CHAPTER-3

CHAPTER-3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The individual well is much more that just an
expensive faucet. It provides the only
communication with reservoir during the
exploitation of a field. The effectiveness of
that communication is a driving factor in the
reservoir drainage as well as overall
economics. The individual well completion
must be designed to yield maximum overall
profitability.
A well completion is nothing but an
arrangement that allows the well to produce
oil and gas from the reservoir to surface.
The completion basically consists of:
Bottom hole equipment to provide
communication between producing
formation and well.
Tubulars and accessories to provide a
means for the produced fluids to flow
from bottom to surface
Well head equipment for control and
monitoring of the produced fluids.
An ideal completion is the one that meets the
demands placed upon it for the exploitation of
a reservoir at lowest cost for the entire
producing life. Many factors-both reservoir
and mechanical need to be considered to
intelligently design completion of a well.

Reservoir Considerations:
Reservoir considerations involve the location
of different fluids in the formation penetrated
by the well bore, flow behaviour of these fluids
in the reservoirs and the characteristics of the
rock itself. It is the producing rate that
provides maximum economic recovery which
is often considered as the starting point for
well completion design. The other important
factors that influence the well completion
design are as follows:
Multiple reservoirs that require multiple
completions with or without packers, in
single or multiple strings etc.
Reservoir drive mechanism mainly
determines
the
completion
or
perforation interval depending on
expected movements of gas-oil or
water-oil contacts.
A water drive

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Well Completion
reservoir may indicate water cut
problem. Dissolved gas drive may
indicate artificial lift and the dissolved
gas and the gas drive reservoirs
usually mean declining productivity
index and increasing GOR.
GOR
Techniques
may
require
completion methods conducive to
selective injection or production.
Thermal recovery processes may
require special casing and cementing
material.
Stimulation may require special
perforating patterns to permit zone
isolation, perhaps adaptability to high
injection rates and pressures and a
well hook up such that after treatment,
the zone can be returned to production
without contact with killing fluids.
High Temperatures may require
special cementing, casing and casing
landing practices.
Sand Control may dictate the type of
completion in a well where sand
control measures are to be adopted.
Work over Frequency, wherever it is
high, and often dictates completion
conducive to wire line or through
tubing type re-completion systems.
Artificial
Lift
requires
single
completions even where multiple
zones exist, as well as larger than
normal tubulars.

Mechanical considerations:
It involves the mechanical configuration or
well hook up to exploit the reservoir
effectively, monitors down hole performances
and modify the well situation when necessary.
While designing well completion, it should
always be kept in mind that design should be
cost effective, safe, simple and reliable
fulfilling all anticipated operating conditions.
Keeping in view the above influencing factors,
the basic decisions to be reached are
a) Method of completion
b) Number of completions within the well
bore
c) Casing Tubing configuration

3.1

Well Completion
d) Diameter of the production conduit
e) Completion interval
This chapter mainly deals with the types of
development wells and their completions.

Advantages of open hole completion

Special drilling techniques can be

used to minimize formation damage
since the casing is set at the top of the
pay zone.

Higher production since full well bore

diameter is available for flow

Saving in perforation costs since no

perforation is required.

Hole can be easily deepened and

converted to a liner completion
subsequently

High productivity is maintained when

gravel packed for sand control.

3.2 TYPES OF WELLS

Based on the well construction profile, the
wells can be classified as:
1.Vertical well
2.Deviated/ Directional well
3.High angle well
4.Horizontal well
5.Extended Reach Drilling (ERD) well
6.ERD Horizontal well
7.Multilateral well
A vertical well is the one that is drilled straight
in to the seabed and is normally drilled from
the center of the platform. The remaining
types of wells are drilled with an angular
profile to attain drainage from a particular
producing layer. These types of wells have
been discussed in detail in subsequent
sections.
The wells can be categorized based on the
service they provide such as:
Producers that produce hydrocarbons
from the reservoir
Injectors that inject fluid into the
reservoir for better recovery

3.3 TYPES OF COMPLETIONS

The completion types can be classified on
different basis. Some of the completion
classifications are discussed below:

3.3.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON

CASING CONFIGURATION
Basically, there are the following three
methods for completing a well based on
casing configuration:
1. Open hole completion (fig. 3.1) where
the production casing is set on top of or
slightly into the pay zone and cemented.
The pay zone is left open and
uncemented.

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Figure 3.1 Open-hole completion

Disadvantages of open hole completion
1.

The fluid flow from or into well bore

cannot be controlled

2.

The gas or water production cannot

be regulated effectively since the
entire hole is open

3.

Difficult to selectively
producing intervals

stimulate

3.2

Well Completion
4.

Well bore may require periodic

cleanout

Perforation expense is avoided in

screen liner
Cleanout problem is avoided in screen
liner

2. Perforated completion (fig. 3.2) where

the producing interval is covered by the
production casing cemented and then
perforated for taking production.

Disadvantages
Diameter across the pay is minimized
Good quality cementation is difficult in
cemented liner.

Advantages
The tubing controls the internal
corrosion of the casing because
produced fluid flows through it and do
not contact the casing.
Disadvantages
Tubing restricts the flow of produced
fluid.
The completion is more expensive because of
the cost of packer, tubing and accessories.

Figure 3.3 Liner Completion

3.3.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON

NUMBER OF TUBING STRINGS
Based on the number of tubing strings
lowered into the well, the most commonly
used completions can be classified into:
a)

A single tubing string is lowered in to the

well to take production from either a
single layer or many layers. All the
figures shown above indicate single
completions.

