = 0.56 * E MeV

4 MeV < E < 8 MeV

Air*

R = 1.24 * E MeV - 2.62

Other than Air

Rm mg/cm2 = 0.56 A1/3 Rair

*Assuming air is at 0C and an atmospheric pressure of 760 mm Hg and R air is in cm.

Alpha-Particle Range Example: Compute the thickness of aluminum (Al) foil needed to stop
Po alpha particles; given Al foil has an automatic mass number of 27 and density of 2.3 g/cm3
(2300 mg/cm3 ), and 210Po emits a 5.3 MeV alpha:
210

1. The linear range in air is:

R = (1.24 5.3) - 2.62 = 3.95 cm
2. The density thickness of Al foil can be determined by:
Rm = 0.56 271/3 3.95 = 6.64 mg/cm2
3. The minimum Al foil thickness needed:
(6.64 mg/cm2 ) / (2300 mg/cm3 ) = 2.9 103 cm

3.3

Beta Particle Interactions

Beta particles (aka -rays) are energetic electrons emitted from unstable nuclei with the following
characteristics:
One negative charge (1.6 1019 C)
Small mass (0.0005486 amu)
Typical maximum energies range from 18 KeV to 3.5 MeV
Energy divided between maximum beta energy (max ) and an anti-neutrino (
e )
Emitted in an energy continuum
Average energy 33% of the max energy
Gamma rays typically accompany beta decay
3.3.1

Beta Particle Paths

Because -particles have the same mass and charge as orbital electrons, they are readily deflected
as they pass through matter, and they follow a tortuous path.
3.3.2

Beta Particle Kinetic Energies & Velocities

Beta energies for typical emitters range from about 0.02 MeV up to 2.3 MeV. Because of their
small mass, they have initial velocities about 0.9 times the speed of light (i.e., 2.7 108 m/s).
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3.3.3

Beta Particle Specific Ionization

Compared to -particles, the specific ionization of beta particles is low due to 1) the small mass,
2) having only one charge, and 3) relatively high speeds. Specific ionization is inversely related to
max for energies up to 1MeV.
It has been experimentally determined that -particle specific ionization approximately varies
exponentially with distance, as follows:
i(x) i0 ex i0 e(/)(x)

(3.7)

Where:
i(x) = specific ionization at absorber thickness (x)
i0 = specific ionization at x = 0
= attenuation coefficient (cm1 )
x = absorber thickness (g/cm2 )
= absorber density (g/cm3 )
3.3.4

Beta Particle Energy Dissipation

Beta particles mainly dissipate their kinetic energy in matter via 1) collisions with orbital electrons;
and 2) Bremsstrahlung (breaking energy). 3) Cherenkov radiation.
Electron Collisions: Beta particles collide with orbital electrons leading to ionizations
and excitations. Since coulomb forces act over distances, these collisions occur without electrons
actually coming into contact with each other (analogous to interactions between like magnetic
poles). These collisions are inelastic because some of the beta energy is used to overcome the
orbital electrons binding energy.
The amount of energy lost per collision depends on its kinetic energy and approach distance.
When ionization occurs, the kinetic energy of the impacted electrons (Ek ) can be computed as
follows:
Ek = Et

(3.8)

Where:
Ek = kinetic energy of the impacted electron
Et = -particle kinetic energy
= ionization potential
Bremsstrahlung: Beta particles can also lose energy via a radiative process called Bremss
trahlung. When high-speed charged particles rapidly accelerate (or decelerate), Bremsstrahlung
X-rays are emitted. When a -particle passes close to a nucleus, the positive coulomb forces cause
it to sharply deviate from its path and thus, experience radial acceleration.
According to classical theory, -particles will lose energy via Bremsstrahlung at a rate proportional to the acceleration squared. Bremsstrahlung is emitted in an energy continuum with
the maximum possible energy to equal the -particles kinetic energy. Bremsstrahlung production
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increases with beta kinetic energy and with absorber atomic number. The following equation is
useful for estimating this fraction:
f = 3.5 104 ZE

(3.9)

Where:
f = fraction of incident beta energy converted into photons
Z = absorber atomic number
E = maximum -particle energy (max ) (MeV)
Bremsstrahlung production is minimal in low Z materials such as aluminum and air. However,
high energy betas (such as from 90Y) can result in significant Bremsstrahlung when in association
with heavy metals (such as lead or tungsten). Therefore, high energy beta emitters should be stored
in low Z materials such as plastic. Because Bremsstrahlung production is inversely proportional
to a charged particles mass, it is an insignificant process for alpha particles.
Note: Bremsstrahlung X-rays are often used in radiographic procedures and are created by a
highly accelerated electron beam striking a high-Z target.
Cherenkov Radiation: When beta particles (or any charged particles) travel faster than
the speed of light within a given medium, a photogenic shock wave (analogous to a sonic boom)
occurs with the emission of characteristic photons. While most Cherenkov photons are in the UV
range, enough are produced in the visible spectrum that a characteristic brilliant blue glow can
be seen.
3.3.5

Beta Particle Range:

The attenuation of -particles is more complicated than that for -particles, because 1) -particles
are emitted in an energy continuum; and 2) they do not travel in a straight path. Beta particle
have much also display straggling at the end of their range in air is 10 ft (3m)/MeV. Beta
particles also display straggling at the end of their ranges, but to a much larger degree than
alpha particles as their smaller masses result in higher statistical variations in energy lost per unit
traversed.
When pure beta emitter counting rates (e.g. 210Bi) are plotted against absorber thickness, the
resultant curve approximates a straight line on a log-log plot. The absorber thickness which results
in a net count rate of zero is considered the beta particle range. The curve-fit equation for these
experimental results, for a maximum beta energy of less than 2.5 MeV is:
R(mg/cm2 ) = 412 E (1.265(0.0954lnE))

(3.10)

Where:
E = max Energy (MeV)
Note: -particle ranges are always given in terms of the max energy. Figure-22 in Section 6
provides the maximum ranges in various absorbers as a function of max energy.
The density range of -particles can be approximated based on the max energy using the
following simpler equations:
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Beta Max Energy (MeV)

Maximum Range, Rmax (mg/cm2 )

0.15 to 0.80

Rmax = 407 E1.38 (E = max in MeV)

0.80 to 3.0

Rmax = 542 E - 133 (E = max in MeV)

1.0 to 4.0

Rmax = 103

1
E (E = max in MeV)
2

Comparison of Beta-Particle Range via Three Different Equations Assuming a max

of 2 MeV, the density ranges computed via the three range equations presented can be compared.
1. The density range via the curve-fit equation:
R(mg/cm2 ) = 412 E (1.265(0.0954lnE))
(3.11)

R(mg/cm2 ) = 412 2(1.265(0.0954ln2))

R(mg/cm2 ) = 412 21.1989 = 946mg/cm2
2. The density range using the approximation equation (for 0.80 to 3 MeV -particles):
R(mg/cm2 ) = 542E 133

(3.12)

R(mg/cm ) = 1084 133 = 951mg/cm

3. The density range using the approximation equation (for 1 to 4 MeV -particles):
1
R(mg/cm2 ) = 103 E
2
1
2
R(mg/cm ) = 1000 2 = 1000g/cm2
2

(3.13)

Computation of 90Y Beta-Particle range in Aluminum Foil Estimate the maximum

range of 90Y betas in aluminum foil, given aluminum foil has a mass number of 27 and density of
2.3 g/cm3, and 90Y has max of 2.28 MeV:
The density range using the equation for 0.80 to 3 MeV -particles:
R(mg/cm2) = 542E 133

(3.14)
2

R(mg/cm2) = 1236 133 = 1103mg/cm

The linear range computed using aluminum foils density (in mg/cm3 )
R(cm) =

(1103mg/cm2 )
= 0.48cm
2300mg/cm3
78

(3.15)

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3.4

Positron Interactions

Positron ( + -particles) are electron anti-matter (same mass as an electron, opposite charge). They
are emitted from unstable nuclei or created via pair production when high energy gamma rays
interact with heavy nuclei. Positrons have the following characteristics:
One positive charge (1.6 1019 C)
Small mass (0.0005486 amu)
+
Energy divided between maximum positron energy (max
) and a neutrino (e )

Emitted in an energy continuum

+
energy
Average positron energy is 40% of the max

Have only a transitory existence

Upon losing their kinetic energy, combine with an electron and annihilate
Detected by means of annihilation gammas (0.511 MeV)
Energetic positrons (not at rest) essentially undergo the same type of interactions with matter
as beta particles resulting in ionizations and excitations. Once positrons lose their kinetic energy,
they combine with an electron and both particles annihilate forming two 0.511 MeV gamma rays
moving in opposite directions, 180 from each other. Conservation of energy requires that the
positron and electron rest mass energies (and any residual kinetic energy) equal the energy following
annihilation (taken up by two photons). Similarly, conservation of momentum dictates that the
system momentum before annihilation equal the momentum post annihilation. The only state
which fulfills conservation of momentum under these conditions is where the two photons are
emitted at an angle of 180.
Positron Discovery: In 1930 Paul Dirac published a Theory of Holes where he showed
that the electron wave formulas had twice as many solutions as were known at that
time. He discovered the additional strange solutions essentially described a particle
with the same features as an electron but with an opposite (positive) charge. He called
this particle the positron. In 1932 the positron was experimentally discovered by Carl
Anderson, and likewise the following year by Blackett and Occialini (in the phenomena
of pair production and annihilation).

3.5

High-Energy Photon (Gamma and X-ray) Interactions

Gamma-rays (-rays) and X-rays are energetic photons. Gamma rays are generated from unstable
nuclei, whereas X-rays are formed when electrons move from higher to lower energy orbitals or via
Bremsstrahlung. They have the following characteristics:
No charge
No mass
Specific ionization rates are low
Considered highly penetrating radiation
Electromagnetic waves that exhibit both wave and particulate nature
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Each particulate (photon) carries a quantum of energy

Energy inversely related to wavelength
Regardless of wavelength, photons travel at 3 108 m/ s in a vacuum
Gamma rays typically have higher energies than X-rays
X-ray energies range from 5 to 80 KeV
3.5.1

Electromagnetic Spectrum

In nature, electromagnetic radiation (photons) occur over a broad spectrum of wavelengths, from
about 1000 meters to 1012 meters. Amazingly, visible light covers just a tiny fraction of this entire
spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is generally classified into the following broad categories
by associated wavelengths: radio, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma
rays as illustrated in Figure-13 created by NASA.

Figure 13: Electromagnetic Spectrum

3

EM Spectrum Properties by Inductiveload; NASA available at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:

EM_Spectrum_Properties_edit.svg under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported. Full terms at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

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3.5.2

Photon Energy

A photons behavior depends on its energy, which is inversely related to wavelength. Photon
energy-wavelength relationships are given in the following equations:
E = hf which by substitution becomes E = hc/
Where:
E = photon energy (J) (Joule = Kg m2 /s2 )
h = Plancks constant, 6.614 1034 Js
f = frequency in hertz (cycles/s)
= wavelength (m)
c = speed of light, 3 108 m/s
eV = 1.6 1010 J
Visible light ranges from 700 nm (1 nm = 109 m) for red light to 400 nm for violet light. Given
the above equations, the energies associated with visible light are as follows. Note that -rays are
commonly emitted at energies on the order of 1 million times greater than that of visible light.

3.5.3

Color

Wavelength(nm)

Energy(eV)

Red

700

1.77

Orange

630

1.97

Yellow

550

2.25

Green

500

2.48

Blue

450

2.76

Violet

400

3.10

Gamma and X-ray Specific Ionization Rates

Compared to charged particles, -ray specific ionization rates are very low. Gamma rays typically
only have a few interactions (at most) before being absorbed because a large fraction of energy
can be dissipated per interaction.
3.5.4

Gamma and X-ray Interactions with Matter

High energy photons can interact with orbital electrons and nuclei through three distinct processes.
1. Photoelectric Effect predominates at the low energy range
2. Compton Scattering at middle energy ranges
3. Pair Production at higher ends (with a minimum energy threshold of 1.022 MeV).
Due to the probability of all three processes increasing with atomic numbers (Z), heavy compounds (such as lead) are used to shield against gamma and X-rays.
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3.5.5

Photoelectric Effect

In a photoelectric event, the incident photon (either a -ray or X-ray) transmits all of its energy
to a tightly bound orbital electron. This energy transfer causes the electron to be ejected from its
shell (termed a photoelectron) and the photon disappears entirely. If the displaced electron was
from an inner orbital, an outer shell electron replace it resulting in characteristic X-rays with an
energy equal to the energy difference between the inner and outer shell.
For every material there is a photoelectric threshold, below which the incident photon has
insufficient energy to free an electron. The photoelectric effect occurs more readily with heavier
materials (such as lead). It is also more prevalent when photon energies are <1 MeV, and are the
dominant energy transfer mechanism for and X-rays with energies below 50 keV.
The photoelectrons (EP E ) kinetic energy equals the incident photon energy minus the electrons
binding energy, given as.
EP E = hf

(3.16)

Where:
h = Plancks constant, 6.61 1034 Js
f = frequency in hertz (cycles/sec)
= orbital binding energy
The photoelectric effect cross section P E is proportional to the absorbers atomic number (Z)
and inversely related to -ray energy. The P E varies approximately according to the relation
P E Z 4 3

(3.17)

Where:
P E = photoelectric effect cross section (cm1 )
Z = atomic number
= wavelength
In 1905, Einstein published a paper that revolutionized physicists understanding of
the nature of light. He explained how certain photoelectric effect measurements were
due to light not just having wave-properties but also being particulate and found in
discrete quanta of energy. The following observations did not match the understanding
about light at that time, where light was assumed to only behave as a wave:
1. The number of electrons emitted from the photoelectric effect depended on intensity of the light beam applied.
2. Increasing the applied lights frequency resulted in increasing the emitted electrons speeds.
3. The photoelectric effect had a threshold frequency, no matter how intense the
light was.

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Einstein showed that these photoelectric effect observations could be explained if individual particles (or quanta) of light were penetrating the metal and knocking electrons
loose from atoms. According to Einsteins paper, increasing the intensity of the light
increased the number of photons, while the energy of each individual photon remained
the same, as long as the frequency of the light remained the same.
In his paper (for which he also earned a Nobel Prize), Einstein both explained that
light was a stream of particles, and indicated there was solid evidence for Plancks
previous proposal of the existence of quanta.
3.5.6

Compton Scattering

In Compton Scattering (aka Compton Effect) a -ray or X-ray transfers part of its energy to an
electron and it then scattered at a lower energy (longer wavelength). The resultant free electron and scattered photon may undergo subsequent interactions resulting in additional ionization
and excitations. Both the initial photon energy and momentum must equal that of the reaction
products.
The scattered photon energy depends on the angle at which it scatters. It has the greatest
energy when a forward (0) collision occurs, and lowest in a 180 backscatter collision. Compton
electrons cannot be scattered at angles >90. In Compton Scattering, the electron binding energy
is much less than the photon energy, and the freed electrons energy can be estimated as the energy
difference between the initial and scattered photon.
Compton scattering poses measurement issues as the photon often escapes the detector medium,
resulting in partial energy deposition (covered in Section 4). And in shielding calculations, the
propagation of forward scattered photons must be accounted for via buildup factors (covered in
Section 6).
Because of Compton Scattering, photons interact with electrons. Compton cross sections are
defined on the basis of individual electrons (e c ). The Compton cross Section per atom (c ) is
then equal to the number of electrons in an atom (i.e. Z) multiplied by e c . For E >> Ec , the
value of e c is approximately inversely proportional to E .
Compton Scattering cross section can be determined by the equation
c = Ze c
Where:
e c

= Compton cross section per electron

c = Compton cross section per atom

Z = Atomic number

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(3.18)

Interactions of Radiation with Matter - 3

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Using the Laws of Momentum and Energy Conservation, the scattered photon energy can be
computed by
Esc =

0.511E
0.511 + E (1 cos)

(3.19)

Where:
Esc = Scattered -ray Energy
E = Impinging -ray Energy
= scattering angle
The minimum scattered photon energy can be computed by
Esc,min =

0.511E
0.511 + 2E

(3.20)

Where:
Esc,min = minimum scattered -ray Energy
E = Impinging -ray Energy
Compton scattering is most likely to occur for -rays from 0.6 to 4.0 MeV.
3.5.7

Pair Production

In Pair Production a -ray (>1.022 MeV) interacts with the electric field of a nucleus. The -ray
disappears and matter is created in its place. That is, its energy is converted into the mass of
an electron-positron pair. Any energy greater than the equivalent rest mass of the two particles
(1.022 MeV) appears as the kinetic energy of the pair with very little being distributed to the
recoil nucleus.
At the end of the positrons range, it combines with a free electron and the two particles
disappear (i.e. annihilate) with their rest masses converted into two 0.511 MeV -rays (emitted at
180 angle from each other). These characteristic annihilation gammas identify the presence of
positron emitters. In gamma ray spectroscopy, annihilation gamma rays may escape the detection
medium resulting in single and double escape peaks (-ray measurements are covered in Section
4).
The cross section for pair production is approximately proportional to Z + Z2 . Thus, the
occurrence of pair production can be significant with heavy metals. The cross section increases
slowly with -ray energies between 1.022 and 5.0 MeV. Beyond about 5 MeV, it increases with
the log of the gamma energy; and the probability of Pair Production.
pp Z + Z 2
Where:
Z = absorber atomic number

84

(3.21)

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As the recoil nucleus receives very little energy, the kinetic energy divided between the created
beta particle and positron can be computed by:
Ek = hf 2mc2

(3.22)

Where:
Ek = kinetic energy of beta particle + kinetic energy of positron
h = Plancks constant, 6.614 1034 Js
f = frequency in hertz (cycles/sec)
m = beta particle mass
c = speed of light (3 108 m/s)
Pair production has a 1.022 MeV threshold (which is equal to the resting masses of an electronpositron pair).
3.5.8

Combined Gamma-ray Cross Sections

The combined (total) cross section per atom (T , cm2 ) for -ray interactions is the sum of the
photoelectric effect, Compton scattering and pair production cross sections, as follows:
T = P E + CS + P P

(3.23)

Linear attenuation coefficients for - and X-rays are computed by total cross section given
above times the atom density:
(cm1 ) = N T

(3.24)

Where:
= linear attenuation coefficient specific to the absorber and photon energy (cm1 )
N = atom density (atoms/cm3 )
T = combined cross section (cm2 )
3.5.9

Gamma and X-ray Ranges

The attenuation of gamma (and X-rays) is qualitatively different than for charged particles. As
described before, charged particles (e.g. and -particles) have definite ranges and can be completely absorbed. While the -ray flux (i.e. -ray/cm2 s) can be reduced with increasing absorber
thicknesses, the flux cannot be entirely reduced to zero. Thus, -rays do not have a defined range.
Gamma and X-rays are either transmitted or absorbed (via the photoelectric effect, Compton
scattering or pair production) in material they traverse. Photon intensity decreases exponentially
with absorber thicknesses according to the following:

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I = I0 Bex

(3.25)

Where:
I = Photon intensity after absorber thicknesses of x passage, (-rays/cm2 sec)
I0 = Initial Photon Intensity (absorber thickness = 0), (-rays/cm2 sec)
B = Buildup Factor (units less, values are based on the product of x)
= linear attenuation coefficient specific to the absorber & photon energy (cm1 )
x = absorber thickness (cm)
The build up factor for the propagation of Compton scattered photons forward. Linear attenuation coefficients (u cm-1) normally decrease with photon energy and increase with atomic number
and material density. Mass attenuation coefficients (cm2/g or cm2/mg) is the linear attenuation
coefficient divided by the absorbers physical density and is denoted u/p. The above equation then
becomes:
I = I0 Be(/)x

(3.26)

Where:
/ = mass attenuation coefficient (cm2 /g)
= absorbers physical density (g/cm3 )
Useful for determining radiation effects, the amount of energy absorbed within a given thickness
can be computed via mass absorption coefficients (a /) instead of mass attenuation coefficients
are published in various reference books and the values are based on photon energies and absorber
material (see Table-44).
The concept of the half value layer (HVL) is important in gamma and X-ray shielding. It is
defined as the absorber thickness that reduces the intensity (i.e. g/cm2 s) by one-half. Thus, a
HVL surrounding a gamma ray source with an exposure rate of 300 mR/hr will reduce it to 150
mR/hr. Section 6 (Shielding) covers gamma and X-ray attenuation in detail.
Computation of 137Cs Attenuation in Lead
Estimate how attenuated 137Cs gamma intensity (/cm2 s) would be after passing through 2
of lead shielding.
Given:
Gamma energy = 0.661 MeV
1 inch = 2.54 cm
= 0.21/cm
x = 0.21/cm 2-in. (2.54 cm/in) = 1.07
B, 1.22 by interpolating from Table-44 on page-170.

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I = I0 Bex
I
= Bex
I0

(3.27)

= 1.22e1.07 = 1.22 0.343 = 0.42

Where:
I = Photon Intensity after absorber thickness of x passage, (-rays/cm2 s)
I0 = Initial Photon Intensity (absorber thickness = 0), (-rays/cm2 c)
B = Build up Factor (unit less, values are based on the product of ux)
= linear attenuation coefficient specific to the absorber and photon energy (cm1 )
x = absorber thickness (cm)
Therefore, about 58% of the incident 137Cs gamma intensity (/cm2 sec) would be attenuated
by 2 of lead shielding (since the beam intensity would be 42% of the original).

3.6

Neutron Interactions

Naturally occurring radionuclides do not decay via neutron emission. Neutron fields are associated with reactors, accelerators and neutron generating sources (e.g. Pu-Be). Neutrons have the
following characteristics:
Primary nuclear
No charge
Primarily interact with nuclei
Mass of 1.0086654 amu
Energies can span many orders of magnitude
Thermal neutrons have energies of 0.025 eV.
Average fission neutron energy is 2 MeV
As neutrons have no charge, they are unaffected by the coulomb forces associated with electron
clouds and nuclei. Neutrons are neither deflected or attracted by negatively charged orbital electrons and positively charged nuclei. Neutrons can physically collide with nuclei even knocking them
entirely away from their orbital electrons. In contrast to the other types of radiation, neutrons are
considered to impact nuclei not atoms.
3.6.1

Neutron Energies

Neutrons are broadly divided into two categories: fast and thermal. This categorization occurs
because the types of neutron interactions depend strongly on energy. Fast neutrons have energies exceeding 0.1 MeV, whereas thermal neutrons have about the same kinetic energies as gas
molecules (0.025 eV) at room temperature of 68 F. Neutrons in the energy region between thermal
and fast are called by various names, including: intermediate, resonance, and slow .
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3.6.2

Types of Neutron Interactions

Scattering:
Elastic Scattering
Inelastic Scattering
Capture:
Fission
Radiative Capture
Charged Particle Reactions
Neutron Producing Reactions
Elastic Neutron Scattering The neutron strikes a nucleus (almost always in its ground
state), the neutron scatters (or reappears) at a lower energy and the nucleus remains in ground
state. This reaction is notated by (n, n).
Inelastic Neutron Scattering: The neutron strikes a nucleus (almost always in its ground
state), the neutron scatters (or reappears) and the nucleus is left in an excited state. The nucleus
decays to ground state by emitting a -ray. This reaction is notated by (n, n).
Fission: The neutron induces the nucleus to split into two nuclides, with the emission of
additional neutrons and -rays.
Charged Particle Reactions: The neutron is absorbed by the nucleus and a charged particle (i.e alpha particle, proton) is emitted. These reactions are denoted by (n, p) or (n, ).
Neutron Producing Reactions: The neutron strikes the nucleus resulting in emission of 2
or 3 neutrons. These reactions are denoted by (n, 2n) or (n, 3n).
Radiative Capture: The neutron is captured by the nucleus and one or more -rays are
emitted. This is also known as an absorption reaction, and is notated by (n, ).
3.6.3

Neutron Specific Ionization

The specific ionization rates from neutron interactions vary with energy. Neutron collisions result
in high specific ionization rates (collisions can even rip nuclei away from orbital electrons). Due to
the high LET rates, neutrons in certain energy ranges are considered very effective in producing
biological damage (covered in Section 5).
3.6.4

Neutron Attenuation

All neutrons essentially start out as fast neutrons. They are slowed down (resulting in an energy
continuum) as they interact with matter and eventually become thermal (0.025 eV). Free neutrons
are unstable and will disintegrate to a proton and electron if they do not become captured.

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Neutrons can be attenuated by the scattering and capture reactions listed above; and any one
of these interactions can entirely remove a neutron from the beam. When kinetic energies are large
compared to thermal energies, the most important attenuation processes are elastic and inelastic
scattering.
The probabilities (cross sections) of the various neutrons interactions depend upon the absorber
material and neutron energy. Since neutron energies can span many orders of magnitude, and
neutron energies change as they traverse matter, the determination of reaction probabilities is
very complex. Moreover, each of the various types of possible interactions has its own cross
section. The sum of all the possible interaction cross sections is known as the total cross section,
denoted by the symbol: T .
T = s + i + f + ...(soon, sof orth)

(3.28)

Where:
s = cross section for elastic scattering (cm2 )
i = cross section for inelastic scattering
f = cross section for fission
(etc.)
A parameter called the macroscopic cross section, , frequently appears in the nuclear engineering equations; if the product of the total cross section defined above times atom density
(N):
= N xT

(3.29)

Where:
= macroscopic cross section (cm-1)
T = total cross section (cm2)
N = atom density (atoms/cm3)
The intensity of a neutron beam after traversing a given thickness can be estimated via:
I = I0 e(x)

(3.30)

Where:
= macroscopic cross section(cm1)
x = absorber thickness (cm)
I = Neutron Intensity after absorber thickness of x, (neutrons/(cm2 sec))
I0 = Initial neutron intensity (at absorber thickness = 0), (neutrons/(cm2 sec))
Fast neutrons are most effectively moderated (slowed) by hydrogenous materials. This is due
to the masses of neutrons and protons (i.e. hydrogen) are essentially the same. A neutron will
lose on average 50% of its energy in an elastic collision with hydrogen, compared to around 14%
from carbon collisions (and only 1% if uranium is involved). In short, the heavier the material,
the less energy lost per elastic collision. Once fast neutrons have slowed down to thermal energies,
they have a much greater chance of being captured by a nucleus.
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3.6.5

Neutron Specific Ionization

Specific ionization rates from neutron interactions depend on energy. Collisions can result in
densely ionizing charged particles, such as protons, -particles and nuclear fragments, and sparsely
ionizing -radiation. The densely ionizing particles produce a spectrum of molecular changes.

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Interactions of Radiation with Matter - 3

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Section 3 Exercise
1. Why is the range of alpha particles almost equal to the total path traveled when this is not
the case for beta particles?

2. Why is Bremsstrahlung not a consideration for alpha particles?

3. Why should

32

P (1.71 MeV beta) be stored in plastic rather than metal containers?

4. Assume a 0.45 MeV gamma ray has a photo-electric interaction with a K shell electron that
has a binding energy of 30 keV. How is the energy distributed?

5. Is a 750 keV gamma ray likely to undergo a pair production interaction? Why?

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4.1

Overview

No biological means to detect radiation. Basic requirement is that radiation interaction with the
detector so that response can be correlated with radiation levels. Careful calibration is essential.
No one size fits All
Many different types & variations with few operating principles. Instruments can be categorized
in different ways & there is considerable overlap:
Type of Radiation
Operating principle
Function
Dose rate, Count Rate, Integrated
Know How to Interpret Your Instruments Readings
Calibration Instrument Efficiency
Minimum Detectable Levels
Instruments Limitations
4.1.1

Basic Survey Instruments Parts

Detector
Instrument part that is Sensitive to radiation
Material Selected types of radiation
Window & Shields can be used to discriminate between radiations
Meter
Electronics
Processes detectors signal
Provides voltage source to the detector
Displays readings in analog or digital form
Dose rate (e.g. uR/hr, mrad/hr)
Count rate (cpm)
Integrated
Total value over specified time radiation measured
Increases sensitivity

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Cables
Transfer voltage to detector
Transfer detector signal from detector
Detector, Meter & Cables may be contained within one unit.
Alarms
In some detectors
Fixed Area Monitors
Effluent or Room Air Monitors
4.1.2

Types of Radiation

Basic issues related to type of radiation emitted and detection:

1. Can the radiation get inside the detector
2. Once inside, what is the likelihood of a detectable interaction
3. If a detectable interaction occurs, will all of the original energy be deposited and collected
4. What happens in a mixed radiation field.
Radionuclides have unique decay schemes. They typically decay via more than one mode with
different probabilities and energies associated with each. Often more than one type of radiation is
simultaneously emitted (e.g. betas & gammas).
Four Main Types:
Alpha particles ()
Heavy with two positive charges; discrete energies
Beta particles ()
Fast electrons, one negative charge; energy continuum max energy point
Photons X-rays & Gamma Rays ()
No charge, create 2nd electrons
rays in discrete energies
X-rays in continuum or characteristic typically lower energy than rays
Neutrons
No charge, large energy range (8 orders of magnitude), complex interactions with probability (cross-section) function of both material and neutron energy

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Table 22: Types of Radiation Considerations

Radiation Type

Example Sources

Remarks

Alpha Particles
Symbol:

232

Th 4.01 MeV
U 4.20 MeV
226
Ra 4.78 MeV
210
Po 5.3 MeV
222
Ra 5.47 MeV
218
At 6.70 MeV

Stopped by dead skin layer

External dose rate not a consideration
Gross count rate or spectroscopy
Must be able to get into detector
Short range in air, stopped by paper
Once in detector, detector achieves high efficiency
Detection requires thin or windowless instruments

Beta Particles
Symbol:

(E listed is EM AX )
3
H 0.018 MeV
14
C 0.156 MeV
40
K 1.33 MeV
90
Y 2.28 MeV
32
P 1.71 MeV

Skin dose possible depending on energy

Count rate, dose rate, gamma spectroscopy
Spectroscopy looks at max to identify emitter
Consider absorption by air and
Window range energy dependent (can travel far
in air)
Once in detector, high efficiency

Positrons
Symbol: +

Pair Production from

> 1.022 MeV rays
22
Na

Antimatter no natural + emitters;

Detected by annihilation photons when e & +
combine
Pair production detected by spectroscopy single
& double escape peaks

Gamma-Rays
Symbol:

241

Am 0.06 MeV
I 0.28 MeV
137
Cs 0.66 MeV
60
Co 1.17 MeV
60
Ni 1.33 MeV
24
Na 2.75 MeV

Low energy y-rays different issues

Efficiency can be low
High Z material increases probability of detection
Low air & window absorption
Photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, pair production
Secondary e produced

X-Rays

X-ray machines
Bremstrahlung
Internal conversion
Electron capture

Neutrons
Symbol: n

Spontaneous Fission
Reactors &
Accelerators
Fission products
(delay n/short-lived)
(a,n) (e.g. RaBe)

Neutron reactions generate rays

Interact with nuclei (not e clouds)
Low Z used to moderate fast n
Complicated reactions probability based on n, energy, and material (also resonance bands)
Thermal n cpm dose rate via:
689/cm2 s for 40 hrs 100 mrem/wk

238

131

Typically 5 to 300 KeV

Air & window absorption considerations
Characteristic X-rays in discrete energies
Energy continuum from Bremstrahlung

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4.2

Operating Principles

Ionizations from radioactive interactions is the foundation of radiation detection for most instruments. The three primary operating principles are generally categorized by: gas filled; scintillation;
and semiconductor (solid state).
Operating
Principle

Detection Mode

Types of Instruments

Typically used
to Detect

Gas Filled

Ion pairs formed by

radiation collected by
charged electrodes

Ionization Chamber
Proportional
Geiger-Mueller

rays
& particles
rays and particles

Scintillation

Electron de-excitation
produces light. The light
is collected and turned
into electrical current

NaI(Tl)
ZnS(Ag)
Liquid Scintillation

rays
& particles
Low energy &
particles

Semiconductors
(solid state)

Electrons trapped in
impurities and collected.
Analogous to gas filled
detectors (only with solids)

Germanium
Silicon Diodes

rays
& particles

Passive
Integrating

Dialectric material placed

inside ion chamber.
Voltage drop over time
measured. Thin sheet
of polycarbonate;
particles cause
damage centers.

Electret
Track Etch

rays, & particles

particles

4.2.1

Gas Filled Cylinders

Detection Means: Radiation interacts with fill gas, producing ion-pairs that are collected by
charged electrodes. Depending on the voltage, 2nd ionization & pulse amplification may occur.
Three main types: Based on voltage and resulting gas amplification: ionization chamber,
proportional, Geiger-Mueller (GM); each requires careful adjustment of operating voltage.

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Type
Ionization
Chamber

Typical Application

Remarks

Field: dose rate survey

instrument (e/g. mR/hr)

Low V; 2nd ionizations not produced.

Current is representative of energy deposited.

Pressurized and
unpressurized types

Principle of e compensation

Integrated types
(e.g. electret)

Dose measurement due to

Bragg-Gray principles
Long term stability
Pressurized ion chambers (PIC) more sensitive

Proportional

Field or Lab:

Some charge amplification occurs; but, current is proportional to initial energy deposited

& count rate detectors

can differentiate between
& particles

Gas flow requires continuous gas supply systems

Low E protons
Neutrons: BF3 or 3He fills gas
for thermal n; low-Z gas (e.g.
H) for fast n

Operating V can be set to detect only , or

to both & and low energy . Cross-talk
between channels can occur.
Field detectors are hand-held or mounted on
rolling cart.

Geiger Mueller

Field: & count rate meters;

Field: ray dose or exposure
rate meters (with right filters
& calibration)
Cannot differentiate between
radiation types or E, except
by window thickness and/or
shields.
Once inside detector, higher
efficiency for than

Once ion pair formed, rapid acceleration

causes avalanche of 2nd ionizations & large
charge amplification. All pulses same despite
initial energy deposited.
Long resolving time (can become paralyzed);
count loss corrections may be needed; correction (C) to add to measured count rate via:

C=

2Rt
1 Rt

t = recovery time
R = observed count rate

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Operating Voltages - Gas Filled

ti

pa

le
tic

lle
G
R eig
e g er
io M
n
u

not used

r
pa

Onset of continuous
discharge

s
cle
not used

not used

Io
R nC
eg h
i o am
n

be

P
C r op
o u or
nt tio
i n na
g
R l
eg
io
n

4.2.2

Figure 14: Operating Voltage Response Curves

Ion Chamber Operating Voltage: Vdc is sufficiently high so that only a negligible amount of
ion pair recombination occurs.
Proportional Operating Voltage: Vdc is sufficiently high so that the charged particles approaching the center wire gain sufficient energy between collisions to produce new ion pairs.
Thus, some amplification of the electric charge occurs; but the charge is still proportional
to the initial energy deposited. This proportionality enables differentiation between types of
radiation.
Geiger-Mueller Operating Voltage: Vdc is so high that the initial ionization produced triggers a self-propagating chain-reaction of 2nd ionizations (avalanches) which eventually selfterminate. Each initial ion-pair results in same number of avalanches; each pulse is about
the same size regardless of initial energy deposited.
Continuous discharge region: The Vdc is so high that a continual state of discharge occurs;
and detector cannot be used to detect radiation.

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4.2.3

Nuclear Spectroscopy

In nuclear spectroscopy the energy distribution is analyzed. Since radionuclides

have unique emission spectrums, the results are used to identify unknown radionuclides. Counting of multiple isotopes can occur simultaneously, or one isotope can
be measured in the presence of others. Commonly used spectroscopy instruments
are NaI (Tl) scintillation counters (y); Ge semiconductors (y), Liquid scintillation
counters (a & B), and Si diodes (a).
A spectrometer separates and sorts the energy pulses according to size. Two types of spectrometers are: single channel analyzers (SCA) and multi channel analyzers (MCA).
SCA: Electronic window adjusted to detect a given energy (correlated to a given radionuclide). Thus, one specific isotope can be measured in the midst of others.
MCA: Sorts various energy pulses into channels. Various channel peaks are correlated to
energies.
Peak Energy Resolution: The amount of full energy peak spread. Affected by initial pulse
creation and collection statistics. Energy resolution (R) defined by:
R=

F W HM
H0

(4.1)

Where:
F W HM = full width at 1/2 max
H0 = means pulse height
Gamma-spectroscopy: Typically spectrum full-photoelectric peak, Compton edge and continuum. Higher energy can result in pair production escape peaks. Spectrum analysis software.

Alpha-spectroscopy: Typical a particle are from 4 to 8 MeV.

Beta-spectroscopy: B particles emitted over a continuous spectrum. Maximum energy edge
used to identify radionuclides.

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4.2.4

Scintillation Detectors

Detection Means: Radiation interactions produce molecular excitation within the scintillation
medium; De-excitation produces fluorescence (prompt emission of visible light). Light is collected
and converted into electrical signal by a photomultiplier tube (PMT).
Common Types: Inorganic crystals (e.g. NaI) and organic liquids.
Type

Typical Application

Remarks

NaI (Tl)

Field: dose rate survey meter

(thin crystal). Cross calibrated
against PIC to validate readings
(typically R/hr). Detectors can
also measure count rate.

High Z of NaI enables efficient detection

Lab spectroscopy: larger sizes;

various shapes including well detectors.

Excellent light yield

Linear energy response over large region
Scintillation yield drops off
with increasing temp.
Problems associated with high activity
NaI peak resolution not as good as Ge detectors.

FIDLER

ZnS(Ag)

Field: count rate survey meter for

low E & X-rays < 100 keV

Thin window, thin NaI of CsI crystal. SCA

discriminate for specific low energy or x-ray

Most widely used to detect presence of Pu & 241Am

Pu isotopes and 241Am produce complex &

x-ray spectrum up to 59 keV; FIDLER cannot
discriminate between Pu isotopes

Field: a particle count rate meter

Thin, aluminized mylar window

ZnS is only available as polycrystalline power;
limits thickness to about 25 m/g2
High scintillation efficiency
Discriminator is adjusted so that the meter is
only sensitive to a particles

Liquid

Lab Spectroscopy: low energy B

(e.g. 14C, 3H) & a (especially
radon)

Sample dissolved into cocktail, loaded into

glass vial, & placed into light tight enclosure
viewed by PM tubes.
Quenching can occur from sample being
counted altering optical properties.
Wavelength shifting techniques often used.

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4.2.5

Semiconductor (solid-state) Detectors

Detection Means: Radiation interacts with detector, moving electrons from valence to conduction band which migrate through crystal via applied electrical field and produces signal. Analogous to gas filled detector, but solid. MCA (multi-channel analyzer) enabled spectroscopy;
good peak resolution, relatively fast timing characteristics. Cooling often needed and susceptible
to radiation induced performance degradation.
Common Types: Germanium (high purity HPGe, or lithium drift- GeLi); Silicon Diode.
Type

Typical Application

Remarks

Lab: spectroscopy

Liquid nitrogen necessary to prevent electronic

noise.
High Z makes it possible to have drift (GeLi) small
sizes.

Germanium

Highly accurate with good resolution.

Can identify multiple radionuclides in one batch.
Field: spectroscopy

Requires portable liquid nitrogen & MCA; with appropriate dewar, the detector may be used in vertical orientation to determine, in situ, isotopes (e.g.
in soil).
Be windows enable spectroscopy of low E .

Silicon

Lab: Charged particles

Limited thickness reduces sensitivity to rays.

Low E and x-rays

Good energy resolution, excellent timing characteristics, simple to operate

Silicon diode housed in a light-tight vacuum chamber.
High sensitivity to and other charged particles.

4.3

Instruments Classified by Function

Portable Survey instruments

Monitor for contamination (particle counters)
Monitor for dose rate (current counters)
Fixed Alarming Instruments

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Alarm upon dose rate

Alarm upon count rate
Exist Monitors
Personnel: Contamination Surveys (counts)
Effluent: Monitor air being released
Assays: In Laboratory
What
How Much
Dosimeters (to be covered in Lesson 7)
Accumulated Dose
4.3.1

Beta Detectors

Detector Type

Detector Description

Application

Remarks

Field: < 1 mg/cm2 ;

probe area 50 to 1000
cm2

Surface scanning
Surface contamination
Field evaluation of
swipes

Natural radionuclides
in sample can interfere
with detection of other
contaminants

Lab: Windowless or <

0.1-10 mg/cm2 ; probe
area 10 to 20 cm2

Laboratory analysis of
water, air, smears &
contamination

Can be used for

measuring very low energy betas

< 2 mg/cm2 window;

probe area 10 to 100
cm2

Surface scanning; of
personnel, working
areas, equipment, &
swipes for
contamination

Lab measurement of
swipes can occur when
connected to a scaler.
High detection limit.

Liquid Scintillation
Counter with a cocktail
containing the sample

Laboratory analysis,
spectrometry
capabilities

Samples mixed with

cocktail.
Discrimination between
& radiation.

7 mg/cm2 window also

window-less,
window area 50-180
cm2 , chamber volume
50 - 1000ml

Low energy including

3
H contamination on
surfaces and in pipes

Usable in high humidity and temperature

Gas Proportional

Geiger Mueller

Scintillation

Passive
Integrating
Electret Ion
Chamber

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4.3.2

Alpha Detectors

Detector Type

Detector Description

Application

Remarks

Surface scanning;
surface contamination

Natural radionuclides
in sample can interfere

Gas Proportional

Field: < 1-10 mg/cm2 ;

probe area 50 to 100
cm2 & up to 600 cm2 if
cart mounted
Lab: Windowless or <
0.1 mg/cm2 ; probe
area 10 - 20 cm2

Laboratory (water, air

& smears)

Windowless can
become contaminated

Field: ZnS(Ag)
scintillator; probe 50
to 100 cm2 ; < 1
mg/cm2 window

Surface
contamination on
nonporous surfaces,
swipes, and air filters;
on irregular surfaces if
degree of shielding is
known

Lab: ZnS(Ag)
scintillator; probe 10
to 20 cm2

Laboratory (water, air

& smears)

Requires sample prep

prior to lab analysis

Liquid Scintillation
Counter; cocktail
containing sample

Laboratory analysis,
spectroscopy

Samples mixed with

cocktail.
Discriminates between
& radiation

Silicon Diode

Laboratory analysis by
alpha spectrometry

Polycarbonate plastic;
sheet is placed in
contact with
contaminated surface

Gross surface
contamination, soil
activity, or depth
profile of
contamination

Integrated
measurements
sheet left in contact for
period of time

Charged Teflon disk

inside open-faced ion
chamber. < 0.8
mg/cm2 window &
window-less

Contamination on
surfaces, in pipes, and
soils

Usable in high humidity and temperature

Scintillation

Surface Barrier

Alpha Track

Passive
Integrating
Electret Ion
Chamber

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4.3.3

Photon Detectors

Detector Type

Ion Chamber

Geiger-Mueller

Scintillation

Semiconductors

Passive
Integrating
Electret Ion
Chamber

Detector Description

Application

Remarks

Pressurized Ion
Chamber (PIC)

Exposure or Dose Rate

or integrated values

Highly accurate and

rugged ion chamber.

hand-held pressurized
ion chamber survey
meter (2 - 3 atm)

exposure rate - can integrate

More sensitive than unpressurized ion chambers

hand-held
unpressurized ion
chamber survey meter

exposure rate - can

integrate

High detection limit

above background levels

Thick window probe; or

side window ( 30
mg/cm2 )

Surface scanning;
exposure rate >0.1
mR/hr or count rate

Relatively low sensitivity and resolving time

losses can occur

Field NaI(Tl) Survey

Meter; up to 8 by 8 smaller sizes for R
meters

Low levels of
environmental
radiation; exposure rate
correlation

High sensitivity;
Calibration issues;
should cross calibrate
with PIC

Lab: NaI(Tl) with

MCA large volume and
well configurations,
different sizes & shapes

Lab spectroscopy

Problems if more than a

few radionuclides; not as
good peak resolution as
semiconductors

Field: FIDLERd : thin

crystals of CsI or
NaI(Tl)

Scanning: low-energy
(< 100 keV) & x-rays

Lab: Germanium
(GeLi & HPGe) with
MCAc

Lab: spectroscopy

Cooling required; Great

sensitivity & resolution.
Multiple emitters

Field: Portable
germanium MCA

Field spectroscopy

Requires cooling
& highly trained operators

<0.8 mg/cm2 window,

also window-less,
window area 50-180
cm2 , chamber volume
50 - 1000 mL

Contamination on
surfaces in pipes, and
soils

Usable high humidity

and temperature

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4.3.4

Neutron Detectors

Detector Type

Detector Description

Application

Remarks

Thermal
Neutrons

10

BF3 gas filled

proportional tube

BF3 serves both as target for slow n & as a proportional gas - discrimination

Thermal
Neutrons

10

B2 O3 fused with
ZnS scintillators

Thin, time of flight

measurements

Thermal
Neutrons

Fission

Ion Chamber lined with

fissile material

High Fission fragment

energy - low count rate
measurements possible

Fast Neutrons

Paraffin moderates
fast n; cadmium sheet
absorbs thermal n
10
B (n, ) reaction

Long Counter: BF3 gas

filled proportional tube
lined with paraffin
& cadmium sheet

Best for energies from 10

to 500 keV

Fast Neutrons

recoil protons measured

from n reactions with H

Proton radiator; proportional counter filled with

hydrogenous gas

Proton radiator may be

lined with hydrogenous
material & cadmium

Mixed Energy
Spectrum

Scintillation

Bonner Spheres
LiI scintillator in center
of polyethylene moderating spheres of different
diameters

N dose rate measuring

instrument due to
coincidental correlation
(large errors possible)

4.4
4.4.1

B (n, ) reaction

B (n, ) reaction

Survey Instrument Concerns

Survey Instrument Calibration

Calibration refers to the assessment of instrument response in a particular radiation field of known
intensity, and then based on this assessment: 1) appropriate electronic adjustments are made, or
2) efficiency factors are established for converting readings to radiation levels (e.g. count rate
to activity).
Proper calibration procedures are an essential requisite toward providing confidence in measurements taken.
An instrument calibration is specific to a given radionuclide source and at a given geometry. If
possible, instruments should be calibrated using the same radionuclide(s) likely to be encountered,
and at a similar measurement geometry. No one calibration procedure or calibration source is
sufficient for all conditions.

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Calibration & Instrument Use Considerations:

Specific to type of radiation
Specific to a given range of energies & energy linearity
Calibration geometry vs measurements geometry
Effects of scattered radiation
Calibration source vs condition of surface being monitored
Traceable calibration source
Environmental & mechanical effects (including unusual magnetic fields)
Geotropism
Manufacturer recommendations
Instrument & calibration checks
When to Calibrate:
Regular schedule
After maintenance
After battery change
Questionable readings
4.4.2

Background Radiation

Natural background radioactivity varies with location. Over 60 radionuclides can be found in
nature; levels vary somewhat.
Table 23: Background Radiation Dose by Source Type
Source

AVG ANNUAL DOSE (mrem/yr)

Inhaled (Radon & Decay Products)

200

Other Internally Deposited Radionuclides

39

Terrestrial Radiation

28

Cosmic Radiation

27

Cosmogenic Radioactivity

Rounded Total from Natural Sources

300

Background radionuclides can be classified by: primordial, cosmogenic, and human produced.

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Table 24: Background Radionuclide Classifications

Background
Radionuclide
Classification

Key Radionuclide

Primordial &
Daughter Products

235

Cosmogenic

14

Human Produced

4.4.3

U, 238U, & 232Th (each parent of long decay chains)

Ra, (part of 238U decay chain)
226
Rn, (part of 238U decay chain)
40
K
226

C, 3H, 7Be

H,

129

I,

137

Cs,

90

Sr (fallout)

Minimum Detectable Levels

When is a Count a Count?

The minimum detectable level, is what an instrument is expected to detect at the 95% statistical
confidence level. That is, the minimum detected activity that 95% of the time would be indicative
of contamination.
Minimum detectable activity levels are essential to quantitatively establish when a particular
measurement is significant.
Factors affecting minimum detectable activity levels, include:
Efficiency
Background levels
Measurement technique (static vs scanning)
Type and energy of radiation
Instrument response time
Dead time & coincident count losses function of activity level
Good Reference (obtainable online): NUREG-1507 Minimum Detectable Concentrations with
Typical Radiation Survey Instruments for Various Contaminants and Field Conditions. Jan 1998.
This document contains several tables showing how different parameters affect minimum detectable
levels.

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4.4.4

Survey Instrument Limitations

To correctly interpret readings, understand the limitations of each radiation detection instrument.

Some issues to consider include:

How calibrations were performed
Type of radiation(s) instrument is designed for
Energy linearity
Energy range
Efficiency with respect to type of radiation
Effects of mixed radiation fields
Efficiency at each scale
Normal background levels
Geometry effects (source and detector)
Effects from measurement technique
Geotropism
Environmental effects (humidity, temperature)
Effects of magnetic fields
Life span
Resolving time
Possible Paralysis

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When ionizing radiation passes through matter, energy is deposited, atomic ionizations and
excitations occur and chemical bonds can be broken. When the matter is biological, cell damage
or death can result.
In his text on Radiobiology for the Radiologist, Hall explains that the biological effects of
radiation are not due to the total amount of energy absorbed, but rather to the individual quanta
of energy delivered to just the wrong places. In fact, the amount of energy deposited in a lethal
dose of radiation is merely equivalent to the thermal energy in one sip of a hot beverage; no more
than 67 calories!

5.1

History of Radiobiology

In 1895, news of Roentgens revolutionary discovery of X-rays and Becquerels findings regarding
natural radioactivity spread like wild fire. World-wide experimentations and possible uses spring
up without a full appreciation or understanding of the actual risks. As a result of the radiation
excitement, Crookes (X-ray) tubes multiplied and radium quickly became an expensive hot
commodity, and for a time was worth even more than gold.
The first known X-ray photo was taken in 1895
of Wilhelm Roentgens wife revealing her hand
bones with her wedding ring prominently opaque.
X-rays were initially touted as the new scientific
wonder and were quickly capitalized upon. In
January, 1896, an X-ray machine was formally
displayed by H.L. Smith, and soon circus patrons
could see their own skeletons and even receive
photos similar that of Roentgens wifes. While
many were fascinated by this startling discovery,
others feared a potential invasion of privacy.
Both the excitement of a brave new invisible world and the desire for profit led to incautious
experimentations and reckless applications, from radium face creams to medical cures. This
wild abandon occurred in spite of clear early indications that use of radiation warranted caution
as several experienced radiation burns soon after Roentgens discovery. For example, Clarence
Dally kept working with Crookes, even though he lost hair and developed skin burns and ulcers.
He didnt even stop when he knew his hands were cancerous. Only a few years later doctors
amputated one arm followed by four fingers, in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent his early death
from cancer, which occurred in 1904.
The early radiation burns prompted various studies to gain a better understanding of the
biological effects being observed. Self-exposures were among the first types of evaluations include:
In 1896, Elihu Thomas deliberately exposed one finger to X-rays and carefully recorded his
observations of the resultant burns.
In 1900, Freidrich Giesel published a journal article describing the effects from strapping
radium salt (270mg) to his inner forearm and leaving it there for 2 hours.

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In 1900, Freidrich Walkoff presented a review to a photographic club; and later published.
Walkoff noted that radium had astonishing physiological properties. He described how an
arm exposure to two, 20-minute sessions, produced a skin inflammation enduring for over
two weeks; an exposure to radium resulted in the same effects as from exposure to X-rays.
Inspired by Becquerels experience, in 1901 Pierre Curie conducted an experiment to see if
radium would cause skin erythema (reddening) on his own forearm. He had heard that 2
weeks after Becquerel had inadvertently left radium in his vest pocket, skin erythema and
ulceration appeared.