Figure 3.2 Perforated completion

3. Liner completion (fig. 3.3) where the
production casing is set on top of the pay
zone and is followed by a liner/slotted
liner/ screen. The slotted liners and
screen are not cemented. In case liner is
lowered then the same is cemented and
perforated in the producing layer.
Advantages
Formation damage is minimized
Selective stimulation is possible in
cemented liner

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Single completion

In case production is taken from multiple

layers through a single string then the
completion string makes use of packers
and sliding sleeves to control flow from
individual layer. It is important that the
reservoir pressures of all the layers
flowing into a single string be similar for
this type of completion to be successful.
b)

Dual completion

3.3

Well Completion
In dual completion (Figure 3.4), two
layers are completed and production
from each layer is taken through different
production strings. Such type of
completion does not require the
pressures of individual layers to be
similar since the production from each
layer is independent from one another.
The layers are isolated through use of
packers.
Advantages
It is possible to produce from/inject into
more than one production/ injection
zone through a single well, thereby
reducing overall development costs.
Selective treatment of individual zone
is possible.
Use of natural energy from one zone
can be used to artificially produce
another zone.
Disadvantages:

Figure 3.4 Dual completion

Large number of equipment down hole

used can create problems.
Expensive and more complicated
completion and workover technique.
Possibility of loss of production in zone
due to mechanical problems and
formation damage during work over.

3.3.3 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON

NUMBER OF ZONES COMPLETED
Based on the number of layers completed, the
completion types can be:
Single zone completion
This is the simplest concept in which only a
single layer is completed for production.
Multiple zone completion
In this type of completion, a number of layers
are completed in a well using various
configurations. Some of the configurations
are:

Single string-Single Packer:

The flow from two layers is taken through
tubing and casing. This type of
completion is not used in offshore as
production through casing and tubing
annulus is considered a safety hazard.
Such configuration does not allow upper
formation to be produced through tubing.

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Single String-Dual packer:

3.4

Well Completion
In this type of completion also, there is
flow in tubing and annulus. However, it
allows the upper zone to be flowed
through tubing. Again, for safety of
casing, such completions are not used in
offshore unless in cases where there is
provision to divert the production through
annulus to tubing string.

Parallel string-Multiple packer:

This type of completion is same as dual
completion discussed above.

Single
string-Multiple
Selective zones:

packers-

In such completions, the producing

zones are opened or closed individually
through use of wire line or hydraulic
pressures.

3.3.4 MISCELLANEOUS COMPLETIONS

Gas lift completion (Figure 3.5)
The casing is set through the pay zone and
then perforated. A packer is set above the
producing zone with the tubing string that
has required number of gas lift valves. A
readily available natural gas is injected down
the casing through the gas lift valves and into
the tubing. It may be injected at various
intervals. This gas is used to lift the reservoir
fluid to the surface when the reservoir
pressure is not sufficient to lift the fluids on
its own.

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Figure 3.5 Gas Lift Completion

Tubingless cased hole completion

In tubing-less cased hole completion, casing
is set into or through the producing formation
and cemented (refer fig 3.6). The casing is
then perforated to provide communication
between the well bore and formation. This
type of completion is usually followed in slimholes in isolated area to keep the completion
cost low. All remedial operations are carried
out with coiled tubing.

3.5

Well Completion

Figure 3.6 Tubingless cased hole

Completion

Figure 3.7: A typical Wellhead assembly

3.4 COMPLETION EQUIPMENT

A typical wellhead assembly, as shown in

Figure 3.7 consists of:

Lowermost casing head to support

the other strings of pipe and seal the
annular space between the two strings
of casing.

Lowermost casing hangers to

suspend the next smaller casing
securely and provide a seal between
the suspended casing and the casing
bowl.

Intermediate casing heads to provide

a means of supporting the next smaller

The completion equipment used are

discussed in brief in the following sections.

3.4.1 Wellhead Equipments

Wellhead equipments are attached to the top
of the various casing strings lowered in a well
in order to support the tubular strings, hang
them, provide seals between strings and
control production from the well.

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3.6

Well Completion

Figure 3.7: A typical Wellhead assembly

Intermediate casing hangers to

suspend the next smaller casing string
in the intermediate casing head.

Tubing head to provide a support for

the tubing string, seal annular space
between the tubing string and
production casing string and also
provide access to the casing /tubing
annulus
through
side
outlets
(threaded, studded or extended
flanged).

Tubing hanger (fig 3.8) to provide a

seal between the tubing and the tubing
head and also to support the tubing.

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The lock screws force the top steel

mandrel or plate down to compress
the sealing element and form a seal
between the tubing and tubing head.
Full tubing weight can be temporarily
supported on the tubing hanger, but
permanent support is provided by
threading the top tubing thread into the
adapter flange on top of the tubing
head. The hanger then acts as a seal
only.

3.7

Well Completion
In selecting a tubing hanger, it should be
ensured that the hanger will provide an
adequate seal between the tubing and tubing
head for the particular well conditions (metal
to metal seals are desired in most cases) and
that it is of standard size and suitable for
lowering through full opening drilling
equipment.
Adapter to connect two flanges of different
dimensions or connect a flange to a threaded
end. Crossover flange to connect flanges of
different working pressures.
Multiple completions or multiple-tubing-string
completions require the same wellhead
assembly as single tubing string completions,
with one exception. The tubing-head bowl
must be designed and sized to accommodate
the required size and number of tubing strings
and provide a means for properly orienting the
tubing strings.

3.4.2 Christmas tree (X-mas tree)

A Christmas tree (Figure 3.9) is the most
important well control equipment used in well
completions. It consists of an arrangement of
valves, spools, flanges, and connections to
control the flow of fluids from the well. Based
on application and environment of use,
several types & configurations of Christmas
trees are available.
All the X-mas tree designs, however, have the
following basic components:
Master valves
Master valves are main shut-off valves. They
are kept open for most of the period during a
wells life and are used as little as possible,
especially the lower master valve, to avoid
wear or damage to them.
Wing valve
A wing valve is used to close well and carry
out most routine operations.
Choke
The choke regulates the flow from the well.
Flow or cross tee
The flow tee allows tools to be run into the
well while the well is producing.
Crown or swab valve
The crown valve allows access to the well for
wire line, coil tubing or any other well
interventions jobs to be carried out.
Gauge flange or cap
The gauge flange seals the top of the tree and
has a fitting for a pressure gauge. When the
gauge flange is removed, the tubing becomes
accessible for bottom hole test or installing
lubricator equipment.
Pressure gauges
Pressure gauges are installed to monitor
tubing pressure and casing or annular
pressure.
Casing valve
The casing valve gives access to the area
between the tubing and the casing.

Figure 3.8: Tubing Hanger

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Backpressure Valve (BPV)

The BP valve is installed in the tubing hanger
and facilitates the removal or replacement of
X-mas tree without killing the well. It is also
used to pressure test the X-mas valves.

3.8

Well Completion
Tubing size is determined on the basis of
inflow performance of the reservoir and tubing
performance so as to ensure optimum
production rates over the fields life. Tubing
sizes from 2 7/8 to 5 sizes are in use.
Tubing grade determines the chemical
composition and physical & mechanical
properties of tubing. The tubing grade
selected for a particular completion must
satisfy
the
minimum
performance
requirements for that application. Tubing of
sufficient yield strength to withstand the
various forces caused by changes in
pressures and temperatures must be used in
the well. The tubing must also be resistant to
formation
fluids
containing
corrosive
components e.g. H2S, CO2, chlorides and
water. Normally, L-80 grade of tubing is used
which provides resistance to Sulfide Stress
Cracking.
Tubing weight determines the burst and
collapse ratings of a tubing and is normally
expressed in pounds per foot (ppf) and is a
function of thickness of wall.

Figure 3.9: X-mas tree

3.4.3 Production tubing

Tubing connections are primarily either API

connections or premium connections. The
commonly used API connection is EUE that
provides reliable service in a majority of wells.
Premium tubing connections are used in
corrosive environments, high-pressure wells
and in wells with bends and doglegs.
A Typical well completion diagram with the
down hole completion equipment is illustrated
in fig.3.10. The well completion configuration
can vary from well to well based of different
factors.

Production tubing forms the conduit for the

reservoir fluids to flow from well bore to
surface. In addition, it facilitates well bore
service operations such as wire line,
stimulation, circulation etc. Typically, tubing is
run inside a casing or liner but can also be
cemented in slim hole wells as the casing.
Depending on the type of completion, one or
two tubing strings may be used in the well.
The major considerations in the selection of
tubing for a particular well are:

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3.9

Well Completion
Slips to grip the casing wall and
prevent the packer from moving
up and down.
Hold down buttons to prevent
packer from unseating.
The packer design also provides for a spacer
tube that has holes to remove trapped air and
bypass ports to circulate out debris settled on
packer & pressure equalization across the
packer elements.
The criteria
consider:

for

packer

selection

must

Selection / completion strategy

Rig capacity for fishing/ milling
Fishing requirements
Well fluid characteristics, H2S,
CO2
Bottom
hole
pressure
&
temperature

Fig. 3.10 Typical well completion diagram

3.4.4 Packers
A packer (Fig.3.11 and3.12) provides a means
of sealing the tubing string from the casing
thereby preventing communication of fluids.
This protects the casing from undue stress in
the form of pressure differentials and also
protects the casing against the corrosion and
erosion from the produced fluids. Since casing
used in a well is a permanent component of
the completion system, repair / replacement of
casing is very complicated and expensive.
The packer along with tubing string is easier
to remove and replace. Packers are also used
for zone separation as in the case of multiple
zone completions.
All types of packers are mostly consists of:
Flow mandrel to provide the flow
conduit for production.
Resilient elements to ensure the
tubing to annulus pressure seals.
Cone or Wedges to assist in
positioning of the slips.

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Figure 3.11. Figure 3.12.

Wire
Mechanical Permanent packer
packer

line

set

3.10

Well Completion
The packer can be single, dual or triple bore
and are mainly classified as:

Retrievable packer
A retrievable packer is run as an integral
part of the tubing string and is set either
mechanically or hydraulically and can be
released by pulling or rotating the string.
Advantages
Tubing can be landed and
Christmas tree be installed.

The hydraulic set retrievable packers are set

by applying a pressure of 1400 to 2000 psi
inside the string and thus require a system
such as Pump Out Plug to apply pressure.
The POP rating depends on well pressure.
The ratchet mechanism in the packer stores
the setting pressure and enables the
elements to remain in inflated condition. The
packer is released through a release
ring/screws that shear at an over pull of
20,000 to 30,000 lbs above pull out weight.

the
Permanent packer

The packer does not have to be milled

out if it becomes necessary to remove
it, thus saving rig time.

The permanent packer, normally once set, is

regarded as part of the casing and can only
be removed destructively by milling.

Packer can
applications.

The completion string can be engaged into for

providing the flow conduit or removed from
the packer for well killing.

be

reused

in

other

Mechanical retrievable packer can be

reused
in
same
well
without
redressing.
Disadvantages
Pulling may swab the well in if packer
is not fully released.
They have lower differential pressure
rating mostly limited to 7500 psi.
Equalization of pressure across the
packer may be difficult.
While stimulating the well with cold
fluids, excessive contraction of tubing
may shear the packer release studs of
straight pull release type packers, if
the hold down buttons are not holding.
The mechanically set retrievable packers are
set by applying sufficient right hand rotations
to the string and released by straight pull.
Compression set mechanical packers have
dies downwards e.g. RTTS, R-3. Tensions set
mechanical packers are used when packer is
to be set at shallow depths where required
compression cannot be given. The packer
configuration in tension set packer is opposite
to that of compression set i.e. slips at top and
rubber elements at bottom. Prior to running in
the packer, it must be ensured that the rubber
elements, spacer rings, dies, slips, Teflon ring
at the top sub are in good condition.