5.2

Dose Terms

In radiation protection, dose is a general term indicating the amount of radiation received, and
has units of rads (grays) or rems (sieverts). Dose is based on the energy deposited per gram
of tissue. The dose received can then be related to potential acute and/or long term biological
consequences. Lesson 7 covers how doses can be computed. Both the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC) and U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) provide detailed regulatory definitions
for dose terms and concepts with some distinctions from each other. The NRC definitions (in 10
CFR 20) are based on the International Commission on Radiological Protections (ICRP) earlier
dose assessment methods; while the DOEs definitions (10 CFR 835) are consistent with the ICRPs
newer models described in the ICRP 60s - 70s series of publications. Both the NRC and the DOE
dose definitions are listed in Appendix B Tables.
As covered in Appendix B, important dose concepts to understand include absorbed dose,
dose equivalent, committed dose, and effective dose. Briefly, these different definitions of dose are
defined as:
Absorbed Dose means the energy imparted by ionizing radiation per unit mass of irradiated
material. The units of absorbed dose are the rad and the gray .
Dose Equivalent means the product of the absorbed dose and a quality factor (or radiation
weighting factor). This factor roughly compensates for the effectiveness of different types of
radiation in producing biological damage. The dose equivalent units are rem and sievert.
Committed Dose means the dose equivalent to the given organs or tissues of reference that
will be received from an uptake of radioactive material by an individual during the 50-year period
following the intake. The units of committed dose are also rem and sievert, but a committed
dose accounts for the anticipated dose received during the next 50 years.
In addition to the two regulatory agency differences in dose terms, two systems of units are
currently in use:
International System of Units (e.g. gray and sievert)
Standard English Units (e.g. rad and rem)
The International System of Units (SI) is the modern metric system of measurements. The
SI was established in 1960 by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGWM).
The CGWM is the international authority that ensures wide dissemination of the SI and modifies
units as necessary to reflect advances in science and technology. In the U.S. adoption of the SI
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system for radiation related measurements has been a slow process resulting in using both systems
simultaneously.
In the SI system, one gray (absorbed dose) equals 1 J/ kg where the comparable unit (rad)
in the English system equals 100 erg/g. Conversion factors for these two systems are given in
Table-42.

5.3

Dose Pathways

The dose received from a given exposure depends upon the exposure mechanism (i.e., pathway).
There are two broad pathways: external and internal. Of the two, intakes of radioactive material
generally pose a greater hazard because: 1) the material can be deposited into various organs
resulting in chronic, rather than acute doses, and 2) doses can be received from alpha and beta
particles which may not pose an external threat. Lesson 7 covers how to assess internal and
external doses. In occupational radiation protection, external doses are commonly specified in
terms of the Effective Dose Equivalent (EDE); refer to Appendix B.
5.3.1

External Pathways

External pathways occur when the radiation impinges upon the body externally. When the external
radiation source is removed, the exposure ceases. Only those radiations (types and energy) that
can penetrate the dead skin layer contribute to the external dose. External pathways include:
Direct, from a radioactive source or radiation generating machine
Cloudshine, from immersion in a radioactive plume
Groundshine, from radioactive material deposited on the ground
5.3.2

Internal Pathways

Upon an intake of radioactive material, subsequent distribution throughout the body and deposition into various organs deepens upon: 1) the mode of intake, 2) the chemical form, 3) the bodys
need for that given chemical compound, 4) the personal characteristics such as gender, age, and
health, and 5) mitigating measures.
Modes of intake:
Inhalation
Ingestion
Skin Absorption (most significant for 3H
Wound Penetration
Injection
Although intake and uptake are sometimes used interchangeably, they actually have different
meanings:
Intake: amount of radionuclide taken into the body.
Uptake: amount of radionuclide deposited in various body organs or tissues.
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5.3.3

Bio kinetic Models

Bio kinetic models mathematically describe movement radioactive materials in the body with time,
specifically:
1. Absorption into body fluids (lymphatic system or bloodstream)
from the intake organ (lungs or GI tract)
2. Deposition from body fluids into receiving organs
3. Turnover from organs
4. Excretion by urine or feces
5. Perspiration
6. Exhalation
Biokinetic models have progress with time, and undoubtedly will continue to do so as knowledge increases. Simplifying assumptions must be made and there is a great deal of uncertainty.
Biokinetic models are based on the reference man with assumed standard characteristics (e.g.,
breathing rate and weight). Radionuclide specific dose conversion factors (rem/Ci ir Sv/Bq) are
used for computing the 50-yr committed dose equivalent to the reference man assuming biokinetic
models.
Biokinetic models are based on the chemical nature of the material taken in and the mode of
intake. Radioactive materials chemical form impacts both how much is initially taken up (for any
given pathway) and also how the material distributes throughout the body and deposits within
the various organs. For example, radium is a bone seeker and can remain within bone for a long
time steadily decaying and continually generating an internal dose. Iodine tends to concentrate in
the thyroid. For internal dosimetry, radioactive material is roughly categorized into three chemical
classes distinguishing degree of solubility. Generally, the more soluble the material, the faster
the transfer to the bloodstream affecting dose to both the intake organ (lungs or GI tract) and
subsequent dose to the deposition organs. Soluble materials are expected to deliver a lower dose
to the intake organ and conversely, a higher dose to recipient (deposition) organs.
5.3.4

Effective half-life

The effective half-life refers to the halving of radioactive material in an organism by both radioactive decay and biological removal mechanisms. Effective Half Life (TE ) can be computed from
physical and biological half-lives (Tp and Tb , respectively) as follows:
TE =

Tb Tp
Tb + Tp

(5.1)

TE can also be computed by the physical and biological decay constants, p and b respectively
TE =

0.693
p + b

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5.3.5

Protective Measures after Intake

Following an intake, only a short window exists where protective measures can be effectively taken
to reduce the overall dose. These Include:
Blocking agents - saturate a specific tissue or organ with a stable element blocking uptake
of the radioactive compound. An example is potassium iodide (KI) to reduce the thyroids
intake of radioactive iodines.
Diluting Agents - introducing a large number of stable atoms, reduces the probability of
incorporating the radioactive isotopes. An example is calcium to reduce deposition of bone
seekers (such as strontium and radium).
Mobilizing Agents - increase the bodys natural turnover process.
Chelating Agents - act on insoluble compounds to form soluble complexes which are then
more readily removed by the kidneys. Chelating agents are most commonly used to enhance
elimination of transuranics or other metals. Examples of chelating agents include EDTA or
BAL.
Diuretics - increase urinary excretion; Applications could include 3H,

42

K,

38

Cl, and

99m

Tc.

Expectorants & Inhalants - increase respiratory tract excretions. Has not proven successful for removing radioactive particles from all lung areas.
Lung Lavage - involves multiple flushing of lungs with appropriate fluids.
Wounds - should be washed out ASAP to reduce bloodstream absorption.
5.3.6

Internal Dose Units

In occupational radiation protection, internal radiation doses are most commonly specified in terms
of the total dose received over a 50-year period after intake. An organ specific committed dose
equivalent is the dose-equivalent received by a specified organ integrated over the entire 50-year
period after intake. Also, since the occupational dose limits are based on limiting the overall risk
of cancer, a committed effect dose equivalent (sum of risk-weighted organ doses) is the basis for
regulatory limits. Refer to Appendix B.

5.4

The Cell

Just as an atom is the basic unit of mater, the cell is the primary building block of living organisms.
A cell is the smallest self-preserving and self-reproducing biological unit, and consists of two
primary parts: the enclosed nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nucleus contains chromosomes, each
with many genes, consisting of DNA. Humans have 46 chromosomes organized as 23 pairs. The
nucleus serves as sort of cellular brains both directing the activities in the cytoplasm and also
passing hereditary information to the next cell generation.
The cytoplasm is where metabolic activities occur, as directed by the nucleus. Primary organelles within the cytoplasm include: lysosomes, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria. A membrane surrounds the cytoplasm keeping its constituents in place and nurturing it
by filtering in and out various chemical compounds (such as metabolic byproducts and nutrients).
Cells are categorized in various ways. They can be broadly divided into germ (reproductive)
and somatic cells. Somatic cells are all cells other than the germ cells. An incomplete list of
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example somatic cells comprise cells of the skin, lung, muscle, bone marrow, blood. Cells can
also be considered differentiated (mature) or undifferentiated (immature). Mature cells perform
specific functions. For example, red blood cells are differentiated and serve as oxygen carriers.
Erythroblasts, on the other hand, are undifferentiated whose only function is to mature into
differentiated red blood cells.
Somatic cells follow a prescribed cycle as follows:
Mitosis - the cell division stage
G1 - an intermediate stage following mitosis
S phase - normally the longest phase, when DNA synthesis occurs
G2 - an intermediate stage preceding mitosis
Mitosis is the part of the cell cycle when it divides into two cells. Mitosis itself progresses
through four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cells are most sensitive to
radiation while in mitosis, and as a result, the more rapidly a cell divides, the more susceptible it is
to radiation damage. Both the acute radiation syndromes (ARS) and types of cancers associated
with radiation reflect this trend. For example, because some undifferentiated blood cells divide
more rapidly than intestinal crypt cells, a lower dose is required for the bone marrow to be adversely
impacted than for the GI tract. Also, the cancer most associated with radiation exposure is
leukemia, which is a cancer involving bone marrow and blood cells.

5.5

Effects of Radiation on Cells

DNA (short for deoxyribo nucleic acid) contains instructions for the development and function
of cells. DNA has a double helical structure. Chemically, DNA is a long polymer of simple units
called nucleotides, with a backbone of four types of DNA called bases. The code contained in
DNA is the actual sequence of these four bases along the DNA backbone. This code, in turn
specifies the sequence of amino acids within proteins, and it is this sequence of amino acids that
determine the shape of a protein and the shape of a protein determines its function. The DNA
code is read from the chromosome in a process called transcription.
Within cells, DNA is organized into chromosomes, and genes are subparts of chromosomes.
Human somatic cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total). Chromosomes are duplicated
before cells divide, in a process called DNA replication.
Radiation can impact DNA via indirect or direct means where;
Direct Means - radiation ionizes or excites atoms contained within the DNA structure itself,
initiating a chain reaction that leads to biological change. Direct impacts are the predominant
process when high linear energy transfer (LET) radiation is involved, (e.g. particles and
neutrons). This is because high LET radiation produces dense ionization clusters which are
more likely to interact directly with DNA.
Indirect Means - radiation interacts with atoms in the cell, especially those of water
molecules, breaking chemical bonds and forming free radicals (e.g. perhydroxl, alkoxy).
Free radicals are atoms or molecules with unpaired electrons. An atom or molecule with an
unpaired electron leaves the atom or molecule in a very reactive state. A free radical can undergo a chain reaction, interacting with DNA, causing structural damage to the chromosome.
Indirect impacts are the predominant process for low LET radiation such as X-rays.
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Figure 15:
Double Helical DNA Strand

Figure 16: DNA damage resulting in

multiple broken chromosomes 5

Direct or indirect radiation impacts can damage or mutate DNA. Although DNA damage can
also lead to mutations, its important to distinguish between damage and mutation as they are
fundamentally different.
DNA mutations refers to a change in the DNAs base sequence or a loss of DNA information
and hence a change in the coding, shape, and function of proteins. A mutation cannot be repaired
once a base change is present in both DNA strands since at that point it cannot be recognized by
DNA repair enzymes. Cancer can result from mutations. Types of mutations include:
Point Changes - a change in one single base, analogous to changing one letter of a sentence.
Insertions - addition of an extra base, similar to adding a letter to the middle of a sentence.
Deletions - removal of a base, analogous to erasing a letter from a sentence.
Inversions - where an entire section of DNA bases are reversed
Translocations - where two broken chromosome arms interchange resulting in fusion of different chromosomes
DNA damage refers to structural abnormalities, such as single strand or double stranded
physical breaks, along a chromosomes double helix. Structural breaks can be recognized by enzymes
and be correctly repaired if redundant information is available for copying (such as in an undamaged
sequence in the complementary strand or in a homologous chromosome). DNA damages can, on
occasion, result in base changes (mutations) during the repair process.
4

Available at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:DNA_
DNA Overview2.png by mstroeck.
Overview2.png under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported. Full terms
at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
5
Brokechromo.jpg by Square87. Available at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brokechromo.jpg
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported. Full terms at http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

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Single strand breaks are breaks in only one of the DNA strands. Repair of single
strand breaks involves rejoining the adjoining DNA while using the complementary strand as a
template for repair. Single strand breaks are caused mainly by low LET radiation with relatively
low dose rates.
Double strand breaks involve both DNA strands. With double strand breaks, repair
becomes difficult and unlikely. If repair does happen, most likely the DNA will be abnormal.
Double strand breaks occur more often from high LET radiation and/or high dose rates.
Three things can happen to a cell as a result of irradiation:
1. Cellular (DNA) Repair
If the DNA is repaired perfectly, no permanent effects result.
2. DNA Mutation
DNA mutations can occur with subsequent abnormalities when the cell divides and multiplies.
Primarily, there are three possible outcomes.
(a) Cell becomes destroyed by the immune system.
(b) Cell survives maintaining some function, but at a reduced capacity.
(c) May enter senescence, an irreversible state of dormancy.
In the first two cases, no major effect occurs to the organism. However, if the cell survives
in a dysfunctional state, cancer, reproductive failures, or genetic effects can result.
3. Cell death
There are three things that can happen when cells are killed by radiation:
(a) If few cells are killed, the organism will heal itself and survive and the lost cells may
eventually be replaced.
(b) If more cells are killed, the organism may survive with deterministic effects appearing.
(c) With enough cells killed, the organism will die.

5.6

Cell Survival Curves

Much knowledge on the biological effects of radiation has been derived from studies involving
cultured mammalian cells. Different mammalian cell lines have been established. One classic line
is called HeLa cells. This particular line is from cervical cancer cells from a woman who died in
1951.
Cell survivor curves are developed by irradiating a cell culture in a given manner and plotting
the survival curves, with Dose along the x-axis and the Surviving Cell Fraction along the yaxis. On a semi-log plot, the cell survival curve for low LET radiation exhibits an initial shoulder
where DNA repair can occur. With higher doses the curve becomes linear indicating an exponential
dose-response relationship, as shown in Figure-17.

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10

Surviving Fraction

0.1

0.01

0.001
0

50

100 150

200 250

300 350 400

450 500 550

600

Dose (rad, cGy)

Figure 17: Low LET Cell Survival Curve

5.6.1

Factors Affecting Amount of Cellular Damage

Four main factors affect how much cellular damage occurs from radiation:
Dose Rate
Linear Energy Transfer (LET)
Cell Cycle - Radiosensitivity of different Cells
Chemical Agents
5.6.1.1 Dose Rate Dose rate is the delivery of dose per unit time (rem/hr). For low LET
radiation, at low dose rates, single strand DNA breaks predominate, with complete repair much
more likely. As the dose rate increases, double strand breaks become more likely, and more difficult
to repair. Given low (or even moderate) LET radiation, a lessening of detrimental effects can be
seen from prolonging the time over which the dose is delivered. This trend holds for dose rates
up to 100 rad/min. Because high LET radiation creates dense clusters of ionizations, dose rate
effects are not observed in cell cultures. Figure-18 illustrates dose rate effects on cell survival.
5.6.1.2 Linear Energy Transfer (LET) The term LET has been used frequently up till this
point without much review as to the meaning of the term. Linear Energy Transfer (LET) is the
energy absorbed by a given material per unit path length traversed by radiation. Because ion pairs
are created by energy deposition, LET can also be thought of a the number of ion pairs created
per unit path length, or the density of ion pairs created. For example, the ionization density from
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Surviving Fraction

0.1

10 rad/min

0.01

100 rad/min
1000 rad/min
0.001
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

X-ray Dose (rad, cGy)

Figure 18: Dose Rate Effect on Cell Survival Curves

gamma rays is relatively low; whereas its very high along neutron proton, or alpha particle paths
(also called tracks).
LET = SI W

(5.3)

Where:
SI = specific ionization (keV/m)
W = average energy required to produce an ion pair (25 - 45 eV for most gases)
LET is usually given units of keV/m because irradiation often involves a range of energies,
LET can be difficult to accurately determine. Also, even with a constant radiation energy, on a
microscopic level, large statistical variations occur in the LET. The higher the LET, the denser
the creation of ion pairs within a cell, and hence, the greater the probability of severely damaging
DNA (such as double strand breaks).
Average LET for different types of radiation:
Cs (600 keV gamma): 0.3 KeV per m

137

250 kVp X-rays: 2 keV/m

14 MeV neutrons: 12 keV/m
Heavy charged particles: 100 to 2000 keV/m
Figure-19 illustrates the effect LET has on cell survival where the high LET alpha and neutron
radiation have a linear response and X-rays have an initial curved response.
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10

Surviving Fraction

0.1

X-Rays

0.01

15 MeV neutrons
Alpha Particles
0.001
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Dose (rad, cGy)

Figure 19: LET Effect on Cell Survival Curves

5.6.1.3 Cell Cycle & Cell Radiosensitivity Cells are the most radiosensitive while in mitosis and least sensitive when in the S phase. The law of Bergonie and Tribondeau concluded
that cells tend to be radiosensitive if they have the following three properties.
1. Have a high division rate
2. Have a long dividing future
3. Are undifferentiated
With the exception of hematocytoblast, lymphocytes, and oocytes, this fundamental principles
(formulated in 1906) has been found to hold true. From their law, Bergonie and Tribondeau further
concluded that quickly dividing tumor cells should be more sensitive than the majority of body
cells. However, this turns out to not always be true because tumor cells can be hypoxic making
them less sensitive to radiation. Table-25 orders human cells from most to least radiosensitive.
5.6.1.4 Chemical agents Certain compounds if present within cells during irradiation can
either enhance or diminish radiosensitivity. Agents that augment the damaging effects are called
radiosensitizers, and those that are protective are called radioprotectors.
radioprotectors typically contain sulfhydryl groups (like cysteine and cysteamine). The protective effect is thought due to the compounds abilities to scavenge free radicals.
Examples of radiosensitizers include oxygen and halogenated pyrimidines. Oxygen has a
dramatic effect on cell survival curves, speculated to be due to an increase in the amount of free
radicals formed. Figure-20 illustrates the oxygen effect. Halogenated pyrimidines are similar to the
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Table 25: Relative Radiosensitivity of Various Human Cells

Types of Cells

Relative Radiosensitivity

Mature lymphocytes

Highly Sensitive

Erythroblasts
Myelocytes
Intestinal Crypt Cells

Relatively Sensitive

Epidermal Basal Cells

Osteoblasts
Chrondoblasts

Intermediate Sensitivity

Endothelial Cells
Granulocytes
Erythrocytes

Relatively Resistant

Osteocytes
Nerve Cells
Muscle Cells

Highly Resistant

Fibrocytes

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10

Surviving Fraction

0.1

Hypoxic Cells
0.01

Oxygenated Cells

0.001
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

X-ray Dose

Figure 20: Oxygen Effect on Cell Survival

normal DNA precursor thymidine (having a halogen instead of a methyl group). These molecules
only work if they have been present for several cell generations, ensuring they become sufficiently
incorporated into DNA structure. They in effect weaken DNA, making it more susceptible to
radiation damage.
5.6.2

Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE)

Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE) is a term used in radiobiology referring to the effectiveness
of a given type and energy of radiation in producing biological damage. It is related to LET in
that generally the higher the ion pair density created by radiation, the biologically damaging it
is. In addition to LET, other factors that contribute to RBE include total dose, dose rate, and
the given biological endpoint. Many studies have been done on RBE under different experimental
conditions.
RBE =

Dose from reference radiation

Dose from test radiation

(5.4)

Example: If 200 mrem of a Radiation A (such as X-rays of energy E)resulted in the

same effect (as seen on a cell survival curve) as 20 mrem of radiation B (such as neutrons
of energy E), the RBE would be 10.
By normalizing results to a single reference radiation, the RBE provides a quantitative index
of the effectiveness per unit of absorbed dose of any radiation. The scientific literature contains
a broad range of RBE results (e.g., NCRP 1990). The ICRP developed Quality Factors (ICRP
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1977), and more recently Radiation Weighting Factors, to roughly account for RBE values of types
of radiation. The value is 1 for sparsely ionizing radiations (i.e., low LET) see Table-43.
Some have questioned the validity of the quality factor (20) assigned to alpha radiation because
of the manner in which it was evaluated. In the 1950s studies of RBE values, all radiation sources
were external to the irradiated cell lines. However, alpha radiation is only an internal problem
where the emitter is in intimate contact with cells. An alpha particles range is typically about
the diameter of a single human cell and will not traverse the human dead skin layer unless the
energy of the alpha particle is >than 7.5 MeV. The effects from recoil nuclei were not accounted
for in these 1950s studies. This omission has raised some concerns that the alpha RBE and derived
quality factor might substantially underestimate actual damage. Even though recoil nuclei receive
only about 2% of decay energy, their short range, high electric charge, and large mass result in all
the ionization energy being deposited in an extremely small volume producing massive damage to
DNA if near chromosomes.

5.7

Human Health Effects from Radiation Exposure

Radiation effects on humans are broadly divided into two categories, Stochastic and Deterministic.
Deterministic (non-stochastic) effects follow large, acute doses and have a dose
threshold below which the effect will not manifest.
Stochastic effects are also called late effects. A stochastic effect (primarily cancer)
has a given probability of occurring following exposure and the severity of the effect is
not related to the dose that caused it. U.S. regulatory agencies assume any dose carries
a given probability of producing a stochastic effect, and hence, there is no threshold.
Deterministic and stochastic effects are summarized in Table-26.
5.7.1

Non-stochastic (Deterministic) Effects

Deterministic effects arise when large numbers of cells are acutely destroyed by radiation. For such
effects, there is a threshold dose below which the health effect does not occur. That is, a certain
dose is necessary for the effects to occur at all. The most sensitive cells are those that are rapidly
dividing. Thus, effects involving blood cells require the lowest dose for deterministic effects to
manifest. Predictable effects occur primarily based on total dose received, though other factors
such as age, sex, overall health also influence the severity of the deterministic effects.
The concept of LD50/60 applies to deterministic effects. LD50/60 refers to the dose where
50% of the population would die within 60 days given no medical intervention. Different
sources report different LD50/60 values ranging from 350 to 500 rem. In the U.S., the average
dose from natural background radiation is around 0.3 rem (300 mrem). The survival probability
following acute whole body irradiation is as follows:
Three Acute Radiation Syndromes can occur from acute Whole Body Exposure. Each syndrome
progresses through predictable phases where the severity & and duration of each phase depends
on the total dose received.
Prodromal - occurs soon after irradiation and lasts for only a short while.
Latency - where damaging effects are accumulating but not yet manifesting
Manifest Illness
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Recovery or Death
Localized deterministic effects can occur. What effects occur depend on the organs exposed, and the type and energy of radiation. Localized exposures can result in effects such as skin
reddening and desquamation, ulcers, hair loss, tissue swelling, loss of organ function, infertility,
pneumosclerosis, cataracts.
5.7.2

Stochastic Effects

With Stochastic Effects (aka Late Effects) the dose received affects the probability of the
effect occurring but not its severity. Stochastic effects are due to damage to cells that survive and
are able to reproduce. Since a stochastic effect can result from damage to one cell, any dose (no
matter how small) is considered capable of producing a serious stochastic effect.
Although cancer is the main stochastic effect considered, genetic mutations are included as
well.
Cancer Radiation can mutate DNA which can result in cancer. Cancer progresses through
stages: initiation, promotion, latency, and progression. Radiation can both initiate and promote
cancer (i.e. both cause DNA mutations and inactivate cancer-suppressing genes). Latent periods
vary with type of cancer (e.g. from 2 to 30 years). Infants and children are more radiosensitive
than adults, with risk of a given dose of radiation causing cancer about twice that for adults.
Evidence that radiation could induce cancer appeared when certain types of cancers occurred
in significantly higher rates in certain groups of people, as follows:
Bone cancers - 1920s radium dial painters
Thyroid cancers - children whose large thymuses were irradiated
Liver tumors - patients who received thorotrast ( which deposits in the liver)
Leukemia - early radiologists
Leukemia, lung, breast, and thyroid cancers - Japanese atomic bomb survivors
Skin cancers - early X-ray workers
Lung cancers - uranium mine workers
As noted previously, the most rapidly dividing cells are the most radiosensitive and blood
forming cells are the most rapidly dividing group. Correspondingly, the hemotopoietic syndrome
is the first ARS to appear, and cancers involving blood cells (i.e. leukemia) is one of the most
common types associated with radiation exposure (estimated to account for one in five mortalities
from radio carcinogenesis). The latent period for leukemia following exposure averages 5 to 10
years, but can be as short as 2 to 3 years. The thyroid gland also has a very high sensitivity to
radiocarcinogenesis, as noted in increased cancer rates in those exposed to radioactive iodine.
The Linear No Threshold Model The LNT model assumes that any dose, no matter how
small, carries a risk of an adverse health impact with no required threshold, and that the adverse
health effects at low doses can be linearly extrapolated from high doses. Cancer risk and more on
the LNT model is covered in Section 5.8 (Risk).

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Figure 21: dose vs effect

5.7.3

Prenatal Exposure

Studies of children who were exposed to radiation in-utero (in addition to the Law of Bergonie
and Tribondeau) indicate the unborn are exceptionally sensitive to radiation.
This is because their cells:
Are rapidly dividing or growing in number
Are unspecialized or undifferentiated
Have a long mitotic future or are expected to have many descendants
The effects of prenatal exposure strongly depend on the stage of fetal development; and of
course, total dose received and dose rate are also important factors. Evaluation of the effects of
prenatal exposure is complicated because congenital deformities occur naturally (in the absence
of additional radiation) in all species. In humans, birth defects occur at a rate of about 6%.
Furthermore, evaluations from cases histories is complicated by uncertainties in: 1) doses received,
and 2) gestational phases when exposures occurred. Information on the effects of prenatal exposure
have been obtained:
1. Indirectly from experiments on animals
2. Directly from atomic bomb survivors
3. Directly from mothers medically irradiated during pregnancy (particularly during the early
1900s when radiation effects were not fully understood).
In one study of 106 pregnant women irradiated for medical reasons, 28 of their children had
defects unequivocally attributed to radiation exposure. Most of the women were exposed before
their third month of pregnancy.
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Of the 28 defects:
64% had mental retardation, and in most cases with concurrent microencephaly.
32% had structural disorders other than microencephaly such as cranial bone ossification
defects, upper extremity deformities, and blindness.
The BEIR III committee found a clear dose-response relationship for microencephaly resulting
from the Hiroshima bomb, with a fetal threshold dose as low as 6 rads (dose equivalent would be
larger due to the neutron component). The BEIR III committee also noted that mental retardation
occurred most often when the mother had been from 8 to 15 weeks pregnant when the bomb
exploded. They also concluded that children born to women who had been closer than 1500 meters
from the explosions hypocenter (and hence received higher doses) were on average, shorter, lighter,
and with smaller head diameters. Table-30 summarizes potential somatic effects associated with
gestational phase.
The most commonly observed effects are: microencephalopathy (often combined with mental
retardation), some other central nervous system (CNS) defect, and growth retardation. Because
the period during major organ system development is so short in humans, structural abnormalities
(e.g. missing limbs) have not been commonly observed; and CNS defects are thought to occur
more often because, the CNS develops over a relatively long period.
Delayed effects (namely cancer) have been associated with prenatal exposure. In-utero irradiation of even 1 to 2 rads may increase the risk of leukemia (in the first 10 to 15 years) by a factor
of from 1.5 to 2.
Because of the extreme sensitivity of the unborn, in the U.S., the medical profession uses great
precautions to prevent prenatal medical exposures.
It is essential that all female radiation workers be educated regarding the risks of fetal exposure.
A good resource is the 1999 NRC Reg Guide 8.13 Instruction Concerning Prenatal Exposure.
5.7.4

Life Shortening

Evidence that radiation can shorten life-spans comes from animal studies and epidemiological
studies of early radiologists, who chronically received significant doses.
Studies indicate that high acute doses can reduce life spans of small mammals (i.e. dogs,
mice, and rats), where acute whole body doses of 100 rads reduced life spans by about 5%. The
irradiated animals were reported to appear much older than the control groups. Radiation seemed
to accelerate the aging process, as the observed radiation effects were similar to normal aging
processes.
Evidence of life shortening in humans comes from studies of early American radiologists. Data
indicates that radiation may have caused non-specific life shortening, as members of the Radiological Society of North America from 1945 to 1954 had shorter life spans than other medical
professions living at the same time. However, conclusions drawn from epidemiological data are
controversial. In dispute is whether the life span reduction observed in the group as a whole was
actually due to radiation induced lethal cancers rather than non-specific life shortening.
5.7.5

Genetic Effects

Ionizing radiation can cause mutations in cellular DNA (including germ cells). Mutations in germ
cells can be transmitted to offspring and is therefore considered a stochastic genetic effect. Germ
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cells contain only one set of chromosomes. On the other hand (except for the X-Y chromosome
pair in males) human somatic cells contain two sets of chromosomes with matched pairs of genes.
The matched gene partners can differ, with one gene being considered dominant over its recessive
partner.
The two germ cells are:
Male stem-cell spermatogonia which multiply throughout the reproductive life span.
Female oocytes, (immature ones). Oocytes are not replaced during adult life.
Potential genetic disorders can be categorized as:
Single-gene disorders (dominant and X-linked disease traits)
Double-gene disorders (recessive disease traits)
Multifactorial disorders
Abnormal number of chromosomes
A genetic trait is often called dominant or recessive. A dominant trait is more likely to
cause disease, because only one of the two genes needs to be defective for its trait to manifest. In
dominant genetic disorders, the mutated gene can be thought of as overcoming the normal
gene and the disorder appears. With recessive disorders, the normal gene proves to be an adequate
backup and the disease does not appear unless both genes are defective. However, a given defective
gene is not always totally dominant or recessive, resulting in various degrees of expression. How
dominant a mutation is depends on how well the normal gene copy can compensate for the defective
gene.
A dominant genetic disoder manifests when the defective dominant gene is present in at least
one chromosome. The recessive genetic disoder manifests itself when the defective recessive gene
is present on both chromosomes. Thus, both parents must have the particular recessive gene for
it to appear in offspring (and then it appears with a 25% probability).
If a mutated recessive gene is present on the X-chromosome, its trait will be evident in males
since they only have one X-chromosome. Disorders associated with the X-chromosome are called
X-linked effects.
Multifactorial disorders involve complex patterns of inheritance where a specific combination
of defective genes must be present for them to occur. Environmental factors can also play a role.
These disorders represent a large class of genetic diseases.
Conceivably, radiation could result in an abnormal number of chromosomes (aneuploidy) in
germ cells. The effects from aneuploidy are severe and usually result in miscarriage. Down Syndrome is an example of aneuploidy.
BEIR VII concluded that low or chronic doses to radiation produce genetic risks that are
very small compared to the baseline frequency of genetic diseases. The BEIR VII committee also
surmised such low doses would not result in genetic defects in 30,000 children. The reason given
for a very low genetic mutation rate is that only viable embryonic genetic changes could get passed
on to offspring. However, animal studies indicate that human genetic mutations are a possible
consequence of radiation exposure. Moreover, mutations in recessive genes may not manifest for
several generations.

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5.8

Risk

What the actual risks from exposure to low levels of radiation is uncertain and controversial, where
low-level is defined as acute doses less than 5 to 10 rem.
Technically, risk is a function of both the negative effect and the probability of it occurring.
That is, the more negative the effect and/or the higher the likelihood, the larger the overall risk.
However, in every day language, risk often just refers to the probability component alone. In this
document, risk refers to the probability of a given exposure inducing a negative health impact at
any time in a persons life.
Whenever reading about radiation risk, its essential to understand just how risk is being
defined in that particular context. For example, some documents refer to the risk of mortality
from cancer per gamma-ray rem, where others describe risk in terms of negative health effect per
rem.
Although the negative health impact being referred to is typically cancer, cancer morbidity or
mortality, actual impacts can include genetic mutations transmitted to offspring, life shortening,
and other disease states such as cardiovascular disease.
5.8.1

Risk Evaluation

Starting in 1950s, various groups have assessed risks from low level radiation exposure. These
groups include:
BEIR Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation Committee
ICRP International Commission on Radiation Protection
NCRP National Council on Radiation Protection & Measurements
UNSCEAR United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
Academie des sciences French Academy of Sciences
Risk estimates have been developed by evaluating data from:
1. Epidemiological studies of groups who received:
high acute doses (e.g., Japanese atomic bomb survivors)
high chronic doses (e.g., radium dial painters)
occupational exposures
medical exposures
2. Animal Studies
3. Cell cultures studies
Although there is much data from these sources, its difficult to precisely pinpoint the actual
risk from low level exposures because:
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1. Cancer rates are high in the general US population. The probability of incurring cancer
over ones lifetime is 42% with the changes of contracting cancer increasing with age. A
statistically significant increase in these already high rates has not been conclusively observed
from doses less than 10 rem.
2. Determining the actual doses received from high exposure cases is uncertain. For example,
just where the Japanese atomic bomb survivors were located in relation to the bomb impact
affects dose reconstruction, as does the amount of shielding, and what the neutron and
gamma rays components were at the given location.
3. How to extrapolate effects from high to low levels of exposure is non-conclusive and controversial.
4. A latency period of imprecise duration follows cancer induction; which can last for many
years. This latency period further complicates tracing cancer induction to a given exposure.
5. There is no single prototype cancer that is only induced by radiation.
6. People are continually exposed to radiation from both natural background and man-made
sources that typically exceed occupational doses. The average background dose to the general
US population is around 300 millirem.
7. The quality factor (Q) is only a rough approximation to compensate for a given radiations
effectiveness in producing biological damage (which is primarily related to the radiations
linear energy transfer, LET). In the determination of dose equivalent, Q does not precisely
reflect just how damaging a given radiation is. This imprecision in the computation of dose
equivalent further complicates evaluations of risk from cases where exposures involved both
low and high LET radiation. The most recent BEIR report (VII) defines low level radiation
as also only consisting of low LET.
8. The actual risk from a given exposure varies from person to person. For example, radiation
is more effective in inducing cancer in children than adults. Other important factors include:
gender, ethnic origin, diet, and health habits.
Risk estimates are based on extrapolation of health impact data from high doses to low doses.
Just how to curve-fit the data is uncertain, and thus controversial. Three hypothesized curve-fit
models are summarized below.
Linear No Dose Threshold (LNT) Conservatively, U.S. regulations adopt the LNT model.
This model supposes that any dose, no matter how small, carries a risk of an adverse health impact;
and that the effects at low doses can be linearly extrapolated form high doses. For example, if
a particular dose produces one extra cancer per thousand exposed, the LNT model predicts that
one thousandth of this dose will generate one extra case per million exposed.
Even though the LNT model has considerable uncertainty, the NRC, NCRP, UNSCEAR, and
the ICRP support use of this model. Some organizations agree, including:
The French Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Medicine
American Nuclear Society
The Health Physics Society (HPS)
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Threshold The threshold model asserts that below a dose level, radiation exposure is harmless. Thus, a dose threshold exists for radiation damage.
Hormesis Hormesis suggests that radiation may be beneficial in low doses that are above
natural background levels, while recognizing that high doses are harmful.
The following excerpts from a HPS position paper on Radiation Risk in Perspective:
In accordance with current knowledge of radiation health risks, the Health Physics Society recommends against quantitative estimation of health risks below an individual
dose of 5 rem in one year or a lifetime dose of 10 rem above that received from natural
sources. Estimation of health risk associated with radiation doses that are of similar
magnitude as those received from natural sources should be strictly qualitative. There
is substantial and convincing scientific evidence for health risks following high-dose exposures. However, below 5 - 10 rem, risks of health effects are too small to be observed
or are nonexistent.
Current radiation protection standards and practices are based on the premise that any
radiation dose, no matter how small, can result in detrimental health effects, such as
cancer and genetic damage. Further, it is assumed that these effects are produced in
direct proportion to those received, i.e., doubling the radiation dose results in a doubling
of the effect. These two assumptions lead to a dose-response relationship, often referred
to as the linear no-threshold model, for estimating health effects at doses of interest.
There is, however, substantial scientific evidence that this model is an oversimplification
of the dose-response relationship and results in an overestimation of health risks in the
low dose range. Biological mechanisms including cellular repair of radiation injury,
which are not accounted for by the linear, no-threshold model, reduce the likelihood of
cancers and genetic effects.
5.8.2

Risk Estimates

Even though there is much debate about the actual numerical risk values from exposure to lowlevels of radiation, it is clear that the risk is small . Table-31 presents risk estimates from various
sources:

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5.8.3

Risk Communication

The requirements to communicate risk to radiation workers (and before any planned special exposures) are given (respectively) in Section 19.12 of 10 CFR 19, Notices, Instructions and reports
to Workers: Inspection and Investigations, and Section 10.11206 of 10 CFR Part 20, Standards
for Protection against Radiation.
Documents helpful in communicating risk include:
NRC Reg Guide 8.29. Instructions Concerning Risks from Occupational Radiation
Exposure. February 1996.
NRC Reg Guide 8.13. Instructions Concerning Prenatal Exposure. June 1999.
Operational Radiation Safety article by Joseph Ring. Radiation Risks and Dirty
Bombs, February 2004.
Problem 1: If there are 5.7 million construction workers, how many would be expected to die each
year, due to work related injuries, if the occupational mortality rate was 3.9 per 10,000 workers
per year?
Annual fatality rate = (risk) (population)
Answer :

3.9
10,000

5.7 106

(5.5)

= 2223
Problem 2: One estimate of the lifetime risk of developing a fatal cancer from radiation exposure
is 5 104 per rem. If 5.7 million radiation workers each receive a dose of 0.1 rem (100 mrem), how
many would be expected to die of cancer sometime during their life due to work related radiation
exposure?
Number of fatalities = (risk) (dose) (population)
Answer :

= 5 104 0.1 5.7 106

= 285

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Group Exercise:
How would you answer this letter?
The following is a verbatim copy of a real letter Nevada Technical Associates received. Only the
names have been changed. How would you respond to this question? (Shot Charlie, had a yield
of 31 kilotons)

Dear Sirs,
I have been working to assist an individual who was exposed to an atom bomb while in
the army. He served as a field soldier witness and was exposed to the direct effects of a
32 megaton bomb akin to the fat boy ....He was involved in the project Shot Charlie
in Nevada in 1952 ...a Tumbler Snapper.
He relates that he was approximately 7,000 yards from ground zero when the bomb was
detonated in mid air. He was exposed to massive amounts of gamma radiation and the
blast/heat effects of the same....... about one hour later he was commanded to go to
ground zero where he witnessed the effects of the blast on several experimental animals
and the recording equipment.
My question to you is ..... what exactly are the effects of the gamma radiation, exposed
directly as he was, on the human body? He suffers from a post traumatic stress disorder
and also suffers from loss of hearing and now has floaters in his eyes from the 1952
blast.
Any help you provide would be greatly appreciated. He is applying for VA benefits all
these years later because they told him NOT to tell anyone what he had witnessed.
Thanks,
John Doe, MD.

5.8.4

Risk Comparison

The risk from occupational exposure to ionizing radiation can be put into perspective by examining
the hazards associated with other occupations (Table-33) and doses received from background
radiation and medical procedures (Tables-32 and Tables-34).

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Table 26: Biological Radiation Effects

Stochastic

Non-Stochastic/Deterministic

No dose threshold

Dose threshold

Long term effects

Acute effects

Probability of effect is assumed to be a function of dose with a linear curve

Effect occurs based on exceeding threshold dose

Effect severity independent of dose

Effect severity depends on dose

Latent period follows dose

Distinct phases following dose

Types of stochastic effects:

Cancer
Genetic

Localized effects such as:

Cataracts
Skin Erythema
Hair loss
Thyroid damage
Acute Radiation Syndromes can occur from acute
whole body exposure:
Hemopoietic
Gastrointestinal
Central Nervous System

Table 27: Survival Probability from Whole Body Irradiation

Probability of Survival with
Dose (rem)

no Medical Intervention

100

>99% or near certain

350 to 450

approximately 50%

>500

Improbable

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Table 28: Deterministic Effects following Acute Doses

Threshold Dose
Dose to:

(rem)

Deterministic Effect:

Whole Body

10

Slight reductions in blood count

Whole Body

15

Chromosome aberrations in blood cells

Whole Body

200

Three acute radiation syndromes(ARS) can occur

following acute whole body irradiation. Each syndrome
progresses through predictable phases where the severity & duration of each phase depends on the total dose
received. Each syndrome is described in detail on Table29.

Skin

100

must be able to
penetrate outer
dead layer

Skin is radiosensitive due to hair follicles and sebaceous glands.

Reddening, peeling, hair loss, blistering, ulceration
Normal skin returns 2 to 3 months later

Lens of the eyes

200

Cataracts can occur. A cataract is an opacity in the

crystalline lens of the eye or in its envelope.

Male
reproductive
organs & and germ
cells

15

Spermatogonia are very radiosensitive. In males, temporary sterility can occur from doses as low as 15 rem;
and permanent sterility from 500 to 600 rems.

Female
reproductive
organs

320 to 625

Permanent sterility

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Table 29: Acute Radiation Syndromes

Hemopoietic
Syndrome
250 - 500 rem
Of the three, the
hemopoietic syndrome
occurs first. This is
because bone marrow
cells are among the
most radiosensitive cells
as they are dividing
rapidly. This syndrome
has a threshold of
250 rads.

Following the latent period, after unaffected mature blood cells have
expired, an overall suppression of blood cells occurs.
Symptoms in the manifestation phase include
Anorexia, malaise, and infection
White blood cell suppression results in decreased immune function; Significant immunosuppression can occur at doses as low
as 100 rads and at 200 to 400 rad - 90 to 95% suppression of
immune function can occur.
Red blood cell suppression results in anemia
Platelet reduction can result in bleeding through various orifices
Death can occur 20 days after irradiation. If total dose is less than
200 rem, survival is likely; survival after dose > 500 rem is extremely
doubtful. Medical intervention includes antibiotics and possibly bone
marrow transplantation.

Gastrointestinal
Syndrome
500 - 1000 rem
This syndrome occurs
in addition to the
Hemopoietic Syndrome.
Intestinal crypt cells are
destroyed & not
replaced; prodromal
phase occurs earlier and
more severely.

Because the intestinal crypt cells are destroyed are not replaced:

Cerebrovascular
Syndrome
10,000 rem

Nerves and the cerebrovascular system are very radio resistant. Thus,
an extreme dose is required to manifest this syndrome.

Intestine mucosal lining shrinks & hardens.

Symptoms in the manifestation phase include effects from the
hemopoietic syndrome and severe diarrhea, intestinal ulcers,
dehydration, and electrolytic imbalance.
Gut stops functioning - nutrients are no longer absorbed by
body
Due to loss of nutrients, infection, and bleeding, death occurs within
3 to 10 days without medical intervention. Survival can only be
achieved with extremely aggressive medical help in cases involving
the lower dose range.

Occurs in a matter of minutes with severe vomiting & diarrhea,

skin burning, nervousness, confusion & convulsions.
Neuron motor pump fails resulting in incoordination, intermittent stupor, and coma
Death occurs within a few hours
Happens so fast, there is little time to see effects on other organ
systems.

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Table 30: Somatic Effects of Radiation to a Fetus

Weeks Post
Fertilization

Developmental Phase

Potential Effects of Irradiation

0 - 10 days

Preimplantation

The embryo in this phase is most sensitive to radiation with the primary effect being death.

2 - 6 weeks

Organogenesis: Organ
systems differentiate at
greatly varying rates
during this phase. Most
embryological
malformations occur
during this phase of
development.

Organogenesis is the phase of greatest risk for

structural birth defects and temporary (intrauterine) grown retardation. Doses as low as 10 - 20
rem can result in defects. Often the defects are
significant enough to cause miscarriage.
In humans, the sensitive period for gross structural abnormalities represents only 1/15th of the
total gestation time. However, the central nervous system (CNS) develops over a much longer
period which may be why the predominant effect
of irradiation is on the CNS (such as encephalopathy and mental retardation).
In animal studies, almost all (100%) of embryonic mice in the organogenesis phase of development that received 200 rads of manifested structural congenital abnormalities; rat embryos only
needed 100 rads for the same results.
Note: during organogenesis is also when the human embryo is at greatest risk from teratogenic
drugs (e.g. thalidomide) and from rubella induced damage.

8 - 40 weeks

Fetal Period

Radiation induced damage to the CNS appears

to occur after the period of organogenesis, during
the fetal period.
Risk of radiation induced severe mental retardation is greatest during the 8 to 15 week period.

Risk of radiation induced permanent growth retardation (lasting throughout life) is greatest during the fetal period.

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Table 31: Risk Estimates from Exposure to Low-Levels of Radiation

Risk Estimate Sourcea

Risk Factor Involvedb

Probability per Rem

NCRP Report No. 115 (1993)

Cancer morbidity
(per rem of gamma-rays)

2.4103

BEIR VII Report (2006)

Cancer morbidity
(per rem of low LET radiation)

1.0103

NRC Reg guide 8.29 (1996)

Health Effect
(per rem)

4.0104

BEIR VII Report (2006)

Cancer mortality
(per rem of low LET radiation)

2.9104

NCRP Report No 115 (1993)

Cancer mortality
(per rem of gamma-rays)

5.0104

ICRP Publication 60 (1990)

Cancer mortality
(per rem)

5.0104

a) EPAs Federal Guidance Report No. 13 provides tables of radionuclide and pathway
specific cancer morbidity and mortality factors (per Bq) for use in estimating the risk lowlevel exposure to specific radionuclides.
b) Cancer mortality refers to death from cancer, whereas cancer morbidity refers to cancer
induction.

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Table 32: Estimated Average Annual Whole-Body Dose From Natural & Man-made Sources
Source

Avg US Dose Rate

US average dose from All Sources

624.8 mrem/year

US average dose from Natural Background

311 mrem/year

US average dose from Medical Sources

300 mrem/year

US average dose from Consumer exposures

13 mrem/year

US average dose from Weapons Fallout

<1 mrem/year

US average dose from Nuclear Power

<0.1 mrem/year

US average dose from Radon

228 mrem/year

US average dose from Terrestrial Radiation

21 mrem/year

US average dose from Cosmic Radiation

33 mrem/year

Rocky Mountains: average Terrestrial Background

40 mrem/year

Atlantic Coast: average Terrestrial Background

16 mrem/year

Denver: Cosmic Radiation

50 mrem/year

Sea Level: Cosmic Radiation

26 mrem/year

Radionuclides in the body (i.e. Potassium)

39 mrem/year

Natural gas in home

9 mrem/year

Drinking Water

5 mrem/year

Nuclear Power Plant (normal operation at plant boundary)

Coast to coast Airplane roundtrip

0.6 mrem/year
5 mrem/round trip

X-rays from a TV (CRT, not LCD) at a 1-inch distance

0.1 mrem/hour

Data from NCRP REPORT No. 160, Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the
Population of the United States
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Table 33: Occupational Risk Comparison From 2006 National Safety Council Dataa
Annual Fatal
Accident Rate
(per 100,000 workers)

Occupation

Fishers & Related Fishing Workers

147.2

Aircraft Pilots & Flight Engineers

90.4

Loggers

84.6

Structural Iron & Steel Workers

61.0

Refuse & Recyclable Material Collectors

40.7

Farmers & Ranchers

37.2

Electrical Power-Line Installers & Repairers

34.9

Roofers

33.5

Drivers/Sales Workers & and Truck Drivers

27.5

Misc. Agricultural Workers

27.5

Nuclear Workers b (computed from risk)

10

Office & Administrative Support

0.5

a) Table adapted from National Safety Council, 2006.

Data obtained from http://www.bls.gov/iif/oshwc/cfoi/cfch005.pdf.
b) Nuclear workers not in National Safety Council data.
Nuclear workers added for comparison. Fatalities computed from estimated risk.

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Table 34: Typical Effective Doses From Various Medical Proceduresa

Effective Dose (mrem)b

Procedure
X-rays -Single Exposures:
Lumbar Spine (AP)
Pelvec (AP)
Thoracic (AP)
Skull (AP)
Chest (LAT)

70
70
40
3
4

Mammogram (4 views)
Computed Tomography (CAT Scans, CT Scans):
CT Abdomen
CT Pelvis
CT Chest
CT Head

70
1000
1000
800
200

Angioplasty (heart study)

Coronary Angiogram
Barium Enema (10 images, 137 sec. fluoroscopy)
Intravenous Pyelogram (kidneys, 6 films)
Barium Swallow (24 images, 106 sec. fluoroscopy)

5700
1580
700
250
150

Nuclear Medicine Scans:

Tumor/Infection ( 67Ga)
1850
18
Various PET Studies ( F)
1400
201
Heart ( Tl)
1180
99m
Brain Perfusion ( Tc HMPAO)
690
99m
Heart Rest ( Tc Cardiolite)
670
99m
Kidney (tubular function,
Tc MAG3
520
99m
Bone Scan ( Tc MDP)
420
99m
Hepatobiliary (liver flow,
Tc Sulfur Colloid)
280
15
Brain Pet ( O water)
100
a) Table adapted from August 2006 Health Physics Society Newsletter
b) Effective Dose listed is a comparable whole-body dose from the given procedure.
See Appendix B for complete definition of Effective Dose. Dose to localized area will be
higher.

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1895

1896
1896

Emil Herman
Grubbe,
a physician

Elihu Thomas, an
electrical engineer
Clarence Dally,
an assistant to
Thomas Edison

In 1895 developed a severe skin irritation on his left hand

from working with Crookes tube. Soon after, upon hearing
of Roentgens discovery of mysterious penetrating rays being
generated by Crookes tube, said: I knew then that I had
been burned by X-rays. By January 1896 he had developed
an acute dermatitis which was followed by skin desquamation.
Years later it became cancerous, and in 1927 necessitated hand
amputation.
Later in life, as an MD, he used X-rays in various medical
treatments. However, having become acutely aware of X rays
dangers, he devised lead shields for protection. Quote from
Dr. Grubbe: I taught more than 7,000 doctors and could
never stress enough the dangers inherent in careless handling
of X rays. Yet of the 7,000, more than 300 have already died
from the effects of radiation. I tried to warn them, but not all
of them would listen.
Deliberately exposed one finger to X-rays and carefully
recorded his observations of the resultant burns.
Thomas Edison (from work in developing a fluorescent Xray lamp) noticed his assistant, Clarence Dally, was so poisonously affected by the X-rays that he lost his hair and also
his scalp became inflamed and ulcerated.
Apparently, Dally still kept up the work, and by 1900 had so
much radiation damage to his hands and face, he needed time
off from work. In 1902, a lesion on his left wrist was treated
unsuccessfully with skin grafts and later his left hand was amputated. Ulcers on his right hand resulted in the amputation
of four fingers. He eventually developed carcinoma, which he
died from despite medical intervention.

1897

Oudin

1897

American X-Ray
Journal

Upon seeing the effects on Dally, Thomas Edison abandoned

research involving X-rays. See summary of a 1903 article in
New York World regarding this.
Oudin and coworkers exposed guinea pigs to X-rays and then
reported details on the effects. They described both the gross
and microscopic histology. Others followed suit with similar
studies
First volume of the American X-Ray Journal was published. It
included a compilation of 69 cases of X-ray injuries reported
from various countries labs and clinics.

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1898

Henri Becquerel

1900

Freidrich Walkoff

1901

Rollins

1901

Pierre Curie

1903

Pusy and Caldwell

1903

Article in
New York World

Received a radiation burn from radium left in his vest pocket.

He declared, I love this radium, but I have a grudge against
it!
Presented a review (which was later published) to a photographic club. He noted that radium had astonishing physiological properties. He described how an arm exposure of two,
20-minute sessions, produced a skin inflammation enduring for
over two weeks; and exposure to radium resulted in the same
effects as from a large exposure to X-rays.
In experiments with guinea pigs, found X-rays could cause
both death and miscarriages.
Conducted an experiment to see if radium would cause skin
erythema (reddening) on his own forearm. He had heard that
two weeks after Becquerel had inadvertently left radium in his
vest pocket, skin erythema and ulceration appeared.
Published a document titled: Roentgen Rays in Therepeutics
and Diagnosis.
August 3, 1903 article titled Edison Fears Hidden Perils of
the X-rays was published. The first paragraph read:
That loss of sight, cancerous disease and even death may
come to him who is constantly exposed to or inexperienced in
the use of Roentgen rays has been demonstrated in a pitiable
manner in the laboratory of Thomas A. Edison at Orange,
N.J. Clarence Dally, an assistant to the Wizard of Menlo
Park, has contributed an arm and a hand to this demonstration, while Mr. Edison himself suffers from the disturbed focus
of one of his eyes through experiments with this mysterious
light in an endeavor to find for it some commercial utility.
The article goes on to quote Dr. W.B. Graves, the physician
who attended Dally as follows:
He (Dally) presents to science a pitiable object-lesson of the
dangers of inexperienced or continuous experiments with Xrays, and his sufferings have done more to bring to professional notice a correct knowledge of things to be avoided than
anything else in the history of scientific research upon this
subject.

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1906

Jean Bergonie and

L. Tribondeau

Two French radiotherapists built upon earlier scientists observations and developed one of the fundamental principles of
radiobiology. They concluded that cells tend to be radiosensitve if they have three properties.
Have a high division rate.
Have a long dividing future.