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Permanent packers can be set mechanically,

hydraulically or electrically through wire line.
Some recent designs of permanent packers,
such
as
Quantum
packer
of
M/s
Schlumberger, can be set hydraulically and
retrieved also after the job is completed.
These type of packers are recommended for
use where long term completion, highpressure differential, maximum dependability,
large packer bore are required.
Inflatable packer
The inflatables packers (Figure 3.13) are
run through the tubing string either on wire
line or coiled tubing and inflated to the
required size. The pressure rating of such
packers is less. Such packers are used in
straddle completions and for open hole
testing.

3.11

Well Completion
Seating nipples (Figure 3.16) are located at
various depths in the tubing string. The
seating nipples enable various wire line
intervention jobs for the purposes of flow
control. Some of such jobs include shutting
the well for testing the tubing string,
circulation, pressure equalization, operation of
sub surface safety valve when hydraulic
control is lost, installation of down hole
chokes etc.

3.4.8 Landing nipple

Figure 3.13 Inflatable packer

A landing nipple (Figure 3.17) is a short

section of thick walled tubing that is machined
internally to provide a locking profile and at
least one packing bore. It provides a profile at
a specific point in the completion string to
locate, lock and seal sub-surface flow controls
either through wire line or pump down
method.

3.4.9 Expansion joint

3.4.5 Blast joint
Reservoir fluids entering the well bore through
perforations may display a jetting behaviour
that can erode the tubing string at the point of
fluid entry and ultimately may cause the
tubing failure.
The blast joints (Figure 3.14) are pipe joints of
20 to 30 feet length with a wall thickness
greater than the tubing and are run in the
string so to be opposite the perforations. The
blast joints delay the erosional failure at the
point of entry of fluids into well bore.

3.4.6 Flow coupling

Expansion joints are used to compensate

tubing movement due to temperature and /or
pressure changes during treatment or
production. These are available in various
stroke lengths.

3.4.10 Safety joints

Safety joints (Figure 3.18) are used in
between the packers in multiple completions
and in selective completion using hydraulic
single string packers.
The shear pin in safety joint enables stuck
tubing to be sheared off. But because it
introduces a weak joint, its use should be
restricted wherever possible.

A flow coupling (Figure 3.15) is a short piece

of pipe that has a wall thickness greater than
the tubing string. It is used to delay the
erosional failure at points inside a completion
string wherever turbulent flow is anticipated
such as around a landing nipple or sub
surface safety valve. The flow couplings are
available in 3 to 10 feet length and length of
flow coupling for a particular application
depends on how quickly the turbulent flow is
expected to dissipate and the abrasive nature
of the fluid.

3.4.7 Seating nipple

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3.12

Well Completion

Figure 3.14 Blast joint

Figure 3.15 Flow coupling

Figure 3.17 Landing Nipple

3.4.11 Safety valves

a. Sub-Surface Control Safety Valve
(SSCSV)

Figure 3.16 Seating Nipple

Figure 3.18 Safety Joint

hole chokes & regulators and injection
safety valves. Based on operating/
activation mechanism these valves can be
classified as:

Subsurface control is executed by a number

of devices such as safety valves, bottom

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3.13

Well Completion
Differential pressure or velocity type
where the valve is spring operated and kept
normally open. The differential pressure
design valve shuts in the well automatically
when there is abnormal production rate, this
is due to rupture in surface equipment, that
results in higher pressure differential than
the spring setting of the valve.
Pressure activated type consists of a
valve that is dome pressure operated and
normally closed until acted upon by a
pressure greater than the pre-set dome
pressure. The pressure-actuated values
are pre-charged with a set dome pressure
and held open by well pressure. When the
flowing pressure of the well drops, the valve
closes to shut in the well. When the tubing
pressure is equalized with dome pressure it
will open the valve automatically.
b. Surface controlled sub-surface safety
valves (SCSSV)
The use of SCSSV is mandatory for
offshore producing wells and offers a
mechanism for remotely operated subsurface well control. It consists of a flapper
type valve that is located in the string at a

abnormal increase or decrease in flow line

pressure.
The
valve
operation
is
independent of tubing pressure, and well
fluid surges.
Both wire line retrievable and tubing
retrievable designs of SCSSV are available
but the tubing retrievable type is extensively
used in Western offshore.
Malfunction / Failure of SCSSV
The four major reasons for the failure of
SCSSV along with the likely reasons and
their possible remedies are tabulated below:
In case of failure to open a SCSSV, a
secondary safety valve viz. storm choke is
installed through wire line to lock open the
SCSSV flapper and continue with
production. This is employed as a stop gap
arrangement only till the time a rig is
deployed at the well for work over operation
during which the SCSSV is retrieved,
repaired/ replaced and reinstalled.
The storm choke is velocity operated and
hence requires no hydraulic pressure for its
operation. The valve is designed for closure
once the production rate exceeds a pre-

Sl.
No.

PROBLEM

PROBABLE
REASONS

POSSIBLE REMEDIES

1.

Flapper valve
stuck in open
position

Scale deposition due to high

water cut / Non-operation of
SCSSV for a long time

2.

Hydraulic
line
leak

Acid spotting/ Operation of

SCSSV once in 6 months/
Installation of secondary
Safety valve (Storm choke)
System always to be put
online to control panel for
corrective pressure release/
Sealtite application

3.

Control
blockage
Control system
failure

4.

control Temperature gradient

difference owing to
initial flow or flow after
stimulation job/ Leaking
connector joints/ Elastomer seals
line Solid partcles in hydraulic oil

depth of normally 150 m from wellhead. It is

controlled from the surface by hydraulic
pressure application through external
stainless steel control line. The valve is failsafe close and is held open against spring
pressure by maintaining hydraulic pressure.
The loss of hydraulic pressure will cause
the valve to close and shut in the well.
Surface control units, which supply the
hydraulic pressure, also monitor any

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Periodic change of oil filters

Same as at point no. 2 above

determined level thereby ensuring well
safety.
c. Shut down valve (SDV)
The shut down valve is used at surface in
the flow line from the X-mas tree and is
located after the flow valve. It is
pneumatically controlled and gets closed in
case of any leak in the flow line down
stream of it.

3.14

Well Completion
3.4.12 Circulating valves
Provision
for
tubing
to
annulus
communication is required to circulate fluids
in a well, treat a well with chemicals, inject
fluids from the annulus in to the tubing
string or produce a zone that is isolated
between two packers. Such tubing to
annulus access is provided in the
completion string through use of various
types of circulating devices.
a. Sliding sleeve
Sliding sleeves(Figure 3.20 ) are the
principle circulating devices that provide
the ability to circulate a well and also
selectively produce multiple reservoirs.
A sliding sleeve is a cylindrical device
with an inner sleeve and outer body
bored to provide matching openings. The
inner sleeve is moved using a wire line
shifting tool. When the sleeve is moved
and matched with openings in the outer
body, it creates a circulation path
between tubing and annulus.

Figure 3.19 Side Pocket Mandrel

Some of the typical applications for

which the sliding sleeves are used are
for displacing fluid, selective testing,
treating or production in multiple
completion,
killing
by
circulation,
pressure equalizing etc.
b. Side Pocket Mandrel
Side pocket mandrel (Figure 3.19 ) has a
polished receptacle/pocket on one side
that can accommodate down hole tools
lowered by wire line.
Side pocket
mandrels are placed in the tubing string
at a location where it is necessary to
install gas lift valve/ chemical injection
valve/ down hole choke, complete the
dual or multiple zones, test or treat
selectively and provide communication
between the tubing and the annulus
when required.

Figure 3.20 Sliding Sleeves

3.4.13 Gas lift mandrel

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3.15

Well Completion
The gas lift mandrel is similar to side pocket
mandrel and is used to install gas lift valves
in the string through wire line or at surface
in wells completed with gas lift.

condition well fluid may develop gel

strength or conversely may not be able to
keep solid in suspension. In either case a
viscous coagulated, semisolid stage may
develop down hole, making it difficult, if
not impossible, to run completion
equipment. A bit and scrapper run may be
necessary to circulate out and recondition
the well bore fluids.

3.4.14 Pump out plug

A pump out plug is generally run at the
bottom of the string and is used for
hydraulically setting the retrievable packer.
It has a seat to accommodate the ball and
the seat is locked in position by shear
screws of specified shear value. The ball
dropped for setting the hydraulic packer sits
on this seat and ensures leak proof system.
When hydraulically pressurized from
surface, the packer is set at a
predetermined pressure. As more and more
pressure is applied, the entire shear screws
in the seat shear off allowing the seat of
POP to fall along with the ball in the sump.

3.4.15 Wire line re-entry guide

The wire line re-entry guide forms the
bottom most part of completion string and is
basically a mule shoe that is bevelled to
facilitate easy lowering of wire line tools in
well bore and their re-entry into the string.
Some of the pump out plugs used have a
beveled profile at the bottom and can be
used as wire line re-entry guide.
In deviated wells, when the string can get
held-up at packer top a self-indexing mule
shoe is used. The weight on touching the
packer triggers indexing and facilitates entry
into the packer by rotating the string.

3.5 INSTALLATION OF
COMPLETION EQUIPMENT
The following considerations should be kept in
mind while lowering and installation of
completion equipment:

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Casing ID restriction should be minimized

or eliminated and well fluids should be
circulated and conditioned before the
equipment is lowered. The ID restrictions
may result from mud cake build up,
cement scale, over torque of casing
connection, and pipe scale build. Non-

When selecting completion equipment for

a particular down hole service, it is
necessary to specify equipment that is
appropriate for use with the production
tubular under worst collapse and tension
conditions.
Deviation
from
this
requirement may be costly if equipment
failure occurs down hole.

When installing packers and other

completion equipment it is best to run and
set as quickly and accurately as possible.
Safe run in speed should be determined
since most completion packers have
small clearances with respect to the
casing ID. Running tool fast may cause
the packer elements to swab the well that
may damage the elements.

3.5.1 PROCEDURE FOR INSTALLING A

COMPLETION
The basic steps involved in the installation of
completion system are:
1. RIH down hole completion hook-up.
2. RIH SCSSV with control line
strapped to completion string. The
SCSSV must be function & pressure
tested prior to lowering.
3. Installation of tubing hanger &
pressure test.
4. Nippling down BOP.
5. Installation of X-mas tree and
pressure test.
6. Displacement with lighter cushion
fluid
7. Packer setting
8. Activation
9. Cleaning
10. Handing over well to platform for
production

3.6 COMPLETION OF HORIZONTAL

& MULTILATERAL WELLS
3.16

Well Completion
The horizontal & multi lateral wells can be
classified under a special category of
Extended Reach Drilling (ERD) wells. This
class of wells can be defined as wells with a
departure of twice or more of True Vertical
Depth (TVD) of the well i.e. a reach to TVD
ratio of 2 or more. This definition separates
conventional directional wells from horizontal
and multilateral wells that require special
considerations.
Horizontal well drilling and production have
gained increasing importance in recent years
due to the potential increase in oil and gas
production from horizontal and multilateral
wells and comparatively high reduction in
drilling and completion costs. Developments
in technologies to tackle the problems of well
bore stability and formation damage have
made horizontal wells more attractive. The
thrust on horizontal and multilateral wells has
diverse reasons such as productivity increase,
production from low permeability formations,
connecting vertical fissures, staying away
from OGC & OWC contacts, producing thin
reservoirs,
injecting
steam,
increasing
injectivity, increasing sweep efficiency,
controlling sand, producing gas from coal
seams, etc.
Horizontal wells are normally new wells drilled
from the surface. Drain holes or laterals are
generally drilled from existing well (vertical or
horizontal) through re-entry drilling. Drain
holes or laterals may be single or multiple
drain holes (multilateral). In contrast to a
vertical well, a horizontal well provides infinite
conductivity fluid path for the formation fluid.
Formations in which bottom and top gas cap
renders fracturing difficult, a horizontal well
offers an alternative to get high production
rates without gas and water coning problems.
Thus, in general, horizontal wells are effective
way of exploiting new as well as mature oil
fields having thin formations, naturally
fractured formations, tight formations and
formations with gas and water coning
problems.