1909

G. Schwarz

1917

Radium Girls

1921

British X-ray and

Radium Protection
Committee

Are of an unspecialized type.

With the exception of hematocytoblasts and lymphocytes, this
fundamental principle has been found to hold true to date.
Discovered the oxygen effect. He irradiated the skin of his
own arm with a radium source by both placing it loosely on
his skin, and by clamping and thereby inhibiting the blood
supply (and subsequently reducing oxygenation). He observed
that when his skin had less oxygen, it was less radiosensitive.
During this period, hundreds of women ingested radium while
painting instruments and watch dials with luminous paint.
From 1917 to 1926, U.S. Radium Corporation extracted and
purified radium from carnotite ore to produce luminous paints
marketed under the brand name Undark. They employed
4000 workers to paint radium-lit watch faces and instruments.
The radium girls saga holds an important place in the history of understanding radiobiological effects. There are allegations that U.S. Radium Corp. hired women to perform
various tasks involving radium (including handling it) and
purposely withheld critical information on potential health
effects; while the owners and their hired scientists (being
knowledgable about radiation effects) carefully avoided exposing themselves (for example, they carefully used lead screens,
masks, and tongs). Some radium girls even painted their
nails, teeth, and faces with the radioactive paint to surprise
their boyfriends when the lights went out.
As part of their job; glue, water, and radium powder were
mixed, and then applied to dials using camel hair brushes.
The going rate was about 1 1/2 pennies per dial and around
250 dials were painted per day. Since the brushes would lose
shape after only a few strokes, the workers licked the brushes
to keep them sharp and pointed. This resulted in ingestion of
significant amounts of radium.
Many of the women contracted anemia, leukemia, bone cancers, jaw necroses and experienced bone fractures.
Presented the first radiation protection standards

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1922

Ledoux and Lebard

1922
1923
1924

G. Pfahler
A. Mutscheller
Blum, a dentist

1925

Martland, a
forensic pathologist

1927

Eben Byers, a steel

tycoon from
Pitsburgh

1930s

Estimated that more than 100 early radiologists had died of

cancers induced by radiation exposure. Reported that during
the 20 years prior to 1949, radiologists contracted leukemia at
a rate none times normal.
Adopted radiation protection rules.
Puts forth first tolerance dose (0.2 R/day)
Attributed the many cases of jaw necrosis in radium dial
painters to ingested radium.
Concluded that radium jaw was caused by minute amounts
of radium ingested by licking brushes to keep them pointed.
He further described pathology of bone changes and anemia
in the radium dial painter.
Died of radium poisoning after having consumed four, halfounce bottles of radium water daily for over two years. The
press coverage of his death did much to alert the public to the
hazards of radium
In the 1930s, the long standing epidemic of lung cancer in
miners became attributed to alpha radiation.
Starting in the 16th century, regular reports indicated that an
extremely high rate of miners near Schneeberg, Germany (an
area particularly rich in uranium) died from lung disease.
By 1897, studies concluded that from one-half to thee-quarters
of these miners died from lung cancer, while mortality from
the rest was typically due to other kinds of lung diseases. This
extreme lung cancer rate was much larger than that in the surrounding population where it hardly ever occurred. Similarly
by the late 1930s, a 50% mortality from lung cancer was found
among the miners in Joachimsthal, Czechoslovakia, also rich
in uranium

1934
1942

Marie Curie

Several scientific papers published before 1940 persuasively

concluded that airborne radioactivity in the mines caused
these high lung cancer rates. The principal culprit was thought
to be 222Ra, a daughter of 238U. Later in the 1950s, it was discovered that these miners were not only inhaling 222Ra, but
also its daughter progeny attached do dust
Died from pernicious anemia, possibly caused by exposure to
high levels of radiation
The profession of health physics founded
as part of the Manhattan Project.

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1940s

Peteosthor
Therapy

1948

The Atomic Bomb

Casualty
Commission
(ABCC)

1956

Irene Curie

5.9

For therapeutic purposes, the drug, Peteosthor containing

224
Ra, was given to thousands of patients with tuberculosis
infection of bones. Among the younger patients, some of noncancerous effects attributed to the injections included: broken
teeth, stunted growth, and cataracts. Excess bone cancers
were found in the injected group as a whole.
Two new findings resulted from these treatments: 1) children
are more susceptible to radiation induced bone cancer than
adults; and 2) contrary to expectations, protracting a given
dose of 224Ra made it more effective in causing bone cancer,
not less. These two findings were later confirmed by animal
studies.
The ABCC was established to research the late effects of radiation among the Japanese atomic bomb survivors. The intent was to form a group devoted to scientific investigation of
non-stochastic atomic bomb effects. The ABCC operated for
nearly 30 years before being dissolved in 1975
Died from leukemia, which like her mother, could have resulted
from chronic exposures to significant levels of radiation

Dose Terms & Concepts

Descriptions of dose terms and concepts from both 10 CFR 20 (NRC) and 10 CFR 835 (DOE).
Table 36 Absorbed Dose
Table 37 Equivalent Dose
Table 38 Dose Equivalent - Quality Factors and Radiation Weighting Factors
Table 39 Effective Dose
Table 40 Effective Dose - Tissue Weighting Factors
Table 41 General Dose Terms and Concepts
Table 42 Conversion Factors
Since Roentgen is not included in the radiation dose terms in either 10 CFR 20 or 10 CFR 35,
it is defined here as:
A Roentgen is a measure of the quantity exposure. It only applies to
gamma and X-rays in air. One roentgen is equal to depositing enough
energy in dry air to cause 2.58 104 coulombs per kg from ionization of
the air. it is limited because it is only for deposition in air, and only for
gamma and X-rays. One R is approximately = 0.89 rads (in air)

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Table 36: Absorbed Dose

Term
Exposure

Dose

Absorbed Dose (D)

10 CFR 20 definition
Exposure means being exposed to
ionizing radiation or to radioactive
material.
Dose or radiation dose is a
generic term that means absorbed
dose, dose equivalent, committed
dose equivalent, committed effective dose equivalent, or total effective dose equivalent.
Absorbed Dose means the energy
imparted by ionizing radiation per
unit mass of irradiated material.
The units of absorbed dose are
the rad and the gray (Gy). Rad
is the special unit of absorbed
dose. One rad is equal to an absorbed dose of 100 ergs/gram or
0.01 joule/kilogram (0.01 gray).

10 CFR 835 definition

(Not included as a defined term.)

Dose: A general term for absorbed

dose, equivalent dose, committed
equivalent dose, committed effective dose, or total effective dose.

Absorbed Dose (D): The average

energy imparted by ionizing radiation to matter divided by the mass
in the impacted volume. The unit
for absorbed dose is the rad (or
gray).

Table 40: Tissue Weighting Factors

Organs or Tissues, T
Gonads
Red Bone Marrow
Colon
Lungs
Stomach
Bladder
Breast
Liver
Esophagus
Thyroid
Skin
Bone Surfaces
Remainder
Whole Body

Tissue Weighting Factors

10 CFR 20
10 CFR 835
Tissue Weighting Factor (WT ) Tissue Weighting Factor (WT )
0.25
0.20
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.05
0.15
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.05
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.03
0.05
1.00
1.00

Refer to 10 CF 20 & 10 CFR 835 for details on remainder organs.

A tissue weighting factor of 1 may be used when the whole body is uniformly
irradiated.
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Table 37: Equivalent Dose

Term
Dose Equivalent or
Equivalent Dose

10 CFR 20
Dose equivalent (HT ) means the
product of the absorbed dose in tissue, quality factor, and all other
necessary modifying factors at the
location of interest. The units of
dose equivalent are the rem and the
sievert (Sv).
Rem is the special unit of any of the
quantities expressed as dose equivalent. The dose equivalent in rems is
equal to the absorbed dose in rads
multiplied by the quality factor (1
rem = 0.01 sievert).

Quality Factor
(Q) or Radiation
Weighting Factor
(WR )
Committed Dose
Equivalent or
Committed
Equivalent Dose

Quality Factor (Q) is the modifying factor (listed in tables 1004(b).1

and 1004(b).2 of 20.1004) that is
used to derive dose equivalent from
absorbed dose.
Committed dose equivalent (HT,50 )
means the dose equivalent to organs
or tissues of reference (T) that will
be received from an intake of radioactive material by an individual
during the 50-year period following
the intake.

10 CFR 835
Equivalent Dose (HT ) means the
product of the average absorbed
dose (DT,R ) in rad (or gray) in a tissue or organ (T) and a radiation (R)
weighting factor (WR ).
For external dose, the equivalent to
the whole body is assessed at a depth
of 1 cm in tissue; the equivalent dose
to the lens of the eye is assessed at
a depth of 0.3 cm in tissue, and the
equivalent dose to the extremity and
skin is assessed at a depth of 0.007
cm in tissue. Equivalent dose is expressed in terms of rem (or Sv).
Radiation Weighting Factor (WR )
roughly accounts for differences in
the effectiveness the various types
(and energies) of radiation have in
producing damage.
Committed Equivalent Dose (HT,50 )
is the equivalent dose calculated to
be received by a tissue or organ over
a 50-year period after intake.
It does not include contributions
from radiation sources external to
the body.
Committed Equivalent Dose is
expressed in units of rem (or Sv).

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Table 38: Dose Equivalent

Quality Factors and Radiation Weighting Factors
Radiation Type & Energy Range
10 CFR 20 Q 10 CFR 835 (WR )
Photons, electrons, and muons of all energies
1
1
Neutrons, unknown energy
10
Neutrons, energy < 10 keV
5
Neutrons, energy 10 keV to 100 keV
10
Neutrons, energy >100 keV to 2 MeV
20
Neutrons, energy >2 MeV to 20 MeV
10
Neutrons, energy >20 MeV
5
High Energy Protons
10
Protons, other than recoil protons, energy > 2MeV
5
Alpha particles, fission fragments, heavy nuclei
20
20
Table 42: Radioactive Conversion Factors
RAD
1 kilorad (krad)
1 rad (rad)
1 millirad (mrad)
1 microrad (rad)
GRAY
1 gray (Gy)
1 milligray (mGy)
1 microgray (Gy)
1 nanogray (nGy)
REM
1 kilorem (krem)
1 rem (rem)
1 millirem (mrem)
1 microrem (rem)
SIEVERT
1 sievert (Sv)
1 millisievert (mSv)
1 microsievert (Sv)
1 nanosievert (nSv)
CURIE
1 kilocurie (kCi)
1 curie (Ci)
1 millicurie (mCi)
27 picocuries (pCi)

GRAY
10 gray (Gy)
10 milligray (mGy)
10 microgray (Gy)
10 nanogray (nGy)
RAD
100 rad (rad)
100 millirad (mrad)
100 microrad (rad)
100 nanorad (nrad)
SIEVERT
10 sievert (Sv)
10 millisievert (mSv)
10 microsievert (Sv)
10 nanosievert (nSv)
REM
100 rem (rem)
100 millirem (mrem)
100 microrem (rem)
100 nanorem (nrem)
BECQUEREL
37 terabecquerel (TBq)
37 gigabecquerel (GBq)
37 megabecquerel (MBq)
1511 becquerel (Bq)

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Table 39: Effective Dose

Term
Effective Dose
Equivalent or
Effective Dose

10 CFR 20
Effective dose equivalent (HE )
is the sum of the products of the
dose equivalent to the organ or
tissue (HT ) and the weighting
factors (WT ) applicable to each of
the body organs or tissues that are
irradiated (HE = WT HT ).

Tissue
Weighting
Factor

Weighting Factor WT , for an organ or tissue (T) is the proportion

of the risk of stochastic effects resulting from irradiation of that organ or tissue to the total risk of
stochastic effects when the whole
body is irradiated uniformly.

Committed
Effective Dose
CEDE / CED

Committed effective dose equivalent (HE,50 ) is the sum of the products of the weighting factors applicable to each of the body organs
or tissues that are irradiated and
the committed dose equivalent to
these organs or tissues.
(HE,50 = WT HT,50 )

Total
Effective Dose
TEDE / TED

Total Effective Dose Equivalent

(TEDE) means the sum of the
deep dose equivalent (for external
exposures) and the committed effective dose equivalent (for internal exposures).

152

10 CFR 835
Effective Dose (E) is the summation of
the products of the equivalent dose received by specified tissues or organs of
the body (HT ) and the appropriate tissue
weighting factor (WT ). That is, HE =
WT HT . It includes the dose from radiation sources internal and/or external to
the body. The effective dose is expressed
in units of rem (or Sv).
Tissue weighting factor WT , means the
faction of the overall health risk resulting from uniform whole body irradiation
attributable to specific tissue (T). The
equivalent dose to tissue (HT ) is multiplied by the appropriate tissue weighting
factor to obtain the effective dose (E) contribution from that tissue.
Committed Effective Dose (E50 ) is the
sum of the 50-yr committed equivalent
doses to various tissues or organs (HT,50 ),
each multiplied by the appropriate
weighting factor (WT ).
E50 = WT HT,50 +Wremainder Hremainder,50
Where Wremainder and Hremainder,50 are
the organs in the remainder category
and tissue weighting factor assigned to
these remainder organs and tissues, respectively. Committed Effective Dose is
expressed in units of rem (or Sv).
Total Effective Dose (TED) is the sum of
the effective dose from external sources
and the committed effective dose resulting from intake of radioactive materials.

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Table 41: General Dose Terms and Concepts

External Dose

External dose means that portion of the

dose equivalent received from radiation
sources outside the body.

Internal Dose

Internal dose means that portion of the

dose equivalent received from radioactive material taken into the body.

Deep Dose
Equivalent

Deep-dose equivalent (Hd ), which applies to external whole-body exposure,

is the dose equivalent at a tissue depth
of 1cm (1000 mg/cm2).
Shallow-dose equivalent (Hs ), which
applies to the external exposure of the
skin of the whole body or the skin of
an extremity, is taken as the dose
equivalent at a tissue depth of 0.007
centimeter (7 mg/cm2).
Lense dose equivalent (LDE) applies to
the external exposure of the lens of the
eye and is taken as the dose equivalent
at a tissue depth of 0.3 centimeter (300
mg/cm2).
Extremity means hand, elbow, arm below the elbow, foot, knee, or leg below
the knee.
Whole Body means, for purposes of external exposure, head, trunk (including
male gonads), arms above the knee, or
legs above the knee.

Shallow Dose
Equivalent

Lens Dose

Extremity

Whole Body

153

External dose or exposure means

that portion of the equivalent dose
received from radiation sources
outside the body (i.e., external
sources).
Internal dose or exposure means
that portion of the equivalent dose
received from radioactive material
taken into the body (i.e., internal
sources).
(Not included in definitions - see
Equivalent Dose)

(Not included in definitions - see

Equivalent Dose)

(Not included in definitions - see

Equivalent Dose)

Extremity means hands and arms

below the elbow or knee or feet and
legs below the knee.
Whole Body means, for purpose of
external exposure, head, trunk (including male gonads), arms above
and including the elbow, or legs
above and including the knee.

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Table 43: Radiation Weighting Factor

Radiation Type & Energy Range
Photons, electrons, and muons of all energies
Neutrons, energy < 10 keV
Neutrons, energy 10 keV to 100 keV
Neutrons, energy >100 keV to 2 MeV
Neutrons, energy >2 MeV to 20 MeV
Neutrons, energy >20 MeV
Protons, other than recoil protons, energy > 2MeV
Alpha particles, fission fragments, heavy nuclei

Radiation Weighting Factor (WR )

1
5
10
20
10
5
5
20

Radiological dose definitions from 10 CFR 835 follows:

Absorbed Dose (D): The average energy imparted by ionizing radiation to matter
divided by the mass of the impacted volume. The unit for the absorbed dose is the
rad (or gray).
Dose: A general term for absorbed dose, equivalent dose, committed equivalent dose,
committed effective dose, or total effective dose.
Equivalent Dose (HT ): The product of the absorbed dose (DT,R ) in a given tissue
or organ (T) and a radiation weighting factor (WR ). For external doses, the equivalent
dose to the whole body is assessed at a 1 cm tissue depth; to the lens of the eye at 0.3
cm; and to the extremity and skin at 0.007 cm. Equivalent dose is expressed in units
of rem (or Sv).
Radiation Weighting Factor (WR ) roughly accounts for differences in the effectiveness the various types (and energies) of radiation have in producing damage. Radiation
Weighting Factors (from 10 CFR 835) follow:
Committed Equivalent Dose (HT,50 ): The equivalent dose calculated to be received
by a tissue or organ over a 50-year period after intake. It does not include contributions
from radiatoin sources external to the body. Committed Equivalent Dose is expressed
in units of rem (or Sv).
Committed Effective Dose (E50 ): The sum of the 50-year committed equivalent
doses to various tissues or organs (HT,50 ), each multiplied by the appropriate weighting
factor (WT ). That is, E50 = WT HT,50 + Wremainder Hremainder,50 . Where Wremainder and
Hremainder,50 are the organs in the remainder category and tissue weighting factor
assigned to these remainder organs and tissues, respectively. Committed Effective
Dose is expressed in units of rem (or Sv).
Total Effective Dose (TED): The sum of the effective dose from external sources
and the committed effective dose resulting from intake of radioactive material.
Effective Dose (E): The summation of the products of the equivalent dose received by specified tissues or organs of the body (HT ) and the appropriate tissue weighting factor (WT ). That
is, E = WT HT . It includes the dose from radiation sources internal and/or external to the body.
The effective dose is expressed in units of rem (or Sv).
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6.1

Introduction

Time, distance, and shielding are three fundamental radiation exposure control elements. Minimizing exposure time and maximizing the distance between the exposure device and the person being
exposed are the two basic principles of maintaing exposures As Low As Reasonably Achievable
(ALARA), a requirement for all ionizing radiation safety programs. Keeping as much shielding as
practicable between the radiation source and the person(s) being exposed is the third element in
ALARA. A fourth element of ALARA is minimizing the source term which includes such factors
as using the smallest amount of radioactivity or radiation practicable for the task, minimizing the
radioactivity buildup and concentration during operations, selecting radionuclides which decay
into non-radioactive forms, and using materials that decrease the production of activation and
radioactive waste material.
Installed equipment, exposure device housings, facility walls, ceilings, floors, and installed and
temporary shielding material are all forms of ionizing radiation shielding that can, and should be
used to minimize personnel exposure. This section covers some aspects of determining, selecting,
and using shielding to reduce the exposure to personnel.

6.2

Ionizing Radiation Shielding

Ionizing radiation is any electromagnetic or particulate radiation capable of producing ions as

it passes through matter. The ionization reduces the energy of the incident radiation and the
reduction of the radiation intensity as it passes through material is called attenuation. Two
major components of radiation attenuation are absorption and scattering. Absorption involves the
transfer of all (or most) of the energy from radiation to the absorbing medium with elimination
of the incident radiation, while scattering involves the transfer of some portion of the radiation
energy to the medium with the incident radiation deflected at a lower energy.
The interactive mechanism of charged particles differ significantly from those of uncharged
radiations such as electromagnetic and neutral particles. Charged alpha, beta, and positron particles normally lose their energy to matter quickly through electronic interactions. Electronic
interactions are those involving the orbital electrons of an atom and include excitation, ionization,
and bremsstrahlung. Very high energy particles, such as those from accelerators, can interact
with the nucleus of an atom. Electromagnetic photons (e.g., x-rays, gamma rays, bremsstrahlung
radiation) normally transfer their energy to materials through the mechanisms of (in order of
increasing photon energy):
Photoelectric effect
Compton effect
Pair Production
Neutrons, like photons, are very penetrating because they have no electrical charge and primarily interact with nuclei of atoms. These interactions can produce charged particles and photons
which then later go on interact with matter. The type of interaction that a neutron undergoes
depends on the energy of the neutron and the characteristics of the interacting nucleus.
6.2.1

Shielding of Charged Particles

Shielding of particles is not usually a concern of radiation protection. Alpha particles are emitted
primarily by transuranic atoms so they are usually encountered only when working with radium,
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uranium, thorium and heavier elements. Alpha particles are emitted at about one-tenth the speed
of light and due to their high energy and mass, travel along a fairly straight, short path and
interact with matter by excitation and ionization of orbital electrons. Alpha particles have a
double positive charge and a rest mass of 4 atomic mass units (amu). Most alpha particles from
naturally occurring sources have energies in the range of 4 million electron volts (MeV) to 9 MeV
and a range of about 10 centimeters (cm) in air and about 50 micrometers (m in tissue. Paper
and distance are very effective shields for protection against alpha particles.
Most radionuclides emit beta particles and very few emit positrons. The beta and positron
particles are emitted from the nucleus with a very wide range of maximum energies (few keV to
several MeV) and very high velocities (the same order of magnitude as the speed of light). The
primary mechanisms of energy loss for beta particles and positrons are excitation and ionization
of orbital electrons. They can also interact with the electric field from an atomic nucleus.
Beta particles have a single negative charge and a very low mass of about 0.0006 amu, so
they are relatively easily deflected by orbital electrons, traveling a crooked path as their velocity
decreases. However, although they travel a twisted path, their linear range is much greater than
that of alpha particles of equal energy because the beta particles have only a single charge, and
thus, interact less with matter. Both the specific ionization (number of ion pairs per distance
traveled) and the energy transferred per distance (Linear Energy Transfer; LET) of beta particles
are less than those of alpha particles, because the electrostatic force is based on a single negative
charge. A beta particle is emitted simultaneously with an anti-neutrino, which has zero rest mass
and is not considered in shielding or dose determination. The total energy of the beta and the
anti-neutrino always equals the maximum energy of disintegration (Emax ). The beta energy ranges
from zero to Emax while the anti-neutrino energy ranges from Emax to zero. The average energy
of the beta particle is about 31 Emax .
The range of charged particles in matter depends mainly on the density of electrons in the
particle path. While the average energy of beta particles emitted from a specific radioisotope
is about 13 Emax , the range is based on the maximum energy. The range in air of a 1 MeV beta
particle is about 10 feet. It is important, for radiation protection applications, to keep in mind that
the beta range and penetration is based on its maximum energy, while dose and other functions
based on the energy deposited or transferred are based on the average energy of the particles. The
penetration capability and range of beta particles is shown in Figure-22 page 167.
In the atomic electric field, the beta particle is decelerated and the kinetic energy that is
lost by the particle is converted into electromagnetic radiation, called bremsstrahlung x-rays or
bremsstrahlung radiation. The importance of this interaction is a function of the energy of the
particle and the Z of the interaction material. Bremsstrahlung is an important consideration for
only very light particles such as electrons, beta particles, and positrons. When a beta particle, for
example, passes close to an atom while traversing the matter, the positive charge on the nucleus
exerts a force on the beta particle. This change in direction is an acceleration change (deceleration)
which results in the emission of electromagnetic radiation from the beta particle.

The total bremsstrahlung per particle-atom interaction is proportional to:
Where:
Z = Atomic number of the absorbing material
m = Mass of the charged particles
158

Z
m

2
(6.1)

Shielding - 6

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The (1/m)2 relationship shows why bremsstrahlung is important for only very light particles.
The energies leading to the production of bremsstrahlung are inefficient for particle energies below
1MeV and production increases as the charged particle energy increases.
For beta sources, the fraction of beta energy converted to bremsstrahlung is approximately:
F = 3.33 104 ZEmax

(6.2)

Where:
Z = Atomic number of the absorbing material
Emax maximum beta energy in MeV
For example, about 5% of the emitted energy from a 32P (1.71 MeV max source shielded by
lead (Z of Pb = 82) will be converted to bremsstrahlung radiation and the average energy of the
bremsstrahlung x-rays will be about one-third of 1.71 MeV.
F = (3.33 104 )(82)(1.71) = 0.0467 5%

(6.3)

So, placing a lead shield around a 32P solution in a very thin poly container and a surface dose
rate of 1 rad/hr could result in a photon radiation dose rate 50 mrem/hr.
1000mrem/hr 0.05 = 50mrem/hr

(6.4)

Some rules of thumb about the range of beta particles are:

About 3 meters in air per MeV of energy
About 0.5 cm in soft tissue per MeV of energy
Takes greater than about 70 keV for a beta to penetrate the epidermis
Beta sources are easily shielded by thin layers of rubber, plastic, or aluminum (low Z) and are,
therefore, easily controlled with respect to personnel exposure and are not usually a significant
hazard when the source of the beta radiation is external to the body. Beta sources can be a
hazard to live skin tissue, but cannot penetrate into the more sensitive body organs. When the
beta particles are emitted internally, they can easily interact with live tissue and are a hazard. An
external hazard typically associated with high energy beta particles is the bremsstrahlung radiation
caused from stopping or deflecting high energy beta particles. The amount of bremsstrahlung
radiation can be significantly reduced by using beta shields with low Z values. High energy or
high beta concentrations are often stored in glass, plastic, or light metal containers. A thin layer
of lead around the container will reduce the bremsstrahlung radiation.
Positrons interact with matter in a fashion analogous to, but opposite of, that of negatively
charged beta particles. Positrons have similar specific ionizations, but are opposed by the positive
charged atom nucleus and travel shorter distances because when their velocity has slowed sufficiently, they combine with an electron and are annihilated. A positron is emitted simultaneously
with a neutrino and the total energy of the two is equal to Emax . The average energy of emitted
positrons is about 0.4 Emax The positron is an example of anti-matter and cannot exist in nature.
Therefore, it coalesces with an electron, the two particles annihilate each other, and their mass is
converted into energy in the form of two 0.511 MeV photons, called annihilation radiations. The
0.511 MeV photons are emitted in opposite (180) directions. These two opposite photons make
positron emitters a valuable tool for medical diagnostic procedures.
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Positron emitters are shielded with material similar to beta particle shielding, except a thicker
outside layer of lead is required to reduce exposure from the annihilation photons.
Shielding for charged particles can easily be selected to stop the particles. Therefore, it is
often described in terms of stopping power or density thickness.
Stopping Power, S, represents how effective a certain thickness of a material absorbs the energy
from the particle. Thus, it is determined by the total energy lost (E) by a particle per unit
distance(x) traveled by the particle. It is denoted as:
dE M eV
(6.5)
dx cm
S is a property of an absorber and it describes how effective the absorber is in stopping a
beam of charged particles. The higher the S, the better the material serves as an absorber and
thus, the better it functions as a shield.
Mass stopping power, Sp is the stopping power, per unit density, of the material and is denoted
as:


 

dE/dx
M eV /cm
M eV
Sp =
=
(6.6)
p
g/cm3
g/cm2
S=

The mass stopping power is a useful quantity for comparisons because it expresses the rate of
energy loss of the charged particle in terms of per gram per distance (cm) square of the medium
traversed. For example, in a gas the S depends on pressure. However, Sp is unaffected by the
pressure. Dividing by the density compensates for the differences in materials so the mass stopping
power is similar for materials of similar composition. This similarity permits using the Sp of water
for that of tissue, plastics, and other materials consisting of the light atoms such as oxygen,
nitrogen, and carbon.
Relative mass stopping power, Sm , is used to compare the energy absorption capabilities of
different media, using air as the reference:
Sm =

Sp medium
Sp air

(6.7)

Density-thickness, mg/cm2 , is related to mass stopping power, representing the distance a

beta particle can penetrate in any material. Although materials may have different densities and
thicknesses, if their density thickness values are the same, they will attenuate radiation in a similar
manner. That is, a radiation detector made of mylar and having a wall of 7 mg/cm2 will attenuate
radiation similarly to the outer dead layer of skin which also has a density-thickness of 7 mg/cm2 .
The density thickness is:
Density-thickness = mg/cm2 = density(mg per cm3 ) times the thickness of
material(cm) required to stop the particle.
density-thickness = mg/cm2 = x = mg/cm3 cm = mg/cm2
A beta particle density-thickness curve is shown in Figure-23.
Example: How much carbon with a density of 2.3 g/cm3 is required to stop a 1 MeV
beta particle?
160

(6.8)

Shielding - 6

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Figure-23 shows that a 1MeV beta particle has a density thickness range of about 400
mg/cm2 . Therefore, the range of the 1 MeV beta particle in carbon is about 1.74 mm.
400 mg/cm2
particle density thickness
=
density
2.3 g/cm3
particle density thickness
400 mg/cm2
=
density
2300 mg/cm3
particle density thickness
= 0.174 cm = 1.74 mm
density
6.2.2

(6.9)

Shielding of Photons

Gamma rays, x-rays, bremsstrahlung, and annihilation radiations are all electromagnetic radiation
(referred to simply as photons) and have identical properties. The only difference among them is
that they are produced by different mechanisms. Certain phenomena that normally appear to be
strictly wavelike in nature may also have particle like behavior. A photon is technically a term
used to describe the particle aspect of electromagnetic radiation.
Photon attenuation is different than that for either alpha or beta particles. Charged particles
have well defined ranges in air and other materials and can be completely stopped in a specific
distance (thickness) of material while the intensity of gamma and x-rays through any material
decreases exponentially with the thickness of the absorber according to:
I = I0 Bex

(6.10)

Where:
I = Photon intensity after passing through x thickness of material
I0 = Photon intensity before passing through material of thickness x
B = Correction factor that adjusts the predicted intensity due to scattered radiation
= Linear attenuation coefficient for the photon energy and the material (per/cm)
x = Thickness of material (cm)
The buildup factor corrects for the forward scattering of photons in thick and/or dense material.
It is determined from the product of x. Examples of buildup factors are shown in Table-45 for
Aluminum shielding and Table-46 for Lead shielding.
The linear attenuation coefficient, , represents the probability of removal of a photon from the
beam under conditions of good geometry. The photon is removed from the beam by interacting
with matter through the three processes of photoelectric effect (PE), Compton scattering (CS),
and pair production (PP). The probability of each of those three interactions is dependent of the
photon energy, so the linear attenuation value varies not only with the shielding material, but also
with the energy of the photon. Examples of linear attenuation coefficients are shown in Table-44.
The mass attenuation coefficient, m , is simply the linear attenuation coefficient divided by the
density of the material, (/).
Absorption coefficients, en , take into account the energy deposited by the secondary electrons
in an absorber as a result of the photon interaction. The linear absorption coefficient, en , represents the fraction of energy absorbed from photons per centimeter thickness of the absorber.
The corresponding mass absorption coefficient, en/ , represents the fraction of energy absorbed
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per unit density of the absorber. It is expressed in units of distance (cm) per mass (g). Since
dose is a function of the energy deposited in tissue, absorption coefficients, instead of attenuation
coefficients, more closely approximate the reduction in dose rate as photons travel through material.
The attenuation, absorption, and buildup factors vary with the type of material and photon
energy. In general, buildup factors are opposite the attenuation factors and are higher for less
dense materials, for which there is more scattering and less photoelectric effect, than for more
dense materials. Some examples of attenuation and buildup factors are shown in Figure-24, Table45 and Table-46.
Example: What is the intensity reduction if a
is shielded with 5 cm of lead?

60

Co source (1.25 MeV average photon energy)

I = I0 Bex
x is 5 cm
for a 1MeV through Pb is 0.8 cm1 (Table-44)
x = 5 cm 0.8 cm1 = 4
B for a x of 4, lead shield, (Table-46)
and 1 MeV photon is 1.98 (Table-46)
I
= Bex
I0

Reduction:

I
I0
I
I0
I
I0

(6.11)

= 1.98e4
= (1.98)(0.0183)
= 0.0362

That is, the intensity will be reduced to about 3.6% of previous value.
The half-value layer (HVL) or thickness is a useful quantity in estimating shielding thickness
and radiation attenuation. A HVL is the thickness of material which will reduce the radiation
level to one-half of its original level. Another value of used is the tenth value layer (TVL) or
thickness. It is the thickness that will reduce the photon intensity to one-tenth its original value.
Table-47 shows some HVL and TVL thicknesses.
 n
1
: half-value layer equation
(6.12)
R = R0
2
 n
1
R = R0
: tenth-value layer equation
(6.13)
10
Where n = number of half or tenth values for a given material.
Example: Based on the HVL, what is the estimated radiation level if a shield of 5 cm of Iron
is used to shield a 137Cs source?
Using Equation-6.12 and Table-47

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n = # of HVL
5 cm
=
1.6 cm per HVL
= 3.125 HVL

1
R = R 0 ( )n
2
R = R0 (0.5)3.125
R = R0 (0.115)
R = 11.5% of R0
Based on the discussion in this section, it should be clear that high density (high Z) materials
are most desirable for shielding photon radiation.
6.2.3

Shielding of Neutrons

Neutrons, like photons, are very penetrating because they have no electrical charge. Since neutrons
are electrically neutral, they are not affected by the electrons about the atom or by the positive
charge of the nucleus. Neutrons interact by collisions with, and absorption by, other atomic
components. Unlike the directly ionizing radiations already discussed, neutrons are an indirectly
ionizing radiation. The ionization from neutron interactions occurs after the neutron interacts.
That is, the resultant particle or nucleus causes the ionization, not the neutron.
Except for several fission fragments of very short life, there are no natural radioisotopes that
emit neutrons. Certain transuranic radionuclides, such as 252Cf, undergo spontaneous fission which
produces neutrons.
Elastic scattering is an important way by which fast neutrons lose their energy and may be
attenuated. All neutrons are fast neutrons when produced; fission neutrons have an average energy
of 2 MeV and neutron sources yield neutrons with energies typically in the range of 1 to 15 MeV.
Neutrons lose their energy by colliding with nuclei of an atom of the absorber and are scattered
at some angle from their original path. Part of the incident neutrons kinetic energy is transferred
to the struck nucleus and part is retained by the scattered neutron. The scattered neutron may
undergo additional collisions until it has lost virtually all of its energy.
Elastic scattering is a billiard-ball type of collision in which energy and momentum are conserved. Elastic scattering is the most important process for slowing down fast and intermediate
neutrons. As the neutron energy decreases, it has a higher probability of an absorption reaction.
The loss of energy during elastic scattering collisions is the greatest when the neutron collides with
a particle of mass equal to the mass of the neutron. Thus, it is possible for a neutron to collide
with a proton and transfer all of its energy to the proton.
The process of reducing the energy of fast neutrons is called moderation, or thermalization.
The most efficient moderator is the nucleus of hydrogen which is a constituent of water and organic
molecules such as those found in plastics and biological tissue. When a neutron has lost most of
its energy, so it is moving at a velocity in equilibrium with the random motion of gas molecules
at the same temperature, the neutron is termed a slow or thermal neutron. The average kinetic
energy of a thermal neutron in air at 70Fahrenheit is about 0.02 eV.
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As the mass of the target increases, the energy lost per collision decreases. Therefore, a low Z
(or A) material is used for a neutron shield.
Inelastic Scattering may be pictured as a putty-ball interaction in which some of the kinetic
energy of the neutron is transferred to the target nucleus and excites the nucleus. This interaction
is often described as the compound nucleus interaction in which the neutron is captured by the
nucleus and then emitted by the compound nucleus together with a photon. The photon carries
away the excitation energy from the compound nucleus. This is a threshold phenomena requiring
a neutron energy greater than 0.5 MeV. Generally, only fast neutrons engage in inelastic scattering
because lower energy neutrons cannot supply the energy necessary for the ejection of the gamma
ray and particles.
As neutrons approach thermal or near thermal energy, their likelihood of capture increases. In
capture, the nucleus absorbs the neutron and the new radionuclide, which is in an excited state due
to the additional mass and energy of the neutron drops to ground state by emission of a gamma
ray and/or charged particles. A special type of capture reaction is called resonance capture which
occurs very frequently (a very high probability) when the neutron energy is the same as the amount
of energy represented by a quantum state of the nucleus.
Neutrons are principally shielded by using low Z material to decrease their energy and then
with a material which has a high probability for absorbing the neutron. Cross-Section is the term
used to describe the effective target size of a nucleus for absorption of a neutron. Neutron
cross sections are expressed in terms of a cross sectional area called a barn (b), where one barn is
1024 cm2 .
Absorption occurs mainly for the thermal neutrons and is often called activation since the
absorption of a neutron causes the nucleus of the absorber to be radioactive. Neutron activation
is the process by which many radioisotopes are artificially produced by exposing stable material
to a neutron flux, such as in a nuclear reactor.
Each type of neutron interaction has its own probability of occurring and therefore, its own
cross section. The sum of the cross sections for elastic and inelastic scattering is known as the
scatter cross section. Similarly, the sum of all the absorbing cross sections (resonance capture,
fission, activation) is known as the absorption cross section. The cross section of a single atom is
the microscopic cross section () and the sum of the cross sections for all the atoms of interest is
the macroscopic cross section .
t = c + f + a + ...

(6.14)

= nt

(6.15)

Where:
n = number of atoms (atoms/cm3 )
= microscopic cross section (cm2 /atom)
The neutron flux is the number of neutrons passing through one square centimeter per second.
= kv
Where:

164

(6.16)

Shielding - 6

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= Neutron flux
k = number of neutrons per cm3
v = velocity of the neutrons (cm/sec)
When a neutron flux is measured as absorbers are placed in front of the beam, it is found that
neutrons are removed exponentially (similar to electromagnetic radiation attenuation) from the
beam according to the following equation:
= 0 ex

(6.17)

Where:
= Neutron flux after passing through absorber (n/cm2 s)
0 = Original neutron flux
= Macroscopic cross section for absorption (cm1 )
x = Thickness of the absorber (cm)
Neutrons are shielded best with a two-step shielding process. That is, with hydrogenous material such as oil, water, or plastics to slow down the neutrons and then a material such as boron
or cadmium to capture the thermal or slow neutrons.

6.3

Facility Shielding

NRC licenses and State licenses and registrations require users of radioactive material and radiation
producing devices to limit the amount of radiation exposure received by operators, workers, and
members of the public. In general, any area where a person could receive a dose in excess of
2 millirem (mrem) in any one hour must be controlled and members of the public are not to
exceed 100 mrem in a year. Shielding around the exposure producing device, access controls,
and occupancy factors are used to meet the requirements. The shielding in the direct path of
the radiation field is called the primary shield and other shielding (in scatter paths) is called
secondary shielding.
The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements publication Number 147
(NCRP 147), Structural Shielding Design for Medical X-Ray Imaging Facilities, provides recommendations and technical information for determining shielding location, material type and
material thickness to limit the radiation exposure to operators, workers, and members of the public. The shielding is primarily determined by equipment operating parameters (e.g., kVp, mA-min,
workload), use of adjacent areas, and personnel occupancy factors. Shielding of radioactive material sources and high accelerating voltage sources typically utilized in radiotherapy are similarly
addressed in publication Number 151 (NCRP 151), Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation
For Megavoltage X- and Gamma-Ray Radiotherapy Facilities.
The NRC and Agreement States allow occupancy and use or utilization factor adjustments
to determine acceptable measured dose rates and accumulated dose. Use or utilization factors
are determined from equipment operation records. Occupancy factors should be determined from
personnel access controls and records when available, or from observations. Also, knowledgeable
personnel may be able to make reasonable and realistic assumptions and estimates of occupancy.
An occupancy factor may change. For example occupancy in a lunchroom may be much higher
during winter than during summer if there is an outside eating area people prefer to use during
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summer. NCRP 147 suggests the following occupancy factors as a guide when occupancy data is
not available. They are, with the factor noted in parenthesis:
Full Occupancy (1): Work areas such as offices, laboratories, shops, wards, nurses stations,
reception areas, living quarters, and childrens play areas.
Partial Occupancy (1/2): Patient examination and treatment rooms.
Partial Occupancy (1/5): Corridors, patient rooms, employee lounge.
Occasional Occupancy (1/20): Waiting rooms, toilets, vending areas, patient holding areas.
Occasional Occupancy (1/40): Outdoor areas with only transient foot or vehicle traffic.
Unattended parking lots, stairways, unattended elevators.
Permissible radiation levels may be increased by dividing the dose rate of concern by the
occupancy factor.
In addition to occupancy factors, permissible radiation levels may be modified (increased) by
the source use or utilization factor (U). The utilization factor, U, is determined by dividing the
source exposure time by the reference time. For example, if a source is not, or cannot be used for
more than 20 minutes in any one hour, the use factors:
1
20 min
=
(6.18)
60 min
3
The permissible radiation level may be increased by dividing by the utilization level, in this
example divide by 1/3.
U=

Example: The area of concern is a corridor located adjacent to the radiographic room. The
radiographic device operation is limited to 15 seconds during any 2 minute period. What is the
maximum permissible radiation level (mrem/hr) in the corridor that will not exceed the regulatory
dose limit of 2 mrem in any one hour?
Regulatory Limit: 2 mrem in any one hour.
Occupancy Factor: 1/5
Use Factor: 15 sec / 120 sec = 1/8

2 mrem in any hour

(1/5) (1/8)
2 mrem/hr
=
= 80 mrem/hr
(1/40)

Permissible Dose Rate (mrem/hr) =

That is, an instrument measurement in the corridor of 80 mrem/hr or less should not
result in an actual exposure of 2 mrem in any one hour.

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Figure 22: Penetration Ability of Beta Particles

6

Penetration ability of Beta Particles; From SRI Report No. 361. Industrial Uses of Radioactive Fission
Productions. Stanford Research Institute and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

167

Shielding - 6

10-2
10-1

10-1

100

101

100

101

Range mg/cm^2

102

103

104

RSO

Energy (MeV)

Figure 23: Beta Particle Range Energy Curve

7

Beta-particle range-energy curve for materials of low atomic number; From U.S. Public Health Service, Radiological Health Handbook, Publ. No. 2016, Bureau of Radiological Health, Rockville, MD (1970)

168

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ANSI/HPS N43.3-2008

Shielding - 6

Figure D2. Attenuation in lead of x-rays produced at potentials of 50- to 150-kV

Figure 24: X-Ray Attenuation in Lead 8 peak. The measurements
were made with a 90-degree angle between the electron beam and the axis of the x-ray beam and with
pulsed waveform. The filtrations were 0.5 mm of aluminum for 50 kV, 1.5 mm of aluminum for 70 kV, and
2.5 mm of aluminum for 100, 125, and 150 kVa [From NCRP Report No. 49].
8
Attenuation in Lead for X-Rays from 50-150kV; from NCRP 49: Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation
a
for Medical
Useand
of Trout,
X-Rays
and Beam
Gamma-Rays
upintoLead
10 MeV
See Kelley
Broad
Attenuation
for X-Rays from 50300 kVp.

50
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Table 44: Linear Attenuation Coefficients

Photon E
10 keV
100 keV
500 keV
1 MeV
3 MeV

Al
69
0.42
0.23
0.16
0.08

(cm1 )
Fe
1320
2.6
0.6
0.5
0.3

Cu
1925
3.7
0.73
0.52
0.3

Pb
1430
61
1.7
0.8
0.5

Table 45: Buildup Factors

Photon
100 keV
500 keV
1 MeV
3 MeV

1
4.0
2.37
2.0
1.64

x of Al (unitless)
2
7.44
4.24
3.31
2.32

4
15.2
9.47
6.57
3.78

10
47.7
38.9
21.2
8.65

Table 46: Buildup Factors

Photon
100 keV
500 keV
1 MeV
3 MeV

1
1.89
1.17
1.31
1.29

x of Pb (unitless)
2
3.05
1.30
1.56
1.64

170

4
8.25
1.48
1.98
2.23

10
232
2.27
3.74
5.30

Shielding - 6

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Table 47: Half and Tenth Value Layers

Peak Voltage
or Source
50 kV
100 kV
500 kV
1000 kV
6000 kV
137
Cs
(0.667 MeV)
60
Co
(1.25 Avg MeV)
192
Ir
(0.5 Avg MeV)

Lead
HVL / TVL
0.006 / 0.02
0.03 / 0.09
0.36 / 1.19
0.79 / 2.6
1.69 / 5.6
0.65 / 2.2

(units in centimeters)
Concrete
HVL / TVL
0.4 / 1.5
1.6 / 5.3
3.6 / 11.7
4.4 / 14.7
10.4 / 34.5
4.8 / 15.7

Iron
HVL / TVL
NA / NA
NA / NA
NA / NA
NA / NA
3.0 / 9.9
1.6 / 5.3

1.2 / 4.0

6.2 / 20.6

2.1 / 6.9

0.6 / 2.0

4.3 / 14.7

1.3 / 4.3

Source: NCRP Report 49

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Section 6 Exercise
1. Determine from Figure-22, the maximum range of a 300 keV beta particle in air, water, and
copper.

2. Using Figure-23, determine the range in mg/cm2 for a 300 keV beta particle and the thickness
of material, density of 2 g/cm3 , to stop the beta particles.

3. Three (3) R/hr is measured 1 meter from a 60Co source. Using Table-47, Equation-6.12, and
Equation-6.13, determine the dose rate if the source is shielded with 10 cm of lead.

4. The radiation level at the point of interest from a 500 keV peak photon energy source is
1R/hr. Use Table-46 and Equation-6.10 to determine the radiation level if the source is
shielded with a lead shield 2.35 cm thick.

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7.1

Introduction

Dosimetry is the science of determining the dose received by the personnel from exposure to ionizing
radiation. It may range from direct measurements and calculations based on clear, measured data
to secondary measurements and vague, estimated data. Dosimetry requires an understanding of
dosimetry devices, dosimetry techniques and methodologies, and the use of terms and methods
consistent with accepted and established practices.
Personnel dosimetry devices do not, in general, use new or unique technology as compared to
other ionizing radiation detection devices. Many of the ionizing radiation instrument and detection
principles used in radiation protection are applicable to personnel monitoring for exposure to
ionizing radiation. However, due to the need for accuracy, precision, and sensitivity with small
size and convenience (for external dose), dosimetry devices are often discussed separately from
other types of radiation detection devices.
The personnel dosimetry information of ultimate interest for exposure control, compliance with
regulations, and for risk evaluation is the dose or dose equivalent, received by the individual due
to his or her work with ionizing radiation and radioactive material.
The dose from external radiation is usually measured by a small device which is read by an
instrument. Thus, the terminology used in external dosimetry separates the dose measuring device
or dosimeter from the instrument in which it is read. The combination of the detector or device and
the instrument, including any special processing procedures and result records, is often known as
the dosimetry system. The dose from internal radiation is often determined from measurements
of the radioactivity deposited inside the individual or from measurements of radioactivity intake
by the individual.