Horizontal well Completion

Selection of completion method has a
significant influence on life of well, its
performance and intervention requirement in
future. A completion option may look

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expensive at the time of well completion but in

the long term it may be very cost effective.
Various factors such as potential of the
reservoir, reservoir characteristics, geology,
rock and formation type, nature of fluid to be
produced and exploitation strategy play very
important role in well completion.
Based on these considerations, the following
four types of completion options (Figure 3.21)
are available for horizontal wells:
(1) Open hole Completion:
In open hole completion, the horizontal
segment of the well bore is kept open
without any casing or liner. This type of
completion is very inexpensive and is well
suited for a stable formation that remains
stable through out the life of the well and
has low to medium permeability. This
completion ideally suits the formations
having
very little
zonal
isolation
requirement
for
water
and
gas
breakthrough.
The
most
common
application for the open hole completion is
in fractured limestone or chalk formations.
One major advantage, other than the cost
itself, is that the formation has little
damage from the completion because of
the absence of cementation. Absence of a
casing in open hole, however, severely
limits stimulation and remedial options
including control either in injection or
production through out the life of the well.
For stimulating wells, having open hole
completion
effectively,
diversion
techniques assisted with CTU, retrievable
inflatable open hole packers etc are
required.
(2) Slotted liner Completion:
The only difference between open hole
and a slotted liner completion is the
addition of a slotted liner having narrow
longitudinal slots/ holes in the open hole
section of the well. This slotted liner gives
additional stability to open hole section
without adding substantial cost or
complexity over the open hole completion
and provides a convenient path for entry
of various CTU and tractor assisted down
hole tools for remedial and diagnostic
works.

3.17

Well Completion
In unconsolidated sandstone reservoirs,
the prepack/ gravel pack liners are used
to provide some degree of sand incursion
control.
The major disadvantage of slotted liner
completion is that it still does not offer
selective layer stimulation and control
since no zonal isolation is used in
between the layers.

slotted liner completion that makes use of

External Casing Packer (ECP) to provide
selective zonal isolation and stimulation.
Inflatable External Casing Packers are
installed out side the slotted liner in open
hole to divide a long horizontal section
into several producing sections. Limited
zone isolation can be achieved by using
ported subs or sliding sleeves, bridge
plugs, packers or straddles. If unwanted
fluids break through from a particular
horizontal section then production from
that section is isolated using ECPs
(Figure 3.22 ). The production from the
remaining well length remains unaffected.
This type of completion provides limited
zone isolation for stimulation and
production control along the well bore at
lesser cost and risk than cemented &
perforated completion but its use in
reservoirs having corrosive and scaling
environment may pose problems owing to
inability to operate ECP, sleeves after a
period of time.
(4) Cemented & Perforated liner completion:
In this type of completion (Figure 3.23),
the horizontal / drain hole section is
covered with casing/ liner, cemented and
then perforated in hydrocarbon bearing
sections. The completion offers effective
means of zonal isolation with the help of
retrievable or permanent bridge plugs and
packers.

This completion is relatively expensive

and hence used only when the other
completion methods, as discussed above,
are likely to be ineffective such as in
formations having low permeability that
requires transverse or longitudinal
hydraulic fractures for adequate drainage
Figure 3.21 Various Completion Options
Horizontal and
wellsthin oil column
& for
deliverability
reservoirs with top gas or lower water
layers that require frequent isolation for
shutting off unwanted gas and water
production.
(3) Slotted liner Completion for zonal
isolation:
This type of completion is an
improvement over the conventional

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Multilateral well Completion

3.18

Well Completion
Level

Classification

Open / Unsupported Junction

Main bore Cased & Cemented, Lateral Open

Main bore Cased & Cemented, Lateral Cased

but Not Cemented

Barefoot main bore & lateral or slotted liner hung

off in either bore

Lateral either barefoot or with slotted liner hung

off in open hole

Lateral liner anchored to main bore but not

cemented at junction

Figure 3.22 ECP and Sliding Sleeve Completion

Main bore & Lateral Cased & Cemented
4
Both bores cemented at the junction

Pressure Integrity at the Junction

Achieved with the completion, i.e. straddle
packers; (may or may not be cemented)

Figure 3.23 Cased, cemented & perforated liner completion

Multilateral well technology involves drilling
Pressure Integrity at the Junction
6
Achieved with sealed casing (cement alone is no
and production from various layers drilled
sufficient)
from a single slot or mother bore. It provides
Includes reformable junctions and noncost reduction in terms of increased
reformable, full diameter splitters that require
production, increased reserves for exploitation
larger diameter well bores
and slot conservation.
An oil industry forum on the Technical
Advancement of Multilaterals (TAML) has
Reservoir characteristics and completion
been created to develop multilateral
variables such as sand or debris control,
classification matrix and foster a better
water production, draw down requirement,
understanding of multilateral well application,
lifting
mechanism,
various
completion
capabilities and equipments. The major oil &
designs and production control help in
service companies all over the world are its
determining the most appropriate multilateral
members.
system for any given reservoir.
Multilateral well classification:
The difference
between
the
various
multilateral systems is basically a matter of
the completion itself. The most simple
multilateral from a drilling standpoint is not
much different from drilling of a very complex
multilateral. But the completion hard wares
between the two systems will vary widely and
the risk involved will also vary drastically.