7.2

External Personnel Monitoring

In the early years of experiments and use of ionizing radiation producing equipment and materials,
there was not a precise unit for either radiation exposure or dose that was suitable for the use and
the control of radiation. Since the use of ionizing radiation was still in its infancy, the technical and
practical aspects of each general class of use (i.e., experiments, therapy, diagnostic, and industrial)
tended to be developed and improved daily. Each group of users had their own, and frequently
different, ideas on how the radiation should be measured and controlled. Since users of ionizing
radiation had not agreed on how to measure radiation, it is no wonder that the control and
monitoring of exposure to ionizing radiation was neither consistent nor well defined.
In addition to the lack of agreement on exposure controls and methods, dosimetry procedures
suffered from the lack of reliable, sensitive personnel dosimetry and instruments for use in radiation protection. Manufacturing techniques and engineering capabilities were not up to the level
necessary for producing sensitive and reliable instruments for measuring exposure and dose. The
few instruments and devices in operation were mostly laboratory instruments, not at all suited to
the work environment.
Current external dosimetry devices and monitoring technology have advanced a long ways from
the very early years in radiation history when the skin of the body was used as a dosimeter for
external radiation monitoring.
7.2.1

Charged Particle Equilibrium and Bragg-Gray

Charged particle equilibrium (CPE) is a very important part of personnel dosimetry. The accuracy
of any dosimetric device operating under the Bragg-Gray principle depends on the degree of CPE.
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Table 48: CPET for Material with Density of 1

Radiation Type
137
Cs
60
Co
X-rays
X-rays
X-rays
X-rays

Mean Energy (MeV)

0.662
1.25
(0.3 peak) 0.2
(2 peak) 0.7
(3 peak) 1.0
(25 peak) 7.5

Thickness (mm)
2.5
4.5
1.0
3.5
4.5
45

Electron equilibrium and charged particle equilibrium are similar in that both refer to the condition
where the number of electrons (or charged particles) leaving a specified volume is exactly equal
to the number of entering the same volume. Electron equilibrium applies to only electrons, while
CPE can include electrons and other charged particles (e.g., positively charged ions). In most
cases, CPE is more descriptive and is the preferred term.
Attaining CPE requires that the film covering and holder, pocket dosimeter (PD) wall, and TLD
phosphor, cover and holder (and any other personnel dose measuring device and cover) be thick
enough to cause CPE, but not too thick that shielding or attenuation occurs. If CPE is not attained,
the dose reading will be low. The correct thickness is called the charged particle equilibrium
thickness (CPET). The absorbed dose can be measured with accuracy only when the CPET is
about the same as the range of the ionizing radiation, and the measurement remains reasonably
accurate to a material thickness of about two times the range of the radiation.
Thicknesses of material with a density of one, needed for CPE to build up are shown in Table48 for several photon energies. Materials such as Lucite, Teflon, and Nylon are used for low energy
CPE while thin metallic filters of tin, aluminum, tantalum, or steel are often used to supply the
adequate build up layer for CPE around the active area of a personnel dosimetry device used to
measure high energy photon radiation.
A fundamental of the Bragg-Gray theory is that the energy deposited by ionizing radiation in
a material is directly related to the density of the material. Thus, the dose (energy deposited) to
tissue from a particular radiation intensity can be determined from the dose delivered to another
material (e.g., dosimeter or detector) by the same intensity using correction factors based on the
material density differences. An important factor to be met for this theory is that the material
thickness (e.g., instrument wall) must be sufficient for charge particle equilibrium.
7.2.2

Photodosimetry

Photographic emulsions have long been used as devices for detection and measurement of ionizing
radiation. Even before Roentgens discovery of x-rays in 1895, which was initiated by the fogging
of film in his office, photographic emulsion research was being conducted to measure the unknown
emissions from evacuated discharge tubes. Among the first to apply photographic emulsions to
radiation protection was William Rollins, a Boston dentist and x-ray protection pioneer. In 1902,
he described placing an unexposed piece of x-ray film against the exterior of the tube housing
and noted that tube shielding was acceptable if the film did not darken by exposures totaling 7
minutes.
Routine monitoring of personnel exposures to x-rays and radium with photographic films for

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protection purposes was first suggested in 1922 by a prominent American radiologist, Dr. Pfahler.
Dr. Pfahler recommended that x-ray and radium workers routinely carry an unexposed dental film
in their breast pocket and have the film processed after two weeks. The film density was to be
compared with the density known to cause skin erythema which is about 300 rad. Within a year
or two it became a common practice to place a paper clip over the film packet and process the
film weekly. If the paper clip pattern was negligible or just barely visible, the workers dose was
considered to be acceptable.
Edith Quimbly, a New York medical physicist, proposed the first true film badge in 1926,
incorporating a system of metallic filters to compensate for the energy dependence of the film
sensitivity which happens when badges over respond to low energy x-rays and over estimate the
amount of dose to the wearer. A few months later, Robert Landauer, a physicist at a Chicago
hospital, suggested the use of easily obtainable and consistent quality dental x-ray film packets for
personnel monitoring using the filters previously suggested by Quimbly.
The work of the Manhattan Project in the early 1940s created a need for a reliable and sufficiently sensitive personnel monitoring device capable application to the protection program for
a large and diverse work force. Commercially available x-ray films were tried and found to be
well suited to the task if used with filtration to compensate for the energy dependent response.
Since many radionuclides emit gamma rays with a significantly wider range of energies than the
commonly generated x-rays, the filters had to be re-designed. A variety of filters were developed
through the years and ultimately, by the mid 1960s, personnel monitoring film badges consisted of
filters such as steel, aluminum, cadmium, and plastic which provided the capability to determine
dose from beta particles, neutrons, and low, medium, and high energy photons (x-rays and gamma
ray).
The films used for personnel dosimetry are basically the same as ordinary black and white
photographic film or x-ray film, consisting of a layer of gelatin emulsion containing a specified
quantity of silver halide laid onto a sheet of supporting structure known as the film base. The film
base is usually made from a nonflammable inert material such as cellulose acetate and is relatively
thick. This base serves to both protect and support the emulsion. The emulsion may be coated
on both sides of the base to improve the sensitivity (same emulsions) or to increase the range
(different emulsion on each side). However, more commonly the film is coated on only one side
and two films are used to extend both the sensitivity and range of the device.
Some properties of common photodosimetry film:
The silver (Ag) atoms form the Latent Image.
The film density changes logarithmically for a linear change in dose.
Most films over respond (by up to 2 or 3 factors) to photon energies below about 100 keV.
Neutrons produce tracks (from protons) in film.
Unprocessed film is subject to fading and damage from light, pressure, heat, and humidity.
The response of the film emulsion to a given exposure of ionizing radiation is dependent on
the emulsion grain size. Generally, the larger the grain, the more sensitive the film. An emulsion
of grains of silver bromide (AgBr) constitute the sensitive portion of the film.
Exposure of the film to light, ionizing radiation, infrared energy, or pressure can induce emulsion
defects to which the silver migrates. This is called the formation of a latent image. Basically, the
AgBr absorb energy from the ionizing radiation, raising their valence electrons to the conduction
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band. These electrons are free to migrate through the material to where they either recombine
with holes left by other electrons, or become trapped in charge defect centers (also called sensitivity
centers) within the gelatin crystals. As the electrons become trapped, the area around the trapping
centers becomes slightly negative. When the film gelatin is dissolved during the film developing
process, the positive silver ions move to the negative trapping centers. The silver gives the film its
darkness.
Film developing is a multi-stage process which is a form of chemical amplification. In a
darkroom, the films are removed from the badge and the films are processed by putting them in
a developer which dissolves the gelatin holding the silver atoms. The silver moves to negative
traps caused by the ionizing radiation (some movement occurs as the film is exposed) and makes
a dark image on the film. The film is then rinsed and put in a fixing bath which fixes the silver
image in place and then dried for later reading.
Films are read on an optical density measuring device, commonly called a densitometer. The
film density changes logarithmically for linear changes in dose to the film, so film calibration
curves are usually plotted as a semi-logarithmic function of the radiation exposure.
When personnel monitoring film is prepared for issue, some films from the same manufacturing
lot and series are set aside and used as control films. When the personnel monitoring films are
collected and processed, the control films are processed along with them for background and film
density corrections and to verify densitometer calibration.
The check films (pre-exposed to specified dose values) must produce readings within a specified
acceptance band and the control film density reading is subtracted from each personnel film reading
to correct for the intrinsic darkening of the film that occurs with the passage of time. The difference
between the control film reading and the personnel film reading is called the net optical density
and that is the density value used to determine the dose.
Photographic film used for personnel dosimetry over responds to low energy photons.
The atomic numbers (Z) of silver (Z = 48) and bromine (Z = 35), which constitute the sensitive
portion of the film, are significantly higher than air (Z = 7.78) or soft tissue (Z = 7.64). Thus,
the film is much more sensitive to photons in the lower energy range where photoelectric effect is
the predominant interaction, since the photoelectric effect is proportional to Z3 . Figure-25 shows
a typical energy response for personnel monitoring film. Photon absorbing filter material such as
a very thin layer of lead, steel, or tantalum is used to absorb some of the low energy photons to
flatten the response curve.
With the use of proper filters, film can be used to determine the energy and type of radiation
causing the image. An open window area, for example could allow the film to respond to beta
particles, a thin lead filter might stop x-rays, and a thicker lead filter may give the correct response
to high energy gamma rays. Cadmium filters can be used to measure the dose from thermal
neutrons.
Film can also be used to record neutron exposures without the cadmium-gamma gamma
method. Neutron detection sensitivity is increased by making the emulsion 3 times as thick as
beta-gamma detection film and by reducing the size of the silver-bromide grains. When exposed to
thermal neutrons, nitrogen nuclei in the emulsion can capture a neutron. This radioactive nitrogen
isotope decays to carbon by emitting a proton which, due to its relatively large mass, deposits its
energy within a very short path. When the film is processed, the path image can be seen under a
microscope as a short track of bubbles and the tracks are counted to determine the dose. Fast
neutrons cause similar tracks by colliding with hydrogen atoms.
One advantage of film is that one can retain a permanent record of the dosimetry device result.
However, due to film degradation over time, to be fully useful, the control film and calibration
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Figure 25: Monitoring Film Energy Response

standard films from the same processing batch should also be retained.
The main disadvantages of film for dosimetry are its susceptibility to environmental
effects, possible complete loss of the measurement if the unprocessed film becomes wet
or exposed to light, and the time and controls required to accurately process the film.
Single film badges have dose ranges from about 10 to 40 mrem, 1000 to 1500 mrem, and double
film badges have a dose range of 10 to 100 rem. They will respond to beta particle energies down
to about 100 keV and photon energies down to about 50 keV, depending on the badge holder
materials and filters.
7.2.3

Thermoluminescence Dosimetry

The phenomenon of thermoluminescence (TL)

was rediscovered in the 1960s and was perFigure 26: Glow Curve for LiF based TLD
fected in the early 1970s, principally through
the advancement of electronic instrumentation
and a higher level of quality assurance in the
chemical production of phosphors. Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) are currently
the most common and widely used of all primary personnel dosimetric devices. A primary dosimeter is that device used to obtain
the dose of record. A secondary dosimetric
device is not usually used as a source of record
data, but is a backup device, such as a pocket
dosimeter, used as an aid in the control of exposure.
Two widely used TL phosphors are lithium, in the form of lithium fluoride (LiF) or tetraborate

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(Li2 B4 O7 ), and calcium, in the form of calcium fluoride (CaF2 ) or calcium sulfate (CaSO4 ). The
lithium tetraborate has a better energy response than LiF and exhibits less fading than CaF2 . A
doping or impurity material, such as manganese or copper, may be added to the TL material to
provide certain detection and response characteristics.
TL material responds to ionizing radiation similarly to other crystal semi-conductors. When
the TL material is manufactured, energy traps or holes appear where there are crystal defects and
a shortage of electrons. In the CaF2 (Mn) TLD, for example, the trace amount of manganese (Mn)
causes the ionic imbalance. Ionizing radiation causes ionization within the crystal and the free
electrons receive enough energy to reach the conduction band where they move within the crystal
to a hole or trap. The electron is held in the trap until it is given enough energy to escape.
The escape energy is provided in the form of heat. When the TL crystal is heated, the trapped
electrons escape, giving up their excess energy in the form of light. This light is measured by the
TLD Reader and produces a glow curve.
If the TLD is heated correctly, the light emitted is proportional to the amount of ionizing
radiation that interacted with the TL crystal. Figure-26 shows a typical glow curve. Since the
trapped electrons moved back into the valence band, the TL material is essentially returned to a
normal or neutral state and it can be reused. There is some deterioration in operation over time
due to high energy traps that do not empty during normal reading operations and possible dirt
or other environmental factors, but TLDs are generally considered to have very long lives. Some
TLDs have proven acceptable response after more than 1000 cycles.
The light given off by the escaping electrons
is detected by a photomultiplier or other light Figure 27: Energy Response by Phosphor Type
sensitive device, amplified, shaped, and converted into a dose reading. TLDs can be evaluated in either of two ways; glow curve peak
height (PH) measurement or by integration of
the area under the glow curve. The integration method is more stable (less susceptible to
variation in output when TLDs are processed
at different times after exposure) but is somewhat slower and less sensitive than PH measurements. The PH method is fast and sensitive, but the output is very susceptible to
heat up rate and can be significantly changed
by variations in the time period between exposure and readout. Also, the advantages of one
method over the other depends on the characteristics of the TL phosphor (i.e., number of glow peaks, stability of peaks, etc.).
TLDs have an energy response which is mostly determined by the TL phosphor and, like
dosimetry film, the higher Z phosphor TLDs over respond to photons of low energy due to the
photoelectric effect total energy absorption. Figure-27 shows the energy response for several TL
phosphors and Table-49 shows the characteristics of some TL phosphors, including typical lower
energy responses and usable dose ranges.
In general, TLDs can detect beta particle energies as low as about 50 keV and photon energies
as low as about 10 keV. They can measure dose as low as tens of microrem and as high as a
megarem.
As discussed, many TLDs are read by heating the TL phosphor and measuring the light emitted
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by the escaping trapped electrons. This process releases essentially all of the trapped electrons,
returning the TL phosphor to a neutral or ground state so the TLD can be read only once for a given
exposure. However, the aluminum based (Al2 O3 :C) LUXEL TLD is an optically stimulated TLD
which can be reread several times to verify questionable results. This TL phosphor is stimulated
with an infrared laser to release the trapped electrons, but they move to intermediate trapping
centers before releasing their energy in the form of light which is measured and converted to dose.
LUXEL TLDs may be read several times and retained for followup processing.
The advantages of TLDs includes their general lack of response to environmental factors,
small physical size which permits their use in a variety of dosimetry geometries (e.g., finger rings,
eye badges, multiple TL phosphor types in one device), reusability, and automated processing. The
main disadvantages for many TLDs is that the true TLD response is lost as the TLD is read,
preventing rereading (with rare exceptions) and retention of the fundamental measurement. However, a digital record of each glow curve is retained for further evaluation.
Table 49: TLD Phosphor Characteristics
Characteristic
Density (g/cm3 )
Effective Atomic No.

Li2 B4 O7 :Mn
2.3
7.4

CaF2 :Mn
3.2
16.3

CaSO4 :Mn
2.6
15.3

Tl Emission Spectra
3500 to
(A) Range
6000
(A) Main Peak
4000
Main Peak Temp (C) 195

5200 to
6300
6050
200

4400 to
6000
5000
260

4500 to
6000
5000
110

Eff @ 1MeV
(Li as ref)
Energy Response
(Tissue as Ref)

0.3

70

1.25

0.9

13

10

Useful Dose Range

few mrem to
106 rem

few mrem to
106 rem

few mrem to
106 rem

few rem to
106 rem

Fading

Little

8% in 1st mo.

10% in 1st
mo.

50% in 1st 24
hrs.

Light Sensitivity

Little

Little

Some(uv)

Yes

7.2.4

LiF:Mn
2.6
8.2

Neutron Dosimetry

Neutrons are difficult to detect due to their neutrality and very low specific ionization. Furthermore, their interactions with matter, albeit infrequent, are extremely dependent on the neutron
energy. Neutrons of one energy may interact readily with a certain material, while neutrons of
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another energy may interact only rarely with the same material. Although the previous discussions
indicate that the dose from neutrons can be determined using films and TLDs, the limitations and
difficulties associated with the use of those devices are significant. In fact, neutron dosimetry
using personnel devices is so limited and difficult that some regulating agencies (NRC, DoD) have
accepted the planned determination of dose from survey data and exposure time.
7.2.4.1 Track Etch Dosimetry Track etch methodology can be used with photographic film
(i.e., counting neutron collisions), but it is most widely used with plastic foils. Particulate ionizing
radiations interact with the foil and leave damage tracks which can be compared to calibration
standard foils to determine the dose.
Track etch dosimeters (TEDs) are made from thin films or foils of polymer resin consisting
of many hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms. A popular track etch foil is Columbia
Resin (CR-39). TEDs are used primarily to measure alpha and neutron particle radiation. Due to
complex etching and evaluation, they are not used for radiations easily detected by other dosimetric
devices.
The alpha and neutron particles have enough momentum to penetrate into the plastic and
cause physical and ionic damage, called tracks. The tracks are primarily from alpha collisions and
ionizations, or in the case of neutrons, from collisions and recoil proton produced ionizations. In
either case, due to the high mass of the ionizing particle, the ionization and damage is accomplished
within a relatively short foil distance. The exposed foil is chemically etched with a mild acid to
enhance the tracks and then read on a device which correlates the number of tracks per unit area
to dose. The track size and density are both considered in the calibration of the reader.
The TED, if properly packaged, has advantages of very good sensitivity, very little fading and
insensitivity to beta particle and photon radiations. It can measure neutron dose as low as about
10 mrem with a maximum range of about 100 rem for neutrons with energies between 70 keV and
25 MeV.
The main disadvantage with CR-39 is that it is very directionally sensitive, with response
varying up to a factor of 5 with some angles. Another disadvantage is the time required for
etching the TEDs. Although they can be read on automatic readers (about 10 minutes per foil)
after etching, it takes about 12 hours to etch TEDs and most facilities can etch only 50 to 200
TEDs during that period.
7.2.4.2 Neutron Albedo Dosimeters Although albedo, which means the incident fraction
reflected from a surface, can apply to many reflected applications, it is a term frequently used in
the discussion of neutron dosimetry using TLDs. The most common albedo dosimeter is the LiF
neutron TLD worn against the body and which is calibrated for neutrons reflected from the body
at thermal energy. Lithium-6, which is sensitive to thermal neutrons, is used in the Albedo TLD.
Most beta/gamma TLDs use Lithium-7 which has low sensitivity to neutrons.
Since the albedo factor is extremely small, the TLD to dose factor is very large, giving these
detectors serious disadvantage related to determination of calibration factors. Other disadvantages of the albedo dosimeter include its severe over response as the neutron energy decreases and
that the TLD must be kept tight against the wearers body. If the neutron energy is low enough
that the neutrons interact directly with the TLD, the application of the calibration factor (based
on a reflected fraction) can result in a apparent dose of hundreds of times the correct value.
The difficulty in measuring neutron dose is primarily due to the very wide energy range (about
9 decades) over which neutrons can deliver a dose.

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7.2.4.3 Neutron Dosimetry Instruments Neutron detection devices require considerable

inventiveness, compared to other types of ionizing radiation detectors, and generally provide some
information about the energy of the detected neutrons. The neutron energy information enables
many neutron detection instruments and systems to be calibrated directly in terms of dose (i.e.,
mrad, mrem). Some portable instruments routinely used to determine the neutron dose to workers
are discussed in this section.
A proportional detector, filled or lined with boron-tri-fluoride (BF3 ) is one of the more
simple neutron detectors which measures thermal neutrons through the ionization caused by the
alpha particle in the reaction:
10

B(n, )7 Li

Boron-10 has a very high absorption cross section for thermal neutrons (about 4000 barns) and
a very small cross section for higher energy neutrons (about 2 barns). Therefore, this reaction is
very sensitive to thermal neutrons.
The Long Counter is a BF3 detector surrounded with paraffin, a neutron moderator, so it
can be used for measuring fast or high energy neutrons. The outside of the moderator may be
covered with a thin sheet of cadmium to ensure that the instrument is not responding to thermal
neutrons. This device is called a long counter because it has a very long energy response;
about 10 keV to 5 MeV.
Another fast neutron dose rate instrument is the Hurst Counter. This instrument uses a
directional, methane filled proportional counter. The sensitive end of the detector consists of a
carefully designed layer of thick paraffin, aluminum, and thin paraffin arranged in order toward the
detector. Recoil protons from the thin layer of paraffin interact with the detector gas and produce
a pulse proportional to the neutron energy. Thus the unit can be calibrated in units of dose.
The more popular neutron dose measuring devices are the Rem-Meters. Some rem-meters
are called cows and snoopys due to their distinctive shapes. These instruments utilize a
combination of moderators, absorbers, and drilled passages around a double chambered BF3 filled
proportional detector (snoopy) or a LiI scintillation detector (cow) to provide dose readings for
a wide range of neutron energies between approximately 0.025 eV to 10 MeV. An exponential
algorithm analysis of the output from the detector chamber(s) yields an output signal that closely
approximates the curve of rem per neutron per cm2 versus neutron energy, and therefore reads
directly in units of rem.
7.2.5

Pocket Dosimeters

Pocket dosimeters are small ion chambers which may be directly read or require a reading device.
The pocket dosimeter (PD) is often used in conjunction with a film badge or TLD to monitor
and control a persons exposure and dose. Pocket dosimeters are known by many different names,
including pencil dosimeters, self-readers, and SRDs (self-reading dosimeters). Regardless of their
name, they are all ion chamber detectors and can be calibrated in terms of dose. They work on
the very simple basis of starting with a fully charged circuit and then measuring the amount of
discharge that occurs from the radiation caused ionization in the chamber.
PDs are available in a variety of ranges, with the most popular ranges terminating at levels of
200mr, 500mr, 1R (1000 mr), 5 R, and 50 R. Most PDs respond to only gamma rays and x-rays
and their energy response is determined by the detector wall material which may be bakelite for
low energy x-ray work and aluminum or steel for industrial applications such as radiography and
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nuclear power plants. The inner wall of a PD can be coated with BF3 to improve its response to
neutrons. PDs are relatively susceptible to erroneous readings from jarring, high humidity, and
dust. The reading can vary with the position the PD is held during reading, a influence called
geostrophic effect. A typical PD is shown in Figure-28.
moveable
fiber

clip

eyepiece
lens

scale

objective
lens

bellows

ion
chamber

charging
contact
pin

Figure 28: Pocket Dosimeter

Digital Personnel Dosimeter (DPDs) are small, sensitive, gamma and x-ray detection GM
tube dosimeters, also known as Digital Pocket Dosimeters. They are about the size of a small pager
(about 2 x 4 x 1) and weigh a only few ounces. They utilize modern, low voltage, semiconductor
based electronics to produce a chirp at a rate proportional to the ionizing radiation exposure
rate and to display the accumulated exposure in digital format.
Most DPDs have alarm capabilities for exposure rate and accumulated exposure and several
models have alarms for stay time. Many DPDs have variable chirp rates with the more sensitive
rate typically set to one chirp for every tenth of a millirem. Some DPDs are integrated into
automated exposure control systems such that the DPD contains the individuals qualification
status and area authorization code. The DPD reading(s) can be periodically downloaded into the
individuals temporary exposure record.
There have been some discussions regarding the possibility of having DPDs certified as primary
dosimetry devices, but it appears that this is several years away.
7.2.6

Other External Dosimetric Devices and Instruments

A few, not widely used, dosimetry devices are briefly covered in this section.
Radioluminescence devices are sometimes called radiophotoluminescence detectors (RPLs).
Radiophotoluminescence occurs in some glass substances, notably silver-activated phosphate glass,
in which two types of centers or traps are produced. One center leads to a color change when
exposed to ionizing radiation and the other leads to luminescence when an irradiated glass is
exposed to ultraviolet light or to radio-frequency waves. These devices are read using equipment
similar to TLD readers, but they are not generally used for dosimetry in the U.S.
Chemical dosimeters use chemical effects brought about by irradiation to indicate or measure
the amount of radiation. An example is the ferrous sulfite Fricke dosimeter which is reliable enough
to serve as a high dose standard. The oxidation of ferrous ions to ferric ions, is directly related to

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the energy deposited by the radiation. The range of the Fricke dosimeter is about 500 rad to 50
krad, so it is not a routinely used monitoring device.
Hot Particle Dose Rate meters have been developed due to concern over the control and
dose from hot particles. These instruments provide a direct reading of the dose from these small,
highly radioactive particles. One such instrument uses a 1 cm2 plastic scintillator coupled to a
light pipe and photomutiplier tube. This unit has been designed to indicate the dose, in rads, at
a depth of 7 mg/cm2 .
Mixed Radiation Field Tissue Equivalent detection technology is being pursued by researchers to develop a tissue equivalent detector to directly measure the dose in a mixed gamma,
beta particle, and neutron particle field.
Criticality and Accident dosimeters are primarily neutron and gamma detection devices worn
and posted around facilities where the combination of special nuclear material or fissile material
and neutrons could result in an uncontrolled prompt fission reaction. The badges often contain
some type of thermoluminescent material to measure the gamma radiation and activation foils,
tablets, or powders to determine the neutron dose. Indium, gold, and sulfur are common neutron
activation components. The improvements in TLDs capable of detecting neutron exposure has
led to newer accident dosimeters being composed of TL materials sensitive to both gamma and
neutron radiation.
7.2.7

Performance Testing

NRC regulations require personnel dosimetry badge processors to be accredited by the National
Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program (NVLAP).
NVLAP is a system of accreditation that applies to labs in many fields including concrete, carpet, stoves, insulation, paint, etc. The standards for NVLAP dosimetry testing are in the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) publication N13.11, for Personnel Dosimetry (Whole Body
and Skin) and ANSI N13.32 for Extremity Dosimeters. There are nine test categories for personnel
dosimeters and 4 categories for extremity dosimeters (no neutron categories) having to do with
different types and energies of ionizing radiation.
NVLAP accreditation is not currently available for pocket dosimeters, electronic dosimeters,
or dosimeters used for environmental monitoring.
Briefly, the testing utilizes 15 dosimeters of each type used by the processor for each exposure
category that the processor desires accreditation. Dosimeters are exposed and evaluated in groups
of 5. The processor sends the evaluation results to the NVLAP administrator, who determines
if the results are acceptable based on a performance quotient, P, and standard deviation, S. The
closer P is to zero, the more accurate the results, and likewise, the smaller S, the more precise the
results are. The P and S are combined and compared with a Performance Tolerance Limit (PTL)
for acceptability. The PTL is 0.3 for mono-energy single types of radiation and 0.5 for mixtures
for personnel dosimeters and 0.3 for high dose (>10 rad) and 0.5 for low dose extremity dosimeter
categories.

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7.3

External Dose Evaluation

Dosimetry often involves the calculation of dose to verify a measured result or to evaluate the
possible dose when direct measurements are missing or questioned. Most external dose concerns
are related to photon (x-ray and gamma) radiation exposure since they are the most penetrating
type of radiation. Also, they are one of the most commonly encountered radiation types since
practically all radionuclides emit gamma or x-ray radiation during their decay.
7.3.1

Point Source Calculations

One of the easiest radiation sources to calculate dose from is the point source. For most dose
calculations, any source can be considered a point source when the distance of interest is at least
3 times the longest dimension of the source. For a point source, the photon exposure rate or dose
level varies as the inverse square of the distance from the source as demonstrated by equations
(7.1) and (7.2).
R1 D12 = R2 D22

(7.1)

r
R2
D1
=
(7.2)
D2
R1
Where: D1 and D2 are the distances at which R1 and R2 respectively are measured.
The point source equation applies within only very limited distances for beta particles and
neutrons.

Example: If the radiation level is 10 mrem/hr 20 feet from a point source, what is the level
5 feet from the source and at what distance from the source is the level 2 mrem/hr.
Using equation (7.1) to solve for R2

10 mrem h1 (20 f t)2 = R2 (5 f t)2

4000 mrem h1 f t2 = R2 25 f t2
4000 mrem h1 f t2
R2 =
25 f t2
R2 = 160 mrem h1

186

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Using equation (7.2) to solve for D2

20 f t
D2
20 f t
D2
20 f t
D2
20 f t
20 f t
D2
D2

:
s

=
=

2 mrem/h
10 mrem/h

0.2

= 0.447

(7.4)

= 0.447D2
= 0.447D2
20 f t
=
0.447
= 44.7 f t

Alternatively, using equation (7.1)

R1 D12 = R2 D22
R1 D12
D22 =
rR2 2
R1 D1
D2 =
s R2
10 mrem/h(20 f t)2
D2 =
2 mrem/h
p
D2 =
2000 f t2
D2 = 44.7 f t

(7.5)

The radiation level from a point source can be approximated with the 6CEN equation. However,
the equation requires some knowledge about the source.
R h1 @ 1 f t = 6CEN

(7.6)

Where: C = Number of curies, E = Energy of photons in MeV, and N = Number of photons per
disintegration.
Example: Estimate the radiation level at 1 foot for a point source of 50 mCi (0.05 Ci) of
Technetium 99m which emits a 140 keV (0.14 MeV) gamma ray during 99% of the disintegrations.
R h1 @ 1 f t = 6 0.05 0.14 0.99
R
= 0.042
(7.7)
h
mR
= 42
h
The gamma radiation exposure rate from a point source is the source specific gamma-ray
emission factor, , but is often simply called the gamma constant. Specific gamma-ray emission
values are available in many reference books. Table-50 shows values for a few radionuclides,
with units of R h1 at 1 meter per curie.
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Example: What is the dose rate at 1 meter for 0.5 curies of Cobalt 60.
Table-50 shows a of 1.32 R/ h at 1 meter per Ci for Cobalt 60.
1.32

R
0.5 Ci = 0.66 R/h
hCi
= 0.66 rem/h @ 1 meter

(7.8)

Table 50: Gamma Constants () For Selected Radionuclides

Radionuclide

Radionuclide
22
131
Na
1.20
I
24
134
Na
1.84
Cs
42
137
K
0.14
Cs
56
133
Mn
0.83
Xe
59
140
Fe
0.64
Ba
58
192
Co
0.55
Ir
60
198
Co
1.32
Au
95
226
Zr
0.41
Ra
99
238
Mo
0.20
U
= R/hr at 1 meter per curie. Multiply by 10.76

7.3.2

0.22
0.87
0.33
0.01
1.24
0.48
0.23
0.83
0.06
for R/hr at 1 foot.

Other Geometries

Line source and plane source calculations can be approximated using point source calculations if
the point of interest is far enough from the source (i.e., greater than 3 times the longest source
dimension). For less than 3 times the dimension distances, plane and line source radiation levels
decrease inversely with the increase in distance from the source. A reasonable dose rate estimate
of flat planar sources and linear sources can be computed using Equation-7.9 and Equation-7.11.
However, if greater accuracy is needed, determination of radiation levels from line and plane sources
can be calculated using application specific mathematics or application specific computer software.
For a line source, the dose rate is described by Figure-29

l1

l2
h

Figure 29: Linear Source

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D=

Cl
h

(7.9)

Where:
Cl is the linear concentration in MBq/m
is the gamma constant of the specific radionuclide
h is the distance from the surface in meters
l1 and l2 are divided according to angle
For a dose rate, D1 at distance h1 and 1 , then for dose rate D2 at distance h2 and 2 is
described by:
D1
h1 1
=

D2
h2 2

(7.10)

For a plane surface source, the dose rate is described by:

D1

D2

h1
h2
Figure 30: Planar Source


D = Ca ln

r2 + h2
h2

Where:
Ca is the surface concentration in MBq/m2
is the gamma constant of the specific radionuclide
r is the distance from the surface in meters

189


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For a dose rate, D1 at distance h1 , then for dose rate D2 at distance h2 is described by:
"
 2 #
h1
ln r2 +
h2
D1
= "
(7.12)

2 #
D2
h
2
ln r2 +
h1
7.3.3

Neutron Dose

Neutron monitoring is one of the most difficult tasks facing radiation protection personnel. Neutron
instruments which accurately measure dose are bulky, heavy, and expensive. Also, the energies of
interest for neutron monitoring covers about 9 or 10 decades, about a million times the photon
energy range of interest. Thus, to accomplish a reasonably accurate neutron dose determination,
one must know the neutron energy spectrum. Since this is often not practicable, a conservative
action is taken. That is to assign a high quality factor to the total neutron flux. Another means
of determining the neutron dose is to measure the flux distribution and intensity and then use a
flux to dose equivalent conversion table to determine the dose. The NRC dose conversion table
from 10 CFR 20 is shown as Table-51.
7.3.4

Dose from Beta Particles

Estimating the dose to the skin from beta particle radiation is another problem facing radiation
protection personnel. Estimation of the skin dose from beta radiation is complicated by the fact
that beta radiation does not follow an exponential decrease with distance or shielding material.
Many efforts have been made to come up with reasonable dose estimates from external beta
radiation, but the estimates are either complex and specific to a particular beta energy or they
are too general for applied dosimetry accuracy. At best, the general estimates can serve as aids in
decision making.
The dose to the skin is measured at a density thickness of 7 mg/cm2 (0.007 cm). That is based
on the depth of epidermis, which protects the dermis, or live tissue. The density thickness ranges
from about 2 to 10 mg/cm2 for most epidermis protecting dermis which could reasonably receive
a radiation dose.
Distance and stopping power considerations are minimized if the radioactivity is in contact
with the skin. For dose determination from skin contamination, a variety of dose tables have been
developed, one of which is presented as Table-52. Use of the tables usually requires determination
of the skin radioactivity concentration.
Example: Estimate the beta dose from skin radioactivity contamination if a worker spilled
2 mL of a 1 mCi/ mL solution of 32P over an area of 100 cm2 of his forearm and the activity was
there for 10 minutes before being washed clean.
2 mL 1 mCi mL1
= 0.02 mCi cm2
100 cm
0.02 mCi 1000 Ci
=

1 cm2
1 mCi
= 20 Ci cm2
From Table-52, the dose factor for

P is 9.17 rem h1 per Ci cm2

32

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9.17 rem h1 Ci cm2 20 Ci cm2 = 183.4 rem h1

(7.14)
1h
183.4 rem h1 10 min
= 30.6 rem
60 min
The dose to the skin from beta particles is an important issue regarding hot particle hazards.
Hot particles are very small particles of high activity concentrations of either activation products or
fission products. The dose determination from hot particles usually involves laboratory evaluation
and the use of a beta dose computer program such as VARSKIN. For an immediate estimation of
a hot particle problem, a good rule-of-thumb is:
Each hot particle micro-curie = 5 rad per hour to 1 square centimeter below the
particle. The dose rate falls off very rapidly with distance, dropping to about 2 mrad
per hour at 6 inches.
The whole body dose from hot particle gamma radiation is much less significant, being about
one-five hundredth of the beta dose for activation products and about 1/2000 for fission fragments.

7.4

Internal Personnel Monitoring

Measurements of internal radioactivity and determination of the resultant dose are relatively difficult compared to most other measurements and determinations made by radiation protection
personnel. Internal dosimetry practices may include the following:
work place and personnel contamination monitoring
work place and breathing zone air monitoring
bioassays
The behavior of radioactive material once it enters the body is determined by the metabolic
processes in the body. Metabolic models are used to describe the radioactivity distribution among
tissues, organs and in excretion.
Partly because of the complications associated with internal dose monitoring, the basic rule regarding internal exposure has been to monitor and control exposures in the work areas as necessary
to completely avoid internal deposited radioactivity.
The main radioactivity intake pathways are inhalation, ingestion, cutaneous, and wound entry.
Inhalation is by far the most common and logical pathway for the intake of radioactive material.
Airborne radioactive particles or radionuclides in a gaseous state are breathed in by the worker
and deposited in the various regions of the respiratory tract where they may remain or move to
other body organs. The absorption directly through the skin (cutaneous entry) can be important
for immersion exposure involving some radionuclides such as tritium.
It is important to understand the difference between intake and uptake to ensure that one
uses the correct value in dose determining methods. Intake is the amount of material in terms of
radioactive quantity, initially taken into the body, be it from inhalation, ingestion, injection, or
absorption. Uptake is the amount of material that remains in the body, organ, or tissue at some
finite time, t, after the intake. Deposition is another term for uptake, but it is usually used in
conjunction with the uptake to a specific organ or tissue. The uptake (and deposition) depends
on many factors, including the type of radioactive material, its chemical nature, its solubility, the
entrance path, and the individuals metabolic activity.
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Intakes of radioactive material may be acute or chronic. An acute intake occurs when a
significant amount of radioactivity is taken into the body in a short time. Chronic intakes are
those intakes of relatively low quantity, occurring rather routinely over long periods of time.
7.4.1

Monitoring Methods

Internal monitoring is generally recognized to refer to the bioassay part of internal dosimetry
programs. Bioassays are conducted on a routine basis to provide verification that controls to
prevent the intake of radioactivity are effective and they provide the necessary data for dose
assessment when an intake of radioactive material occurs. Special bioassays are designed to provide
data to assess the dose delivered by inadvertent and unexpected intake of radioactive material.
That is, special bioassays may be a scheduled part of operations known to have a high risk of intake
and for operations when permitting some intake of radioactive material has been determined to
be in the best interest of overall dose reduction (ALARA). A common form of bioassay is body
counting. So called body counting systems may be capable of counting the whole body or small
portions of the body for radioactivity.
The two general classes of bioassay are known as in-vivo and in-vitro. In-vivo, or direct bioassay,
is the assessment of radioactive material in the body by detection of radiation emitted by the
material. In-vitro, or indirect bioassay, is the measurement and analysis of radioactive material in
excreta or other biological samples from the body. Radiobioassay is a term used to specify that
the process involves measuring radioactivity. In-vivo and in-vitro bioassay methods often utilize
computer based analyses to perform the radioactivity and dose calculations. Some programs
have the capability to refine results for individual variations with the input of data such as the
individuals height, weight, chest thickness, sex, and age. Some programs are also capable of
determining elimination (or retention) factors for the individual through analysis of follow-up
counts.
7.4.1.1 In-Vivo Bioassay Most internally deposited gamma and x-ray radiation emitting
radionuclides can be detected through in-vivo monitoring, known as body counting. One of the
first body counters was the use of a gold leaf electrometer positioned near the spine of radium
dial painters in the late 1920s. Today whole body counting systems include multiple detector
and scanning systems in facilities ranging from those with very little shielding to those in heavily
shield vaults with filtered positive pressure ventilation systems. Body counters may use several
different types of detectors to improve their capabilities, while not unnecessarily delaying workers.
Body counting systems in use today include the NaI detector systems which can quickly scan
individuals for radioactivity. Since most routine body counts are negative, the person is quickly
released to return to work. If there is indication that internal radioactivity may be present, the
individual might be recounted with a high purity germanium (HPGe) detector for better definition
of the radioactivity. Another count using low energy germanium (LEGe) detectors might be used
to measure transuranics which emit very low energy x-rays.
There are a variety of organ and body counting setups, including simple thyroid counters,
shadow shields, shielded vaults, and standup counters.
7.4.1.2 In-Vitro Bioassay In-vitro radiobioassay methods are used to detect radionuclides of
concern which are not acceptably detected by in-vivo methods and may be used to validate in-vivo
method results. Radiobioassay of urine samples for alpha and beta particle emitters is a common
in-vitro bioassay method for determining the amount of americium, strontium, and tritium in
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the body. Fecal samples are less common, but are the best monitoring method for detection of
the radioisotopes of elements such as plutonium, americium, and neptunium. Breath samples (in
which radon is measured) are useful for the determination of radium in the body.
In-vitro samples may require chemical processing to separate or concentrate the radioactivity
and enhance the radiation detection capabilities. The chemical recovery factor can be an undesirable variation in the analysis. The samples are counted on various types of radiation detection
systems, depending on the type of radiation being detected. Urine samples for tritium, for example, are counted with liquid scintillation systems, while most transuranics are analyzed with alpha
spectrometry systems.
7.4.1.3 Work Area Monitoring Internal radioactivity may be determined by collecting work
area samples to estimate the intake of radioactive material by workers. Personnel air samplers
which draw a sample from near the workers face are considered the best type of monitoring. The
radioactivity collected on the sample filter and the intake by the worker are related by the difference
between the sample flow rate and the workers breathing rate. The reference worker breathing rate
is 20 liters per minute. If a personnel air sampler collected 5 micro curies of radioactivity, corrected
for sample collection efficiency, while sampling at a rate of 10 liters per minute, the workers intake
should be 10 micro curies since the workers air flow rate was twice that of the samplers air flow
rate.
Fixed work area air samplers are also used to monitor the dose received by the worker. The
radioactivity collected on the sample filter is corrected for sample collection efficiency and then
divided by the sample volume. This calculated airborne radioactivity concentration is then compared with regulatory concentration to dose factors to determine the workers dose. The actual
intake of the worker need not be determined.
7.4.2

Internal Dose Evaluation

The main parameters used to determine the dose to an individual from internal radioactivity are:
Amount of radioactivity (Ci or Bq)
Energy deposited in the body (MeV per disintegration)
Type(s) of radiation emitted (Quality Factor)
Location of radioactivity (tissue, organ being irradiated)
Mass of tissue, organ, or body being irradiated (grams)
Time material irradiates the tissue, organ, body (hours, days or years)
The amount of internal radioactivity and time of irradiation are best determined from bioassay
measurements for internal dose. The dose can also be determined from work area monitoring results
and from standard tables, however, those methods involve the use of standard physiological and
metabolic values which may not fit the specific situation. Technical and medical reference data is
normally available and sufficiently accurate for determining energy, type, and mass factors. There
is acceptable literature available on uptake to estimate the location of the radioactivity. However,
bioassays may be used to further refine the location(s).
If respiratory protection equipment is worn by a worker for protection against airborne radioactivity, the intake of radioactive material may be reduced by a factor equal to the respiratory
protection device or equipment protection factor. For example, if the respirator has a protection
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Personnel Dosimetry Devices and Method - 7

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factor of 25, the intake or dose can be divided by 25. Protection factors may be determined from
approved testing methods or obtained from the table in 10 CFR Part 20. Positive pressure demand
(not continuous flow) type protection is considered to be the best of the face mask devices because
it provides a very slight positive pressure to keep contaminates out and eliminates continuous
flow which may cause intake by aspiration. Air fed hoods and SCBA devices provide the best
protection.
7.4.2.1 Internal Dosimetry Methodologies Internal dosimetry factors include the time the
material irradiates the organ and/or body. Internal radioactivity is removed by both the physical
decay and the biological removal of the material. Determination of the effective half-life is shown
in Equation-7.15.
Tr Tb
Tr + Tb
Where the Tr denotes radiological half-life and Tb denotes biological half-life.
TE =

(7.15)

The effective elimination constant is:

E = r + b =

0.693
TE

(7.16)

For internally deposited radioactivity, the relative hazard, and consequently the dose equivalent
is highest for alpha particle emitters, next serious for beta particle emitters, and least serious for
gamma ray emitters. This is implicitly demonstrated in the regulations where the limit for an
alpha particle emitter (e.g., U and Pu) is approximately 1,000 times lower than that for a beta
particle-gamma ray emitter (e.g., 137Cs, and about 1,000,000 times lower than that for a pure
gamma ray emitter (e.g., 99mTc).
ICRP-30, (1978), an internal dosimetry model which describes the physiology and metabolism
of radionuclides within the respiratory and GI tracts, is incorporated into NRC regulations in 10
CFR Part 20 for internal dose determinations. ICRP-60 and ICRP-70 are newer methodologies
used by some agencies and may be approved for use by the NRC. The radiation dose to an organ
is determined by taking into account the radioactive material in other organs as well as that in
the organ of concern. The physiological and metabolic models account for where the radioactivity
would likely be (in addition to the organ of concern). This, while not very important for alpha
and beta particle emitting radioactivity, is very important for photon emitters.
ICRP-30 uses complex radionuclide kinetics, realistic shapes for organs, and considers particle size and density for lung model deposition. Also, the body has been divided into several
compartments which include tissues and and organs of similar metabolic behavior. Although
the ICRP-30 methodology is rather complex, in most cases, one does not have to perform the
rigorous calculations. That is because there are many tables available which provide ICRP-30
dose information from a knowledge of only the radioactivity intake. Generally, the intake is not
difficult to obtain. One must remember, though, that some internal dosimetry measurements
provide uptake data, not intake data. The ICRP-30 lung model is often used to determine the
intake from the measured uptake.
The Task Force Lung Model (TFLM) was updated for ICRP-30 and is shown in Figure-31. It
has four regions and a classification based on the radionuclide removal half-life. The D class is
for those with removal half-lives of 10 days or less; W (weeks) is for those with 10 through 100
days; and Y (years) is for those with removal half-lives of greater than 100 days. With very few
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exceptions, the dose from inhaled radioactivity is primarily due to the radioactivity reaching the P
or pulmonary region. The activity (or mass) median aerodynamic diameter (AMAD or MMAD)
of the inhaled particles affect the particle deposition in the respiratory tract. The ICRP-30 model
shown in Figure-31 is based on a 1 micron AMAD.
The Task Force Lung Model describes the initial deposition fractions, half-times (in days), and
removal fractions for each compartment and class of material for aerosol with an activity median
aerodynamic diameter of 1 micron.
DN-P
B
O
D
Y
F
L
U
I
D
S

lymph
nodes

Class

Com-

G
I

DT-B

c
DP

T
R
A
C
T

Region

part-

ment

days

days

days

N-P

0.01

0.5

0.01

0.1

0.01

0.01

DN P =0.30

0.01

0.5

0.40

0.9

0.40

0.99

T-B

0.01

0.95

0.01

0.5

0.01

0.01

DT B =0.08

0.2

0.05

0.2

0.5

0.2

0.99

0.5

0.8

50

0.15

500

0.05

n.a.

n.a.

1.0

0.14

1.0

0.4

DP =0.25

n.a.

n.a.

50

0.4

500

0.4

0.5

0.2

50

0.05

500

0.15

0.5

1.0

50

1.0

1000

0.9

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

0.1

T is the half time for a compartment

D is the fraction of initial deposition in a region
F is the removal fraction of a compartment
Figure 31: Task Force Lung Model ICRP-30

The internal dose is often described in terms of dose commitment. That refers to the
cumulative dose received over the 50 year period following the initial intake of the radioactivity. For most radionuclides the majority of the committed dose is received during the first year
following the uptake, but for some radionuclides the dose would continue beyond 50 years.
Another concept introduced by ICRP-30 is that of effective dose equivalent (EDE). The
effective dose equivalent is that amount of whole body dose equivalent, which would have the same
effect on an individual that 10 rem to the thyroid has the same underline effect on an individual as
would receiving 0.3 rem to the whole body. Weighting factors, are used to convert dose equivalents
into effective dose equivalents. There are ICRP-30 tables available, which provide the committed
effective dose equivalent for intakes of radioactivity.
Based on ICRP-30 dose calculations, an ALI (annual limit on intake) and DAC (derived
air concentration) have been derived. An ALI defines the annual limit on intake of a specific
radionuclide (in microcuries)which will result in a 50 year whole body committed effective
dose equivalent (CEDE) of no more than 5 rem. The two dose limitation levels result from
ICRP-30 utilizing the concepts of stochastic and non-stochastic effects of ionizing radiation.
The 5 rem effective dose equivalent value is based on the stochastic effect while the 50 rem is based
on non-stochastic effects. Table-53, taken from 10 CFR Part 20, shows examples of ingestion
and inhalation DACs and ALIs. The ingestion ALIs are usually higher than the inhalation ALIs
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because the radioactive material tends to pass through the digestive system quicker and with less
deposition than inhaled radioactivity. The DACs are based on the reference breathing rate during
work of 1.2 cubic meters per hour (1.2 mL h1 or 20 L min1 times 2000 working hours per year.
Thus, 2000 DAC-hours of exposure to airborne radioactivity equals an intake of 1 ALI.
The workers intake or number of DAC-hours exposure are the two primary entities used to determine an individuals dose from internally deposited radioactivity. When the dose is determined
by using an intake, the intake radioactivity is compared with the ALI.
For example: What is the dose if the inhalation intake is 3 Ci of Y class 60Co?
Table-53 shows the inhalation ALI for 60Co, Y class, is 30 Ci.
3 Ci

5 rem
= 0.1 5 rem
30 Ci
= 0.5 rem
dose = 500 mrem

(7.17)

When the airborne radioactivity concentration is used to determine the dose, the average
airborne concentration the worker was exposed to is compared with the DAC and the dose is then
based on the DAC-hours of exposure. For example: What is the dose if a worker was exposed for
3 hours to an average concentration of 3 105 Ci mL1 of D class 57Ni ?
Table-53 shows the DAC for 57Ni, D class, is 2 106 Ci.
Workers exposure in DACs =

3 105 Ci mL1
2 106 Ci mL1 per DAC

Multiply by the 3 hour exposure time

(7.18)
= 15 DAC 3 hours
= 45 DAC hours

Since 2000 DAC hours = 1 ALI = 5 rem, the dose from 45 DAC hours is:
45 DAC hours
= 0.0225 5 rem
2000 DAC hours per 5 rem
= 0.1125 rem
= 112.5 mrem

(7.19)

Several software packages are available for determining the dose from internally deposited
radioactivity, using ICRP-30 methodology. CINDY (Code for Internal Dosimetry) and INDOSE
(Internal Dosimetry) are just two of them.
7.4.2.2 Dose from Beta Particle Emitters The internal dose from a beta particle emitter
can be illustrated by the following iodine example.
Iodine tends to concentrate in the thyroid gland. About 60% of the total iodine in the body
is in the thyroid, while most of the remained circulates in the blood as protein-bound iodine. 131I
emits two beta particles: 85% of the disintegrations are accomplished by emission of a 0.605 MeV
beta particle, while the remaining 15% involves a 0.315 MeV beta particle. Recalling that the
average beta particle energy is 1/3 Emax , the average beta energy is:
1
1
Emax = (0.85 0.608 + 0.15 0.315) = 0.187M eV per disintegration
3
3

196

(7.20)

Personnel Dosimetry Devices and Method - 7

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The range in tissue of the high energy beta is only about 2mm. The thyroid may, therefore, be
considered indefinitely large compared to the beta particle range. That is, all of the beta energy
will be deposited in the thyroid. The beta dose rate from 0.2 mCi of 131I in the thyroid in rads per
hour to the tissue of the thyroid (mass of 25 grams) is determined by Equation-7.21.


 
 
 
1
M eV
s
6 ergs

Emax
1.6 10
3600
3
dis
M eV
h


ergs
M ass (in grams) 100
rad g

dps
Activity (in mCi) 3.7 107
mCi

(7.21)

And the dose rate (rad per hour) for the data in the example is:


dps
0.2 mCi 3.7 10
mCi
7

 
 
ergs  
1
M eV
s

Emax
1.6 106
3600
rad
3
dis
M eV
h


= 3.19
(7.22)
ergs
h
25 g 100
rad g

Since the QF for beta particles is 1, the dose equivalent is 3.19 rem per hour.
Referring to the 131I example, the radiological half-life is 8 days and the biological half-life in
the thyroid is 180 days. The effective half-life, therefore is:
8 d 180 d
= 7.7 d
(7.23)
8 d + 180 d
As indicated by the 131I example, the error is not very great if the half-life is assumed to be
the smaller of the two half-lives when one half-life exceeds the other by a factor of 10 or more.
Often the dose of concern is the total dose delivered during the time the radioactivity is present.
That is a rather simple calculation as shown by Equation-7.24 where D0 is the initial dose rate
and E is the effective elimination constant described in Equation-7.16.
TE =

D=
Using the
curies:

D0
E

(7.24)

131

I dose equivalent example problem, the total dose to the thyroid from 0.2 milli-

D=

3.19 rad h1 24h d1



= 851 rad
0.693
7.7 d

(7.25)

7.4.2.3 Dose from Alpha Particle Emitters The concepts and methods presented for beta
particle dose apply also to alpha particle emitters. There are basically two differences for alpha
particle dose determination. They are that the full alpha particle energy is used instead of the
average energy calculated for beta particles, and that the quality factor for alpha particles is 20
instead of a factor of 1 used by beta particle dose calculations.

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7.4.2.4 Dose from Gamma Emitters The concepts and general methods described for beta
particle dose apply to determining the dose from internally deposited gamma emitting radioactivity.
However, because gamma rays travel much further than the diameter of cells, organs, and the body,
they deposit less energy within the small volume used for dose determination. Therefore, a value
known as the effective energy is used. Calculation of the effective energy is not simple. Therefore,
tables of effective energy or some other value which takes the effective energy into consideration
are used to determine the dose from gamma ray emitters.
Table 51: Monoenergetic Neutron Mean Quality Factors and Fluence Per Unit Dose
Neutron
Energy
(MeV)
2.5108
1107
1106
1105
1104
1103
1102
1101
5101
1
2.5
5
7
10
14
20
40
60
1102
2102
3102
4102

Quality Factor
(Q)
2
2
2
2
2
2
2.5
7.5
11
11
9
8
7
6.5
7.5
8
7
5.5
4
3.5
3.5
3.5

198

Fluence per unit

dose equivalent
(neutron cm2 rem1 )
980106
980106
810106
810106
840106
980106
1010106
170106
39106
27106
29106
23106
24106
24106
17106
16106
14106
16106
20106
19106
16106
14106

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Table 52: Skin Dose Factors

Radionuclide Factor Radionuclide Factor Radionuclide Factor
3
63
124
H
-0Ni
-0I
1.97
11
64
131
C
8.73
Cu
4.13
I
6.32
14
65
132
C
1.09
Zn
0.106
I
8.51
13
68
133
N
8.95
Ga
8.22
Xe
4.24
15
76
137
O
9.31
As
9.47
Cs
6.46
18
82
140
F
7.91
Br
5.51
Ba
7.32
22
79
140
Na
7.13
Kr
0.632
La
8.76
24
85
141
Na
8.95
Kr
7.25
Ce
5.58
28
86
144
Mg
6.24
Rb
8.84
Ce
3.24
28
89
144
Al
9.84
Sr
8.73
Pr
9.77
32
90
147
P
9.17
Sr
6.76
Pm
2.19
35
87
198
S
1.17
Y
0.163
Au
7.79
36
88
203
Cl
7.44
Y
0.018
Hg
1.87
38
90
212
Cl
9.77
Y
9.29
Pb
4.13
40
91
214
K
7.82
Y
8.80
Pb
6.33
42
95
210
K
9.81
Zr
4.87
Bi
8.21
45
95
212
Ca
3.16
Nb
0.865
Bi
5.81
47
99
214
Ca
7.75
Mo
7.98
Bi
8.50
49
99
228
Ca
9.35
Tc
3.49
Ac
8.03
47
103
231
Sc
6.10
Ru
2.13
Th
2.13
49
106
234m
Sc
9.32
Ru
-0Pa
5.58
52
111
234
Mn
2.30
Ag
8.05
Th
0.865
59
124
Fe
4.74
Sb
6.91
56
125
Co
2.13
Sb
2.85
58
132
Co
1.19
Tc
1.99
60
Co
4.13
Dose Factors (Dose Rate at 7 mg/cm2 in Rem/Hr per Ci/cm2 )

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Table 53: Annual Limits on Intake

Occupational Values

Isotope
52Fe
52Fe

55Fe
55Fe
59Fe
59Fe
60Fe
60Fe
55Co
55Co
56Co
56Co
57Co
57Co
58mCo
58mCo
58Co
58Co
60mCo
60mCo
60mCo
60Co
60Co
61Co
61Co
62mCo
62mCo
62mCo
56Ni
56Ni
56Ni
57Ni
57Ni
57Ni

Class
D, all compounds except those given for W
W, oxides,
hydroxides,
and halides
D, See 52Fe
W, See 52Fe
D, See 52Fe
W, See 52Fe
D, See 52Fe
W, See 52Fe
W, all compounds except those given for Y
Y, oxides, hydroxides,
halides, and nitrates Y
W, See 55Co
Y, See 55Co
W, See 55Co
Y, See 55Co
W, See 55Co
Y, See 55Co
W, See 55Co
Y, See 55Co
W, See 55Co
W,
Y, See 55Co
W, See 55Co
Y, See 55Co
W, See 55Co
Y, See 55Co
W, See 55Co
Y, See 55Co
D, all compounds except those given for W,
W, oxides, hydroxides,
carbides
Vapor
D, see 56Ni
W, see 56Ni
Vapor 56Ni

Effluent
Concentrations

Releases
to Sewers

Oral
Ingestion

Inhalation

ALI

ALI

DAC

Air

Water

Conc.

Ci

Ci

Ci/mL

Ci/mL

Ci/mL

Ci/mL

9102

3103

1106

4109

1105

1104

2103

1106

3109

9103

8102

3101

1103

2103
4103
3102
5102
6100
2101
3103

8107
2106
1107
2107
3109
8109
1106

3109
6109
51010
71010
91012
31011
4109

1104

1105

4107

2105

1103

1104

4106

2104

3103

1106

4109

5102
4102
8103
4103
6104

2103
1103
1106
1106

5102
2102
2104
2104
4104
5104

1103

3102
2102
3103
7102
9104
6104
1103
7102
4106

3106
2102
3101
6104
6104
2105

2105
2103

1107
8108
1106
3107
4105
3105
5107
3107
2103

1103
7108
1108
3105
2105
7105

6105
8107

41010
31010
4109
91010
1107
9108
2109
1109
6106

4106
21010
51011
9108
8108
2107

2107
3109

6106

6105

8104

2105

2102

3106

3104

7104

2105

6105

6104

8103

2104

2101

3105

3103

7103

2104

1103

5107

2109

2103

1103
5103
3103
6103

5107
2106
1106
3106

2109
7109
1109
9109

2105

2104

200

Monthly
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External Dose Exercise

1. A 75 curie iridium 192 source is used for radiography outside in an uncollimated (unshielded)
manner. Use Table-50, Equation-7.1, and/or Equation-7.2 to determine:
(a) The radiation level 1 foot from the source

(b) The diameter (in feet) of the circle that marks the Restricted Area control (>2 mrem
in any one hour)

(c) The Restricted Area diameter if the operation is restricted to four (4) three (3) minute
shots (radiographic exposures) in an hour.

2. The 75 curie iridium 192 source is placed in the center of a 12 foot by 12 foot cell (as measured
from the inside) with 20 inch (51 cm) concrete walls. Use Table-50, page 188, Equation-7.1,
and/or Equation-7.2 to determine the dose rate one foot from the outside wall.

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Internal Dose Exercise 1

A worker wears a lapel air sampler with a sample flow rate of 2 liter per minute during the entire
work period. Sample analysis shows 60 nano curies of 60Co. Assume that 60Co is Y class and
the workers breathing rate was 20 liter per minute.

(a) Use Table-53 and the information in Section 7.4.2.1 to estimate the workers committed
effective dose equivalent (CEDE) from the intake.

(b) Estimate the CEDE if the worker wore a full-face respirator with a protection factor of 50.
(see Section 7.4.2)

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Internal Dose Exercise 2

Three workers prepare radioactive contaminated pipes for radiographing and magnifluxing. A
single high volume, 5 ft3 /min, air sample was collected from the work area for 20 minutes at the
start of work, 20 minutes midway through the task, and for 20 minutes at the end of the 4 hour
work period. The air sample filter had a collection efficiency of 0.90 (90%) and shows 20 Ci of Co
58 and 2 Ci of Co 60, both are Y class.
Given that 1 ft3 = 28.3 liters (28,300 ml), use Table-53 and the information in Section 7.4.2.1 to
determine the DAC hours exposure and determine the Committed Effective Dose Equivalent for
one worker from this task.

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204

Regulations and Guidance

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8.1

Introduction

Standards and recommendations for protection against ionizing radiation have been issued by
many governments, organizations, and user groups. The vast majority of protection standards in
the United States are currently enacted by Title 10 (Energy) of the Code of Federal Regulations
(CFRs), Part 20 (10 CFR 20), Standards for Protection Against Radiation. 10 CFR 20 applies
to all activities licensed or authorized by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The
Department of Energy (DOE) has promulgated similar requirements in 10 CFR 835, Radiation
Protection for Occupational Workers, for activities at DOE facilities, and Agreement States
have standards equivalent to those in 10 CFR 20 for radioactive material. The Department of Defense (DOD) programs are generally under 10 CFR 20 regulations except for the nuclear weapons
and U.S. Navy nuclear power programs. However, the DOE and NRC have some jurisdiction and
interface with those programs as well. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Department
of Transportation (DOT), and Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) have also established regulations regarding the use and handling of radioactive materials and other sources
of ionizing radiation. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and individual states regulate
most non-radioactive radiation sources, primarily x-ray machines, such as those used in medical
and nondestructive testing activities.
States that have entered into a legal contract with the NRC in which the state asserts its
willingness and competence to regulate the safe use of radiation and by-product material (excluding nuclear power plants, nuclear fuel processing and enrichment facilities, and radioactive
waste disposal sites) within the boundaries of the respective state are known as Agreement
States. Agreement states are responsible for issuing radioactive material licenses and inspecting
and enforcing compliance with agreement conditions and provisions, which must provide at least
as much protection for health and safety as the NRC regulations do in non-agreement states. Thus
agreement state regulations are generally the same as 10 CFR 20 and related NRC regulations.
Agreement states are shown in Figure-32, page-222.
The NRC radiation protection standards are based upon the assumption that:
Within the range of exposures usually encountered in radiation work, there is a linear nothreshold relationship between dose and the probability of a stochastic effect.
The severity of each stochastic effect is independent of dose.
Non-stochastic effects can be prevented by limiting doses below the threshold for their inductions.
The NRC believes, in the absence of convincing evidence that there is a dose threshold or
that low levels of of radiation are beneficial, that the linear no-threshold dose response model
is appropriate for formulating radiation protection standards and planning radiation protection
programs. Accordingly, a fundamental principle of radiation protection is to keep all exposures
as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA), with due consideration to the social, medical, and
economic factors.
The NRC regulations require licensees to have a radiation protection program commensurate
with the extent of their license and that program must utilize, to the extent practicable, procedures,
controls, and protection principles to achieve doses that are ALARA.

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8.2

Chronology of Protection Standards in the U.S.

The brief outline below shows the history of radiation protection standards and organizations
having an impact on the radiological controls implemented in the United States.
1928 - The International Committee on Radiation Protection (ICRP) was formed and
adopted the first set of recommendations. The recommendations permitted about a 50
R external whole body exposure per year.
1929 - The United States Advisory Committee on X-ray and Radium Protection was formed.
This committee evolved into the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement
(ICRP).
1934 - The NCRP recommended a tolerance dose standard for external radiation of 0.1
R/day. The NCRP also recommended that internal exposure be limited to the equivalent 0.1
micro curie of radium-226 and that the airborne concentration of radon-222 and its daughters
be limited to 10 pico curies per liter.
1946 - The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 required compliance with the NCRP dose standards
of 1934 except in non-routine operations. Most research and military operations were except
from this requirement.
1949 - The NCRP replaced tolerance dose with a permissible dose of 0.3 R/week, which
effectively reduced the annual dose from 30 R to 15 R. A dose level for non-occupational exposure was first presented with the recommendation that it not exceed 10% of the occupational
dose.
1954 - The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was established with regulatory for establishing and promulgating radiation safety standards for U.S. government sponsored programs.
1956 - The ICRP and NCRP reduced the recommended permissible dose for workers to 0.1
rem/week and the NCRP introduced the idea of a lifetime accumulative dose control based
on 5 (N-18) rem, where N is defined as a persons age in years.
1959 - The Federal Radiation Council (FRC) was formed to establish federal policy on
radiation safety.
1970 - The FRCs role was replaced by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
1970s - The ICRP and NCRP recommended changes based on radiation dose risk and technology advancements in the ability to determine the internal dose to organs. The concept of
effective dose equivalent (EDE) was presented.
The Energy Research and Development Agency (ERDA) and Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) were established by the Energy Reorganization Act which absorbed the AEC.
ERDA became the Department of Energy (DOE) and it regulates government contracted
facilities through DOE Orders and Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs).
The NRC regulates commercial, government, and educational programs (Agreement States,
DOE, Naval Nuclear Power excepted) through the CFRs.
1987 - the EPA issued new guidance for all Federal Agencies implementing the ICRP and
NCRP recommendations of the mid 1970s.
1993 - NRC the new recommendations.
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8.3

Sources of Standards, Recommendations, and Requirements

Many agencies and organizations, including those with and without regulatory responsibility, publish material that may be considered in the establishment of radiation protection programs. Recommendations by advisory groups may be enforced by a directive or order from a regulating agency.
Some regulatory and advisory groups and related publications are briefly discussed in section-8.3.1
8.3.1

ICRP, ICRU, NCRP, and ANSI

The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) has assumed the basic responsibility for providing international guidance in matters of radiation safety. The ICRP is made up of
recognized experts from all countries significantly involved with ionizing radiation sources. ICRP
work groups may be formed with internationally renown physicists, physicians, and statisticians,
among others. Developments in radiation protection are overseen by four standing committees
responsible for Radiation Effects, Internal Exposure, External Exposure, and Application. Most
of the actual day-to-day work is carried out by temporary task groups made up of international
experts who volunteer their time. The guidance is issued as Recommendations of the ICRP.
The ICRP recommendations tend to be very thorough in an attempt to cover all aspects that
international users may encounter. The ICRP has no regulatory authority, but their documents
are usually accepted as being the most accurate and up-to-date and often serve as a forecast of
things to come in the continuing evolution of radiation protection standards.
The International Commission of Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU) provides recommendations in the areas of Quantities and Units of Radiation and Radioactivity, Procedures
for the Measurement and Application of Quantities in Clinical Radiology and Radiobiology, and
Physical Data Needed in the Applications.
The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) usually reviews
the ICRP proposals and determines their applicability to the U.S. programs. The NCRP then
issues a publication stating their position and recommendations. They also develop and issue
recommendations for U.S. programs, independently from the ICRP. The NCRP consists of over
100 regular members and about 90 scientific committees. Their reports represent the state of art
in radiation protection and many of their reports are directly applicable to the responsibilities of
RSOs and radiation protection technologists. Information on NCRP reports is listed in Section
13.
The NCRP has no regulatory authority, despite the National title. Unlike the broad scope
ICRP reports, NCRP reports tend to focus on smaller or more specific issues.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) develops standards, many of which have
direct applicability to ionizing radiation. ANSI is a federation of organizations from government
and private sectors, including groups of recognized experts in the field of radiation protection. The
organizations present proposals which, if accepted, are issued as ANSI Standards. For example,
ANSI N13.11, Personnel Dosimetry Performance, Criteria for Testing, was developed by the
Health Physics Society and is the accepted standard for the personnel dosimetry NVLAP program. ANSI standards are frequently referenced in NRC Regulatory Guides and their use can add
credibility to a program. ANSI Standards specifically established for ionizing radiation programs
have an N preceding the standard number. Table-57 lists a set of ANSI Standards applicable
to radiation protection programs.

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8.3.2

HPS, ACR, and CRCPD

The Health Physics Society (HPS) issues policy statements regarding radiological control programs, proposed standards, and recommendations for good practices.
The American College of Radiologists (ACR) is similar to the HPS, but addresses the medical
use of ionizing radiation.
The Council of Radiological Control Program Directories (CRCPD) is made up of state program directors. The council works to keep state radiation control programs consistent among
states while still meeting Federal requirements.
These examples are only the tip of the iceberg of groups having influence on radiation protection standards. Many others, including academic organizations, professional groups, and peer
groups have had positive input in the development of radiation protection standards.
8.3.3

Regulatory Guides, Notices, and Bulletins

The NRC or an agreement state may publish Regulatory Guides (RGs) to clarify regulations.
These documents provide an acceptable method for implementing certain aspects of the regulations.
Alternative methods may be acceptable to the regulators, but it is often simpler to follow the
practice recommended by the guide. Some generally applicable RGs are listed in Table-8.11 on
241.
A NUREG is similar to a RG, but usually contains more explanation of a policy and details
acceptable practices. A NUREG may contain only information, such as a NRC report of annual
doses at nuclear power plants.
A bulletin is issued to alert licensees of a specific problem or important issue. It may require
a report back of findings or action taken. Even if no report is required, inspectors expect to find
evidence that a licensee has conducted an evaluation related to the bulletin and taken appropriate
action.
A notice is usually issued by the NRC to inform licensees of a significant safety problem
such as equipment failure. It frequently requires the licensee to take immediate action and may
require a report back of findings and actions. For example, when a problem with the failure of a
radiography source connector was identified by the NRC, licensees were required to either examine
their connectors to ensure they were not worn excessively or take all devices using that brand of
connector out of service.

8.4

Basis for Current Protection Standards

The foundation for all radiation protection standards is that all exposures should be As Low As
Reasonably Achievable (ALARA), considering economic and social factors. Thus, simply keeping
dose values below limits is not an acceptable basis for a radiation safety program.
Ultimately, all of the standards for radiation protection are tied back to radio-biology data.
As experience is gained more data becomes available, the standards have been adjusted to limit the
biological damage to those exposed. Unfortunately, most of the biological data has been obtained
from persons exposed to levels of radiation far in excess of those encountered in the workplace. A
variety of studies have been conducted and published using various relationships between the high
doses for which there is data and the projected damage that might occur from the lower doses.
The traditional practice has been to assume a linear hypothesis and extrapolate the effects of a
low radiation dose from the effects observed at a much higher dose.

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Another basis of the radiation standards is the comparable risk. That is, to make the risk
from receiving radiation exposure, within the limits established by the regulations, no greater than
the risk from other safe occupations. It has been determined that the risk of dying as a result
of safe occupations is not in excess of 1 in 10000 or a risk factor of 104 . The radio-biology data
and the linear hypothesis have been used to determine exposure and dose limits which will not
increase ones chance of mortality by more than 104 .

8.5

Current Regulations

The DOE, EPA, NRC, and Agreement States are the major promulgators of ionizing radiation
protection standard related to the use, storage, and handling of radioactive materials and ionizing
radiation producing devices. The NRC, through its licensing requirements, regulates more users of
ionizing radiation sources and radioactive material than any other single agency. Therefore, this
discussion emphasizes the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 10, Energy, regulations which are
commonly called the NRC Regs. Most of the standards established by other organizations are
similar to the NRC Regs.
8.5.1

10 CFR 20

The most comprehensive document containing only radiation protection standards is 10 CFR 20,
Standards for Protection Against Radiation. The standards in that document apply to all NRC
licensees, many Agreement State licensees, and to unlicensed individuals and firms interfacing with
NRC licensees. The more commonly used protection standards from 10 CFR 20 (called Part 20,
for simplicity) are discussed here and summarized on pages 225 through 231.
Part 20 requires licensees to have a radiation protection program commensurate with the extent
of their license and that the program must utilize, to the extent practicable, procedures, controls,
and protection principles to achieve doses that are ALARA. (See 10 CFR 20.1101).
Occupational dose standards are in Subpart C of 10 CFR Part 20 (sections 20.1201 through
20.1208)
Limits for Adults: Except for planned special exposures, adult individuals shall not exceed
the following annual limits:
5 rems total effective dose equivalent (TEDE). The TEDE is the summation of external
deep dose equivalent and internal effective dose equivalent.
50 rems sum of deep-dose equivalent and committed dose equivalent to any organ or tissue
other than lens of the eye.
15 rems dose equivalent to the lens of the eye.
50 rems to the skin or any extremity.
The occupational dose limits for minors (less than 18 years of age) are 10% of the limits
specified for adults
The assigned deep-dose and shallow-dose equivalents must be for the part of the body receiving the highest dose and there is a weekly limit of 10 milligrams of uranium intake by
an individual.

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Determination of Internal Exposure: Internal dose may be determined from derived

air concentrations (DACs) and the annual limit on intake (ALIs) listed in Appendix B of 10
CFR Part 20.
When the airborne radioactive material includes a mixture of radionuclides, the licensee may
assess the dose for each radionuclide individually or may assume that all of the radioactivity
is the radionuclide which has the most restrictive DAC.
The committed effective dose equivalent (CEDE) may be calculated from the relationship
that one ALI, or exposure to 2000 DAC-hours, results in a CEDE of 5 rem for radionuclides
that have their DAC and ALI values based on the stochastic effect and a CEDE of 50 rem
for those based on the non-stochastic effects.
Dose to an Embryo/Fetus: The dose to the embryo/fetus of a declared pregnant woman
shall not exceed 0.5 rem and every effort shall be made to avoid substantial variations above
a uniform monthly exposure rate which would satisfy the limit. The dose to the embryo or
fetus is the sum of the deep-dose equivalent to the woman and the dose from radionuclides
in the embryo/fetus and the pregnant woman.
If the dose to the embryo/fetus is found to have exceeded 0.5 rem prior to the declaration,
the dose thereafter shall not exceed 0.05 rem (50 millirem).
Radiation Dose Limits for Individuals of the Public: Radiation dose limits for members of the public are contained in Subpart D, Sections 20.1301 and 20.1302. The dose is not
to exceed:
TEDE of 0.100 rem in a year
0.002 rem in any unrestricted area in any one hour
A member of the public may enter a controlled area, but would still be under the annual
limit of 0.100 rem.
Surveys and Monitoring: Survey and monitoring requirements are provided in Subpart
F, Sections 20.1501 and 20.1502. In general, surveys must be accomplished as necessary
and reasonable to comply with the regulations and to evaluate potential radiation hazards.
Survey instruments shall be calibrated periodically for the expected radiation monitored.
Personnel shall be monitored for exposure to ionizing radiation and radioactive materials
to ensure that the dose limits are not exceeded. Individual monitoring devices (e.g., TLD,
film badges, pocket dosimeters, etc.) shall be worn by:
Adults likely to exceed 10 percent of the annual limits.
Minors and pregnant women likely to exceed an annual dose of 0.100 rem.
Any individual entering a high or very high radiation area.
The intake of radioactive material shall be monitored for any adult likely to take in more
than 10 percent of the applicable ALIs and any minor or declared pregnant female likely
to exceed a CEDE of 0.05 rem in 1 year.
All personnel dosimeters, except pocket dosimeters and those used to monitor extremities,
shall be calibrated and processed by NVLAP approved facilities.

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Control of Exposure from External Sources in Restricted Areas: The control of

external exposure is covered in Subpart G, Sections 20.1601 through 20.1603, which establish
controls for high and very high radiation areas.
A restricted area is any area restricted for the purposes of protecting people from undue
risks of exposure to ionizing radiation and radioactive materials. A restricted area cannot
include areas used as residences or quarters, but there may be restricted areas within a
building used as residence or quarters.
Control of Access to High Radiation Areas: Each entrance or access control point to
a HRA must have one of the following features:
Control that, upon entry, causes radiation levels to be reduced below HRA.
Control that, upon entry, energizes a conspicuous visible or audible alarm seen by the
entry individual and the area supervisor.
Locked entrance, except during entry periods, with positive controls over entries.
Continuous direct or electronic surveillance that is capable of preventing unauthorized
entry.
All individuals entering a high or very high radiation area.
The intake of radioactive material shall be monitored for any adult likely to take in more
than 10 percent of the applicable ALIs and any minor or declared pregnant female likely
to exceed a CEDE of 0.05 rem in 1 year.
HRA control is not required if the condition is solely due to radioactive material prepared
for transport and packaged and labeled in accordance with the regulations of the Department
of Transportation provided that the package(s) does not remain in the area longer than 3
days and the dose rate at 1 meter from the external package surface does not exceed 10
millirem per hour. Also, control in hospitals is not required if the HRA is solely because of
the presence of patients.
Control of Access to Very High Radiation Areas: A VHRA must include one of the
features required for a HRA (other than locking), must be kept locked except for positive
controlled entries, and requires a specific RWP.
Respiratory Protection and Controls to Restrict Internal Exposure in Restricted
Areas: Subpart H, Sections 20.1701 through 20.1704 provide requirements for the use of
respiratory protection and controls to restrict internal exposure. Engineering and process
controls are to be used to the extent practicable to control radioactive materials in air. If
those controls do not keep airborne radioactivity level limits, exposure shall be maintained
ALARA by increased monitoring, control of access, limiting exposure time, and the use of
respiratory protection.
Respiratory protection equipment shall be tested and certified by NIOSH/MSHA and used
in a comprehensive program specified in 20.1703.
The dose from inhaled radioactive material, when respiratory protection is worn, may be
calculated by assuming that the intake concentration is equal to the average airborne concentration during the uninterrupted period of use divided by the respiratory protection factor
for the device used. Protection factors are provided in Appendix S to Sections 20.1001 20.2401.
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Precautionary Procedures: Precautionary procedures are provided in Subpart J, Sections

20.1901 through 20.1906
The standard tri-blade radiation symbol in magenta, purple, or black on a yellow background
is required to be used on each required sign. The color requirement is exempted when the
symbol is etched on containers subject to high temperatures.
The signs required to be conspicuously posted are as follows:
CAUTION, RADIATION AREA where a person could receive a dose equivalent in
excess of 0.005 rem in any one hour at 30 centimeters from the radiation source or any
section that the radiation penetrates.
CAUTION, (or DANGER), HIGH RADIATION AREA where a person could
receive a dose equivalent in excess of 0.100 rem in 1 hour at 30 centimeters from the
source or any surface that the radiation penetrates.
GRAVE DANGER, VERY HIGH RADIATION AREA where radiation levels
could result in an individual receiving in excess of 500 rads in 1 hour from the source or
surface.
CAUTION (or DANGER), AIRBORNE RADIOACTIVITY AREA for areas
where airborne radioactivity levels, composed wholly or partly from licensee material, exist
in concentrations in excess of the DACs or to such a degree that an individual present in
the area without respiratory protection could exceed 0.6 percent of the ALI(s) or 12
DAC-hours in a week. (The DOE uses in excess of DAC or 10% of ALI).
CAUTION (or DANGER), RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL(S) shall be posted for
areas or rooms where radioactive materials used or stored in an amount exceeding 10 times
the quantity specified in Appendix C. Each container of licensed material in excess of that
quantity must be labeled, CAUTION (DANGER), RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL.
Some exceptions to posting and labeling requirements are:
Material present less than 8 hours and constantly attended to prevent the exposure of
individuals in excess of the limits.
Rooms in hospitals occupied by patients if personnel are in attendance to take precautionary procedures (ALARA) or the patient could be released.
Records: Record requirements are provided by Subpart L, Sections 20.2102 through 20.2110.
Some of the record requirements are:
Records of general required surveys, instrument calibrations and safety checks of locks,
interlocks, and barriers shall be maintained for 3 years.
Records of surveys and measurements used to determine dose or intake of radioactive
material, and records of evaluations of the release of radioactive materials to the environment shall be retained until the NRC terminates the records retention.

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Dose records shall be retained until the NRC terminates the record retention and shall
include, as applicable, deep-dose equivalent to the whole body, total effective dose equivalent, eye dose equivalent, shallow dose equivalent to the skin of the whole body and
shallow dose equivalent to the extremities.
The dose record shall also include any estimated intake or burden of radionuclides,
committed effective dose equivalent assigned, and the total deep dose equivalent and
the committed dose equivalent to the organ receiving the highest dose.
Determination of prior exposure (NRC Form 4 or equivalent) and the record of current
exposure (NRC Form 5 or equivalent) shall be updated at least annually and shall be
retained until the NRC terminates retention.
Records demonstrating compliance with dose limits for members of the public shall be
maintained until the NRC terminates requirement.
Records of radioactive waste disposal shall be retained until the NRC terminates retention.
8.5.2

Additional Radiation Safety Regulations

8.5.2.1

10 CFR Parts other than Part 20

19 - NOTICES, INSTRUCTIONS AND REPORTS TO WORKERS

.11 requires posting or notice of availability of Part 20, the license, license conditions,
applicable operating procedures, and any notice of violation (posted within 2 working
days of receipt and remain for 5 working days or until corrective action completed,
whichever is later), and Form NRC-3 (worker rights, employer responsibilities, and
regulatory agencies).
.12 requires keeping workers likely to exceed 100 mrem in a year informed of the location
and use of radioactive materials and/or radiation areas and providing training for
workers
.13 covers reports to workers including right of worker to obtain record of exposure and
annul dose notification to workers receiving >0.1 rem.
.15 & .16 workers rights to request an inspection or consultation with inspector.
30 - RULES OF GENERAL APPLICABILITY TO DOMESTIC LICENSING OF
BYPRODUCT MATERIAL
.4 defines terms for licensees (e.g., curie, physician, radiographer).
.11 - .21 exemptions from licensing requirements (e.g., DOE, carriers, exempt concentrations and quantities, watches with up to 25 mCi of 3H and other luminous products,
1 Ci of 14C urea, etc.), except for the manufacturer.
.33 general requirements including applicant qualifications by experience and education.

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.36 license will not expire if renewal request with proper payment is received not less
than 30 days prior to expiration and existing license is proper.
.41 before transferring any licensed material must verify authorization of receiver.
.50 immediate (within 4 hours), 24 hours, and written reports
.51 records in general and actions when license is transferred or terminated
.55 reports for loss or theft of tritium (>10 Ci/case or 100 Ci/year).
31 - GENERAL DOMESTIC LICENSES FOR BYPRODUCT MATERIAL
Grants a license (without action) to anyone and to physicians, veterinarians, researchers, airlines, manufacturers, etc., for the use of limited quantities of byproduct material such as: 241Am
in smoke detectors, 90Sr ice measuring devices, 125I, 131I, 14C, and 3H for tracer studies, instrument
check sources, safety illumination devices, and similar products and uses.
33 - SPECIFIC DOMESTIC LICENSES OF BROAD SCOPE FOR BYPRODUCT
MATERIAL
Refers to Part 30 and prescribes requirements for the issuance of specific licenses of broad
scope.
.11 defines Type A as a specific license authorizing use and transfer of any chemical
or physical form of byproduct material specified in the license up to 100,000 curies.
Defines a Type B as specified as licensed and not >Schedule A values and Type C
license as being restricted to fractional quantities. Type A requires a RSO and RSC,
Type B requires an RSO, and Type C either a RSO or someone meeting specified
training or experience.
A Broad Scope License authorizes use of licensed materials in a variety of fields and occupations
such as, manufacturing, distribution, calibration, academic research, large medical institutions, and
multi source nondestructive testing. Broad Scope Licenses are intended to accommodate operations
where the demand is great for a variety of radionuclides and uses.
Type A licenses of broad scope are typically the largest licensed programs approved by the
NRC, excluding nuclear power plants. The license may authorize use of multi curie quantities.
A typical licensee uses a Radiation Safety Committee (RSC), Radiation Safety Officer (RSO),
and criteria developed and submitted by the licensee and approved by the NRC to review and
approve all uses and users under the license. NRC approval is primarily based on the experience
and knowledge of the RSO and RSC. The licensee must establish administrative controls and
provisions relating to organization and management, procedures, record-keeping, material control,
and management reviews necessary to assure safe operations.
Type B licenses are for programs smaller and less diverse than a Type A license. A Type
B license uses the RSO and criteria approved by the NRC for approval of uses and users. A full
RSC, as required for Type A programs, is not required. However, an oversight committee with
responsibilities similar to the RSC is recommended. Radioactive material types and quantities are
limited to those described in Schedule A, Column I, The sum of the fractions rule applies for

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licenses with more than one radionuclide. Generally, the scope of authorization for Type B licenses
is limited to the experience and knowledge of the RSO.
The Type C license provides the flexibility to possess a variety of sources in small quantities.
The types and quantities of byproduct material authorized are limited to those in Schedule A,
Column II. A Type C license does not require an RSO, but licensee must establish administrative
controls and provisions which include the appointment of someone responsible for the day-to-day
operations of the Radiation Safety Program, such as an RSO.
34 - LICENSES FOR INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY AND SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS
.13 establishment of administrative controls such as RSO & RSC, training and certification program, operating and emergency procedures, job/use safety evaluations and
inspections, and program review and approval procedures.
.20 detailed performance requirements for radiography equipment
.21 limits radiation levels for any storage container to 200 mrem/hr contact and 10
mrem/hr at 1 meter.
.25 requires survey instruments available to measure from 2 to 2000 mrem/hr and to
be calibrated at least every 6 months.
.27 leak tests every 6 months for sources and 12 months for depleted U devices (185
Bq or 0.005 Ci).
.29 quarterly source inventories
.33 prescribes access control for permanent locations and limits use with any out-ofservice safety device to 7 days.
.42 & .43 RSO duties and responsibilities and specifies radiographer training and certification requirements.
.45 specifies OPs and EPs
.47 pocket dosimeters and/or alarming electronic dosimeter and TLD or film badges to
be worn by each radiographer and assistant.
.71 specifies and requires use and retention of utilization logs
35 - MEDICAL USE OF BYPRODUCT MATERIAL
.2 definitions include authorized medical physicist, nuclear pharmacist, user and RSO.
.14 no later than 30 days notification required for changes in RSO, nuclear pharmacist,
or physicist
.24 RSO appointment and duties to be in writing
.50 through .57 training and experience requirements for RSO, medical physicist, nuclear pharmacist, and users.
.61 annual calibration of survey instruments and discontinued use if reading differs from
estimated dose rate by more than 20%
.67 6 month sealed source leak test (185 Bq or 0.005 Ci
.70 survey at end of each day of all areas where unsealed material was used.
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.92 allows holding byproduct material with a physical half-life of less than 120 days for
decay-in-storage before disposal.
.300 through .600 provide specific requirements for: uptake, dilution, and excretion
studies; imaging and localization studies; therapeutic administration; brachytherapy;
sealed source diagnosis, and teletherapy.
.900 provides detailed training and experience requirements for the RSO and authorized
personnel.
36 - LICENSES AND RADIATION SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR
IRRADIATORS
.2 defines terms related to irradiators including defining one as used for materials and
objects and gives a dose rate of >500 rad/hr at 1 meter.
.23 access controls including barriers, doors, alarms, radiation monitors, and backup
controls to detect entry and to prevent source exposure if barrier, door or other control
violated.
.25 requires shielding so that unexposed source radiation level does not exceed 0.02
mSv (2 mrem) per hour at distance of 30 cm.
.51 training, safety reviews, and drills.
.55 operators to wear a TLD (processed at least quarterly) or film badge (processed at
least monthly).
.57 survey instruments to be calibrated at least annually
.59 source leak tests every 6 months (200 Bq or 0.005 Ci).
.63 at least an operator and one other trained person present during operations.
39 - LICENSES AND RADIATION SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR WELL LOGGING
.2 defines related terms including tools, markers, and source holders.
.13 license application requirements including discussions of training, determination of
qualifications, demonstrations, inspections, leak tests, organization, and facilities.
.15 written authority to perform logging from well owner and actions for irretrievable
source.
.31 source and storage contains to have durable, legible labels and instructions for
notification if found.
.33 portable survey instruments to be calibrated at least every 6 months and to have a
range of at least 0.1 - 50 mrem/hr.
.37 semi-annual physical source inventory.
.49 special labeling for uranium sinker bars.
.61 detailed training requirements.
.63 details regarding operating and emergency procedures.
51 - ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION REGULATIONS FOR DOMESTIC LICENSING AND RELATED REGULATORY FUNCTIONS
.51 environmental reports required with material licenses applications
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8.5.2.2

FDA

Some radiation protection standards are CFRs other than Title 10. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA), TITLE 21 CFR PART 1000 - RADIOLOGICAL HEALTH, includes
dose rate limits for x-ray producing devices.
1020 - PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR IONIZING RADIATION EMITTING
PRODUCTS
.30 Leakage from the diagnostic source assembly shall not exceed 0.88 mGy (100 mrem)
in one hour at a distance of 1 meter.
.40 The dose rate from a cabinet x-ray unit, averaged over 100 cm2 at a distance of
5 cm from the cabinet surface shall not exceed 0.5 mrem in any one hour.
8.5.2.3 Other NRC Requirements The NRC may use the Federal Register, Regulatory
Summaries, or other documents and methods to establish safety requirements. For example, NRC
Regulatory Issue Summary 2007-14 requires finger printing and a Federal Bureau of Investigation
identification and criminal records check for any individual that has or will have unescorted access
to radioactive material in quantities of concern, shown in Table-54.
Radionuclide
241
Am
252
Cf
244
Cm
60
Co
137
Cs
192
Ir
147
Pm
238
Pu
75
Se
90
Sr/ 90Y
169
Tm
169
Yb

Quantity (TBq)
0.6
0.2
0.5
0.3
1
0.8
400
0.6
2
10
200
3

Quantity (Ci)
16
5.4
14
8.1
27
22
11,000
16
54
270
5,400
81

Table 54: Radionuclides of Concern

Another example from the NRC website is Rulemaking Issue, SECY-07-0062, which revised
the definition of byproduct material to include discrete sources of naturally occurring radioactive
material (other than source material), luminous devices containing 226Ra, and accelerator produced
radioactive material.

8.6

Licensing Procedures

The procedures and requirements for NRC radioactive material licenses are contained in 10 CFR
Parts 30, 31,32, 33, 34, 35, 36, and 39, depending on the specific type of license desired. There are
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also applicable regulatory guides related to licensing requirements such as NUREG - 1556, Consolidated Guidance about Material Licenses. NUREG - 1556 consists of 13 volumes, essentially
a volume for every type of NRC license. Volume 1, for example is Program-Specific Guidance
about Portable Gauge Licenses and Volume 9 is, Program-Specific Guidance about Medical use
Licenses. Anyone desiring a NRC license, license amendment, license renewal, or license termination can obtain helpful information, required forms, and guidance from the applicable NRC
Regional Office. Those desiring a license for use within an agreement state can obtain similar
assistance from the appropriate State Office.
8.6.1

Applicable Regulations

Applicable NRC regulations for essentially all byproduct material licenses are listed in the NRC
License Application Guide, NUREG -1556, and include:
10 CFR Part 19, Notices, Instructions and Reports to Workers
10 CFR Part 20, Standards for Protection Against Radiation
10 CFR Part 21, Reporting of Defects and Noncompliance
10 CFR Part 30, Rules of General Applicability to Domestic Licensing of Byproduct Material
10 CFR Part 31, General Domestic Licenses for Byproduct Material
10 CFR Part 40, Domestic Licensing of Source Material
10 CFR Part 61, Licensing Requirements for Land Disposal of Radioactive Waste
10 CFR Part 70, Domestic Licensing of Special Nuclear Material
10 CFR Part 71, Packaging and Transportation of Radioactive Material
10 CFR Part 150, Exemptions and Continued Regulatory Authority in Agreement States
and in Offshore Waters under Section 274
10 CFR Part 170, Fees for Materials and Other Regulatory Services Under the Atomic
Energy Act of 1954, as Amended
10 CFR Part 171, Annual Fees for Reactor Operating Licenses, and Fuel Cycle Licenses
and Materials License, Including Holders of Certificates of Compliance, Registrations, and
Quality Assurance Program Approvals and Government Agencies Licensed by NRC
The regulation(s) applicable to a specific license include:
10 CFR Part 32, Specific Domestic Licenses to Manufacture or Transfer Certain Items
Containing Byproduct Material
10 CFR Part 33, Specific Domestic Licenses of Broad Scope for Byproduct Material
10 CFR Part 34, Licenses for Radiography and Radiation Safety Requirements for Radiographic Operations
10 CFR Part 35, Medical Use of Byproduct Material
10 CFR Part 36, Licenses and Radiation Safety Requirements for Irradiators
10 CFR Part 39, Licenses and Radiation Safety Requirements for Well Logging
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A NRC Form 313, Application for Material License, is required to be submitted as part of
each license application (for any of the above 10 CFRs), license amendment, and license renewal.
A copy of the Form 313 is shown on Page 327.
8.6.2

Licensing Applications

An application for a license to use radioactive material and/or radiation producing sources must
be specific for the intended uses of the material and radiation. However, there is commonality
among the many possible license applications, with the Broad Scope applications being the least
specific and the most comprehensive. Therefore, the Broad Scope type of application is discussed
at length in this section. Other, more limited use license applications require less overall detail,
less comprehensive radiation protection program, and less experience/training among the license
users and management. Although all licenses do not require a RSO, the licensee must establish
administrative controls and provisions which include the appointment of someone responsible for
the day-to-day operations of the Radiation Safety Program, such as a RSO. The RSO is the key
person in most aspects of licensing and operations. Page 231 shows the duties and responsibilities
generally expected of a RSO.
NUREG - 1556, Volume 11, Consolidated Guidance About Materials Licenses, ProgramSpecific Guidance About Broad Scope Licenses, discusses in detail and provides examples of the
type and extent of information needed by the NRC staff to evaluate applications for a specific
license of broad scope for byproduct material.
The application must cover the licensee application type (Type A in this discussion), applicants
name and address, where material will be used or possessed, financial assurance and record-keeping
for decommissioning, purposes for which material will be used, individual(s) responsible for radiation safety program and their training and experience, the Radiation Safety Officer, the Radiation
Safety Committee, and the radiation safety program, including but not limited to, concepts and
conditions of license, applicable regulations, ALARA, emergency planning requirements, instruments, audits, material receipt and accountability, procedures and controls, leak tests, and material
transportation and disposal as necessary for completing each item of the NRC FORM 313. Many
of the NUREG-1556 license submission requirement items are summarized on Page 233 through
Page 238, and examples of actual broad scope licenses are also provided and discussed in this
section.

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Figure 32: Agreement States map

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8.7

10 CFR 20 Summaries

PURPOSE (20.1001)
Ensure Total Dose does not exceed standards.
Does apply in accident situations.
Does not limit actions to protect health and safety.
SCOPE (20.1002)
Does not apply to:
Background (Cosmic, Naturally occurring (e.g. radon), Fallout).
Medical treatment and research.
DEFINITIONS (20.1003)
AIRBORNE RADIOACTIVITY AREA
Exceeds DAC, or
Could cause >0.6% ALI/week or 12 DAC-hrs/week.
ANNUAL LIMIT ON INTAKE (ALI)
Maximum amount (mCi) allowed to be taken into the body in one year which
would result in maximum permissible dose to be accrued over next 50 years.
ALI represents a maximum dose of either:
5 rem CEDE whole body, or
50 rem CDE organ.
Separate ALIs for inhalation and ingestion.
CLASS
Concept describing clearance from lung:
D (days) for <10 days,
W (weeks) for 10 to 100 days, and
Y (years) for >100 days.
DERIVED AIR CONCENTRATION (DAC)
Concentration equal to the ALI divided by the volume of air breathed in 1
year.
ALI Ci/yr
2.4 109 mL/yr
(2.4 109 mL/ yr = 2000 hrs/yr 1.2 m3 / hr 106 mL/ m3 )

DAC =

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DAC-HRS
The concentration (as a fraction of the DAC) ties the number of hours
breathed.
2,000 DAC-hrs = 1 ALI.
1 DAC-hr = 2.5 mrem CEDE or
1 DAC-hr = 25 mrem CDE
DECLARED PREGNANT WOMAN
Pregnant woman who voluntarily declares her pregnancy in writing to her
employer, to initiate procedures that will limit the dose to the embryo/fetus
to a lower level.
ENTRANCE OR ACCESS POINT
Any location or portal sufficient to permit human entry, irrespective of intended
use which leads to radiation area or radioactive materials.
EXTREMITY
Elbow and below, Knee and below
RADIATION AREA
Accessible to individuals and dose equivalent (HT ) could exceed 0.005 rem in any
one hour at 30 cm.
HIGH RADIATION AREA
Accessible and (HT ) >0.1 rem in any one hour at 30 cm.
VERY HIGH RADIATION AREA
Accessible and absorbed dose >500 rad in any one hour at 1 m.
STOCHASTIC
The probability of the effect occurring is proportional to the dose with no
threshold.
(Example: cancer)
NON-STOCHASTIC
The severity of injury is proportional to the dose above a threshold.
(Example: cataracts)
PLANNED SPECIAL EXPOSURE
Infrequent and necessary.
Separate from and in addition to annual limits.
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DOSE AND RADIOACTIVITY UNITS (20.1004 & 20.1005)

SI Units:
Gray(Gy) = 100 rad
Sievert(Sv) = 100 rem
Becquerel(Bq) = 1 dps = 60 dpm = 27 pCi
Special Units:

rad = 100 ergs/g

rem = rad Q
Ci = 3.7 1010 dps(Bq)
Ci = 2.22 1012 dpm

Symbol
(none)

Term/Name
Absorbed Dose

HT

Dose Equivalent

Hd

Deep Dose Equivalent

Hs

Shallow Dose Equivalent

(none)

Eye Dose Equivalent

WT

Weighting Factor

HE or EDE
HT,50 or CDE

Effective Dose Equivalent

Committed Dose Equivalent

HE,50 or CEDE

Committed Effective Dose Equivalent

TEDE
(none)

Total Effective Dose Equivalent

Occupational Dose

Brief Description
Energy imparted by ionizing radiation per unit mass (rad)
Product of absorbed dose in tissue
and quality factor. (HT (in rem) =
rad Q)
External radiation dose measured
at depth of 1 cm (1000 mg/cm2 ).
External radiation dose measured
at a depth of 0.007 cm (7 mg/cm2 ).
External radiation dose to lens of
eye, measured at depth of 0.3 cm
(300 mg/cm2 ).
Proportion of the whole body risk
for an organ or tissue irradiated.
Risk weighted dose (HT WT ).
Dose equivalent over next 50 years
from intake.
Sum of products of applicable WT
for organs of tissues and the corresponding CDE (WT HT,50 )
Sum of CEDE and Hd .
Dose received due to employment
(location immaterial).

Table 55: Summary of Dose Terms (20.1003)

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WEIGHTING FACTORS
The proportion of the risk of stochastic effects resulting from the irradiation of that
organ or tissue.
Table 56: Weighting Factor by tissue type
ORGAN
Red Bone Marrow
Bone Surfaces
Lung
Thyroid
Breast
Other
Total fatal cancers(Stochastic)
Gonads (genetic/non-stochastic)
Total health risk

RISK/rem
20 106
5 106
20 106
5 106
25 106
50 106
125 106
40 106
165 106

WT
0.12
0.03
0.12
0.03
0.15
0.30
0.75
0.25
1.00

ALARA (20.1101)
Shall use, as much as practicable, procedures and engineering controls to ensure
that doses are ALARA.
Must show reasonable efforts to achieve ALARA.
OCCUPATIONAL DOSE LIMITS FOR ADULTS (20.1201)
Annual limit of:

5 rem to the whole body (TEDE)

50 rem any organ or tissue (Hd + CDE)
15 rem to lens of eye
50 rem to skin or extremity (Hs )

Limit for minors (less than 18 years old) are 10% of adult values.
In excess subtracted from PSE.
Hd and Hs for area receiving highest.
Hd , Hs and eye may be from survey or other.
DAC and ALI may be used to determine.

PLANNED SPECIAL EXPOSURES (20.1206)

In addition to and separate from normal dose in exceptional circumstances when
lower dose cannot be achieved. No PSE for embryo/fetus minors.
Prior written authorization and individual(s) prior PSEs and overexposure(s) ascertained.
Individual informed of purpose, dose, risk, levels, conditions, ALARA measures.
PSE does not authorize exceeding:
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5 rem TEDE; 15 rem eye; 50 rem organ, tissue, skin, extremity in a year or 5
times those values in lifetime.
EMBRYO/FETUS DOSE LIMITS (20.1208)

Limit 0.5 rem during gestation period

Applies to embryo/fetus (E/F) of a declared, in writing, pregnant woman (DPW).
Effort required to deliver dose uniformly.
0.05 rem extra permitted if E/F already has 0.45 rem when pregnancy declared.
E/F dose equals Hd to DPW plus dose equiv to E/F from sources in DPW and
E/F.

DETERMINING INTERNAL EXPOSURE (20.1204)

Licensee shall perform:
Air sampling and/or
Whole body counting and/or
Biological sampling
May apply respiratory protection factors
SURVEYS AND MONITORING (20.1501)
Shall make or cause surveys:
As necessary for compliance.
To evaluate levels, concentrations, and potential radiological hazards.
Instruments calibrated periodically for radiation measured.
Dosimeters processed and evaluated by NVLAP accredited personnel.
REQUIREMENTS FOR OCCUPATIONAL MONITORING (20.1502)
Shall be sufficient monitoring to demonstrate compliance.
Shall supply dosimeters and require they be worn by:
Adults likely to exceed 10% of applicable limit.
Anyone entering a High or Very High Radiation Area.
Minors and DPW likely to exceed 0.1 rem whole body and minors likely to
exceed 0.15 rem to eyes or 0.5 rem to skin or extremity.
Licensee shall monitor intake of radioactive material assess CEDE if:
Adults likely to have an intake >10% of ALI.
Minors and DPW likely to receive CEDE >0.1 rem
RECORDS OF SURVEYS (20.2103)
Retain for 3 years surveys and calibration records and until requirement is terminated for:
Surveys used for dose or measurements for intakes those for the respiratory
protection program.
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Measurements for effluents to environment

PRECAUTIONARY PROCEDURES (20.1901 - 20.1906)
CAUTION SIGNS: Three bladed (propeller); magenta, purple, or black on yellow
background. (Color exception for high temp.)
POSTING AND LABELING REQUIREMENTS:
CAUTION, RADIATION AREA; >5 mrem in 1 hour.
CAUTION or (DANGER), HIGH RADIATION AREA; >0.1 rem in 1 hour.
GRAVE DANGER, VERY HIGH RADIATION AREA; >500 rads in 1
hour.
CAUTION or (DANGER) AIRBORNE RADIOACTIVITY AREA; >1
DAC, >0.6% ALI, >12 DAC-hours in a week.
CAUTION (or DANGER), RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL(s); >10 times
Appendix C.
EXCEPTIONS TO POSTING AND LABELING REQUIREMENTS:
Material present less than 8 hours, constantly attended and subject to licensees controls or when packaged/labeled for transportation.
Areas in hospitals if patient could be released or access is controlled and
personnel take necessary precautions.
If level from sealed source <5 mrem/ hr at 30 cm or excepted in Appendix C.
CONTROL OF ACCESS TO HIGH RADIATION AREAS (20.1601)
Each access shall have at least one of:
Automatic control to reduce level <0.1 rem in an hour.
Conspicuous visible or audible alarm.
Locked with positive control (but not locked in).
Continuous direct or electronic surveillance capable of preventing entry, but not
exit.
Control not required when due solely to:
Transport material for <3 days and 0.01 rem/ hr at 1 meter.
Patients in hospital if personnel present to prevent overexposure and operate
ALARA.
CONTROL OF ACCESS TO VERY HIGH RADIATION AREAS (20.1602)
All controls for high radiation areas plus specific RWP and pre-entry survey check.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION AND CONTROL TO RESTRICT INTERNAL EXPOSURE IN RESTRICTED AREAS (20.1701 - 20.1704)
Use process and engineering controls to control concentrations.
If they are not practicable, increase monitoring and limit intake by:
Control of access and exposure time.

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Use respiratory protection equipment certified by NIOSH/MSHA, or approved

by NRC.
Program shall include:

Approved protection equipment and maintenance procedures.

Surveys/bioassays to evaluate exposure and hazard.
Respiratory use and fit testing equipment.
Written procedures for use, training, monitoring, records, and relief from use.
Physical determination of capability.

Protection Factor (PF) must be greater than ratio of peak air concentration to
DAC, or demonstrate ALARA from using lower PF.
Emergency devices shall be certified.
RECEIPT AND OPENING OF PACKAGES (20.1906)
Written procedures.
Pick up or receive quickly if >Type A.
Monitor within 3 working hours of receipt for external contamination on any
labeled package unless gas or special form; monitor external radiation if >Type
A; do both on any damaged package known to contain RAM.
Notify carrier and NRC Operations Officer if contamination or radiation levels
exceed limits.
http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/regulatory/allegations/safety-concern.html
24hr Telephone : (301) 816-5100.
RECORDS UNITS AND DOSES (20.2101)
Licensee shall use special units for record-keeping (curie, rad, and rem)
RECORDS OF INDIVIDUAL MONITORING (20.2106)
Must include routine, PSEs, accidents, emergencies, and as appropriate:

Hd , Hs , HT ,
Intake or body burden.
CEDE and data used for CEDE.
TEDE.
(Hd + CDE) organ with highest dose.
E/F record with DPW.
Annual updates.

CRITERIA FOR LICENSE TERMINATION (20.1401 - 20.1406)

Must submit a license termination plan.
Considered acceptable for unrestricted use if TEDE to average member of the
critical group is <25 mrem per year above background.
Considered acceptable for restricted use if:

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Further reductions in radioactivity would result in public or environmental

harm.
Establish enforceable controls such that TEDE to average member of critical
group is <25 mrem per year above background, and
If controls were not in effect the dose would not exceed 100 mrem per year or
It has been demonstrated that a reduction to 100 mrem cannot be obtained
and that the dose would not exceed 500 mrem per year if controls were not
in effect and the durable instructional controls are evaluated at least every 5
years.
REPORTS OF EXPOSURES, RADIATION LEVELS, AND CONCENTRATIONS OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL EXCEEDING THE LIMITS
(20.2201 - 20.2203)
Immediate telephone notification (NRC Ops Center) required for ANY event
which caused or threatens to cause:

>25 rem TEDE.

>75 rem HLDE (eye)
>250 rem Hs
Release of material such that someone could have had an intake >5 ALI in
24 hours.
Loss or theft of >1000 times the Appendix C quantity.
Within 24 hours (telephone) of discovery for ANY event involving loss of control
of material which caused or threatens to cause:

>5 rem TEDE in 24 hours

>15 rem HLDE (eye) in 24 hours
>50 rem Hs in 24 hours
Release of material such that someone could have had an intake >1 ALI in
24 hours.

Written report within 30 days.

Any dose in excess of limits and all of the above

Concentrations or levels in an unrestricted area in excess of limits.
Loss or theft of material >10 x the Appendix C quantity.
Dose in excess of 40 CFR Part 190, as applicable.

DISPOSAL OPTIONS (20.2001)

Transfer to licensed facility.
Decay-in-storage.
Release with effluents.
As authorized.
SEWER RELEASES (20.2003 and 20.2108)
May discharge into sanitary sewerage if soluble or dispersible biological.
230

Regulations and Guidance - 8

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Monthly amounts: Appendix B, Table 3 and f 1.

Annual total:
3H 5 Ci
14C 1 Ci
Sum of all others 1 Ci
Direct human excreta exempt.
SPECIAL DISPOSAL (20.2004, 20.2005, 20.2108)
No radiological restrictions on:
Scintillation media containment 3H or 14C 0.05 Ci / g.
Animal tissue containing 3H or 14C 0.05 Ci / g and not used as food or
feed.
Incineration OK for the above but need approval for other.

8.8

Typical RSO Duties And Responsibilities

(From 10 CFR 34 (Radiography) and 35 (Medical)) Training and Experience: Certified by

ABHP, ABR, ABNM, etc., or complete classroom and laboratory training including radiation
physics, instrumentation, radiation protection practices, mathematics pertaining to measurements
and use of radioactive material, and radiation biology and have prior experience, at least as a
technician, in radiation or safety practices.
Duties:
Establish and oversee all operations, emergency, and ALARA procedures.
Oversee and conduct or approve all phases of radiation safety training.
Ensure adequate surveys and source leak tests are conducted.
Investigate overexposures, accidents, and spills.
Investigate loss, thefts, unauthorized use, transfer and disposal of radioactive material (RAM)
Investigate deviations from approved radiation safety procedures.
Ensure and oversee appropriate corrective actions when radiation, contamination, exposure,
RAM control, or other radiation safety requirements are fulfilled.
Establish, implement, and maintain written policy procedures for:

procurement, receipt, transfer, storage, and inventory of RAM.

using RAM safely and in accordance with accepted practices.
radiation surveys and measurements, including periodic instrument checks.
personnel training.
personnel exposure monitoring and exposure action and investigation levels.
maintaining all records and reports required by license, including current copies of the
license and applicable regulations.
231

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NRC FORM 313

(05-2012)
10 CFR 30, 32, 33,
34, 35, 36, 39, and 40

U.S. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION

APPLICATION FOR MATERIALS LICENSE

APPROVED BY OMB: NO. 3150-0120

EXPIRES: (05/31/2015)

Estimated burden per response to comply with this mandatory collection request: 4.3 hours. Submittal of
the application is necessary to determine that the applicant is qualified and that adequate procedures exist
to protect the public health and safety. Send comments regarding burden estimate to the Information
Services Branch (T-5 F53), U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, DC 20555-0001, or by
internet e-mail to [email protected], and to the Desk Officer, Office of Information and
Regulatory Affairs, NEOB-10202, (3150-0120), Office of Management and Budget, Washington, DC
20503. If a means used to impose an information collection does not display a currently valid OMB control
number, the NRC may not conduct or sponsor, and a person is not required to respond to, the information
collection.

INSTRUCTIONS: SEE THE APPROPRIATE LICENSE APPLICATION GUIDE FOR DETAILED INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETING APPLICATION.
SEND TWO COPIES OF THE ENTIRE COMPLETED APPLICATION TO THE NRC OFFICE SPECIFIED BELOW.
APPLICATION FOR DISTRIBUTION OF EXEMPT PRODUCTS FILE APPLICATIONS WITH:

IF YOU ARE LOCATED IN:

ILLINOIS, INDIANA, IOWA, MICHIGAN, MINNESOTA, MISSOURI, OHIO, OR WISCONSIN,
SEND APPLICATIONS TO:

OFFICE OF FEDERAL & STATE MATERIALS AND

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
DIVISION OF MATERIALS SAFETY AND STATE AGREEMENTS
U.S. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION
WASHINGTON, DC 20555-0001

MATERIALS LICENSING BRANCH

U.S. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION, REGION III
2443 WARRENVILLE ROAD, SUITE 210
LISLE, IL 60532-4352

ALL OTHER PERSONS FILE APPLICATIONS AS FOLLOWS:

IF YOU ARE LOCATED IN:
ALABAMA, CONNECTICUT, DELAWARE, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, FLORIDA, GEORGIA,
KENTUCKY, MAINE, MARYLAND, MASSACHUSETTS, NEW HAMPSHIRE, NEW JERSEY,
NEW YORK, NORTH CAROLINA, PENNSYLVANIA, PUERTO RICO, RHODE ISLAND, SOUTH
CAROLINA, TENNESSEE, VERMONT, VIRGINIA, VIRGIN ISLANDS, OR WEST VIRGINIA,

ALASKA, ARIZONA, ARKANSAS, CALIFORNIA, COLORADO, HAWAII, IDAHO, KANSAS,

LOUISIANA, MISSISSIPPI, MONTANA, NEBRASKA, NEVADA, NEW MEXICO, NORTH
DAKOTA, OKLAHOMA, OREGON, PACIFIC TRUST TERRITORIES, SOUTH DAKOTA, TEXAS,
UTAH, WASHINGTON, OR WYOMING,
SEND APPLICATIONS TO:

SEND APPLICATIONS TO:

LICENSING ASSISTANCE TEAM
DIVISION OF NUCLEAR MATERIALS SAFETY
U.S. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION, REGION I
2100 RENAISSANCE BOULEVARD, SUITE 100
KING OF PRUSSIA, PA 19406-2713

NUCLEAR MATERIALS LICENSING BRANCH

U.S. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION, REGION IV
1600 E. LAMAR BOULEVARD
ARLINGTON, TX 76011-4511

PERSONS LOCATED IN AGREEMENT STATES SEND APPLICATIONS TO THE U.S. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION ONLY IF THEY
WISH TO POSSESS AND USE LICENSED MATERIAL IN STATES SUBJECT TO U.S.NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION JURISDICTIONS.
2. NAME AND MAILING ADDRESS OF APPLICANT (Include ZIP code)

1. THIS IS AN APPLICATION FOR (Check appropriate item)

A. NEW LICENSE
B. AMENDMENT TO LICENSE NUMBER
C. RENEWAL OF LICENSE NUMBER
3. ADDRESS WHERE LICENSED MATERIAL WILL BE USED OR POSSESSED

4. NAME OF PERSON TO BE CONTACTED ABOUT THIS APPLICATION

BUSINESS TELEPHONE NUMBER

BUSINESS CELLULAR TELEPHONE NUMBER

BUSINESS EMAIL ADDRESS

SUBMIT ITEMS 5 THROUGH 11 ON 8-1/2 X 11" PAPER. THE TYPE AND SCOPE OF INFORMATION TO BE PROVIDED IS DESCRIBED IN THE LICENSE APPLICATION GUIDE.
5. RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
a. Element and mass number; b. chemical and/or physical form; and c. maiximum amount
which will be possessed at any one time.