In order to properly categorize the various

multilateral systems, TAML group has
classified the systems into levels as a function
of increasing risk and complexity.
Revised November 2002. This classification
system was developed by TAML (Technical
Advancement of Multilaterals). A well's
classification level corresponds to the
highest junction level in the well.

Another representation of the above

classification is shown below:

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3.19

Well Completion
Level- 2 multilateral well:

Level-1 multilateral well:

Level-2 multilateral system (Figure 3.25) has

a cased parent bore while open or simple
(slotted liners, pre-packed screens) lateral
bores. The parent bore is cased & cemented,
and an orientation packer is set below the
proposed junction kick-off point. A whip stock
is then landed into the packer and oriented in
the desired kick-off direction. Subsequently,
the casing is milled away and a lateral is
drilled to the target length. After drilling the
lateral section, the whip stock is retrieved and
the hole is completed in a variety of ways with
various completion hard wares depending on
requirements of the well.
The requirement of casing exit & whip stock
retrieval in Level-2 poses much greater risk
than Level-1 but minimizes the chances of
borehole collapse and also provides hydraulic
isolation between the lateral zones.
A low cost option of multilateral completion
system that provides both parent-bore support
and production control, not found in level 1,
is to incorporate a sliding sleeve between the
orientation packer & a second packer placed
above the casing exit so that production from
both the laterals can be commingled.
Production isolation of either lateral is
possible in this arrangement. In case bottom
zone begins to deplete or produce water, a
plug can be placed in the lower packer to shut
off production from lower bore. In case the
upper lateral production needs to be shut off
then the same can be done by closing the
sliding sleeves.

Figure 3.24 Representation of Multilateral

well classification
(TAML) of this type
However,
the main disadvantages
This type of multilateral is drilled from an open
of completion system are continued reliance
hole main bore (parent-bore) and no
on formation for junction stability at exit point,
mechanical support or hydraulic isolation at
no provision to produce separately from
junction is provided. These are the simplest
individual layers and limitation of re-entry in
multilateral systems and utilize multiple
lateral bore due to sliding sleeve. The re-entry
drainage legs from parent open hole bore.
into lateral bore is possible in case a lateral
The advantages of this system are its low cost
nipple is used in place of sliding sleeve.
and simplicity. There is no milling required, no
whip stocks to retrieve, no liners to cement
and no production control equipment to install.
Lack of casing support limits its use to stable
formation only at the cost of no production
control of individual layers. The production
must be commingled and cannot be
selectively shut-off.

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3.20

Well Completion

Figure 3.25 Level 2 multilateral well completions

Figure 3.26 Level 3 multilateral completion

Both Level-1 & 2 multilaterals have been

completed in Mumbai Offshore.
Level 3 well completions:
The next level of completion (Figure 3.26) in
terms of risk & complexity is Level 3 that has
its main bore cased & cemented and laterals
cased but not cemented. Lateral liner is
anchored with main bore but not cemented.
The well can be completed with a lateral reentry system or a sliding sleeve in same

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manner as in Level -2 completion. Quality of

mechanical support at the junction is achieved
by anchoring the lateral liner but still hydraulic
support is not available at the junction.
Cement sheath in main bore at junction is not
capable of withstanding even a small
pressure differential and can fail over a period
of time if draw down becomes substantial.
Due to this reason this system is not useful for
wells
with
unconsolidated
formations
expected with higher draw down during
production period.

3.21

Well Completion
3.7 WELL ACTIVATION USING BACK
SURGE TOOL
Various methods of well activation have been
used in development wells with mixed results.
Activation of highly deviated wells such as
ERD wells or horizontal wells poses
challenges that require special tools or
innovative ideas to successfully activate or
stimulate these wells.
Some of the methods of activation in these
types of wells are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Matrix acidization job

Nitrified MAJ
Acid spotting with CTU
Acidization through CTU

However, the results from the application of

these techniques were not very encouraging.
Recently, many such wells have been
activated through use of Back surge tool
(Figure 3.26) with excellent results and most
of wells so activated have not required
stimulation jobs.
The formation surge tool provides an
instantaneous draw down across the
formation that assists in the removal of debris
from the area around the perforated tunnel.
The tool is run on a lock mandrel to an
appropriate landing nipple profile. Precisely
rated shear screws are used to set the tool to
activate at a predetermined draw down
pressure starting from 500 psi to 4000 psi.
Activation of the tool is achieved in a number
of ways:
Bleeding off above the tool
Circulating out well contents to
nitrogen above the tool
Pre-pressurizing the formation and
bleeding off above the tool.

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Figure 3.26 Back pressure surge tool

3.8 SUB SEA WELL COMPLETION

3.8.1 INTRODUCTION
A sub sea well is one where the well bore
terminates at seabed and wellhead is located
on the seabed. It is different from a platform
based
well
where
tubing
carrying
hydrocarbon with full pressure continues up
to the platform deck. Sub sea systems range
from single sub sea well producing to nearby
platform or Floating Production System
(FPS) to multiple wells producing through
manifold and pipeline system to distant
producing facility. Such systems are often
referred to as sub sea tieback where sub
sea production system is tied back to
production facility/ platform in shallow
waters.
The emergence of sub sea technology has
revolutionized
the
industrys
offshore
activities and it has developed at a
remarkable pace in recent years. The
technology of sub sea production was
pioneered in USA, but the first modern
application was in shallow waters in the
Argyll field of North Sea, where operator
Hamilton Brothers used sub sea wells