6. PURPOSE(S) FOR WHICH LICENSED MATERIAL WILL BE USED.

7. INDIVIDUAL(S) RESPONSIBLE FOR RADIATION SAFETY PROGRAM AND THEIR

TRAINING EXPERIENCE.

8. TRAINING FOR INDIVIDUALS WORKING IN OR FREQUENTING RESTRICTED AREAS.

9. FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT.

10. RADIATION SAFETY PROGRAM.

12. LICENSE FEES (See 10 CFR 170 and Section 170.31)

11. WASTE MANAGEMENT.

FEE CATEGORY

AMOUNT
ENCLOSED

13. CERTIFICATION. (Must be completed by applicant) THE APPLICANT UNDERSTANDS THAT ALL STATEMENTS AND REPRESENTATIONS MADE IN THIS APPLICATION ARE BINDING
UPON THE APPLICANT.
THE APPLICANT AND ANY OFFICIAL EXECUTING THIS CERTIFICATION ON BEHALF OF THE APPLICANT, NAMED IN ITEM 2, CERTIFY THAT THIS APPLICATION IS PREPARED IN
CONFORMITY WITH TITLE 10, CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS, PARTS 30, 32, 33, 34, 35 , 36, 39, AND 40, AND THAT ALL INFORMATION CONTANED HEREIN IS TRUE AND CORRECT TO
THE BEST OF THEIR KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEF.
WARNING: 18 U.S.C. SECTION 1001 ACT OF JUNE 25, 1948 62 STAT. 749 MAKES IT A C RIMINAL OFFENSE TO MAKE A WILLFULLY FALSE STATEMENT OR REPRESENTATION TO
ANY DEPARTMENT OR AGENCY OF THE UNITED STATES AS TO ANY MATTER WITHIN ITS JURISDICTION.
CERTIFYING OFFICER -- TYPED/PRINTED NAME AND TITLE

SIGNATURE

DATE

FOR NRC USE ONLY

TYPE OF FEE

FEE LOG

FEE CATEGORY

AMOUNT RECEIVED

CHECK NUMBER

$
APPROVED BY

DATE

NRC FORM 313 (05-2012)

232

COMMENTS

Regulations and Guidance - 8

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8.9

BROAD SCOPE LICENSE APPLICATION SUMMARY

(Background information required to complete the NRC Form 313)

APPLICABLE REGULATIONS FOR A BROAD SCOPE LICENSE

10 CFR Part 2, Rules of Practice for Domestic Licensing Proceedings and Issuance of
Orders
10 CFR Part 19, Notices, Instructions and Reports to Workers: Inspection and Investigations
10 CFR Part 20, Standards for Protection Against Radiation
10 CFR Part 21, Reporting of Defects and Noncompliance
10 CFR Part 30, Rules of General Applicability to Domestic Licensing of Byproduct Material
10 CFR Part 33, Specific Domestic Licenses of Broad Scope for Byproduct Material
10 CFR Part 51, Environmental Protection Regulations for Domestic Licensing and Related
Regulatory Functions
10 CFR Part 71, Packaging and Transportation of Radioactive Material
10 CFR Part 170, Fees for Facilities, Materials, Import and Export Licenses and Other
Regulatory Services Under the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as Amended
10 CFR Part 171, Annual Fees for Reactor Operating Licenses, and Fuel Cycle Licenses
and Materials Licenses, Including Holders of Certificates of Compliance, Registrations, and
Quality Assurance Program Approvals and Government Agencies Licensed by NRC
Applicable Agreement State Regulations which would then include 10 CFR 150, Exemptions
and Continued Regulatory Authority in Agreement States and in Offshore Waters under
Section 274
CONTENTS OF APPLICATION
Each item on NRC Form 313 must be discussed in enough detail for NRC determination
that program meets regulatory requirements and is adequate to protect health and safety
ALARA commitment statement is required. (e.g., Shall use, to the extent practicable, procedures and engineering controls based on sound radiation protection principles to achieve...)
Specifically describe design and procedures to minimize contamination
Applicants name and mailing address (Corporation/legal entity with control)
Address(es) where licensed material will be used or possessed
Need not identify each facility within a common address
Should identify each facility or location designed for special uses
So state if used at temporary job sites and describe scope of work
Person to contact about application (usually the RSO)

233

Regulations and Guidance - 8

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RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
Identify unsealed and/or sealed byproduct material

Requirements of 10 CFR 30 and 33 must be met (quantity limits)

State maximum quantity of each and total cumulative quantity
May request any form of material with atomic numbers 1 - 83
List atomic numbers >83 separately and any large quantity radionuclide with atomic
number of 83 or less
Describe use of each radionuclide
May request source and special nuclear material if necessary and directly related to use
of byproduct material under license
Provide manufacturers name and device model number for each sealed source
If requesting greater than listed in 10 CFR 30 or 33, provide evaluation showing maximum off-site dose due to release of radioactivity or the emergency response plans for
responding to the release.

Financial assurance and record-keeping for decommissioning

Purpose(s) for which licensed material will be used
Describe in general terms
New applicants should describe why use requires a broad scope license rather than a
specific license
INDIVIDUAL(S) RESPONSIBILE FOR RADIATION SAFETY PROGRAM
Executive Management
Describe administrative controls, organization, and management reviews
Radiation Safety Committee
Describe criteria for selecting members and members by position and title
Describe duties and responsibilities of RSC including criteria used by RSC and RSO
for approving new users and uses of material
Describe process for program review, approvals, and documentation
Specify quorum and review meetings (quarterly) and minutes
Radiation Safety Officer
Submit name of RSO and a Radiation Safety Officer Delegation of Authority (This
is a letter signed by the licensees executive management which authorizes the RSO, by
name, to Stop Work and/or take any other unilateral action he/she deems necessary
for radiation safety)
Describe training and experience of RSO
Delineate RSOs duties and responsibilities
Monitoring and surveys
234

Regulations and Guidance - 8

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Oversight of material orders, receipt, surveys, and delivery

Verification of compliance of all shipments leaving
Personnel monitoring: bioassays, monitoring devices, exposure records, and corrective actions
Training of all personnel
Waste disposal program
Inventory and leak tests of sealed sources
Decontamination
Investigation of incidents and responding to emergencies
Maintaining all required records
Radiation Safety Staff
The support staff does not have to be described, but must be a sufficient staff of professional and administrative personnel
TRAINING FOR WORKING IN OR FREQUENTING RESTRICTED AREAS
Practical site-specific training for all individuals prior to beginning work with or in the
vicinity of licensed material
Describe training program for each group of workers, or identify the appropriate model
from an established training program/NUREG and state that it will be implemented
Describe instructor qualifications and methods of training and assessing results
State the frequency of refresher training
Describe process used to revise and implement training changes if licensee desires the flexibility to make changes w/o a license amendment
FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT
Demonstrate that facilities and equipment provide sufficient engineering controls and barriers
to protect employees and the public and keep exposures ALARA
List and describe facilities/equipment (Bldg and Room numbers)
Sample diagrams should be provided for each classification
Show shielding, radiation source(s), proximity to unrestricted areas, safety controls
If material could become airborne, show ventilation system, airflow rates, pressures,
filtration, and monitoring equipment
Describe RSC/RSO criteria to review and approve facilities/equipment
Describe method of classifying laboratories based on type, toxicity, and quantity of material
RADIATION SAFETY PROGRAM
Executive management oversight
Describe mechanisms used to ensure adequate periodic interactive management and
RSC audits
235

Regulations and Guidance - 8

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Discuss routine and unannounced internal audits by RSO to determine user compliance with
NRC regulations and license conditions
Survey and inventory records
Observation of work practices
Independent surveys
Evaluation of compliance with applicable regulations
Do not submit, but have a documented program for conducting the annual audit required
by 10 CFR 20.11 (ALARA evaluation/actions/goals)
Describe process used to review and implement audit program changes if licensee desires the
flexibility to make changes w/o a license amendment
RADIATION MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
Provide criteria used by RSO/RSC in determining and approving instruments
Discuss controls for assurance that appropriate instruments will be used
Submit actual procedures for assurance that instruments are in calibration and functioning
properly
Describe the calibration program or state will use a NRC/State licensed vendor
Describe process used to revise and implement instrument program changes if licensee desires
the flexibility to make changes w/o license amendment
MATERIAL RECEIPT AND ACCOUNTABILITY
Describe procedures to assure material procurement control, use accountability, and security
Maintain procedures for timely and safe opening of packages (need not be submitted)
Describe process used by the RSC to revise these administrative procedures, controls, and
provisions if licensee desires the flexibility to make changes w/o a license amendment
OCCUPATIONAL DOSE
Statement that individuals do not require monitoring (retain evaluations used to determine),
or
Description of methods used to demonstrate compliance
Evaluation of likely dose for every job function
Monitoring methods and practices
Record keeping and reporting
Air sampling or bioassay monitoring
Describe process for making changes if licensee desires the flexibility to make changes w/o
license amendment

236

Regulations and Guidance - 8

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PUBLIC DOSE
No response is necessary, but applicant must have documentation of
Measurements/calculations showing compliance
Determination of applicable of external/internal pathways
Estimate of maximum likely TEDE to individual
SAFE USE OF RADIONUCLIDES AND EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Provide procedures for safe use and maintaining doses ALARA
Only authorized and trained personnel will handle/use
Secure from unauthorized removal or under constant surveillance
Radio-isotope specific emergency responses ranging from minor spills to major accidents,
or
Make statement that will adopt Appendix R procedures, (Detailed models for developing
emergency procedures)
Submit process for making changes if licensee desires the flexibility to make changes w/o
license amendment
SURVEYS
Submit procedures to survey and evaluate potential radiological hazards
Contamination that could be present
Radioactive material concentrations in air or where material could be released
Concentrations in water that is released to environment or sanitary sewer
Bioassays
External radiation exposure levels
Submit procedures to determine accountability and whether there is any leakage from sealed
sources
Propose and justify what removable contamination limits will be allowed
If applying for flexibility to revise survey or leak test procedures without license amendment
discuss process used to revise and implement changes
TRANSPORTATION
No written response is required, but NRC inspectors will review program
Staff thoroughly familiar with 10 CFR 71.5 and applicable DOT regulations
Material packaged and transported according to NRC and DOT requirements
License specific procedures for transportation within your own facilities
Retention of appropriate documents

237

Regulations and Guidance - 8

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WASTE MANAGEMENT
Provide procedures for
Handling, storage, control, minimization, and disposal
Identify types of waste and provisions for monitoring and segregation
Use EPA guidance for reducing hazardous waste
Disposal in accordance with regulations and maintenance of records
Need to provide information for disposal of LLW via transfer to authorized recipient or
to dispose of liquid scintillation media or animals containing low levels as authorized by
10 CFR 20.2005
Methods of waste disposal for consideration and addressing
Transfer to an authorized recipient
Decay-in-storage and extended interim storage
Half-lives <120 days and hold at least 10 half-lives
Radiation levels indistinguishable from background
Release into air or water
Procedures for assurance of conformance to requirements in 10 CFR 20.1302
Review Reg Guide 8.37, ALARA Levels for Effluents from Material Facilities, for
application of ALARA
Procedures for compliance with 10 CFR 20.2003 for release to sanitary sewerage
systems
Describe monitoring planned for buildup of contamination in discharge systems
May request NRC approval for alternative disposal method(s)
FEES
From 10 CFR 170.31
CERTIFICATION
Signature and date of legal entity authorized to make binding commitments
AMENDMENTS AND RENEWALS TO A LICENSE
Provide the most recent information concerning your program
Submit, in duplicate, NRC Form 313 or letter requesting renewal or amendment
Provide license number and should not reference previously submitted documents, but resubmit as a whole package any change previously submitted

238

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8.10

AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS

(Incomplete Listing)
Number Title
N2.1
Warning Symbols - Radiation Symbol
N12.1
Warning Symbols - Fissile Material Symbol
N13.1
Sampling and Monitoring Airborne Radioactive Substances From the
Stacks and Ducts of Nuclear Facilities
N13.2
Administrative Practices in Radiation Monitoring
N13.3
Dosimetry for Criticality Accidents
N13.5
Direct Reading and Indirect Reading Pocket Dosimeters for X- and
Gamma-Radiation, Performance, Specifications
N13.6
Occupational Radiation Exposure Records
N13.7
Photographic Film Dosimeter Performance, Criteria
N13.8
Uranium Mines, Radiation Protection in
N13.11 Personnel Dosimetry Performance - Criteria for Testing
N13.12 Surface and Volume Standards for Clearance
N13.14 Internal Dosimetry programs for Tritium Exposure - Minimum Requirements
N13.15 Dosimetry Systems, Performance of Personnel Thermoluminescence
N13.22 Bioassay Programs for Uranium
N13.27 Dosimeters and Alarm Rate meters, Performance Requirements for
Pocket-Sized Alarms
N13.30 Performance Criteria for Radiobioassay
N13.32 Performance Testing of Extremity Dosimeters
N13.35 Specifications for the Bottle Manikin Absorption Phantom
N13.37 Performance Testing and Procedural Specifications for Thermoluminescence Dosimetry
N13.39 Internal Dosimetry Program
N13.41 Criteria for Performing Multiple Dosimetry
N13.42 Internal Dosimetry for Mixed Fission Activation Products
N13.45 Incineration of institutional Low-Level Radioactive Waste
N13.52 Personnel Neutron Dosimeters (Neutron Energies Less Than 20 MeV)
N42.14 Calibration and Use of Germanium Spectrometers for the Measurement of Gamma-Ray Emission Rate of Radionuclides
N42.15 Check Sources for and Verification of Liquid Scintillation Counters
N42.17 Radiation Instrumentation-Performance Specifications for Health
Physics Instrumentation-Portable Instrumentation for Use in Normal
Environmental Conditions
N42.20 Performance Criteria for Active Personnel Radiation Monitors

239

Issue
1989
1989
1999
1988
1988
1989
1999
1989
1989
2001
1999
1994
1985
1995
1992
1996
1995
1999
2006
2001
1997
1997
1998
1999
1999
2003
2003

2003

Regulations and Guidance - 8

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N42.22
N42.25
N42.30
N42.34
N43.3
N43.7
N317
Z88.2

Traceability of Radioactive Sources to NIST

Calibration and Usage of Alpha/Beta Proportional Counters
Performance Specifications for Tritium Monitors
Criterial for Hand-held Instruments for Detection and Identification
of Radionuclides
General Radiation Safety, Installations Using Non-Medical X-Ray
and Sealed Gamma-Ray Sources, Energies up to 10 MeV
Gamma Irradiators (Category I), Safe Design and Use of SelfContained Dry Source Storage
Performance Criteria for Instrumentation Used for In-Plant Plutonium Monitoring
Practices for Respiratory Protection

1995
1997
2002
2006
1993
1989
1985
1992

NOTE: The ANSI listing includes Standards that are most likely to be applicable to a wide
range of radiation safety programs. The N13 series is the most general series of ANSI Standards
related to radiation protection.

There are however, other Standards applicable to specific operations such as the N8 series
related to radioactive material transportation packages and the N14 series related to the use of
radioactive materials in nondestructive testing. Additional information is available at the ANSI
web sites; http://www.nssn.org and http://www.ansi.org

240

Regulations and Guidance - 8

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8.11

US NRC Regulatory Guides Series Division 8 - Occupational

Health
(Incomplete Listing)

Number Title
8.1
Radiation Symbol
8.2
Guide for Administrative Practices in Radiation Monitoring
8.4
Direct-Reading and Indirect-Reading Pocket Dosimeters
8.5
Criticality and Other Interior Evacuation Signals
8.6
Standard Test Procedures for Geiger-Muller Counters
8.7
Instructions for Recording and Reporting Occupational Radiation Exposure
8.8
Information Relevant to Ensuring that Occupational Radiation
exposures at Nuclear Power Stations Will Be As Low As is Reasonably Achievable
8.9
Acceptable Concepts, Models, Equations and Assumptions for
a Bioassay Program
8.10
Operating Philosophy for Maintaining Occupational Radiation
Exposures As Low As is Reasonably Achievable
8.11
Applications for Bioasssay for Uranium
8.13
Instruction Concerning Prenatal Radiation Exposure
8.15
Acceptable Programs for Respiratory Protection
8.18
Information Relevant to ensuring that Occupational Radiation
Exposures at Medical Institutions Will Be As Low As Reasonably Achievable
8.19
Occupational Radiation Dose Assessment in Light-Water Reactor Power Plants-Design-Stage Man-Rem Estimates
8.20
Applications of Bioassay for I-125 and I-131
8.21
Health Physics for Byproduct Material at NRC-Licensed Processing and Manufacturing Plants
8.22
Bioassay at Uranium Mills
8.23
Radiation Safety Surveys at Medical Institutions
8.24
Health Physics Surveys During Enriched Uranium-235 Processing and Fuel Fabrication
8.25
Air Sampling in the Workplace
8.26
Applications of Bioassay for Fission and Activation Products
8.27
Radiation Protection Training for Personnel at Light-Water
Cooled Nuclear Power Plants
8.28
Audible-Alarm Dosimeters
8.29
Instruction Concerning Risks from Occupations Radiation Exposure
241

Rev
1
2

Date
2/73
2/73
2/73
3/81
5/73
11/05

6/78

7/93

5/77

3
1
1

6/74
6/99
10/99
10/82

6/79

1
1

9/79
10/79

1
1
1

8/88
1/81
10/79

1
-

6/92
9/80
3/81

8/81
2/96

Regulations and Guidance - 8

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Number Title
8.30
Health Physics in Uranium Mills
8.31
Information Relevant to Ensuring that Occupational Radiation
Exposures at Uranium Mills Will Be As Low As is Reasonably
Achievable
8.32
Criteria for Establishing Tritium Bioassay Program
8.33
Quality Management Program
8.34
Monitoring Criteria and Methods to Calculate Occupational Radiation Doses
8.35
Planned Special Exposures
8.36
Radiation Dose to the Embryo/Fetus
8.37
ALARA Levels for Effluents from Materials Facilities
8.38
Control of Access to High and Very High Radiation Areas in
Nuclear Power Plants
8.39
Release of Patients Administered Radioactive Material

Rev Date
1
5/02
1
5/02

7/88
10/91
7/92

6/92
7/92
7/93
6/93

4/97

NOTE: Series 8 Regulatory Guides are those most likely to be applicable to a wide range of
radiation safety programs. Series 10 (General) also includes guides that might be applicable to
your program as might other series RGs. Additional information is available on the NRC website
at http://www.nrc.gov

242

Radiological Safety Surveys, Control, and Documents

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Radiological Surveys, Controls, and Documents - 9

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9.1

Introduction

A variety of surveys, controls, records and documentation are required to support a comprehensive
radiation safety program. Licensee records of surveys and program documents are one of the
most important ways of showing compliance with applicable regulations and the actual safety level
practiced by the licensee.
Prior to use of radioactive materials (RAM), adequate plans, instructions, and procedures
should be developed by the future RAM user/licensee. These documents should be thoroughly
reviewed, not only from a radiation safety perspective, but also from a radioactive waste generation,
ALARA, RAM control, and maintenance aspect. The complexity and number of surveys and
documents necessary depends, somewhat, on the individual license circumstances. Considerations
in determining the necessary surveys and documents may include items such as:
Applicable regulations, standards and guidance
Quantities and types of RAM and radiation sources
RAM procurement and disposal availability
Locations, numbers, types, and frequency of operations
Sources and locations of necessary support equipment
Skills and knowledge of personnel
Vendor and contractor participation
Emergency response capabilities
Table 59: General Survey Recommendations
Prior to or During
Once/Shift/Work Period
Daily
Weekly
Monthly

9.2

Work involving highly contaminated or activated material. Initial

entry into known or suspected high and very high radiation areas.
Active work areas or areas where conditions may change due to the
work.
Areas where radioactive material was moved from or to contamination control points.
Radioactive waste storage area, Areas inside controlled areas where
people frequently work, but conditions are stable.
Areas outside controlled areas

Surveys and Inspections

The effectiveness of protective measures against ionizing radiation hazards is evaluated by surveys,
inspections, and a surveillance program that includes observations of radiological conditions in
work areas and in the environment. Survey and inspection requirements range from specific types
and frequencies required by Federal and State Regulations to implied requirements provided in
guidance documents.
Most surveys and inspections are conducted to ensure compliance with:
245

Radiological Surveys, Controls, and Documents - 9

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Regulations regarding the control of radioactive material

Limits on exposure to individuals
Limits on concentrations of radioactivity
Requirements to keep exposures ALARA
The words survey, monitoring, measurements, and inspections are sometimes used interchangeably, but each one was originally intended to have a separate definition. For example, U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) Regulatory Guide 8.23, which concerns surveys at medical institutions states, The word survey ... connotes the personal inspection of various locations
in a facility using radioactive material, with or without accompanying measurements (emphasis
added), to determine the effectiveness of measures to protect against exposure to radiation.
Survey is defined in 10 CFR 20.1003 as ... an evaluation of the radiological conditions
and potential hazards incident to the production, use, transfer, release, disposal, or presence of
radioactive material or other sources of radiation. When appropriate, such an evaluation includes a
physical survey of the location of radioactive material and measurements or calculations of levels of
radiation, or concentrations or quantities of radioactive material present. Therefore it is obvious
that the NRC considers the survey to be the overall surveillance function with sub parts inspections
and measurements. That is, the RSO is expected to conduct a survey every time he/she is in an
area of radiological responsibility.
A NRC inspection is a survey of the licensees operations and might include the following
routines.
Typical NRC Inspection Routine for Licensed Radiation Safety Program
Preparation: Review license, changes, emails, telephone conversation notes and Office Areas of
Concern
On-Site:
1. Entrance Meeting: Reason for inspection, extent and identify contacts.
2. Meet with RSO: Discuss items such as changes since last inspection, any incidents or problems, current doses, recent training, RAM receipts/shipments, surveys, RSC meetings and
ALARA program. Request records/reports for later review.
3. Tours: RAM storage and receipt/shipment areas and locations of use of RAM; observe
postings and cleanliness; discuss uses, operations, and support with user and customers.
4. Return to Office: Review requested documents, discuss potential findings and help for
RSO.
5. Contact NRC Office: To resolve/confirm any NOV(s).
6. Prepare Report
7. Exit Meeting: Discuss results of inspection.

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9.2.1

Types of Surveys with Instruments

Surveys are generally separated into two types, those conducted to identify and evaluate radiation
sources or the amount of radiation being emitted from sources. These include exposure and dose
rate measurements, calculations, and inspections. They generally involve the measurement or
evaluation of radiation levels or field intensities.
The other surveys are those used to identify radioactivity and to identify and quantify radioactive contamination.
9.2.2

Radiation Level Surveys

When conducting a radiation level survey, the first step should be to select an acceptable instrument. For example, gamma radiation is detectable by almost all survey instruments, however, the
energy, type of radiation, and intensity may limit the selection to one specific device. There may
be advantages to using an instrument with a built in probe, or conversely, a detachable probe
may permit the best measurements. The choice may also depend on factors such as portability,
ruggedness, ease of operation, reliability, and perhaps ease of decontamination.
A radiation level survey instrument must be calibrated for the radiation type and energy that
is to be measured. Some other important selection characteristics are:
Ability to respond to the radiation being measured
For example, a commonly used side or end window beta-gamma robe has a window thickness
of 30 mg/cm2 . Thus, it is useless to monitor for carbon-14 beta radiation or polonium-210
alpha particles because neither one would penetrate the window for detection.
Sensitivity
For example, a typical GM detector instrument will respond to a 1 millicurie point gamma
source such as cobalt-60 or cesium-137 at a distance of about 10 to 20 feet while the typical
ion-chamber instrument will not respond to the same source at further than about 2 or 3
feet.
Response Time
The time it takes the instrument to respond to a percentage of the full change. In general, is
inversely related to instrument sensitivity. A faster response time will help detect changes,
but with decreased sensitivity.
Energy Dependence
Most instruments have a limited energy response band over which the instrument responds
linearly and accurately. A general understanding of the response of the instrument and the
radiation field energy is needed for accurate monitoring.
When conducting radiation field surveys, one might merely scan an open area to determine
the overall or ambient levels. If the radiation levels are not expected to vary much, an instrument
with the detector built into the housing may be preferred.
In another case, the survey might be conducted to locate small or streaming radiation fields
in which case a detachable detector is usually preferred so one does not have to life and move
the whole instrument into each measurement position. The use of a sensitive crystal detector and
audible signal may help locate the radiation field. However, a more sensitive detector, such as
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NaI(Tl) solid crystal, may be a disadvantage because it is so sensitive that it is limited to use in
radiation fields equivalent to less than a few millirem per hour.
Small radiation fields such as streaming and hot spots (smaller than the detector) cannot
be accurately measured without a specific calibration. The reading will be low by an amount
approximately equal to the ratio of the detector volume exposed to the total volume of the detector
if the detector is an ion chamber or proportional detector. However, the inverse square rule for
point sources may introduce additional inaccuracy.
Alpha Particle Radiation surveys are done for source leak testing and contamination, but
not for purposes of defining radiation levels. Due to the relatively few radionuclides emitting alpha
particles, many facilities never have a need to conduct surveys for alpha particles.
Beta Particle Radiation surveys may be combined with gamma and x-ray surveys because
the same detector may be capable of detecting beta particles and photons. Due to the short distance
traveled by beta particles in air, as compared to photons, the beta survey must be conducted much
closer to the radiation source. To properly measure beta radiation, care must be taken to correct
for detector response from gamma radiation. Also, the detector wall material is important and if it
represents more than 7 mg/cm2 it should not be used for dose measurement from beta radiation.
When conducting beta radiation surveys in gamma radiation fields, one must be knowledgable
of the relative response of the detector to the different types of radiation. Usually, the beta radiation
level is not simply the difference between the open window and shielded reading. Typically, the
difference is multiplied by a factor of between 3 and 10 to obtain the beta dose rate.
Photo Radiation surveys for gamma or x-ray radiation surveys are the most common type of
survey conducted because most sources that are a concern emit or generate photons. The distance
traveled by gamma and x-rays, and the difficulty in shielding them are the main reasons why
photon surveys are conducted frequently.
Photon radiation is normally detected with Geiger-Mueller (GM) or NaI detectors and measured
with ion-chamber (IC) or GM detector instruments. The instrument of choice for higher radiation
levels, and when more accurate dose rate information is needed, is the IC instrument.
Neutron Radiation surveys are normally conducted only around neutron sources, operating
nuclear power plant, and some accelerators (generally those greater than 10 MeV). As discussed
in Chapter 7, neutron detection and dose correlation is not easy due to the extreme energy
dependence for neutron interactions.
Other surveys, such as surveys during pulse or flash operations of accelerators or x-ray
units must consider the limitations of normal instruments in high intensity, short duration fields.
Instrument saturation and coincidence losses are the main concerns in addition to all the normal
ones having to do with energy response, types of radiation, and calibration. Solid state integrating
devices such as TLDs and specialized instruments are typically used to measure pulse and flash
units.
9.2.3

Radioactivity Contamination Surveys

Contamination surveys are utilized to determine if radioactivity is present where it might pose
some hazard to personnel or the environment. Contamination surveys should check for personnel
contamination and be used to control the release of potentially contaminated or activated materials.
Surface contamination may be removable or fixed. Removable or loose contamination surveys
are usually based on measurements over an area of 100 cm2 (about 4 x 4 or a little less than
the area of a 3 x 5 index card). The area can be measured directly with a survey instrument
or wipes (also called swipes) of 100 cm2 can be obtained and counted with a suitable instrument.
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Direct measurements are generally slower than counting wipes unless the area is very small, and
may be less sensitive due to interfering radiation. GM detectors with thin walls or windows are a
good choice for general contamination surveys.
Fixed contamination is usually treated as radioactive material since it cannot be removed
easily. Contamination not easily removed can be more securely held in place by painting or covering
with another material such as vinyl sheets. Strippable paint can be used to fix the contamination
and then possible aid in its later removal.
Leak Tests are a special type of survey for contamination and are conducted to determine if
sealed sources of radioactivity are leaking radioactivity. There is not a specified area (cm2 ), weight
(grams), or volume(ml) that the sample must satisfy. A wipe is taken of an exposed surface area
of the source, or if that is not safely possible, a wipe is taken from the accessible area closest to the
source likely to accumulate radioactive material. The wipe or sample is counted on an appropriate
instrument and if the radioactivity does not exceed 0.005 Ci, the source integrity is considered
to be satisfactory.
Personnel Contamination surveys or monitoring have traditionally been conducted with a
pancake GM detector moved across the body areas at a rate of 2 to 3 inches per second and with
the detector held 1/4 to 1/2 inch from the body. Automated personnel contamination monitors
are available and can be faster and more sensitive.
9.2.4

Airborne Radioactivity Surveys

Airborne radioactivity surveys may utilize direct measurement of the air radioactivity and/or air
sampling. Instrument selection for direct measurement and sample measurement involves many of
the instrument selection considerations previously discussed.
Air Monitoring generally refers to equipment capable of directly measuring the radioactivity
in air and is done when results are needed immediately. Direct air monitoring equipment includes
stack monitors and portable and fixed continuous air monitors.
The objectives of air sampling are to measure the concentration of the contaminant in the air
(detection and analysis), to identify the type of the contaminant, the characteristics of the contaminant, to help evaluate the hazard potential, and to appraise the performance of control equipment
and procedures. Stack sampling is performed to determine the concentration of radioactivity being
released.
Air Sampling is usually performed when the probability for airborne contamination is low, as
part of a long-term monitoring program, and where high levels of background radiation or excessive
interference by other contaminates prohibits direct measurement. Air sampling consist of three
basic elements: a source of suction, a collection device, and a metering device. An advantage of air
sampling is the sample is collected (perhaps over several weeks) and then taken to a low background
area to measure the radioactivity. This method permits detection at very low concentrations, but
has the disadvantage of providing the data after the fact.
Factors which can influence sampling results and their applicability include:
Representativeness of the sample
Sample volume
Radionuclide or radiation type
Collection device efficiency
Sample loading with dust or other pollutants
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Air temperature, humidity

Sample line material, length, bends, and flat run
Sample flow velocity
Radioactive decay of the sample
In most cases, one is interested in the radioactivity that a person might intake. For this purpose,
air samples are usually collected in the breathing zone (BZ), that is at a height of about 6 feet
above the ground or floor and within 3 or 4 feet of the worker. A lapel sample is considered to
best sample the air being breathed by the worker.
A special problem in obtaining a representative air sample is sampling radioactive dusts that
are moving at a high velocity. Airborne particulates tend to follow the streamlines of flow that go in
larger proportions wherever most air flows. To sample under ideal conditions requires isokinetic
sampling, which requires the sample probe to be near the center of a duct of very small size to
minimize the flow interference and for the flow through the sample inlet to be the same flow rate
as that in the duct.
Sample lines should be short to avoid platting out along the pathway walls. Horizontal lines
should be avoided and all sample line bends should have a radius of at least 3 times the diameter
of the sample line. Sample intake locations should be at least 5 duct line diameters downstream
of the last duct bend, obstruction, or opening.
The sample needs to be large enough to provide statistically sound counting data and sample
volume. The standard deviation of the data set should be small, which requires a high sample
volume when radioactivity level is low.
Radioactive gases are sampled through the processes of absorption, condensation, or grab
sampling. In the absorption process, the radioactive gas is absorbed into a particular substance,
such as iodine into activated charcoal, where the radioactive gas interacts with another substance
and is absorbed. Absorption of tritium gas into water by bubbling the tritium gas through water
is another example of radioactive gas collection.
Condensation utilizes some form of chilling or freezing the sample gas and collecting the condensate or melted ice as a liquid sample. It is most often used for collecting tritium and krypton
samples.
Grab sampling is often accomplished through an evacuated cylinder or container and can be
used for collection of all types of airborne radioactivity.
Radioactive particulates are sampled through several processes. Basic sample methods
include sedimentation, condensation, filtration, electrostatic precipitation, impaction, and thermal
precipitation.
Sedimentation is widely used for fallout monitoring and for deposition in surrounding areas
from stack releases.
Condensation devices work with a cold trap immersed in a bath of dry ice and alcohol, liquid
nitrogen, or other suitable coolant. Air containing minute particles flows through the cold trap
and the condensed liquid is counted in a liquid scintillation counter. Condensation devices are not
commonly used for radioactive particulates.
Electrostatic and thermal precipitation are also rarely used because they sample the air at a
very low rate and rely on precipitation from the electric charge, cooling, or condensing of moisture on the particles. Electronic precipitators are more commonly used for non-radioactive dust
collection. However, the dust collected can be washed off and measured for radioactivity.

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Filtration is widely used for sampling airborne radioactive particulates. One needs to be aware
of the importance of filter efficiency and keeping the sample flow rate within the design rates
for the filter. If the flow rate is too high, particles may be imbedded too deep in the filter for
measurement, or the filter may fail.
Impact devices collect particles by impaction as a jet of high-velocity air strikes a surface
perpendicular to its direction of travel and is thus abruptly deflected. Particulate matter, by
virtue of its momentum, tends to keep moving in the original direction and is collected in the
striking plate. The lighter particles travel the furthest and so the plates of the impactor can act
as a crude particle size discriminator.
General types of surveys and frequencies, based on regulations and recommendations by national and international radiation protection groups are provided in Table 59.

9.3

Radiological Controls

Radiation Control is primarily to prevent unauthorized external exposure and to limit authorized exposure, while contamination control is primarily to prevent the spread of unwanted
radioactivity and to eliminate internal exposure. Radiological control is a term often used to
denote both radiation and contamination control.
The variety and complexity of necessary radiological controls, like other radiation safety program elements, depends on factors such as the number of personnel involved and their level of
knowledge and experience, locations and complexity of operations, and the appropriate regulations
and guidelines.
9.3.1

Work Area Controls

Use of centralized work areas or large control zones can simplify area entrance and exit control
aspects, but can result in excessive working training requirements, excessive dosimetry, and excessive survey schedules. Localized control practices reduce the total area under control, but requires
more checks that personnel entering the area(s) meet requirements and increases the chance of
other areas becoming contaminated in the case of contamination control. Any facility with limited
radiation and contaminated areas should utilize local or small areas of control to decrease effort
spent on monitoring workers, minimize contamination exposure, and reduce the chance of spreading
contamination.
9.3.2

Work Practices

Work practices should start with requiring personnel working inside a controlled area to have
completed the appropriate radiation worker training and to have demonstrated acceptable skills in
minimizing their external exposure and, when applicable, acceptable skills for preventing, minimizing, and controlling contamination. Work practices must require workers to enter and exit control
areas through specified control points and workers must comply with all applicable requirements
for personnel monitoring, permitted, and forbidden activities inside the area, dose limits or stay
times, and any other specific requirements. In the case of contamination control areas, the workers
must use the prescribed protective clothing and step-off-pads (some facilities use the term hotline to prevent the spread of contamination outside the controlled areas. Stick or adhesive paper
pathways, frequent surveying and wiping, and limiting the number of personnel are all effective

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means of controlling contamination. Protective clothing is removed prior to stepping on the stepoff-pad (if clean). When removing protective clothing, the most contaminated items should be
removed first. Table 60 shows a recommended sequence for the removal of protective clothing.
Table 60: Protective Clothing Removal Sequence
1. Exposed tape.
2. Any dosimeters located outside coveralls or in coverall pockets.
3. Rubber overshoes.
4. Outer gloves if two pair worn. If only one pair worn, skip to step 5.
5. Hood (from front to rear). If respirator is worn, remove it along with the hood.
6. Coveralls, roll inside out touching inside only and not personal clothing or skin.
7. Remove tape originally under coveralls or hood.
8. Each shoe cover (liners), stepping onto clean area as removed.
9. Inner gloves or gloves if only one pair worn; Remove over unclean area.
10. Glove liner and dosimeter(s) worn inside coveralls. Best to remove dosimeter(s) with inside
of glove liners.

Note: The policy is to remove the most likely contaminated item first and then the next and
so on. Therefore, steps 3 and 4 may be reversed if the gloves are more likely to be contaminated
than the overshoes. It is usually assumed that a person steps in more contamination than he/she
handles, but that is not always true.
Care should be exercised in any contaminated area to help minimize contamination and future
decontaminations. If an area is generally contaminated, necessary tools can be left in the area to
minimize decontamination work and to reduce the chance of contaminated material being misplaced
outside the controlled area. Thin sheets of removable plastic over work benches and floors, which
can be removed when the most likely contaminating work is done, can help reduce contamination
levels. Double sets of gloves and shoe covers might be worn into highly contaminated areas,
with provisions for removing the outer set after completing the most highly contaminated work.
Plastic bags or other wrappings should be available for enclosing materials that are known to
be contaminated. Segregation of contaminated waste and materials can reduce radioactive waste
disposal; an important consideration in light of current waste disposal limitations and costs.
9.3.3

Containment and Ventilation Systems

Containment is used to keep the radioactive contamination inside an area or space and range
in size from large tents containing major work activities to small glove bags attached to a single
component. Containments may be set up with separate exhaust systems that discharge into filtered
or stack exhaust pathways.

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Ventilation systems are used to help control contamination by controlling airflow from the
area(s) with no or lowest contamination to the area(s) with the highest contamination. Ventilation
filters, e.g. high efficiency particulate airborne (HEPA) filters, in air recirculation and exhaust
pathways can remove airborne contamination. Ventilation systems should operate at low airflow
rates, while still providing adequate ventilation, to avoid blowing contamination around.
9.3.4

Decontamination Practices

Decontamination should be kept as simple as practicable. Materials requiring decontamination

may be cleaned inside the contaminated area or in another designated and controlled area. The
decontamination work area should be designed to easily contain and remove the contamination.
Remember that decontamination is really the moving of radioactivity from one location to another.
Thus, the decontamination area should be easily cleaned by utilizing seamless table tops, plastic
coverings, and adequate receptacles for cleaning disposal.
Decontamination might be performed using simple wiping with disposable laboratory wipes
such as Kim-wipes. If the contamination is not removed by dry wiping, tape adhesive may
aid in removal. Many routine household agents such as window cleaners, foaming cleaners,
and shaving cream are inexpensive and have proven to be effective decontaminates. More difficult
contamination may require the use of solvents and ultrasonic cleaners. However, solvents introduce
disposal and control problems of their own. If the radioactivity is short-lived, radioactive decay
may be the most cost-effective decontamination method.
Personnel decontamination is also performed as simply as practicable. NCRP Report No.
65, Management of Persons Accidentally Contaminated with Radionuclides, provides several
practical personnel decontamination methods. The first decontamination should utilize mild soap
and tepid water. (Localized or a shower if wide-spread.) Use copious amounts of water to rinse
the contamination off, but do not apply for longer than a few minutes because the water may
open skin pores and cause an intake of radioactivity. The skin should be patted dry with a soft
cloth. Any scrubbing should be done with a very soft brush, with care to not abrade the skin.
Shaving foam, a mild paste mixture of detergent, or corn meal could be tried if soap and water
is not effective. Contamination in hair may be removed by careful cutting of the hair. Some
decontamination can be accomplished by sweating. Hand wrappings, for examples with plastic or
rubber gloves for 20 to 30 minutes has removed skin contamination. Swabs, wipes, absorbents,
and decontamination residues from personnel contamination should be analyzed for radioactivity
identification to determine the individuals dose.
Personnel decontamination by radioactive decay is acceptable if the contamination level does
not represent any significant dose and the radioactivity will decay in less than about 30 minutes.
Any further decontamination actions should require the assistance of medical personnel, including
shaving, nose/throat swabs, and any treatment of cuts or punctures.
Articles of personnel clothing may be decontaminated by decay, tape, wiping, or excising the
affected area. If the clothing cannot be reasonably decontaminated, it should be treated as radioactive waste.
9.3.5

Security and Other Physical Controls

Radioactive material security should be one of primary concerns and goals of the RSO. The security
of radioactive materials is also a concern of Homeland Security, the NRC, and Agreement State
regulators; especially radioactive material quantities of concern. Physical exposure controls provide

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radiation exposure protection to personnel and keep exposures ALARA. Many controls reduce
exposure by minimizing the time of exposure and/or increase the distance between people and
sources of exposure.
9.3.5.1 Security Security of material may range from simple storage and accountability procedures to double locked access and armed guards. Securing the material inside several controlled
access areas is generally preferred as compared to outside storage near perimeter fences. Security
in the form of locked and controlled spaces is exercised by almost all users of sources of ionizing
radiation. A guard can be reasonably used if a radiation hazard exists in a specific area where
posting a guard to control access is practicable.
9.3.5.2 Job Coverage Job coverage by radiation safety personnel is often used when there is
a high potential for unusual exposures or radiation levels during the work. Jobs that do not require
that level of coverage may still have limited coverage or work Stop Points requiring radiation
safety or RSO review before proceeding. Manned control stations are used to ensure the person
entering has an adequate understanding of the hazards, procedures, and work to be accomplished.
The use of a closed circuit video monitor system with the capability to monitor work, control
access to the work area, and control exposures during the work is acceptable to the NRC for most
radiological control work.
9.3.5.3 Radiation Alarms, Barrier, and Lights Radiation alarms, often called gamma
alarms, are used to warn personnel if the radiation level exceeds a preset limit and may be connected
to interlock systems to prevent entry into an area. Installed radiation detectors and indicators are
also used to determine the radiation level in an area before entry. Standard procedures require
checking area radiation levels before initial entry to potentially high exposure areas.
9.3.6

Administrative Controls

Examples of administrative control are: notices and directives to advise or even order individuals
to avoid areas where they may be exposed, written procedures instructing individuals to follow
specific steps while working, and training instructions regarding the ways to reduce exposure.
Administrative control are an important part of exposure control programs. Everyone, including unescorted visitors, are responsible for knowing and following the applicable standards, notices,
instructions, and procedures. Employees and visitors receive basic training on radiation exposure
controls and radiation safety. This training covers the facility general administrative controls for
radiation exposure. There is usually a requirement to sign for receipt of the generic radiation
safety training and one may be given an examination on the training.
Radiation work permits (RWPs) and Stay Time limits are administrative radiation exposure controls used at some facilities. There are a variety of RWP forms in use, but the information
included on the form is reasonably consistent, including a section that describes the:
task
job the task is part of
work location
radiation safety aspects of the task

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special instructions
The radiation safety portion of the RWP covers protective clothing, respiratory protection, and
dosimetry devices. Special instructions may include unique requirements or restrictions such as
permissible pocket dosimeter readings, areas to avoid, special surveys, and periodic checks.
Stay Time limits the amount of time an individual may be in an area and is established to
terminate the exposure before an administrative dose control level is or might be exceeded. The
Stay Time permitted for each entry is sometimes included in the special instructions section of
a RWP, but more often it is in a separate section or data block. The Stay Time is equal to the
permitted dose divided by the applicable work area dose rate. Each person is responsible for
understanding the Stay Time requirements specified on the RWP.
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) and Maintenance Operating Procedures
(MOPs) establish control of external exposure during routine and expected operations and maintenance at many facilities. In some cases, the RWP is utilized to enact controls in addition to
those specified in the SOPS and MOPs.
9.3.7

ALARA and Best Practices

Current Federal and State radiation protection regulations require licensees to have an ALARA
(As-Low-As-Reasonably-Achievable) program commensurate with the extent of their use of sources
of ionizing radiation.
ALARA programs typically include:
Dose control levels and action if exceeded
Individual and group dose reviews
Facility design and modification reviews
Implementing efficient equipment and methods
Training personnel in all aspects of dose reduction
Involving workers in pre-work ALARA discussions and post-work evaluations
Establishing goals and rewards for minimizing doses
Conducting surveillances to assure that exposures are ALARA
The successful ALARA program requires that the ALARA principles be integrated into all
work, planning, scheduling, and modifications having to do with sources of ionizing radiation
exposure.

9.4

Records and Documents

The number of records and documents and their complexity may very among licensees or registrants, but there are many common and universally required records and documents for all users
of RAM and ionizing radiation sources. Many of those records and documents are mentioned in
the following sections. NCRP Report Number 114, Maintaining Radiation Protection Records,
is a good reference guide for radiation safety records and documents.
In addition to procedures, manuals, and forms, a valuable part of radiation part of radiation
safety records can include photographs, drawings, and building plans. NRC licensees must report
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radioactivity and dose data in units of curie, rad, and rem. This does not prevent a licensee from
keeping working records in SI units (e.g. becquerel, gray, and sieverts) or dual records in both
units.
Records of effluent releases, radioactive waste disposal, personnel dose and dose
estimations are required by the NRC to be maintained until license termination or until disposal
is authorized. The retention period for all other records is three (3) years. Record retention
requirements may be satisfied with original or reproduced record copies.
9.4.1

Radioactive Material License/Registration

Each licensee should maintain, indefinitely, a full history file of their license applications and the
actual licenses provided by the licensing agency. A copy of the current license, with the latest
amendment, is required to be available for review by license participants. If one should lose any
of your issued license documents or have a question regarding the current status, one can always
cross-check ones license against that held by the regulator.
9.4.2

Radioactive Material Receipt, Transfer, and Disposal Records

Records of receipt of radioactive material (RAM) are required to be retained for as long as the
licensee holds the material and for 3 years after disposal of the RAM. These records must identify
the RAM isotope(s), serial number, or other identifying code, form, date received, and date of
transfer or disposal.
Liquid and airborne radioactive material released from a facility must be thoroughly documented in order to justify compliance with applicable regulatory limits. These records must show
the isotope, form, quantity (Ci) of release, date, time, and duration of release. Records of solid
radioactive material transfer and disposal are required to provide assurance that isotope, form,
and quantity (estimated) for shipment purposes are accurate.
9.4.3

Radioactive Material Inventories

The frequency for RAM inventories is often specified in the license. In general, inventories are
required quarterly for material frequently used or semi-annually for most others. The inventory
must indicate the quantity, type, location of licensed material, date of the inventory, and the
identity of the person conducting the inventory.
9.4.4

Sealed Source Leak Test Records

The NRC requires licensed sealed sources being used or transferred to be tested for leakage at
intervals not to exceed 6 months. The leak test must be capable of detecting the presence of 0.005
micro-curie of removal contamination from the sealed source. The leak test must be done as stated
in the application and the record must identify the source, date of test, test result, and the identity
of the person responsible for conducting the leak test.
9.4.5

Radiation and Contamination Survey Records

Radiation and contamination surveys range from surveys required when equipment using licensed
material is put into use to periodic surveys during use and those used to verify that a source is
returned to its proper storage after use. Radiation and contamination surveys can include direct

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instrument measurements, measurements from swipes or other material, and measurements of air
samples.
The generally accepted information on records of surveys includes:
Date and time performed
Purpose of the survey with reference (RWP if applicable)
Type(s) of instrument(s) used and serial number(s)
Date of last calibration or the date of calibration due for each instrument used and any
calibration correction factors used
A sketch or description of the area or component surveyed
General area findings
Locations of any radiological control boundaries
Identification of any hot spots, areas to avoid, and stand-by areas
Name or signature or the individual(s) performing the survey
Evidence of supervisory review
It is recommended that samples of survey records be retained indefinitely to help substantiate
the radiation safety program control.
9.4.6

Personnel Dosimetry Records

The NRC requires, as applicable, the recording and reporting of an individuals deep dose equivalent, dose to the eye, skin and extremities, and the committed effective dose equivalent, total
effective dose equivalent, and the dose to organ receiving the highest dose. Licensees are required
(10 CFR 19) to report radiation exposure data and the results of any measurements, analyses,
and calculations of internal radioactivity to the individual annually if the individual received more
than 0.100 rem for the year and within 30 days of a request (or determination of the exposure) by
the individual or termination of employment.
A reasonable effort should be made to obtain the current year exposure history of a new worker,
but the record is not required nor is a record of lifetime dose. The lifetime and current year is
required before a worker can participate in a planned special exposure.
Records of prior exposure must be kept on a NRC Form 4 or equivalent and the record of
current exposure must be kept on a NRC Form 5 or equivalent. A record of dose to an individual
member of the general public must also be recorded on Forms 4 and 5.
9.4.7

Instrument Calibration and Safety Test Records

Calibrated instruments are required to be available for license required surveys and most instruments receive periodic calibrations. Records must clearly indicate the instrument model and
identification, the specific calibration performed, the results of the calibration, any applicable
correction factors, and the identity of the person performing the calibration.
Tests of High Radiation Area and Radiography Cell (for example) access controls and safety
devices are required to be conducted frequently; generally before each days use. Records of
calibrations and equipment and safety tests must be retained for a period of 3 years following the
date of calibration or test.
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9.4.8

Personnel Selection, Training, and Supervision Records

Users of radioactive material and other sources of ionizing radiation must receive training commensurate with the radiological hazard and commensurate with the activities to be performed. In
addition to the minimal radiation safety training required by 10 CFR Part 19, instruction may
also be required by other parts of 10 CFR (e.g., 10 CFR Part 34 for radiographers) and by the
State. Instructions should emphasize the importance of preplanned activities and the measures
utilized to minimize exposure to personnel. A training program should also include mechanisms for
re-instruction on a routine basis and special instructions on changes in techniques or requirements.
A training program should document and address topics such as:
Fundamentals of radiation safety
Radiation production devices and sources and their use and limitations
Radiation detection instrumentation to be used
Packaging and containment of radioactive material (RAM)
RAM control and inventory requirements and methods
Good practices for ALARA
Decontamination methods and limitations
Dosimetry devices to be used and use practices
Response to emergencies and unusual situations
In addition to operational procedures, specific documents that define waste handling, collection,
preparation, and shipment should be developed. The key elements of such waste management
documents should be emphasized during training sessions so all users of radioactive material are
familiar with program requirements.
The RSO should have sufficient training and education to permit effective fulfillment of the
RSO responsibilities. Certification of completed applicable training or documented reasons(s)
for excepting/waiver and radiation protection experience should be available for the RSO and
certification(s) of competency should be retained for technicians.
Medical related records for respirator testing and for qualification for exposure to ionizing
radiation conditions should be retained with other worker qualification records.
The individual(s) responsible for radioactive waste preparation and shipment should receive
specific instructions on applicable US NRC, US DOT, and Agreement State regulations as well as
disposal site requirements and restrictions.
Copies of examinations (written, practical, oral) used to determine individual qualification and
re-qualification for license operations shall be retained for 3 years. However, certificates (such as
NRRPT, CHP) used to establish qualification for duties shall be retained as long as the individual
is employed in a license status.
9.4.9

Audits

A routine audit activity should be implemented to evaluate the effectiveness of the radiation
safety program. This function can best be performed by an individual not intimately involved
with the daily operations, but who is knowledgable in the operations. Findings from audits should
be formally documented and responsible individuals should develop a plan of action to evaluate
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and/or implement changes that respond to recommendations or deficiencies. That frequency of

routine audits will be determined by regulations, that quantity of radioactive material used, that
hazard potential, and the past performance of administered safeguards. Surveys performed by the
RSO should be of an audit nature.
Copies of audits and corrective action reports should be retained for 3 years.
9.4.10

Notifications, Documentation, and Reporting of Radiation Accidents

The RSO has the responsibility to take whatever measures are necessary to cope with a radiation
emergency and to report the incident to his or her management and to regulatory authorities as
soon as required, or if time is not specific, as soon as reasonable after the incident situation has
been remedied, depending on the severity of the emergency. Considerable savings in time, money,
and credibility can be achieved by establishing emergency plans that assign specific personnel
(or positions) responsibilities for obtaining and recording data for compliance with emergency
reporting procedures.
Emergency reporting data may be used by regulatory agencies, manufacturers, insurers, and
others to determine the cause of the incident and to take action to prevent its recurrence. Therefore, emergency response records should be clear, accurate, and detailed as reasonably achievable.
Important emergency record data includes:
Data, time, location, and cause of incident including source information
Radiation and contamination levels within the accident area and outside controlled perimeters
Date and time of notification of authorities and any protective or support action requests
Details regarding any personnel injuries or overexposure
Location of the body where dosimeters were worn at the time of the accident
Time and date when these devices were first issued or zeroed
Location of the individual during the accident and the route by which he or she left the scene
TIme and date when personnel monitoring devices were processed
The dose received by personnel
Mitigating actions and date and time when incident concluded
Records and reports of accidents and emergencies are to be retained indefinitely.
9.4.11

Operating and Emergency Procedures

The NRC requires each licensee to develop and follow written operating and emergency procedures
that cover the full range of licensee operations and appropriate emergencies. These procedures must
be current and readily available to users. Copies of these procedures, enough to show their history,
should be retained until the license/registration is terminated.

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9.4.12

Document Control

Measures should be established to control the issuance of documents, such as instructions, procedures, and drawings to assure that responsible personnel are kept supplied with the current
issue of necessary documents. Document controls include having individuals sign for copies and
changes, verifying current revision, and using interfaced computer systems. Document control can
also ensure the retention of a history file of records and procedures.
Changes to any procedure related to radiation safety shall require an approval by the RSO
and/or the Radiation Safety Committee unless the procedure change is prescribed by a higher
regulatory authority. It is also recommended that the ALARA Committee review radiation safety
procedures.

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Transportation and Disposal Regulations

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10.1

Introduction

The Department of Transportation (DOT) has the regulatory responsibility for safety in the transportation of all hazardous materials except postal shipments. Radioactive material is DOT Hazardous Class 7 and the transportation regulations are contained in 49 CFR, Parts 170 through
189. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has its own radioactive material packaging and
transportation regulations in 10 CFR 71, Packaging and Transportation of Radioactive Material, which supplement the DOT requirements. International radioactive material transporting
regulations are published in the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Regulations for the
Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials.
The DOT and NRC regulations are based on ALARA (As Low A Reasonably Achievable) and
ensuring that the annual exposure to personnel involved with the transport of RAM do not exceed
5 rem to the whole body, 15 rem to the lens of the eye, or 50 rem to any organ, the skin of the
whole body, or an extremity. The limits are also based on ensuring that the dose to any other
person does not exceed 100 mrem in a year. In general, the DOT regulates carriers while the NRC
regulates licensees (shippers, receivers, and some carriers). The Department of Energy (DOE)
has transportation regulatory authority for DOE programs, including nuclear weapons and some
Department of Defense materials. IAEA regulations may apply if radioactive material (RAM)
is being transported outside the U.S. or is shipped by air. The Postal Service will accept some
radioactive packages for transportation, but generally the quantity of RAM is limited to one-tenth
of the Excepted DOT quantity.
The proper procedures for a given radioactive shipment are complex and may be confusing.
For example, 10 CFR 30, Rules of General Applicability to Domestic Licensing of Byproduct
Material, requires verification that the material receiver is licensed to receive the radioactive
material.
The complexity of applicable regulations becomes more apparent in 10 CFR Part 71.0(b),
which states ... packaging and transport of licensed material are also subject to other parts
... (e.g., Part 20, 30, 39, 40, 70) and to the regulations of ...(e.g., DOT and USPS) and that
the requirements of this part are in addition to (emphasis added) and not in substitution for
other requirements. Also, Part 71.5 explicitly states that, Each licensee who transports licensed
material outside the confines of its plant or other place of use, or who delivers licensed material to a
carrier for transport, shall comply with the applicable requirements of the regulations appropriate
to the mode of transport of DOT 49 CFR Parts 170 through 189. It is further stated in 71.5(b)
that, If DOT regulations are not applicable to a shipment of licensed material, the licensee shall
conform to the standards and requirements of the DOT specified in paragraph (a) of this section
to the same extent as if the shipment or transportation were subject to DOT regulations. In
other words, one is required to follow the requirements even if one is not required to follow the
regulations !
The complexity is one reason many licensees rely on licensed brokers and subcontractors for
radioactive material packaging and shipping.

10.2

Packaging of Radioactive Material for Shipment

Radioactive material, as defined for the purpose of hazardous material regulations, is material
with a radioactivity concentration and total activity consignment exceeding the exemption values
shown in the NRC and DOT exempt material tables, examples of which are shown in Table-61.
No special packaging, marking, or labeling is required if the material does not exceed the exemption

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Table 61: A1/A2 & Exempt Value Examples

(10 CFR 71 Appendix A & 49 CFR 173.435 & 173.436)
A1
A2
Exempt Material Exempt Consignment
Radionuclide Ci/TBq
Ci/TBq
Ci/Bq per g
Ci/Bq
3
10
225
22/0.8
0.16/6 10
2.7 10 /10
2.7107 /1104
Ac
241
Am
270/10
0.027/1 103
2.71011 /1
2.7107 /1104
14
C
1100/40
81/3
2.7107 /1104
2.7104 /1107
252
Cf
1.35/0.05 0.081/7 103
2.71010 /10
2.7107 /1104
60
Co
11/0.4
11/0.4
2.71010 /10
2.7106 /1105
137
54/2
16/0.6
2.71010 /10
2.7107 /1104
Cs
129
unlimited
unlimited
2.7109 /100
2.7106 /1105
I
131
I
81/3
19/0.7
2.7109 /100
2.7105 /1106
54
27.1
27.1
2.71010 /10
2.7105 /1106
Mn
228
Ra
16/0.6
0.54/0.02
2.71010 /10
2.7106 /1105
232
Th
unlimited
unlimited
2.71010 /10
2.7107 /1104
3
1100/40
1100/40
2.7105 /1106
2.7102 /1109
H
204
Tl
270/10
19/0.7
2.7107 /1104
2.7104 /1107
concentration or quantity.
The A1 values in Table-61 apply when the material meets Special Form criteria. Special
form is certified material which cannot be easily dispersed because it is encapsulated such that
destroying the device is the only way to reach the radioactivity. A certificate of Special Form is
required for material shipped as special form. If the material is not special form, it is Normal
Form and the A2 values in Table-61 apply.
Once it is determined that the material must be shipped as radioactive material (RAM), exceeding exemption values, the next step is to determine the correct packaging. This depends on
the radionuclide(s), the quantity, the concentration of each radionuclide present, and the form of
the RAM. Those factors are used to determine the transportation category. Radiation levels and
contamination level limits also apply to radioactive material packaging and shipments.
10.2.1

Transportation Package Categories

Transportation package categories for radioactive materials include:

Excepted Quantities: Instruments, articles and small quantities or concentrations of radionuclides, as shown in Table-62, are excepted from many packaging, marking, and labeling requirements as long as the external radiation level does not exceed 10 mrem/hr (0.1 mSv/hr)
at 4 inches (10cm) from any unpackaged item and the external radiation level at any location
on the surface of the package does not exceed 0.5 mrem/hr (0.05 mSv/hr). A basic DOT
Industrial Package-1 (IP-1) which can withstand normal transport conditions and which incorporates a sale, not readily breakable and which provides evidence it has not been opened
by unauthorized personnel is required. An excepted package containing less than 1/10th of
the DOT excepted value(s) may be mailed (39 CFR 124). Radioactive material quantities
not exceeding 30g or 30ml are also excepted quantities.
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Type A Quantities: Radioactivity not exceeding the applicable A1 or A2 values from either
10 CFR 71 or 49 CFR 173 may be shipped as Type A package. Type A packaging must
withstand normal conditions of transport, be adequate to prevent loss or dispersal of the
radioactive contents, and maintain its radiation shielding ability. An Industrial Package,
IP-2, meets the requirements for a Type A package used for solid material and an IP-3 meets
the requirements for liquids.
DOT regulation 49 CFR 178.350 specifies the requirements for a Type A package which
includes some additional design specifications, e.g., no dimension less than 4 inches (10 cm),
and performance testing, e.g., dropping and stacking. The packaging is self-approved by the
manufacturer and assigned a model or identification number. Documentation supporting the
tests and evaluations accomplished to comply with DOT 7A specifications must be retained
by the manufacturer and the user when the user is not the manufacturer. Type A packaging
is typically a fiber box, wooden box, or steel drum.
Type B Quantities: Radioactive quantities exceeding the A1 or A2 values must be shipped
in a Type B, or other specified package, designed and constructed to withstand both normal
and hypothetical accident conditions of transport. Type B packaging is very durable and
typically consists of a steel outer drum with an inner containment vessel protected by thermal
and shock insulation and must be approved (issued a Certificate-of-Compliance) by the NRC
or other approved agency.
Low Specific Activity (LSA) material presents a reduced hazard because the radioactivity
concentration and the total radioactivity in a package is limited. This category is primarily
for natural radionuclides, mill tailings, contaminated soil, rubble, and activated material with
radioactivity distributed throughout the material. If LSA material is shipped as exclusive
use, it may be packaged in a strong, tight, container.
Surface Contaminated Object (SCO) is solid material that is not itself radioactive, but has
radioactivity on its surface and is not worth the expense of decontaminating. If SCO material
is shipped as exclusive use, it may be packaged in a durable plastic/poly material. The
conveyance may be the package for LSA and SCO shipments.
Empty packages may be shipped containing some contamination and radiation from residual
radioactivity if EMPTY labels are applied.
10.2.2

Radiation and Contamination Limits

Radiation level limits depend on the transportation category, the type of packaging, and the
method / mode of transportation of the radioactive material. The limits are specified in 49 CFR
173 and 10 CFR 71. The generally applicable limits are:
The dose rate at any point on contact with any packaging less than Type A shall not exceed
0.5 mrem/h (0.005 mSv/h).
The dose rate on contact with a Type A packaging shall not exceed 200 mrem/h (2 mSv/h)
and the rate at 1 meter from any point on the surface of the package shall not exceed
10 mrem/h (0.10 mSv/h).
Removable contamination averaged over 300 cm2 of the packaging surface at the time of
shipment shall not exceed 22 dpm/cm2 (0.4 Bq/cm2 ) for beta-gamma emitting radionuclides

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and low toxicity alpha emitters; and 2 dpm/cm2 (0.04 Bq/cm2 ) for all other alpha emitting radionuclides. Low toxicity alpha emitters are natural and depleted uranium, natural
thorium, uranium-235, uranium-238, thorium-232, thorium-228, or thorium-230 contained in
ores or tailings and alpha emitters with a half-life of less than 10 days.
Table 62: Activity Limits for Excepted Quantities (173.425)
Nature of Contents

Instrument or Article

Package Limits*

Material Package
Limits*

102 x A1
102 x A2

A1
A2

103 x A1
103 x A2

Solids:
Special Form
Other Form
Liquids:
Tritiated Water:
<0.0037 Tbq/L (<0.1 Ci/L)
0.0037 - 0.037 TBq/L
(0.1 - 1.0 Ci/L)
>0.037 TBq/L
(>1.0 Ci/L)
Other Liquids
Gases:
Tritium**
Special Form
Other Form
10.2.3

37 Tbq / 1000 Ci
3.7 Tbq / 100 Ci
0.037 Tbq / 1.0 Ci
103 x A2

101 x A2

104 x A2

2 102 x A2
103 x A1
103 x A2

2 101 x A2
102 x A1
102 x A2

2 102 x A2
103 x A1
103 x A2

Transport Index

Another transportation safety regulation applies to the Transport Index of packages in a shipment.
The transportation index (TI) is the highest radiation dose rate, measured in terms of mrem/ h
(but without the mrem/ h units), at 1 meter from any point on the surface of the package. The
TI is rounded up to the nearest tenth value and values less than 0.05 are recorded as zero (0). The
TI limits apply to non-exclusive use vehicles, aircraft, ships, and railways. For those modes, the
TI is limited to:
10 for any package shipped by other than passenger carrying aircraft.
3 for any package transported by passenger carrying aircraft.
10.2.4

Receiving and Opening Packages

Procedure requirements for receiving and opening packages are contained in 10 CFR 20 and 10
CFR 71 and include:
Establish and maintain written procedures for receiving and safely opening packages and
ensure that they are followed.
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Arrange to receive the package expeditiously when the carrier offers for delivery if >Type A
quantity.
Monitor as soon as practicable (within 3 working hours) of receipt at the facility for external
contamination on any labeled package, unless gas or special form, and for external radiation if
>Type A. Contamination and radiation surveys must be conducted on any damaged package
known to contain radioactive material. If levels exceed limits, notify NRC Operations Office
and the last carrier. Also, notify the NRC (usually a regional office) if package does not
appear to meet minimum requirements.
10.2.5

Manifest and Hazardous Material Documents

Each radioactive material (other than Excepted Packages) shipment must be properly documented
in a Bill of Lading or other form of radioactive/hazardous material shipping papers which include
the information required by 49 CFR 172.201, 172.202, and 172.203. An example of a Straight Bill
of Lading is shown in Figure-33. The required information includes:
DOT proper shipping name, Class 7 and UN hazard number.
Package type, identification, radionuclide(s) and activities in Bq and the physical and chemical form of the material, unless Special Form and RQ for reportable quantity if an EPA
reportable hazard quantity is present.
Category of the labels applied to each package and the Transport Index.
Certification statement that material is properly classified, described, marked, labeled, and
packaged.
Emergency response telephone and guide number(s) and statement regarding applications of
placards.
Proper shipping names, hazard class, and UN numbers for radioactive materials are listed
in table in 49 CFR 172.101. For example, the excepted package for instruments or articles, is
Radioactive material, excepted package - instruments or articles, class 7, UN 2911. A sample of
the hazardous material table from 49 CFR 172.101 is shown in Table-66 Page 275.
10.2.6

Package Marking, Labels, and Vehicle Placards

Marking is prescribed information on RAM packages other than labels. Packages not exempt or
excepted from marking must be marked, as listed below, to show:
UN hazard identification number on all and proper shipping name unless excepted package.
Name and address of consignor and consignee.
Package type (e.g., IP-2, Type A), model or identification number and USA unless excepted
package.
This Side (or End) Up with arrows if package contains a liquid.
RQ if a reportable quantity of an EPA hazardous substance
Gross weight if >110 lb.

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Figure 33: Example Straight Bill of Lading

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Table 63: Radioactive Material Labeling Criteria

Label

(49 CFR 172.403)

Radiation Level (RL)
Surface Radiation Level

Transport Index (TI)

Radiation Level at 1 meter

White I

Does not exceed 0.5 mrem/hr

Not Applicable

Yellow II

Does not exceed 50 mrem/hr

AND

Does not exceed 1 mrem/hr

Yellow III

Exceeds 50 mem/hr

OR

Exceeds 1 mrem/hr

Radiation Level (RL) at Package Surface (mrem/hour)

Labeling is required for each package of radioactive material, unless exempt or excepted to
alert people of the presence of radioactive material and possible radiation exposure. Two correct
labels are required, each on opposite sides of the package. Figure-34, shows the three label classes.
The package label determination criteria is Table-63.
Excepted packaging do not require labels, but are required on the outside of the inner package
(outer package for international shipments) to be marked Radioactive.
Placards and their placement on vehicles are the responsibility of the carrier. However, under
the hazardous material regulations, you are required to offer the appropriate placard whenever
presenting a package requiring Radioactive Yellow-III labels. Placards are required on all four
sides of a vehicle.

10.3

Radioactive Waste Disposal

Radioactive waste (RadWaste or RW) transfer is a common type of RAM shipment and is a concern
of many licensees due to the cost and administrative work. RW includes solid, liquid, or gaseous
waste forms.
10.3.1

Solid Radioactive Waste Disposal

The largest variety of radioactive waste products encountered are solid radioactive waste forms.
This includes contaminated paper, rubber gloves, glassware, animal carcasses, tools, plastics, protective clothing and encapsulated sources, check sources and other solid forms. Solid wastes must be
separated into combustibles and non-combustibles and non-radioactive waste should be segregated
from radioactive waste to minimize the RAM disposal volume and cost.
Special requirements apply to the disposal of solid waste that includes transuranic radioisotopes,
material that may turn into a gas or liquid, and some biologically important forms.
Solid waste is usually bagged, compressed, and placed in suitable wood or metal containers
for disposal. Combustible solid waste may (if licensed) be disposed of through incineration and
short-lived waste may be bagged, packaged, and stored in an acceptable decay location.

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Figure 34: Radioactive Material Shipping Labels

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10.3.2

Radioactive Material Transportation and Disposal Regulation - 10

Liquid Radioactive Waste Disposal

The treatment of liquid radioactive waste forms is generally more expensive than that of solid
wastes. The treatment of liquid waste leads to residues which are converted to solid waste since
disposal sites have stringent restrictions on accepting liquid waste forms. Liquid wastes require
different treatments depending on their pH, organic compound contents, and types of radionuclides.
Some liquids can be treated by decay while others have half-lives that are too long. Evaporation
may be effective for soluble forms of activated metals, but not for radioactive gases in solution.
Often, a combination of treatments such as delay to allow decay, settling, filtering, and evaporations
is required. Limited quantities of radioactive liquids may be diluted and discharged to sewer
systems (See 10 CFR 20.2003) as long as the:
Material is readily soluble or dispersible biological material, and
Quantity released in a month divided by the water volume discharged in a month does not
exceed the value(s) in Appendix B Table 3, and
Total quantity of radioactive material released into sewer in a year does not exceed 1 Ci
5 Ci 3H, and 1 Ci of all other materials combined.

14

C,

Direct human excreta is exempt from 20.2003 requirements. Disposal without regard to the
radioactivity is permitted by 20.2005 for the following:
Liquid scintillation samples with le 0.05 Ci/g of either 3H of
dispose where it could be used as human or animal food).

14

C in animal tissue (cannot

but records of the disposal must be retained indefinitely.

10.3.3

Airborne Radioactive Waste

Gaseous radioactive wastes include the radioactive gases, vapors or fumes produced or released
during work with radioactive materials, medical diagnostics and treatments, and nuclear reactors.
Ventilation systems with activated charcoal filters, silica gel and other absorbing materials have
been used for removing radioactive gases such as iodine and tritium from air. Delay lines and tanks
are used to permit the decay of short lived radionuclides such as krypton. For many installations,
the airborne radioactivity is filtered through HEPA filters to remove the particulates and then
diluted with large volumes of environmental air prior to discharge from stacks.
10.3.4

Radioactive Waste Disposal Sites

The disposal of radioactive material is presently complicated by interfacing regulations and its
future is uncertain due to reluctance of states to accept radioactive waste (radwaste) for disposal.
Low Level Waste (LLW) is the most common class of radioactive waste generated and disposal.
LLW disposal is in a state of flux and controversy with disposal costs skyrocketing. The Low Level
Waste Policy Act of 1980 and Amendment of 1985, divided the country into about 14 compacts,
each tasked with developing a LLW facility. However, states have been unwilling to host a disposal
site so the plan is years behind schedule. Currently, the only compact LLW facility is at Hanford,
WA. Non-compact facilities operate at Barnwell, SC and Clive, UT, and one at Andrews, TX. The
LLW compact situation is shown in Figure-35.

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Figure 35: Low Level Radioactive Waste Compacts

The NRC regulation, 10 CFR Part 61, Licensing Requirements for Land Disposal of Radioactive Waste, classifies radioactive waste (See 10 CFR 61.55 Table 1 and 10 CFR 61.55 Table 2) as
follows:

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Table 64: Waste Classification Tables

(10 CFR 61.55 Table 1)
Radionuclide
Concentration (curies/cubic meter)
14
C
8
14
80
C in activated metal
59
Ni in activated metal
220
94
Nb in activated metal
0.2
99
Tc
3
129
I
0.08
Alpha emitting transuranic nuclides with half-life
100 (*)
> 5 years
241
Pu
3,500 (*)
242
20,000 (*)
Cm
(*) Units are nanocuries per gram

Class A

Class B

Class C

Long Lived radioactive waste segregated from other classes unless site meets
stringent stability requirements of another waste class. If the isotope is not
listed in 10 CFR 61.55 Table 1 or 10 CFR 61.55 Table 2, or it is 0.1 of 10
CFR 61.55 Table 1, or < 10 CFR 61.55 Table 2, column 1 it is Class A.
Short lived radioactive waste which is > 0.1 of 10 CFR 61.55 Table 1, but
10 CFR 61.55 Table 1, or exceeds the values listed in 10 CFR 61.55 Table 2,
column 1, but is not > than column 2 values it is Class B.
Long lived wastes which is > 0.1 times the value listed in 10 CFR 61.55 Table
1, but is 10 CFR 61.55 Table 1 values, or it is > 10 CFR 61.55 Table 2,
column 2, but not > Column 3 values it is Class C. If it is > 10 CFR 61.55
Table 1 or 10 CFR 61.55 Table 2 column 3, it is not currently acceptable for
near-surface burial.

General stability and package requirements from 10 CFR 61.56, that apply to all waste classifications:
Cardboard of fiberboard packaging is not acceptable.
Liquid waste is solidified or packed in sufficient absorbent material to absorb twice the liquid
volume.
Solidified liquid waste can contain no more than 1% liquid by volume for high integrity
containers and 0.5% for normal containers.
Waste cannot be explosive or reactive under normal conditions and shall not be pyrophoric.
Waste must not contain or produce gasses in quantities harmful to persons handling the
waste material.
Gaseous waste must contain no more than 100 curies per container.
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Table 65: Waste Classification Tables

(10 CFR 61.55 Table 2)
Radionuclide
Concentration (curies/cubic meter)
Col. 1 Col. 2
Col. 3
Total of all nuclides with < 5 year half-life
700
(*)
(*)
3
H
40
(*)
(*)
60
Co
700
(*)
(*)
63
3.5
70
700
Ni
63
35
700
7,000
Ni in activated metal
90
0.04
150
7,000
Sr
137
1
44
4,600
Cs
(*) No limits for these radionuclides in Class B or C. Shall be Class B unless other
materials determine waste to be Class C

Waste containing other hazardous materials must be treated to reduce the hazard to the
maximum extent possible.
LLW disposal is complicated by other hazardous material disposal regulations such as EPA
regulations in 40 CFR 140 through 300. The regulations were significantly amended by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1972 and enacted through the late 1980s. Prior
to RCRA, radioactive waste was a separate hazardous class required to meet only the regulations
applying to radioactive materials. Following RCRA, any hazardous waste prepared for disposal,
must meet the most restrictive requirement(s) for the most restrictive hazard contained in the
waste.

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Table 66: Excerpt from 49 CFR 172.101

Hazardous materials descriptions
and proper shipping names

Hazard
class or
division

ID
Numbers

Label
Codes

Radioactive material,
excepted package, package
articles manufactured from
natural uranium or depleted
uranium or natural thorium

UN2909

Radioactive material,
excepted package empty
packaging.

Radioactive material,
excepted package instruments
or articles.

Exceptions

NonBulk

Bulk

None

422,
426

422,
426

422,
426

UN2908

Empty

422,
428

422,
428

422,
428

UN2911

None

422,
424.

422,
424.

.......

Radioactive material,
excepted package limited
quantity of material.

UN2910

None

422,
422.

422,
422.

422,
422.

Radioactive material, low

specific activity (LSA-I) non
fissile or fissile-excepted

UN2912

A56,
T5,
TP4,
W7,

421, 422,
428.

427

427

Radioactive material, low

specific activity (LSA-II) non
fissile or fissile-excepted

UN3321

A56,
T5,
TP4,
W7,

421, 422,
428.

427

427

Radioactive material, low

specific activity (LSA-III) non
fissile or fissile-excepted

UN3322

A56,
T5,
TP4,
W7,

421, 422,
428.

427

427

Radioactive material, surface

contaminated objects (SCO-I
or SCO-II) non fissile or
fissile-excepted

UN2913

A56

421, 422,
428.

427

427

Radioactive material, Type A

package, fissile non-special
form

UN3327

A56,
W7,
W8

453

417

417

Radioactive material, Type A

package, non-special form,
non fissile or fissile-excepted

UN2915

A56,
W7,
W8

........

415,
418

415,
419

Radioactive material, Type A

package, special form, non
fissile or fissile-excepted

UN3332

A56,
W7,
W8

.......

415,
476

415,
476

275

Special
Provisions

RSO

Radioactive Material Transportation and Disposal Regulation - 10

RAM Packaging and Shipping Quiz

Determine the minimum packaging requirements and the labels and markings required for the
following RAM shipments:
1. Twenty (20) manufactured shifting levers; each contains 2 curies of tritium gas for illumination; no detectable external radiation on devices.

2. One 0.004 Ci 241Am plated foil source inside a bakelite device; contact external radiation
level less than 0.5 mrem/hour and less than 0.1 mrem/h at 1 meter.

3. One 0.20 Ci 60Co source inside a 4 cm Pb cylinder. Unshielded radiation level at 1 foot from
the source is 285 mrem/h. With source in shield, the shielded maximum radiation level at
package surface is 30 mrem/h and level at 1 meter is 3.5 mrem/h.

276

11

Radiological Emergencies

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11.1

Introduction

A radiological incident may be relatively minor, or it may be extreme enough to be classified as

emergency. The term incident is often used for any radiological problem, unusual occurrence,
off-normal event, and includes an emergency. The category that receives the most attention is the
emergency category. Many of the considerations in preparing for and mitigating an emergency are
applicable, albeit on a smaller level, to incidents not severe enough to be emergencies. Therefore,
much of the discussion in this section addresses emergencies, but the concepts and actions may be
applicable to any incident.

11.2

Responsibilities

Major radiological emergencies in the United States are managed under the Federal Radiological
Emergency Response Plan (FRERP) which may be under the Federal Emergency Management
Agency (FEMA). FRERP designates a Lead Federal Agency responsible for the protection of the
public and environment at the accident site. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is the
lead agency for its licensees, the State for its licensees and registrants, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) for accidents involving unlicensed material and the Department of Energy (DOE)
and the Department of Defense (DOD) for military controlled materials. However, for NRC and
State licensees, the responsibility is passed on to the administrative head of the facility holding
the license or registration. Ultimately, the single person with the most responsibility for the
establishment of emergency preparedness and for directing immediate emergency actions is the one
person assigned overall responsibilities for the safety of operations, the Radiation Safety Officer
(RSO) or other person(s) assigned RSO equivalent duties.

11.3

Assistance

There is a wide variety of emergency response support available, including airborne surveys, medical assistance and dose evaluation, in the event of a major radiological accident. Support capabilities have increased and improved due to the establishment of organizations and procedures for
responding to a radiological terrorist attack. The response teams are operated by various federal
and state government agencies, including the military.
FEMA has the overall authority for response and management of large scale emergencies. They
work with many state and local agencies and have the means for rapid notification of other teams
that may be of assistance.
The DOEs National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) can respond to any type of
radiological accident or incident with seven (7) emergency support asset teams. One is the Radiological Assistance Program (RAP) team which assess the emergency and determines steps to
minimize and end the emergency. Other teams can provide services such as air and ground searches
for radioactivity, tracking airborne radioactive clouds, large scale contamination work, on-scene
monitoring capabilities and medical support.
The EPA also staffs radiological assistance teams, at least one of which is always available and
can reach any location in the U.S. within 24 hours. They can provide complete radioanalytical
and communication support. The NRC maintains two continuously manned emergency response
centers at NRC Headquarters and each NRC region office has a duty officer on call 24 hours a day.

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11.4

Preparedness

How to prevent radiological incidents is well documented, yet accidents still occur despite all that
has been done. To properly deal with emergency situations, at any level, requires both a well
thought out emergency preparedness plan and individuals trained to execute the plan. There is
no substitute for planning for radiation emergencies before the incident occurs and exercising the
plan so workers know what to do.
Emergency planning should consider the following:
Possible accident scenarios.
On-site authority, responsibilities, and procedures.
Appropriate alarms.
Action Levels and Action Guidelines.
Evacuation routes and assembly locations.
Response personnel and organization coordination.
Emergency facilities and equipment.
Radiological assistance.
Required training.
Periodic and unannounced drills.
Plan updating.
Emergency response procedures, training, and drills should emphasize the following:
Protecting personnel.
Controlling and abating the emergency.
Promptly responding to personnel needing attention.
Preventing property damage.
Avoiding action which increases the area of control.
Limiting the extent of radioactive contamination.

11.5

Classification of Incidents

There are a number of different radiological emergency, accident and incident classification or
definition schemes. However, in many cases, the classification is left to the licensee. RSO should
select classification and definitions that are easy to understand, especially by personnel expected
to promptly respond. A few classifications are discussed in this section.

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11.5.1

Classification by Location

Radiological emergencies can be classified according to where response action must be taken; e.g.,
on-site and/or off-site. An on-site emergency is one for which all dose, damage, responsive action,
and other concerns are within the boundaries of the facility or licensee controlled property. If the
accident or its consequences occur beyond that boundary, it is classified as an off-site incident. An
accident could occur on-site and have off-site consequences. Location classification is often used
with another classification scheme to specify the emergency location.
An off-site accident is usually more difficult to control because there are less response resources
readily available and it may well involve other agencies (e.g., DOT, State Police, members of the
public, news media).
11.5.2

Classification by Radiological Condition

A variety of condition classification schemes can be used to inform personnel of the type of emergency. Frequently used classifications are direct (or external) radiation, contamination, airborne, and waterborne. Further details can be provided through a variety of combinations, such
as direct radiation / non-contamination or airborne contamination.
11.5.3

Classification by Degree of Severity

This type of classification required by the NRC for commercial nuclear power plants, fuel facilities,
research and test reactors and by DOE for many larger facilities. It is based on a classification
system developed jointly by FEMA and the NRC, (NUREG-0654 / FEMA-REP-1) and is intended
to activate varying degrees of response, both on-site and off-site depending on the seriousness of
the situation (Classification). The four classes of nuclear emergencies are:
Unusual Event: Can range from a special operation to a malfunction of equipment resulting
in loss of full control and rarely requires any action by other than those on the scene.
Alert: Alerts personnel that the potential exists for a significant problem or may include an
exposure over a pre-established control level such as 1 rem. Rarely requires any action other
than those on the scene but alerts other appropriate personnel that they should be prepared
for a response.
Site Emergency: This activates the on-site emergency response team and may activate
portions of some off-site response organizations such as medical support. Some plant areas
may be evacuated and most work will be quickly placed in safe conditions.
General Emergency: This is the highest level and generally activates all on-site and offsite response organizations; may include State and Federal response; general evacuation of
the site is implemented.

11.6

Incident Phases

Incidents tend to pass through four phases, the first two of which are the most important for
minimizing the impact of the incident. Planning, training, and drills should especially emphasize
correct, prompt action for the first two phases.
The Occurrence Phase is the first and shortest phase of most incidents and accidents. This is
when prompt and correct actions by personnel can have the most impact for limiting the accident
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consequences and preventing an emergency. Accident scenarios for procedure development and
training should realistically consider the occurrence phase and personnel should be drilled on the
immediate actions to take during this phase.
Personnel, especially those working with the radiation source or material and radiological control staff, need to be well trained in how to prevent accidents and the immediate action to take
when one does occur. Keep in mind that often the best action is to stop the exposure as quickly
as possible by evacuating the area, shutting off or stopping the exposure if that can be easily done
while leaving. Training should include monitoring the time taken to accomplish the occurrence
phase actions. In many cases, after the fact, personnel have grossly over-estimated the time they
were exposed or how long it took them to accomplish an action.
The Emergency Phase is also relatively short in time span. It includes the prompt actions
taken to secure the area, account for personnel, and initiate immediate actions to keep the severity
of the accident from increasing.
Again, the most likely personnel to initiate emergency phase action are those at the accident
scene; a strong argument for emphasizing emergency phase action in the training of personnel
who use radioactive material and radiation sources and any other personnel likely to be in the
immediate area. The success of emergency phase actions depends on a well exercised plan with
concise objectives and flexibility.
The Recovery and Restoration Phases do not generally require immediate actions and
they may involve the coordination of many groups from within the facility or company and even
assistance from outside agencies. Public relations begin with the recovery phase. Emergency plans
for these phases need to clearly assign responsibilities for coordination of efforts and for leading
the various tasks such as dose assessment, public information, control of access into the facility
and the accident scene, and documentation and reporting of the situation. A designated control
center should be established for directing recovery phase operations.
The restoration phase often takes the most time. It involves the cleanup activities at the
accident scene as well as on going medical treatment, re-evaluation of doses, determination of
releases, and continuing interface with outside agencies and public relations. This phase may
involve obtaining permission from the NRC or state to resume operations. Realistic training for
these last two phases is time consuming and is often limited to brief discussions of actions.

11.7

Incident Response

The first steps taken during the occurrence and emergency phase in an incident may very well be
required by any worker at the scene. Therefore, all workers likely to be at the scene of a radiological
emergency should receive training in the initial response to an emergency. Some specific initial
response guidance that is applicable to most radiological incidents is shown below.
Reasonable lifesaving first aid is the First Priority.
Take safe steps to minimize the radiation hazard.
Evacuate personnel to a safe area
Trigger alarms, call for help, announce emergency.
Isolate area, establish controls and control point.
Obtain instruments and other needed equipment.
Separate injured, contaminated and exposed personnel for evaluation.
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Assign available personnel to assist with scene control and provide assistance where needed.
Some additional details regarding response are provided in the following sections.
11.7.1

Scene Isolation

Scene Isolation is important for preventing unauthorized (and perhaps unwanted) personnel from
entering the scene and to control personnel leaving the accident scene. Although it is important
to keep out unauthorized personnel and those who cannot prove assistance, it may be equally
important to isolate the accident scene to assure that personnel leaving the scene receive appropriate care and evaluations. If possible, establish only one control point through which all access
is controlled. Provide enough personnel at this point to ensure that individuals are checked and
segregated, as appropriate, for control and documentation of contamination dose injuries, and
time/location within the scene.
11.7.2

Radiation and Medical Evaluations

Personnel leaving the accident scene, especially those present during the occurrence and emergency
phases should have their dosimeters checked for dose. Any dose in excess of 5 times the annual
limit for that particular dose for example, might be considered as a screening level. Personnel
exceeding the screening level should be seen by medical personnel who are trained in radiation
medicine or the treatment of radiation exposure victims and placed under observations for a few
days.
If medical personnel are not on site, arrangements should be made to ensure the prompt arrival
of medically trained personnel. Based on the recommendations of the medical responder, the
personnel at the accident scene control point must have the authority to waiver radiological controls
to ensure prompt treatment of any life-threatening situation. Site personnel, with instruments
and other materials, should escort the victim to provide the necessary controls and assist with
contamination control, if applicable, at the treatment scene.
11.7.3

Personnel Decontamination

Decontamination is performed to minimize the spread of radioactive contamination. The procedure, which is applicable to most accidents, is to monitor personnel upon arrival at the control point
to determine the presence and extent of contamination and isolate the contamination. Monitoring
should be accomplished with a sensitive beta-gamma radiation survey instrument and contaminated articles should be removed and contained. Emergency plans should consider the need for
providing, clean clothing at the control point for personnel to wear in place of contaminated
items.
If the skin is contaminated, the person should be taken (using contamination controls) to a
decontamination station. Initial decontamination routines should be limited to the use of water
and mild soap. Nothing should be done that is likely to break the skin. Any decontamination
routine beyond simple washing should be done under the direction of medical personnel. Samples
of contaminated material and the washing should be collected to help determine the level of
contamination and the resulting dose to the individual.
A useful reference for treating contaminated individuals is NCRP Report No. 161, Management of Persons Contaminated with Radionuclides. It provides management guidance for

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monitoring, decontamination and for the use of diuretics, chelating, and prophylactics when internal contamination is involved.
11.7.4

Notifications

The first notification of a radiological incident or emergency may come from word of mouth, an
announcement, phone message, or alarm. Personnel must be trained concerning whom to notify,
how to make notifications, and what information is necessary. Simple notification steps can be
posted in work areas, near phones, and provided to workers. Prompt collection of information
required for reports can be aided by having a standard form available. Real time digital recordings
may be beneficial for event reconstruction and ascertainment during event conditions.

11.8

Review of Radiological Incidents

A review of some past radiological incidents, including those classified as accidents and emergencies,
by the Radiation Emergency Assistance Center / Training Site (REAC/TS) provides insight into
how some incidents occurred and were made worse by inappropriate actions. The review of a
period of about 50 years showed there were about 250 accidents in the U.S., resulting in about 30
deaths or an average of about 5 accidents and 0.5 fatalities per year. Although there is information
available for accidents in the rest of the world, the data is not considered to be complete and the
numbers may be low by perhaps several factors.
Most of the accidents involve radiation devices such as sealed sources and x-ray producing
equipment. The most common causes of all radiation accidents have been:
Lack of adequate training.
Failure to follow required procedures.
Failure to conduct an adequate survey.
Failure to believe readings, indications, or alarms.
By-passing safety interlocks.
Lack of supervisory involvement or review.
A few accidents which exemplify the common accident causes are summarized:

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1990

An individual in Israel was operating an equipment sterilizer containing

about 250,000 curies of 60Co. The equipment transport device jammed and
the operator retracted the source. A faulty limit switch indicated that the
source was retracted, however the sterilizing area gamma alarm continued to
ALARM. The operator decided the limit switch was better than the gamma
alarm so over-rode the entry interlock and entered the sterilizing area, taking
an electronic survey instrument that did not have batteries! He cleared the
jam in about 2 minutes and left the area.
Almost immediately he noticed that his eyes were burning and he started
vomiting within about 5 minutes and reported to his supervisor when diarrhea
started in another 5 minutes. Within 2 hours he was hospitalized, in intense
pain, and in the Acute Radiation Syndrome (Gastrointestinal). His whole body
dose was estimated to be about 2000 rem and he died in less than two weeks.
1991
An individual in Maryland was conducting repairs on a 3 MeV, 25 ma,
electron accelerator which was shutting down on over temperature. After the
repairs, he operated the accelerator at maximum power for about 10 minutes
and then shut off the cathode filament supply and went in to check for overheating.
The unit had 4 safety interlocks: Two were not functional (one for several
weeks and one more recently), the repairman by-passed one with a jumper and
he ducked under the last one, a photo beam.
While checking for heat, he placed his hand in the x-ray beam, receiving an
estimated 6000 rads to his fingers. Within one day his hands started burning
and during the next few months he lost 4 fingers from his hand. He also received
radiation damage to his head and feet.
1992
An 82 year old woman was being treated with a sealed 4.3 curies, 192Ir
source for stomach / lower GI cancer at a Pennsylvania hospital. The source
became disconnected as it was being removed and remained inside the catheter,
which was left in the patient because she was scheduled to receive continuing
treatment.
The medical technician did not survey the patient or the source holder
after removing the source and disregarded the radiation area monitoring
alarm which went off as the patient was wheeled from the room because it had
a history of giving false alarms.
The patient was returned to the nursing home and the tube with the source
inside fell out 3.5 days later, but no one at the nursing home had any knowledge
that it was radioactive, so it was discarded with other biological waste. The
source set off an alarm at the waste facility the next day which triggered the
investigation.
The patient died 1 day later from an estimated lower body dose of 800,000
rem. The dose estimated for 80 visiting family, friends, and nursing home
workers ranged from 0.010 rem to 25 rem and up to 150 rem to the hands of
workers who bathed and treated the patient.

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2000

Two engineers made beam alignment repairs and adjustment to a 12 MeV

research linear accelerator in Utah and then started the unit. Two of the
accelerator area entrance control interlocks were not functioning and the other
2 were electrically by-passed by the engineers so they could physically check
the alignment during operation. They were not wearing the required TLDs
and alarming dosimeters.
A few days later the fingers of one of the engineers became so painful he
reported what they had done and wondered if radiation could be the cause
of his pain. REAC/TS estimated their whole body doses to be between 30
and 170 rem and the dose to the hand of the one worker to be about 12,000
to 20,000 rem. Seven years later he had gone through several right extremity
finger and thumb amputations and still cannot work or drive because he must
frequently take morphine and oxycontin to reduce his pain.

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Table 68: Major Radiation Accidents Human Experience 1944 - 1993*

Location
US
Non U.S.
Total

No of Accidents No of Persons Involved Significant Exposures**

232
1,305
777
132
131,948
2,030
364
133,253
2,807
* REAC/TS Radiation Accident Registries
** Over NRC/DOE Dose Limit

Fatalities
30
86
116

Table 69: Summary of Listed Radiological Accidents / Incidents by Region

Region

Incidents

Fatalities

Injuries

U.S.S.R / former Soviet Union

United States
Asia
Latin American and Canada
Europe
Africa
Australia and Oceania
TOTAL

202
56
43
25
63
9
1
399

102
42
15
36
29
12
0
236

827
312
178
152
106
51
2
1,628

Total Casualties
929
354
193
188
135
63
2
1,864

Some REAC/TS compiled radiation accident information are provided in the following Tables.

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Table 70: Summary of Listed Radiological Accidents / Incidents by Country

Country
Algeria
Argentina
Australia
Bangladesh
Belarus
Belgium
Brazil
Bulgaria
Canada
Chile
China (ROC)
China (PRC)
Costa Rica
Czechoslovakia
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Estonia
France
Germany (FRG)
Germany (DGR)
Georgia
Hungary
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Italy
Ivory Coast/Senegal
Japan
Kazakhstan
Korea (ROK)
Mexico
Morocco
Netherlands

Incidents
1
11
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
19
1
4
1
1
1
1
9
11
10
3
3
9
2
1
1
1
2
1
4
1
1
2
1
1

288

Fatalities
2
1
0
0
1
0
5
1
0
0
0
8
7
0
0
2
1
1
2
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
2
0
0
5
8
0

Injuries
6
13
2
1
0
2
23
0
1
4
1
115
81
4
1
5
2
4
24
14
11
14
3
16
2
1
1
0
1
4
22
1
1
5
3
1

Radiological Emergencies - 11

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Table 70: Summary of Listed Radiological Accidents Continued ....

Country
Nigeria
Norway
Panama
Peru
Poland
Russia (Post-Soviet)
South Africa
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Thailand
Tunisia
Turkey
United Kingdom
United States
U.S.S.R.
Venezuela
Vietnam
Yugoslavia
TOTAL

Incidents
1
1
1
3
1
28
3
2
1
2
1
1
1
12
56
168
1
1
1
399

289

Fatalities
0
1
17
0
0
10
0
18
0
1
3
0
0
3
42
89
0
0
1
236

Injuries
26
0
11
10
5
37
6
10
1
3
7
1
10
22
312
771
1
1
5
1,628

Radiological Emergencies - 11

RSO

Figure 36: Major Radiation Accidents - by device

290

Welle & Welle Drilling Co.

Company plans to set up well logging operations using radioactive
material as outlined below and has asked you to outline the radiation
safety program required for an NRC license.
Five (5) 2 curie special form Cesium-137 (gamma) sources and five (5)
20 curie special form Americium-Beryllium (neutron) sources.
Three (3) Welle Logging Rigs, three (3) well logging supervisors, and
ten (10) well logging technicians/engineers. One (1) engineer and one
(1) technician primarily work at the main shop repairing and maintaining equipment, including replacing and testing logging device detectors.
Others may be with rigs anywhere in the continental United States.
One (1) General Foreman over well loggers.
The source containers meet DOT/NRC Type B packaging and shipping
requirements.
The unshielded / unpackaged radiation levels at meter from the sources
are 700 mrem per hour for each Cesium-137 source and 70 mrem per
hour from each neutron source. The package contact readings for each
package with source inside is 30 mrem per hour and 5 mrem per hour for
the gamma and neutron sources respectively and the readings at 1 meter
from each package are 0.8 mrem per hour and less than 0.1 mrem per
hour respectively.

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12

References

This page intentionally left blank

References - 12

RSO

RadSafe
http://health.phys.iit.edu/cgi-bin/mailman/listinfo/radsafe
AMRSO Academic and Medical Radiation Safety Officer Group
http://www.mcw.edu/amrso.htm
RSO Toolbox
http://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/rsotoolbox.htm
Agencies
Department of Energy
http://www.doe.gov
The Office of Health, Safety and Security
http://www.hss.doe.gov
Department of Transportation
http://www.dot.gov
Environmental Protection Agency
http://www.epa.gov/radiation
Food and Drug Administration
http://www.fda.gov
Government Printing Office
http://www.gpo.gov
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
http://www.osha.gov
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
http://www.nrc.gov
Professional Societies
American Association of Physicists in Medicine
http://www.aapm.org
American Nuclear Society
http://www.ans.org
Health Physics Society
http://www.hps.org
National Registry of Radiation Protection Technologies
http://www.nrrpt.org

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Glossary, Initialisms, Abbreviations, and Elements This section contains a glossary of

terms normally associated with radiation protection programs, a list of initialisms and abbreviations, and an alphabetical listing of elements. Some initialisms and acronyms are so frequently
used that they have become quasi terms. They have been included in both the glossary list and
the initialism list.
Glossary
Activity: shortened terminology for radioactivity
Absorbed Dose: Energy imparted to matter by ionizing radiation per unit mass of irradiated
material at the location of interest. The units of absorbed dose are the rad (1 rad = 100 ergs
per gram or 0.01 joule per kilogram) and the gray (1 Gy = 1 joule per kilogram or 100 rad).
Activity Median Aerodynamic Diameter (AMAD): Diameter of a unit density sphere
with the same terminal settling velocity in air as that of the aerosol particle whose activity is
the median for the entire aerosol.
Air Monitoring: Collection (including continuous) of an air sample and the subsequent analysis
of the amount of radioactive material present.
Airborne Radioactivity: Radioactive material, above natural background, in any chemical or
physical form that is present in ambient air.
Airborne Radioactivity Area: Area where the measured concentration of airborne radioactivity, above natural background, exceeds 1 DAC or where an individual could receive in excess
of 0.6% ALI or 12 DAC-hrs in a week (NRC definition).
ALARA: As Low As Reasonably Achievable. It is a requirement of current radiation protection
efforts to maintain exposures (individual and collective) to the work force and to members of
the public as low as reasonable, taking into account social, economic, technical, practical, and
public policy considerations.
Annual Dose Equivalent (HT ): Summation over a period of one year of the products of the
absorbed dose in tissue, quality factor, and all other necessary modifying factors at the location
of interest. The units of dose equivalent are the rem and the sievert.
Annual Effective Dose Equivalent (HE ): Summary over a period of one year of the products
of the dose equivalent to the organ or tissue (HT ) and the weighting factor (WT ) applicable
to each body organ or tissue irradiated (HE = WT HT ). It is the sum of the effective dose
equivalent from both external and internal irradiation received in a calendar year. The annual
effective dose equivalent is expressed in the units of rem or sievert (Sv).

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Annual Limit on Intake (ALI): Quantity of a single radionuclide that, if inhaled or ingested
in one year, would irradiate a person, represented by Reference Man (ICRP Publication 23) to
the limiting value for control of occupational exposure. The ALI is a fundamental limit in
regulations and is based on a CEDE 5 rem for stochastic effects and 50 rem for non-stochastic
effects.
Assimilation: A synonym for Intake.
Assessment: Evaluation or appraisal of a process, program, or activity to estimate its acceptability.
Becquerel (Bq): International System (SI) unit for the activity of radioactive material. One
Bq is that quantity of radioactive material in which one atom is transformed per second or
undergoes one disintegration per second.
Bioassay: Measurement of the amount or the concentration of radioactive material in the body
or in biological material excreted or removed from the body. This process includes whole body
and organ counting as well as urine, fecal, and other specimen analysis.
Biokinetic Model: Series of mathematical relationships formulated to describe the intake, uptake, and retention of a radionuclide in various organs of the body and the subsequent excretion
from the body by various pathways.
Breathing Zone Air Sampler: Air sampler that draws air close enough to the nose so as to
be considered representative of the air a person breathes. Usually collected at a height of 1 to
2 meters and from the general volume of air breathed by the worker.
Burden: Activity of a radionuclide in a systematically fed organ or tissue, the lung, or in the
whole body excluding the activity at the entry site and in the lymph system.
Collective Dose: Calculated by summing the dose to each person in the group of interest. It is
measured in units of person-rem.
Committed Dose Equivalent (HT,50 ): Calculated dose equivalent to tissue or organ over a
50-year period after an intake of a radionuclide into the body. It does not include contributions
from external dose. Committed dose equivalent is expressed in the same units as dose equivalent.
Committed Effective Dose Equivalent (HE,50 ): Sum of the committed dose equivalents to
various tissues in the body, each multiplied by its weighting factor (WT ) (HE,50 = WT HT,50 ).
Committed effective dose equivalent is expressed in the same units as dose equivalent and does
not include contribution from external sources.
Confirmed Deposition: Radioactive material in the body verified by bioassay measurements.

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Continuous Air Monitoring: Continuously sampling and measuring the levels of airborne
radioactive material on a real time basis and with the capability to alarm at present level(s).
Cumulated Activity: Integral activity of a source organ over a specified period of time.
DAC-hours: Time-integrated exposure to airborne radioactivity. The product of exposure in
DACs and exposure time in hours.
Decision Level (LC ): Amount of material in a sample corresponding to a 5% chance of a false
positive. If the result of an analysis is above the decision level, the material is deemed to be
present.
Decontamination: Process of removing radioactive matter from personnel, equipment, or areas.
Derived Air Concentration (DAC): Concentration of a radionuclide in air that, if breathed
over the period of a work year, would result in the annual limit on intake (ALI) for that
radionuclide being reached. The DAC is the quantity obtained by dividing the ALI for any
given radionuclide y the volume of air breathed by an average worker during a working year
(2400 cubic meters). A derived value and not a fundamental limit.
Detection Level/Limit: General term relating to the smallest amount of material detectable
as a function of the measurement method and instrument background.
Direct (In-Vivo) Bioassay/Radiobioassay: Assessment of radioactive material in the body
by detection of radiations emitted by the material.
Disintegration per minute (second) dpm (dps): Rate of emission by radioactive material
as determined by correcting the counts per minute (second) observed by an appropriate detector
for background, efficiency, and geometric factors associated with the instrumentation.
Dose: Amount of energy deposited in body tissue due ionizing radiation exposure. Various
technical terms are used to describe the differing interactions of radiation with tissue as well
as to assist in the management of personnel exposure to radiation. (See absorbed dose, dose
equivalent, and effective dose equivalent for some examples.)
Dose Assessment: Process of determining radiological dose and uncertainty included in the
dose estimate, through the use of exposure scenarios, bioassay results, monitoring data, source
term information, and pathway analysis.
Dose Equivalent: Absorbed dose multiplied by the quality factor for the types of radiation
absorbed. The units of dose equivalent are the rem and the sievert (Sv). It is assumed in
radiation protection that 1 rem (or 0.01 Sv) of any type of radiation will produce the same
biological damage as 1 rem (or 0.01 Sv) from any other type of radiation.

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Effective Dose Equivalent (HE ): Sum of the weighted dose equivalents to all significantly
irradiated organs (HE = WT HT ). The units of effective dose equivalent are the same as those
for dose equivalent. An effective dose equivalent of 1 rem or 0.01 sievert (Sv) is deemed to pose
the same stochastic risk as a uniform whole body dose equivalent of 1 rem or 0.01 Sv.
Exposure (Or Intake) Route: Pathway by which radioactive material enters the body. The
main exposure routes are inhalation, ingestions, absorption through the skin, and entry through
an injury in the skin.
Filter Integrity Test: Test performed on High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters to
identify any damage to the filter or leakage around the filter.
Fixed Contamination: Radioactive material that cannot be readily removed from surfaces by
nondestructive means such as casual contact, wiping, brushing, or washing.
Frisk or Frisking: Process of monitoring personnel for contamination. Frisking can be performed wit hand-held survey instruments, automated monitoring devices, or by Radiological
Control personnel.
Follow-up Level: Minimum level of a bioassay measurement result at which follow-up investigation is started. If the measurement is confirmed, a dose assessment is conducted.
Gastrointestinal Tract Model: Mathematical representation used to stylize the behavior of
radionuclides in the contents of the human gastrointestinal tract.
Gray (Gy): International system (SI) unit of absorbed dose. One gray is equal to an absorbed
dose of 1 joule per kilogram or 100 rads.
High Efficiency Particulate Air filter (HEPA): Disposal extended pleated medium dry-type
filters with a minimum particle removal efficiency of 99.97% for thermally generated monodisperse DOP smoke particles with a diameter of 0.3 micrometer.
High Radiation Area: Area accessible to personnel in which radiation levels could result in a
person receiving a dose equivalent in excess of 0.1 rem (100 millirem) in 1 hour at 30 centimeters
from the radiation source or surface.
Indirect (In-Vitro) Bioassay: Measurement or analysis of radioactive material in excreta or
other biological samples removed from the body.
Infrequent Activity: Radiological work activity or operation that requires special management
attention and consideration due to its uniqueness or first-time occurrence. Experience is
limited and extra care may be necessary to provide adequate protection for workers against the
intake of radioactive material.

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Intake: Amount of radioactive material taken into the body by inhalation, absorption through
the skin, injection, ingestion, or through wounds. Part of the intake may be exhaled, excreted,
or excised; part of the intake may be deposited into the respiratory tract, GI tract, or wound;
and part of the intake may translocate to extracellular fluid.
Internal Dose: Dose to an organ or tissue from radioactive material inside the body.
Internal Dosimetry: Methods, procedures, policies, and technical expertise (staff) functioning
in concert to perform bioassay measurements, determine and assesses the corresponding dose,
and to record and tract the results.
In-Vitro Bioassay: Indirect bioassay; analysis of an obtained (representative) sample.
In-Vivo Bioassay: Direct bioassay; analysis in place.
Lung Count: Direct (in-vivo) bioassay measurement to determine the radioactive material in
the chest cavity.
Lifetime Dose: Total occupational dose over a workers lifetime, including external and committed internal dose.
Member of the Public: A person or group of people not authorized to receive occupational
exposure to ionizing radiation or radioactive material.
Metabolic Model: Mathematical representation of the behavior in the metabolic processes of
cells, tissues, organs, and organisms. It is used to describe radioactivity distribution among
tissues and excretion.
Minimum Detectable Amount (MDA): Smallest amount of a material in a sample that will
be detected with a 5% probability of false detection (Type I statistical error) while accepting a
5% probability of false non-detection (Type II statistical error). The MDA is used in the design
of analytical systems and is not to be used as a criteria to decide if material is present in a
sample (see decision level).
Non Stochastic: Risk which is proportional to the dose received and for which there may be
a threshold or minimum dose level that must be exceeded. Primarily considered to be the risk
for non-cancer manifestation.
Occupational Dose: Dose received by a person during employment in which the persons assigned duties involve exposure to radiation and to radioactive material.
Organ Content: Amount of a radionuclide present in the organ of reference at a specific time
and means the same as organ burden.
Organ Dose Equivalent: Assessed dose equivalent to an organ or tissue of the body.
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Personal Air Sampler (PAS): Portable breathing zone air sampler that is carried by a worker.
Personal Air Monitoring (PAM): Monitoring of air for radioactive material in the immediate
vicinity of the worker, usually by a PAS.
Positive Result: (see Decision Level)
Quality Factor (Q): Factors which account for the fact that some types of radiation, such as
neutron and alpha particles, deposit their energy more densely in affected tissue than gamma
radiation and thereby cause more damage to tissue.
rad: Unit of absorbed dose. One rad is an absorbed dose, in tissue or an organ, of 100 ergs per
gram or 0.01 joules per kilogram. It is also equal to 0.01 gray.
Radiation Area: Area accessible to personnel, in which radiation levels could result in a person
receiving as dose equivalent in excess of 5 millirem in 1 hour at 30 centimeters from the source
or from any surface that the radiation penetrates.
Radioactive Material: Any material that emits ionizing radiation or material determined to be
contaminated or suspected of being contaminated with material which emits ionizing radiation.
Radioactivity: Natural and spontaneous process by which the unstable atoms of an element
emit or radiate excess energy from their nuclei and, thus, change or decay to atoms of a different
element or to a lower energy state of the same element. Also known as activity.
Radiological Control (RadCon): The health physics, radiation protection, or other group
tasked with providing radiation safety functions for the workers. Also known as RadPro and
HPs.
Radiobiological Effectiveness (RBE): (See Quality Factor)
Radiological Buffer Area (RBA): Intermediate area established to prevent the spread of
radioactive contamination and to protect personnel from radiation exposure. The area surrounds
or is contiguous with Contamination Areas, High Contamination Areas, Airborne Radioactivity
Areas, High Airborne Radioactivity Areas, or High Radiation Areas.
Radiological Postings: Signs or labels that indicates the presence or potential presence of
radiation or radioactive material.
Radiological Work: Work that requires the handling of radioactive material or which requires
access to Radiation Areas, High Radiation Areas, Contamination Areas, High Contamination
Areas, or Airborne Radioactivity Areas.

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Radiological Work Permit (RWP): Permit that identifies radiological conditions, establishes
worker protection and monitoring requirements, and contains specific approvals for radiological
work activities.
Radiological Worker: Worker whose job involves operating radiation producing devices, working with radioactive material, or who is likely to be routinely occupationally exposed to ionizing
radiation. Radiological workers are defined in the Site Specific Radiological Control Manual and
may receive occupational exposures.
Readily Transportable: Readily transferred from site of initial deposition to the blood.
Reference Man: Representative human model with the anatomical and physiological characteristics defined in the report of the ICRP Task Group on Reference Man (ICRP Publication
23).
rem: Unit of dose equivalent. A rem is numerically equal to the absorbed dose in rad multiplied
by a quality factor, distribution factor, and any other necessary modifying factor. One rem
equals 0.01 sievert.
Removable Contamination: Radioactive material that can be removed from surfaces by nondestructive means such as casual contact, wiping, brushing, or washing.
Reporting Level: Minimum level of a bioassay measurement result which requires the measurement laboratory to provide prompt notification to dosimetry.
Retained Quantity: (See Burden)
Retention: Retained quantity or burden as a fraction of the uptake or intake. May apply to an
organ or to the whole body.
Respiratory Protection Equipment: Equipment used to protect personnel from inhalation
of radioactive or hazardous material.
Respiratory Tract Model: Mathematical representation of the behavior of particles and gases
in the human respiratory tract.
Routine Bioassay: Bioassay measurement made on a predetermined, periodic schedule, to establish a workers internal exposure status relative to previous time periods, to evaluate the
effectiveness of radiological controls for preventing internally deposited radioactive material,
and to establish base-line data for employees.
Screening Level: Minimum level of a bioassay measurement at which some further review or
action is advantageous to determine if follow-up measurements are desirable.

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Sievert (Sv): International unit of any of the quantities expressed as dose equivalent. The dose
equivalent in sieverts is equal to the absorbed dose in grays multiplied by the quality factor.
One sievert equals 100 rems.
State-of-the-Art: The most advanced technology that is currently available on the market and
proven acceptable for use.
Special Bioassay Monitoring: Bioassay measurement not part of the routine program, such
as measurement made for prompt follow-up to a potential intake.
Step-Off-Pad: Transition area between contaminated and non-contaminated areas that is used
to allow the exit of personnel and removal of equipment while containing the contamination
inside the contaminated area.
Stochastic: Risk that is independent of the amount of exposure and for which there is assumed
to be no threshold or minimum causation dose level. Primarily considered to be the risk of
cancer manifestation.
Task Group Lung Model: A model developed by the ICRP Task Group on Lung Dynamics
that describes the behavior of particles in the respiratory tract of man.
Time-Integrated Activity or Cumulative Activity: Integral over time of the instantaneous
activity in an organ or in the whole body. The units are radioactivity times time, such as
micro-curie-hours. When multiplied by the SEE factor and appropriate unit conversion factors,
the time-integrated activity provides the dose equivalent to the target organ.
Total Effective Dose Equivalent: Sum of the deep-dose equivalent for external exposures and
the committed effective dose equivalent for internal exposures. It is the whole body dose.
Transfer Compartment: Mathematical or schematic representation of the blood circulation
system through which radioactive material is transported to organs, tissue, or excretion.
Uptake: Amount or quantity of a radionuclide absorbed into extracellular fluid or taken up
by the systemic compartment of the body, (e.g., by injection into blood, by absorption from
compartments in the respirator tract or the GI tract, or by absorption through the skin or
through wounds in the skin).
Visitor: Any person requesting access to Controlled Areas, who has not been trained to the level
required to permit unescorted access.
Weighting Factors: Factors that represent the proportion of the total stochastic (cancer risk
plus genetic damage risk) risk resulting from irradiation to tissue to the total risk when the whole
body is irradiated uniformly. Factors used in the calculation of the effective dose equivalent.
The weighting factors as defined by the ICRP Publication 26 are:

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Weighting Organ or Tissue Factor

Gonads
0.25
Breasts
0.15
Red Bone Marrow
0.12
Lungs
0.012
Thyroid
0.03
Bone Surfaces
0.03
Remainder (a)
0.30
(a) Remainder means the five other organs with the highest dose (e.g., liver, kidney,
spleen, thymus, adrenals, pancreas, stomach, small intestine, upper large intestine, but
excluding skin, lens of the eye, and extremities). The weighting factor for each such
organ is 0.06.
Whole Body Dose Equivalent: Sum of the deep dose equivalent for external exposures and
the committed effective dose equivalent for internal exposures. The whole body dose equivalent
is expressed in the same units as dose equivalent.
Initialisms
AAHP: American Academy of Health Physics (CHP)
AAPM: American Association of Physicists in Medicine
AECL: Atomic Energy Commission, Limited (Canada)
ADE: Annual Dose Equivalent
AEDE: Annual Effective Dose Equivalent
ALI: Annual Limit on Intake
AMAD: Activity Mean Aerodynamic Diameter
ANS: American Nuclear Society
ANSI: American National Standards Institute
APCM: Automated Personnel Contamination Monitor
BZ: Breathing Zone
BWR: Boiling Water Reactor
BZA: Breathing Zone Air sample/sampler
CAM: Continuous Air Monitor

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CRPD: Council of Radiation Control Protection Departments

CDE: Committed Dose Equivalent
CFR: Code of Federal Regulations
CL: Confidence Level
DAC: Derived Air Concentration
DAC-Hours: Time-integrated exposure to airborne radioactivity
DE: Dose Equivalent
DIL: Derived Investigation Level
DOD: Department of Defense
DOE: Department of Energy
DOELAP: DOE Laboratory Accreditation Program
DOP: Dioctyl Phthalate
dpm or dps: disintegrations per minute or per second
DRD: Direct Reading Dosimeter
DTPA: Diethylene Triamine Pentaacetic Acide
EDE: Effective Dose Equivalent
EDTA: Ethylene Diamine Tetracetic Acid
EP: Emergency Preparedness
EPA: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EOP: Emergency Operating Procedure
FEMA: Federal Emergency Management Agency
FF: Filter Factor
GeLi: Lithium drifted Germanium detector
GI: Gastro Intestinal
GM: Geiger Mueller detector or instrument

305

References - 12

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Gy: Gray (unit of dose equivalent)

HE : Effective dose equivalent
HT : Dose equivalent
HEPA: High Efficiency Particulate Air filter
HP: Health Physics or Health Physicist
HPD: Health Protection Department
HPS: Health Physics Society
IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency
ICRP: International Commission on Radiological Protection
IG: Intrinsic Germanium detector
IL: Investigation Level
INPO: Institute for Nuclear Power Operations
IRF: Intake Retention Fraction (or factor)
KERMA: Kinetic Energy Released in the Media
KI: Potassium Iodide
LC : Decision Level
LAM: Local Air (or Area) Monitor
LET: Linear Energy Transfer
LLD: Lower LImit of Detection
LLI: Lower Large Intestine
MCA: Multi-Channel Analyzer
MDA: Minimum Detectable Activity
MDD: Minimum Detectable Dose
MDI: Minimum Detectable Intake
MIRD: Medical Internal Radiation Dose

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NBS: See NIST (National Bureau of Standards)

NCRP: National Council on Radiation Protection
NIST: National Institute of Standards and Technology
N-P: Nasal Passage region of the respiratory tract
NPP: Nuclear Power Plant
NRC: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NVLAP: National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program
P: Pulmonary region of the lung
PAS: Personal Air Sampler
PD: Pocket Dosimeter
PF: Protection Factor
PING: Particulate, Iodine, Noble Gas monitor
PMT: Photo Multiplier Tube
PWR: Pressurized Water Reactor
Q: Quality factor
QA: Quality Assurance
QC: Quality Control
rad: unit of absorbed dose
RBE: Radio Biological Effectiveness
RBA: Radiological Buffer Area
RCA: Radiation (or Radiological) Controlled Area
RCS: Reactor Coolant System
rem: unit of dose equivalent
RG: NRC Regulatory Guide
RMS: Radiation Monitoring System

307

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RWP: Radiological Work Permit

s or : standard deviation
S: Source organ
SA: Specific Activity
SCBA: Self Contained Breathing Apparatus
Sievert (Sv): International unit of dose equivalent
SiLi: Lithium Drifted Silicon Detector
SEE: Specific Effective Energy
SNM: Special Nuclear Material
SOP: Standard Operating Procedure
T: Target organ
T-B: Trachea-Bronchial region of the respiratory tract
TEDE: Total Effective Dose Equivalent
TFLM: Task Force Lung Model
TLD: Thermo Luminescent Dosimeter
WBC: Whole Body Count (or counter, or counting)
Abbreviation and Units
Bq: becquerel
C: Coulomb
cc: cubic centimeters
cm: centimeter
Ci: Curie(s)
cpm and cps: counts per minute and per second
dpm and dps: disintegrations per minute and per second
eV: electron volt(s)

308

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g: gram(s)
G: Giga (1109 )
Gy: gray
hr: hour(s)
k: kilo (1000)
L: liter(s)
m: milli (0.001)
M: mega or million (1106 )
MeV: million electron volts
min: minute(s)
n: nano (1109 )
p: pico (11012 )
: micro (1106 )
rem: unit of dose equivalent
Sv: Sievert
T: Tetra (11012 )

309

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Table 71: Alphabetical List of Elements

Ac
Al
Am
Sb
Ar
As
At
Ba
Bk
Be
Bi
B
Br
Cd
Ca
Cf
C
Ce
Cs
Cl
Cr
Co
Cu
Cm
Dy
Es
Er
Eu
Fm
F
Fr
Gd
Ga
Ge
Au

Actinium (89)
Aluminum (13)
Americium (95)
Antimony (51)
Argon (18)
Arsenic (33)
Astatine (85)
Barium (56)
Berkelium (97)
Beryllium (4)
Bismuth (83)
Boron (5)
Bromine (35)
Cadmium (48)
Calcium (20)
Californium (98)
Carbon (6)
Cerium (58)
Cesium (55)
Chlorine (17)
Chromium (24)
Cobalt (27)
Copper (29)
Curium (96)
Dysprosium (66)
Einsteinium (99)
Erbium (68)
Europium (63)
Fermium (100)
Fluorine (9)
Francium (87)
Gadolinium (64)
Gallium (31)
Germanium (32)
Gold (79)

Hf
He
Ho
H
In
I
Ir
Fe
Kr
La
Lr
Pb
Li
Lu
Mg
Mn
Md
Hg
Mo
Nd
Ne
Np
Ni
Nb
N
No
Os
O
Pd
P
Pt
Pu
Po
K

Hafnium (72)
Helium (2)
Holmium (67)
Hydrogen (1)
Indium (49)
Iodine (53)
Iridium (77)
Iron (26)
Krypton (36)
Lanthanum (57)
Lawrencium (103)
Lead (82)
Lithium (3)
Lutetium (71)
Magnesium (12)
Manganese (25)
Mendelevium (101)
Mercury (80)
Molybdenum (42)
Neodymium (60)
Neon (10)
Neptunium
Nickel (28)
Niobium (41)
Nitrogen (7)
Nobelium (102)
Osmium (76)
Oxygen (8)
Palladium (46)
Phosphorous (15)
Platinum (78)
Plutonium (94)
Polonium (84)
Potassium (19)

310

Pr Praseodymium (59)
Pm Promethium (61)
Pa Protactinium (91)
Ra Radium (88)
Rn Radon (86)
Re Rhenium (75)
Rh Rhodium (45)
Rb Rubidium (37)
Ru Ruthenium (44)
Sm Samarium (62)
Sc
Scandium (21)
Se
Selenium (34)
Si
Silicon (14)
Ag Silver (47)
Na Sodium (11)
Sr
Strontium (38)
S
Sulfur (16)
Ta Tantalum (73)
Tc Technetium (43)
Te Tellurium (52)
Tb Terbium (65)
Tl
Thallium (81)
Tm Thulium (69)
Th Thorium (90)
Sn Tin (50)
Ti
Titanium (22)
W
Tungsten (74)
U
Uranium (92)
V
Vanadium (23)
Xe Xenon (54)
Yb Ytterbium (70)
Y
Yttrium (39)
Zn Zinc (30)
Zr
Zirconium (40)

References - 12

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Table 72: Conversion Factors

Multiply number of

by
or
by

to obtain number of

to obtain number of
Divide by number of

Length
microns ()
microns ()
centimeters (cm)
meters (m)
inches (in)

1 106
1 104
0.3937
6.2137 104
2.54

meters (m)
centimeters (cm)
inches (in)
miles
centimeters (cm)

barns
square
square
square
square

Area
1 1024
0.155
1 104
929.0
6.944 103

square
square
square
square
square

cubic centimeters (cm )

cubic centimeters (cm3 )
cubic centimeters (cm3 )
cubic meters (m3 )
cubic feet (f t3 )
Liters (L)

Volume
1
6.102 102
1 103
1 103
2.83 102
1.0567

milliliters (ml)
cubic inches (in3 )
Liters (L)
Liters (L)
cubic meters (m3 )
quarts

electron volts (ev)

erg
KiloWatt Hour (kW-hr)
foot pounds (ft-lb)

Energy
1.6021 1012
1 107
3.6 1013
1.356

centimeters (cm2 )
centimeters (cm2 )
feet (f t2 )
inches (in2 )

311

centimeters (cm2 )
inches (in2 )
meters (m2 )
centimeters (cm2 )
feet (f t2 )

ergs
joules (J)
ergs
joules (J)

References - 12

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Table 73: Conversion Factors

Multiply number of
to obtain number of

by
or
by

to obtain number of
Divide by number of

Mass
kilograms (kg)

Watts
Watts
Watts
Watts
Watts

(W)
(W)
(W)
(W)
(W)

atmosphere
atmosphere
atmosphere
atmosphere

(atm)
(atm)
(atm)
(atm)

Becquerel (Bq)
Curies (Ci)
Roentgen (R)
Roentgen (R)
rad
rem

2.205

pounds (lb)

Power
1 107
1
3.414
0.7376
1.34 103

ergs / sec
joules / sec
Btu / hr
ft-lb / sec
horsepower

Pressure
14.969
760
1.01325 105
29.92

lb/in2
mm Hg (@STP)
Pascals (Pa)
in Hg (@STP)

Radiological
2.703 1011
3.7 1010
2.58 104
2.08 109
0.01
0.01

Curies (Ci)
disintegrations per second
Coulombs / Kg (air)
ionpairs/cm3 (air)
Gray (Gy)
Sieverts (Sv)

312

References - 12

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Table 74: Conversion Factors

Prefixes
Symbol Name
f
femto
p
pico
n
nano

micro
m
milli
c
centi
K
kilo
M
mega
G
giga
T
tera

Factor
1015
1012
109
106
103
102
103
106
109
1012

Table 75: Greek Alphabet

A
B

E
Z
H

I
K

Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Epsilon
Zeta
Eta
Theta
Iota
Kappa
Lambda
Mu

313

Nu

Xi
o Omicron

Pi

Rho
Sigma

Tau
Upsilon

Phi

Chi

Psi
Omega

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Table 76: NCRP Publications

Report No
Title and Publication Year
171
Uncertainties in the Estimation of Radiation Risks and Probability
of Disease Causation (2012)
170
Second Primary Cancers and Cardiovascular Disease After Radiation
Therapy (2011)
169
Design of Effective Radiological Effluent Monitoring and Environmental Surveillance Programs (2010)
168
Radiation Dose Management for Fluoroscopically-Guided Interventional Medical Procedures (2010)
167
Potential Impact of Individual Genetic Susceptibility and Previous
Radiation Exposure on Radiation Risk for Astronauts (2010)
166
Population Monitoring and Radionuclide Decorporation Following a
Radiological or Nuclear Incident (2010)
165
Responding to a Radiological or Nuclear Terrorism Incident: A Guide
for Decision Makers (2010)
164
Uncertainties in Internal Radiation Dose Assessment (2009)
163
Radiation Dose Reconstruction: Principles and Practices (2009)
162
Self Assessment of Radiation-Safety Programs (2009)
161
I Management of Persons Contaminated With Radionuclides:
161
II Management of Persons Contaminated with Radionuclides: Scientific and Technical Bases (2008)
160
Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United States
(2009)
159
Risk to the Thyroid from Ionizing Radiation (2008)
158
Uncertainties in the Measurement and Dosimetry of External Radiation (2007)
157
Radiation Protection in Educational Institutions (2007)
156
Development of a Biokinetic Model for Radionuclide-Contaminated
Wounds and Procedures for Their Assessment, Dosimetry and Treatment (2006)
155
Management of Radionuclide Therapy Patients (2006)
154
Cesium-137 in the Environment: Radioecology and Approaches to
Assessment and Management (2006)
153
Information Needed to Make Radiation Protection Recommendations
for Space Missions Beyond Low-Earth Orbit (2006)
152
Performance Assessment of Near-Surface Facilities for Disposal of
Low-Level Radioactive Waste (2005)
151
Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation for Megavoltage X- and
Gamma-Ray Radiotherapy Facilities (2005)

318

Price
155.00
160.00
95.00
150.00
75.00
85.00
75.00
100.00
150.00
50.00
165.00
80.00
125.00
145.00
145.00
50.00
125.00

100.00
100.00
75.00
75.00
100.00

NCRP Publications - 13

RSO

Table 76: NCRP Publications ... Continued.

Report No
Title and Publication Year
150
Extrapolation of Radiation-Induced Cancer Risks from Nonhuman
Experimental Systems to Humans (2005)
149
A Guide to Mammography and Other Breast Imaging Procedures
(2004)
148
Radiation Protection in Veterinary Medicine (2004)
147
Structural Shielding Design for Medical X-Ray Imaging Facilities
(2004)
146
Approaches to Risk Management in Remediation of Radioactively
Contaminated Sites (2004)
145
Radiation Protection in Dentistry (2003)
144
Radiation Protection for Particle Accelerator Facilities (2003)
143
Management Techniques for Laboratories and Other Small Institutional Generators to Minimize Off-Site Disposal of Low-Level Radioactive Waste (2003)
142
Operational Radiation Safety Program for Astronauts in Low-Earth
Orbit: A Basic Framework (2002)
141
Managing Potentially Radioactive Scrap Metal (2002)
140
Exposure Criteria for Medical Diagnostic Ultrasound; II. Criteria
Based on All Known Mechanisms (2002)
139
Risk-Based Classification of Radioactive and Hazardous Chemical
Wastes (2002)
138
Management of Terrorist Events Involving Radioactive Material
(2001)
137
Fluence-Based and Microdosimetric Event-Based Methods for Radiation Protection in Space (2001)
136
Evaluation of the Linear-Nonthreshold Dose-Response Model for Ionizing Radiation (2001)
135
Liver Cancer Risk from Internally-Deposited Radionuclides (2001)
134
Operational Radiation Safety Training (2000)
133
Radiation Protection for Procedures Performed Outside the Radiology Department (2000)
132
Radiation Protection Guidance for Activities in Low-Earth Orbit
(2000)
131
Scientific Basis for Evaluating the Risks to Populations from Space
Applications of Plutonium (2001)
130
Biological Effects and Exposure Limits for Hot Particles (1999)
129
Recommended Screening Limits for Contaminated Surface Soil and
Review of Factors Relevant to Site-Specific Studies (1999)
128
Radionuclide Exposure of the Embryo/Fetus (1998)
319

Price
65.00
110.00
50.00
100.00
50.00
50.00
105.00
45.00

40.00
45.00
95.00
55.00
50.00
25.00
50.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
45.00
50.00
30.00
50.00
35.00

NCRP Publications - 13

RSO

Table 76: NCRP Publications ... Continued.

Report No
Title and Publication Year
Price
127
Operational Radiation Safety Program (1998)
30.00
126
Uncertainties in Fatal Cancer Risk Estimates Used in Radiation Pro- 25.00
tection (1997)
125
Deposition, Retention and Dosimetry of Inhaled Radioactive Sub- 40.00
stances (1997)
124
Sources and Magnitude of Occupational and Public Exposures from 25.00
Nuclear Medicine Procedures (1996)
123
Screening Models for Releases of Radionuclides to Atmosphere, Sur- 75.00
face Water, and Ground (1996) (two volumes)
122
Use of Personal Monitors to Estimate Effective Dose Equivalent and 25.00
Effective Dose to Workers For External Exposure to Low-LET Radiation (1995)
121
Principles and Application of Collective Dose in Radiation Protection 25.00
(1995)
120
Dose Control at Nuclear Power Plants (1994)
30.00
119
A Practical Guide to the Determination of Human Exposure to Ra- 40.00
diofrequency Fields (1993)
118
Radiation Protection in the Mineral Extraction Industry (1993)
30.00
117
Research Needs for Radiation Protection (1993)
30.00
116
Limitation of Exposure to Ionizing Radiation (1993) (supersedes 35.00
NCRP Report No. 91)
115
Risk Estimates for Radiation Protection (1993)
35.00
114
Maintaining Radiation Protection Records (1992)
30.00
113
Exposure Criteria for Medical Diagnostic Ultrasound: I. Criteria 40.00
Based on Thermal Mechanisms (1992)
112
Calibration of Survey Instruments Used in Radiation Protection for 40.00
the Assessment of Ionizing Radiation Fields and Radioactive Surface
Contamination (1991)
111
Developing Radiation Emergency Plans for Academic, Medical or 35.00
Industrial Facilities (1991)
110
Some Aspects of Strontium Radiobiology (1991)
30.00
109
Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Aquatic Organisms (1991)
40.00
108
Conceptual Basis for Calculations of Absorbed-Dose Distributions 45.00
(1991)
107
Implementation of the Principle of As Low As Reasonably Achievable 35.00
(ALARA) for Medical and Dental Personnel (1990)
106
Limit for Exposure to Hot Particles on the Skin (1989)
25.00
105
Radiation Protection for Medical and Allied Health Personnel (1989) 40.00
(supersedes NCRP Report No. 48)
320

NCRP Publications - 13

RSO

Table 76: NCRP Publications ... Continued.

Report No
Title and Publication Year
Price
104
The Relative Biological Effectiveness of Radiations of Different Qual- 45.00
ity (1990)
103
Control of Radon in Houses (1989)
35.00
102
Medical X-Ray, Electron Beam and Gamma-Ray Protection for Ener- 45.00
gies Up to 50 MeV (Equipment Design, Performance and Use (1989)
(supersedes NCRP Report No. 33)
101
Exposure of the U.S. Population from Occupational Radiation (1989) 40.00
100
Exposure of the U.S. Population from Diagnostic Medical Radiation 40.00
(1989)
99
Quality Assurance for Diagnostic Imaging (1988)
50.00
98
Guidance on Radiation Received in Space Activities (1989)
45.00
97
Measurement of Radon and Radon Daughters in Air (1988)
40.00
96
Comparative Carcinogenicity of Ionizing Radiation and Chemicals 40.00
(1989)
95
Radiation Exposure of the U.S. Population from Consumer Products 40.00
and Miscellaneous Sources (1988) (supersedes NCRP Report No. 56)
94
Exposure of the Population in the United States and Canada 40.00
from Natural Background Radiation (1987) (updates and supersedes
NCRP Report No. 45)
93
Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United States 40.00
(1987)
92
Public Radiation Exposure from Nuclear Power Generation in the 45.00
United States (1988)
90
Neptunium: Radiation Protection Guidelines (1987)
35.00
89
Genetic Effects from Internally Deposited Radionuclides (1987)
30.00
88
Radiation Alarms and Access Control Systems (1986)
35.00
87
Use of Bioassay Procedures for Assessment of Internal Radionuclide 40.00
Deposition (1987)
86
Biological Effects and Exposure Criteria for Radiofrequency Electro- 70.00
magnetic Fields (1986)
84
General Concepts for the Dosimetry of Internally Deposited Radionu- 35.00
clides (1985)
83
The Experimental Basis for Absorbed-Dose Calculations in Medical 35.00
Uses of Radionuclides (1985)
82
SI Units in Radiation Protection and Measurements (1985)
25.00
81
Carbon-14 in the Environment (1985)
35.00
79
Neutron Contamination from Medical Electron Accelerators (1984)
35.00
78
Evaluation of Occupational and Environmental Exposures to Radon 40.00
and Radon Daughters in the United States (1984)
321

NCRP Publications - 13

RSO

Table 76: NCRP Publications ... Continued.

Report No
Title and Publication Year
Price
77
Exposures from the Uranium Series with Emphasis on Radon and Its 40.00
Daughters (1984)
76
Radiological Assessment: Predicting the Transport, Bioaccumula- 55.00
tion, and Uptake by Man of Radionuclides Released to the Environment (1984)
75
Iodine-129: Evaluation of Releases from Nuclear Power Generation 30.00
(1983)
74
Biological Effects of Ultrasound: Mechanisms and Clinical Implica- 55.00
tions (1983)
73
Protection in Nuclear Medicine and Ultrasound Diagnostic Proce- 30.00
dures in Children (1983)
72
Radiation Protection and Measurements for Low Voltage Neutron 30.00
Generators (1983)
70
Nuclear MedicineFactors Influencing the Choice and Use of Radionu- 25.00
clides in Diagnosis and Therapy (1982)
69
Dosimetry of X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Beams for Radiation Therapy 35.00
in the Energy Range 10 keV to 50 MeV (1981)
68
Radiation Protection in Pediatric Radiology (1981)
40.00
67
Radiofrequency Electromagnetic FieldsProperties, Quantities and 50.00
Units, Biophysical Interaction, and Measurements (1981)
65
Management of Persons Accidentally Contaminated with Radionu- 50.00
clides (1980)
64
Influence of Dose and Its Distribution in Time on Dose-Response 45.00
Relationships for Low-LET Radiations (1980)
63
Tritium and Other Radionuclide Labeled Organic Compounds Incor- 35.00
porated in Genetic Material (1979)
62
Tritium in the Environment (1979)
35.00
61
Radiation Safety Training Criteria for Industrial Radiography (1978) 25.00
60
Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Radiocerium Rele- 35.00
vant to Radiation Protection Guidelines (1978)
58
A Handbook of Radioactivity Measurements Procedures, second ed. 80.00
(1985) (case bound)
57
Instrumentation and Monitoring Methods for Radiation Protection 40.00
(1978)
55
Protection of the Thyroid Gland in the Event of Releases of Radioio- 20.00
dine (1977)
54
Medical Radiation Exposure of Pregnant and Potentially Pregnant 20.00
Women (1977)

322

NCRP Publications - 13

RSO

Table 76: NCRP Publications ... Continued.

Report No
Title and Publication Year
Price
52
Cesium-137 from the Environment to Man: Metabolism and Dose 20.00
(1977)
50
Environmental Radiation Measurements (1976)
50.00
49
Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation for Medical Use of X 40.00
Rays and Gamma Rays of Energies up to 10 MeV (1976)

Adjunct to NCRP Report No. 49 (full-size reproductions of barrier 60.00

requirement curves)
47
Tritium Measurement Techniques (1976)
25.00
46
Alpha-Emitting Particles in Lungs (1975)
20.00
44
Krypton-85 in the AtmosphereAccumulation, Biological Significance, 20.00
and Control Technology (1975)
42
Radiological Factors Affecting Decision-Making in a Nuclear Attack 20.00
(1974)
41
Specification of Gamma-Ray Brachytherapy Sources (1974)
20.00
40
Protection Against Radiation from Brachytherapy Sources (1972)
25.00
38
Protection Against Neutron Radiation (1971)
25.00
30
Safe Handling of Radioactive Materials (1964)
20.00
27
Stopping Powers for Use With Cavity Chambers (1961)
20.00
22
Maximum Permissible Body Burdens and Maximum Permissible 20.00
Concentrations of Radionuclides in Air and in Water for Occupational Exposure (1959)

323

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14

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325

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Nevada Technical Associates DVD Catalog

Title
Radiation Safety for Medical Facilities
Radiation Safety for Sealed Sources
For users of portable radiation instruments, gauge users
and any other uses of shielded and sealed sources
Radiation Safety for X-Ray Generating Devices
Laboratory Radiation Safety
Practical Radiation Safety
Practical Radiation Safety and Industrial Radiography
Radiation and Pregnancy (for Patients)
Radiation and Pregnancy (for Health Care Workers)
Fetal Effects of Diagnostic Radiation Exposure
Radiation Safety for First Responders
First Responder Package (2 DVD Set)
Practical Radiation Safety
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Radiation Safety Refresher

348

Run Time
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Section 1 Exercise Solutions

1. What is the isotopes mass number and identification symbol that has 55 protons and 82
neutrons.
A=N +Z
A = 55 + 82 = 137
Mass Number A is 137
Atomic Number Z is 82 for which the symbol is Cs
2. Calculate the number of atoms in one (1) gram of gold, given its atomic weight is 196.9665.
Avogadros Number is 6.022 1023 atoms per mole
One mole of an element has a mass equal to its atomic weight in grams. Thus:
196.9665 g of Au contains 6.022 1023 atoms
Atoms in 1 g of Au =

1 g 6.022 1023 atoms/mole

1.969 665 102 g/mole

Atoms in 1 g of Au = 3.058 1021 atoms

3. Most stable isotopes have N values and Z values. (Odd or even).
The most stable isotopes have an even number of neutrons (N)
and an even number of protons (Z).
4. Which naturally occurring decay chain contributes the most to natural background radiation?
The Uranium decay chain, which begins with 238U,
contributes the most to natural background radiation.
5. The naturally occurring decay chains all end in what stable element(s)?
All three naturally occuring decay chains end in one of three isotopes of Lead;
206
Pb, 207Pb, 208Pb. See Table-6

Section 2 Exercise Solutions (Page 1)

1. Compute the decay constant for
=

239

Pu with a half-life of 24,110 years.

0.693
6.93 101
2.89 105
ln(2)
=
=
yr
=
T1/2
T1/2
2.4 104
yr

2. Calculate the radioactivity in Ci and Bq for a 10,000 dpm sample.

Using Equation-2.2
A = 3.7 1010 dps/Ci = 1 dps/Bq
10 000 d min

= 166.7 dps
min
60 s
166.7 dps
A(in Ci) =
= 4.5 109 Ci
10
3.7 10 dps/Ci
1 106 Ci
= 4.5 103 Ci
4.5 10 Ci
Ci
A(in Bq) = 1 Bq/dps 166.7 dps = 166.7 Bq
9

3. What fraction of

137

Cs is present after 1 year? What fraction would have decayed?

Using Equation-2.4
A = A0 et , therefore, the fraction remaining is
T1/2 for

A
A0

= et

137

Cs is 30.17 years
=

ln 2
0.693
=
= 0.023 year
T1/2
30.17 year

A
= et = e(0.023/y)(1y) = e0.023 = 0.977 = 97.7% remaining
A0
97.7% remaining = 100% 97.7% = 2.3% decayed
4. Calculate the maximum energy (MeV) of the beta particle produced in the decay of 14 C
(14.0032419 amu) to 14 N (14.0030741 amu). Using Equation-2.20 Max Energy of beta: Q =
931.5 M eV /amu (MP MD )
max = 931.5 M eV /amu (14.003 241 9 amu 14.003 074 1 amu)
max = 931.5 M eV /amu 0.000 167 8 amu = 0.156 M eV = 156 keV

Section 2 Exercise Solutions (Page 2)

5. Complete the following table for changes in A and/or Z for the listed decays.
Decay
alpha
beta
positron +
gamma
neutron n

Change in A
-4
none
none
none
-1

Change in Z
-2
+1
-1
none
none

6. A sample containing only long-lived radioactivity is counted 10 times for 100 minutes and
once for 1000 minutes. The total counts in both cases are 35000. What are the standard
deviations of the sample count rates?
p
Equation-2.26 Standard Deviation = = (R/t)
The will be the same in both cases because the total count time in each is 1000 minutes
and the total counts are equal. Thus, the count rate in each case is:
35 000 counts
= 35 cpm
1000 min
r
p

35 cpm
= (R/t) =
= 0.035 counts
1000 min
= 0.187 counts = 0.2 counts(at 1 significant digit)

Section 2 Exercise Solutions Page 3

7. A sample counted for 60 minutes yields a total count of 1800 and the background count is
800 in 500 minutes. Determine the net count rate and the standard deviation of the net
count rate.
Equation-2.30 Net Count Rate Standard Deviation:
N etRate =

(Rs /ts ) + (Rb /tb )

1800 count
= 30 cpm
60 minute
800 count
= 1.6 cpm
Background Rate =
500 minute
Net Count Rate = Sample Rate - Background Rate = 28.4 cpm
r
30 cpm
1.6 cpm
N etRate =
+
60 min 500 min

N etRate = 0.5 + 0.0032cpm = 0.5032cpm 0.7 cpm

Sample Rate =

Net Count Rate 1 = 28.4 cpm 0.7cpm

Note: The units DO NOT cancel or come out correctly unless the value (N etRate ) is derived
by starting with the basic standard deviation of the counts.
8. Indicate whether the radioactivity decay particle or ray energy is discrete or continuous.
alpha () decay is discrete.
beta () decay is continuous.
gamma () decay is discrete.

Section 3 Exercise Solutions

1. Why is the range of alpha particles almost equal to the total path traveled when this is not
the case for beta particles?
An particle travel is essentially a straight line, since due to their larger mass
they are resistant to being being deflected.
A particle travel is not a straight line, since their low mass and electric charge
make them sensitive to being deflected by other electric charges they encounter.

2. Why is Bremsstrahlung not a consideration for alpha particles?

Bremsstrahlung production is inversely proportional to particle mass and particle
mass is about 8,000 times that of a particle.

3. Why should

32

P (1.71 MeV beta) be stored in plastic rather than metal containers?

Avoid high Z (metals have higher Zs than plastic) for high energy (1.71 MeV is
considered high). This is to reduce Bremsstrahlung radiation.

4. Assume a 0.45 MeV gamma ray has a photo-electric interaction with a K shell electron that
has a binding energy of 30 keV. How is the energy distributed?
Electron energy equals photon energy minus electron binding energy.
Photon energy is zero(0) since total is transferred to electron.
450 keV - 30 keV = 420 keV electron kinetic energy

5. Is a 750 keV gamma ray likely to undergo a pair production interaction? Why?
No. Pair production requires at least a 1.02 MeV gamma ray to supply the energy
for converting energy into an electron and a positron.

Section 6 Exercise Solutions - Shielding

1. Determine from Figure-22, the maximum range of a 300 keV beta particle in air, water, and
copper.
The intersect of the 0.3 MeV (300 keV) beta energy (x axis) with the penetration lines for
air, water, and copper show a maximum range (y axis) of about 24, 0.03, and 0.002 inches
respectively.
2. Using Figure-23, determine the range in mg/cm2 for a 300 keV beta particle and the thickness
of material, density of 2 g/cm3 , to stop the beta particles.
a) range: The 0.3 MeV energy line (y axis) intersects the range curve at about 74 mg/ cm2
density thickness
b) material thickness =
density
material thickness =

74 mg/cm2
74 mg/cm2
=
= 0.037 cm
2 g/cm3
2000 mg/cm3

3. Three (3) R/hr is measured 1 meter from a 60Co source. Using Table-47, Equation-6.12, and
Equation-6.13, determine the dose rate if the source is shielded with 10 cm of lead.
The table shows a HVL of 1.2 cm and a TVL of 4 cm for

60

Co and Lead (Pb).

Using HVL:
10cm
= 8.33HVL
1.2cm/HV L
R = R0 (0.5)n
R=

3R
3R
9.3 103 R
9.3mR
(0.5)8.33 =
3.1 103 =
=
hr
hr
hr
hr

Using TVL:
10cm
= 2.5TVL
4cm/T V L
R = R0 (0.1)n
R=

3R
3R
9.6 mR
(0.1)2.5 =
3.2 103 =
hr
hr
hr

4. The radiation level at the point of interest from a 500 keV peak photon energy source is 1R
per hour. Use Table-46 and Equation-6.10 to determine the radiation level if the source is
shielded with a lead shield 2.35 cm thick.
The table shows a linear attenuation coefficient of 1.7 per cm for Lead (Pb) and 500 keV.
I = I0 Bex , = 1.7/cm, x = 2.35 cm, x = 4
The table shows a buildup factor (B) of 1.48 for a ux of 4 with Lead (Pb) and 500 keV.
I = I0 Bex
I = (1R/hr)(1.48)e4 = (1.48R/hr)(0.018) = 27mR/hr

External Dose Exercise Solutions Page 1

1. A 75 curie iridium 192 source is used for radiography outside in an uncollimated (unshielded)
manner. Use Table-50, Equation-7.1, and/or Equation-7.2, and examples on pages 186 and
187 to determine:
(a) The radiation level 1 foot from the source:
Table-50 shows a value of 0.48 R/hr at 1 meter per curie
Exposure rate at 1 foot per curie is 10.76 0.48 = 5.16R/hr per Ci.
5.16R/hr
at 1 ft 75Ci = 387R/hr at 1 ft
Ci
Since Q or QF for gamma radiation is 1
387R/hr = 387rem/hr at 1 ft
(b) The diameter (in feet) of the circle that marks the Restricted Area control (>2 mrem
in any one hour)
D1
Using
=
D2

R2
R1

Where
D1
D2
R1
R2

= 1 ft,
is distance to the 2 mrem/hr source,
= 387 Rem/hr,
= 0.002 Rem/hr
1f t
=
D2

0.002Rem/hr
387Rem/hr

1f t p
= 5.17 106
D2
1f t
= 2.27 103
D2
2.27 103 =

1f t
D2

D2 2.27 103 = 1f t
D2 =

1f t
2.27 103

so D2 = 440f t, and a diameter for the Restricted Area is twice that of 880f t

Nevada Technical Associates DVD Catalog

RSO

(c) The Restricted Area diameter if the operation is restricted to four (4) three (3) minute
shots (radiographic exposures) in an hour.
1hr
4shots 3min

= 0.2
hr
shot
60min
Thus, the 2 mrem in any one hour level can be increased to 10 mrem/hr.
2mrem/hr
= 10mrem/hr
0.2
Solving as in above, except now R2 = 10 mrem/hr.
s
1f t
0.01Rem/hr p
=
= 2.58 105
D2
387Rem/hr
1f t p
1f t
= 197 f t
= 5.08 103 , so D2 =
D2
5.08 103
diameter = 2 197 f t = 394 f eet

356

External Dose Exercise Solutions Page 2

2. The 75 curie iridium 192 source is placed in the center of a 12 foot by 12 foot cell (as measured
from the inside) with 20 inch (51 cm) concrete walls. Use Table-50, Equation-7.1, and/or
Equation-7.2 to determine: the dose rate one foot from the outside wall.
R1 = 387 rem/hr
R2 =?
D1 = 1f t
D2 = 8.7f t (6 ft to inside wall + 1.7 ft of concrete + 1 ft beyond outside wall)
Using
R1 D12 = R2 D22
and solving for R2 ;
387rem/hr (1f t)2 = R2 (8.7f t)2

R2 =

387rem/hr (1f t)2

= 5.1rem/hr
(8.7f t)2

at 8.7 ft, but have yet to include shielding provided by concrete.

Table-47 shows a tenth value (TVL) for concrete is 14.7 cm for 192Ir.
51cm
Concrete wall thickness = 51 cm, so
per TVL = 3.47 TVL.
14.7cm
Using the Equation-6.13, R = R0 (0.1)3.47
R = 5.1 rem/hr 3.39 104 = 1.7 103 rem/hr = 1.7 mrem/hr.

Internal Dose Exercise 1 Solutions

A worker wears a lapel air sampler with a sample flow rate of 2 liter per minute during the
entire work period. Sample analysis shows 60 nano curies of 60Co. Assume that 60Co is Y
class and the workers breathing rate was 20 liter per minute.
(a) Use Table-53 and the information in Section 7.4.2.1 to estimate the workers committed
effective dose equivalent (CEDE) from the intake.
Lapel air samples are easily evaluated by comparing the workers breathing rate with the
sample flow rate to determining the radioactivity intake and then comparing that to an ALI.
The table shows the inhalation ALI for

60

Co Y class is

3 101 Ci = 30 Ci
Sample activity in units of Ci:
60 nCi 1 Ci
= 0.06 Ci
1 103 nCi
Intake Activity = Sample Activity
Intake = 0.06 Ci

Breathing Rate
Sample Rate

20 L min1
= 0.6 Ci of Y class
2 L min1

60

Co.

30 Ci = 1 ALI = 5 rem CEDE

5 rem
1 ALI
dose =

0.6 Ci = 0.10 rem = 100 mrem.

ALI
30 Ci
(b) Estimate the CEDE if the worker wore a full-face respirator with a protection factor of 50
(See section 7.4.2, page 193 ).
Respirators reduce the intake by the respirator protections factor (PF). Since dose is a direct
(linear) function of intake, if intake is reduced by PF the dose is also reduced by the PF.
Dose with Resp =

Dose w/o Resp

100 mrem
=
= 2mrem
PF
50

Internal Dose Exercise 2 Solutions

Three workers prepare radioactive contaminated pipes for radiographing and magnifluxing. A
single high volume, 5 ft3 /min, air sample was collected from the work area for 20 minutes at
the start of work, 20 minutes midway through the task, and for 20 minutes at the end of the
4 hour work period. The air sample filter had a collection efficiency of 0.90 (90%) and shows
20 Ci of Co 58 and 2 Ci of Co 60, both are Y class.
Given that 1 ft3 = 28.3 liters (28,300 ml), use Table-53 and the information in Section 7.4.2.1
(Page 196) to determine the DAC hours exposure and determine the Committed Effective Dose
Equivalent for one worker from this task.
(a) Filter collected 90% of radioactivity. Corrected activities are:
20 Ci of 58Co/0.90 = 22.2Ci of 58Co
2 Ci of 60Co/0.90 = 2.2Ci of 60Co
(b) Air Sample Volume =
3 runs 20 min/run 5 f t3 /min 2.83 104 mL/f t3 = 8.49 106 mL
(c) Air sample concentrations:
22.2 Ci
= 2.61 106 Ci/mL
6
8.49 10 mL
2.2 Ci
For 60Co :
= 2.61 107 Ci/mL
8.49 106 mL

For

58

Co :

(d) Inhalation DACs from Table-53 for Y class cobalt:

Co : 3 107 Ci/mL
60
Co : 1 108 Ci/mL

58

(e) DAC Exposures:

2.61 106 Ci/mL
= 8.7DAC
3 107 CiDAC/mL
2.61 107 Ci/mL
For 60Co :
= 26.1DAC
1 108 CiDAC/mL
For

58

Co :

(f) DAC-hr Exposure:

34.8 DAC 4 hrs = 139.2 DAC hrs
Also determine the Committed Effective Dose Equivalent from the above DAC hrs.
Since
2000 DAC hrs = 1 ALI = 5 rem
139.2 DAC hrs
= 0.07 5 rem = 0.35 rem = 350 CEDE
2000 DAC hrs/5 rem

RAM Packaging and Shipping Quiz Solutions Page 1

Determine the minimum packaging requirements and the labels and markings required for the
following RAM shipments:
1. Twenty (20) manufactured shifting levers; each contains 2 curies of tritium gas for illumination; no detectable external radiation on devices.
Table-61 shows A1 = A2 = 1100 Ci for tritium. The 2 Ci for each device is far below 1100 Ci,
so check possibility of shipping as an Excepted Quantity ( Instruments and Articles, Table62. That table shows the article limit for tritium gas is 0.02 A2 or 22 Ci and the package
limit is 0.2 A2 or 220 Ci. Thus;
(a) Each item qualifies and all 20 can be placed in one package as Excepted Quantity.
(b) The outside of inner package must be marked Radioactive.
(c) The package outside requires no labels, but must be marked with proper UN number.
UN 2911 (Table-66) in addition to names and addresses.
2. One 0.004 Ci 241Am plated foil source inside a bakelite device; contact external radiation
level less than 0.5 mrem/hour and less than 0.1 mrem/h at 1 meter.
Table-61, shows the A2 for

241

Am is 0.027 Ci.

The item activity of 0.004 Ci does not exceed that A value, so the package can be shipped
in a Type A package. It does not qualify for shipping as an Excepted Quantity.
(a) Package item in type A package
(b) Package requires two white 1 labels (Table-63) on the outside. Each label must include
the contents ( 241Am foil) and the package activity (1.5 108 Bq). The activity in Ci
may be marked on the labels but must be in parentheses.
(c) The package outside also requires markings of:
i. Type A, Package ID or model number, and USA,
ii. UN number, UN 2915 (Table-66),
iii. Names and addresses.

RAM Packaging and Shipping Quiz Solutions Page 2

3. One 0.20 Ci 60Co source inside a 4 cm Lead cylinder. Unshielded radiation level at 1 foot
from the source is 285 mrem/h. With source in shield, the shielded maximum radiation
level at package surface is 30 mrem/h and level at 1 meter is 3.5 mrem/h.
Table-61 shows the A1 = A2 = 11 Ci for 60Co. The item activity of 0.20 Ci does not exceed
that A value, so the package can be shipped in a Type A package. It does not qualify for
Excepted Quantity shipping.
(a) Package item in Type A package.
(b) Package contains two Yellow III labels (Table-63) on the outside and the label TI
recorded as 3.5, contents 60Co check source, and activity of 7.4 109 Bq. Activity in
curies may be recorded in parentheses
(c) The Package outside also requires markings of:
i. Type A, package ID or model number, and USA,
ii. UN Number, UN 2915 (Table-66),
iii. Names and addresses.
(d) Note: must offer 4 Radioactive placards.

Welle & Welle Drilling Co.

Five (5) 2 curie sealed cesium-137 sources and five (5) 20 curie sealed Americium-Beryllium sources.
Three (3) Well Logging Rigs with ten (10) well logging technicians/engineers. Three (3) well
logging crew supervisors and one (1) General Foreman over well loggers.

Radiation Safety Program Outline

(Based on NUREG-1556 & 10 CFR 39. NOTE: Program is based on the above source activities
which are 5 to 10 times the normal license quantities.)
1. RESPONSIBILITIES:
Overall organization and specific organization, including RSO,
as it applies to radiation safety.
Training and experience requirements.
2. TRAINING:
Outline training and instruction to be given to each prospective well logger, supervisor,
and foreman.
Describe instruction/training for other facility personnel.
Descriptions of examinations and field practical examinations.
Annual safety review training.
Qualifications of instructors.
3. FACILITIES/EQUIPMENT:
What must be maintained, where devices can be stored and used,
backup or alternate facilities and equipment.
Radiation levels and controls around facilities.
Signs, postings, labels, barriers, warning lights, etc.
4. PERSONNEL MONITORING:
Must be NVLAP approved.
Must cover types of energies of exposure (neutron and photon).
Extremity dosimeters.
Pocket dosimeters/alarming dosimeters.
TLDs processed at least quarterly, film badges at least monthly.

5. RADIATION DETECTION INSTRUMENTS:

At least one (1) calibrated and operable 0.1 mr/hr to 2 R/hr instrument at each site.
Instruments calibrated at least every 6 months.
Instrument capable of detecting contamination that might occur if source leaked or
damaged.
Leak test (0.005 Ci) capability.
Other instruments as necessary to comply with Part 20.
(last 3 may be provided by vendor or through other contract arrangements)
6. INTERNAL INSPECTION PROGRAM:
Schedule and responsibilities for internal inspections.
Plans for unannounced on-the-job reviews.
Semi-annual inventory.
7. PROCEDURES:
Operating procedures. Must cover handling and use of the sealed sources and
all authorized use locations; removal of sources from storage, visual inspections of equipment, loading in source holder and truck; work area and job-site exposure control and
area posting; precautions and requirements for transportation of sources to job sites.
Emergencies should cover any reasonable situation including lost or faulty dosimetry,
unusual survey readings, lost or stuck source, transportation accident, reporting
procedures and emergency notifications.
Procedures for assuring sealed source leak testing at least every 6 months or before use.
Maintenance procedures (semi-annual).
8. WASTE MANAGEMENT:
Control and minimization of contaminated material.
9. RECORDS AND DOCUMENTS:
Current license.
SOPS/EOP/MPs.
Dose records.
Instrument calibrations.
Survey records.
RAM shipping/receipt records.
Inventory, training, inspection.