3.22

Well Completion
connected to a converted Semi submersible
drilling rig to produce UKs first offshore oil in
1975. However, the main growth of sub sea
production technology began in 1980s in
North Sea and offshore Brazil. In the USA,
despite the early pioneering work, there was
little sub sea activity until discovery of
deepwater reserves in Gulf of Mexico, which
has prompted a surge of development over
the past 6 years. Recent advances in diverless technologies have further boosted the
application of sub sea completion systems.
Sub Sea Vs Surface Completion
Generally speaking, surface completion are
cheaper to manufacture, easier to install and
far less troublesome to maintain than sub
sea systems and hence the decision to opt
for sub sea development is generally taken
when other context specific criteria make it
demonstrably superior in terms of overall
cost effectiveness. Such criteria include
water depth, prevailing climate and
environmental conditions, well numbers,
reservoir size and reserve distribution, well
maintenance requirement etc.
Conditions that particularly favour the
adoption of sub sea completion technology
are:
Deepwater fields
Small / Marginal field or fields with
scattered reserve distribution
Harsh Environmental conditions
Fast track development projects
Phased development designed to
achieve early production that can then
be augmented by latter stages of
development

A sub sea well completion has proved its

reliability in service and cost and hence the
numbers of sub sea completions have
increased over the years especially for
development of deep-water fields where sub
sea completion presents one of the low cost
development solutions in deep water. There
are, however, several key elements that
need to be in place in order to find an optimal
sub sea solution. The sub sea wellhead may
also be designed to accommodate a tieback
to a surface facility on a TLP, SPAR or a
fixed platform. A well Cluster or integrated
manifold is selected where a particular field
is extensively used.
An integrated manifold consists of wells
drilled through a template structure and
connected directly to flow lines and
associated controls as an integral part of the
manifold. This method depends on the
number of wells that can be drilled from
same seabed position.
The Cluster concept permits drilling and
completion independent of the manifold.
This allows for a smaller manifold structure,
is cost effective and can be made retrievable
through a drilling rig moon pool. This results
in a reduced installation cost and provides
more installation options. Piling and leveling
of the manifold are less stringent due to the
size and overall loading, although soil
parameters can be the governing factor. In
case the deepwater production wells are
scattered over a wide area and well
maintenance is relatively low then sub sea
systems involving seabed completion are
selected.

In some situation sub sea developments

linked to Floating Production System (FPS)
or tied back to existing platforms provide the
most cost effective development option.
One of the fundamental aspects of field
development,
including
deepwater
development, is whether to have an above
surface wellhead or sub ea. In deep waters,
the choice is limited due to the water depths,
the availability of appropriate technology and
extreme cost limitations for opting a surface
tree.

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3.8.2 DIFFERENT ALTERNATIVES OF

SUB SEA COMPLETION AND
LAYOUT
Three main alternatives can be thought of for
sub sea completion layout strategy:

Individual satellite wells

Cluster development

3.23

Well Completion

Integrated templates/manifold

3.8.2.1 INDIVIDUAL/ SATELLITE WELLS

Satellite wells comprise of individual wells
with separate control umbilical and flow line
for each well linking production back to
floater or platform.
In the past, the sub sea connection and
maintenance work was carried out by divers
and therefore these systems were depth
limited. Also the cost of individual flow lines
and umbilical was prohibitively expensive in
case of long distances.
Figure 3.27 Satellite Sub Sea Wells
However, with technological advances in
production hardware and development of
remotely operated vehicles (ROV), the
satellite concept has become a practical and 3.8.2.2 CLUSTER WELLS
effective
development
strategy
for
deepwater prospects and has been adopted
in many current projects.
A simpler approach of Sub sea completion
system involves a simple manifold to gather
production from a cluster of individual
satellite wells (Figure 3.27) typically
separated by 30m and connected by short
flow lines. Most of the Gulf of Mexico
Deepwater developments are based on this
concept. Production can be co-mingled for
transmission
to
the
host
platform,
Figure 3.28 Cluster wells
minimizing flow line costs. Some of the
disadvantages of cluster developments are
the costs associated with flow line and
umbilical jumpers and the need for a 3.8.2.3 INTEGRATED TEMPLATE / MANIFOLDS
centralized location, which in turn,
Integrated template /Manifolds (Figure 3.29)
necessitates
extended
reach
drilling
are used to combine the flows from a
requirements.
number of wells. A template can provide the
base for multiple wellheads, manifold and
protective structure. In the early 1970s
designs emerged for integrated sub sea
template/manifold through which a dozen or
more wells could be drilled and completed
allowing the co-mingling of their production.
Typically, in the case of a 12-well
development, instead of using individual
flow lines and central lines for each well,
only 5 lines will be required in the case of
integrated template lay out - two production
flow lines, one injection flow line (if
applicable) and perhaps a test flow line and
a single electrical/hydraulic control umbilical.

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3.24

Well Completion
However,
in
addition
to
increased
complexity and associated costs, the
integrated template/ manifold has several
significant disadvantages such as its heavy
weight which requires a dedicated crane
barge for its installation, increased drilling
costs in terms of extended reach drilling
from a central location, need for precise
leveling at the sea bed etc. These factors
can offset the savings made in terms of flow
lines and umbilicals.

serve the overall objective - to maximise

profits and minimise risks.
The main "building blocks" (sub systems)
that are used in most sub sea systems
include the following:

Sub sea Trees

Marine Wellheads
Control Systems
Control Umbilicals
Flow line Connection Systems and
Pipelines
Riser Systems

3.8.3.1 SUB SEA X-MAS TREE/

WELLHEAD

Figure 3.29 Integrated Template

3.8.3 SUB SEA SYSTEM KEY

COMPONENTS
A sub sea system is a system that is
specially designed for a particular reservoir
that is to be developed. When comparing
various sub sea systems, it is safe to say
that all sub sea systems are different.
Some of the reasons for this are listed
below:

Reservoir conditions
Water depths
Geographical Location
Seabed Conditions
Experience from Previous Projects
Technical Advances
Specific Oil Company Requirements

All sub sea systems consists of "building

blocks" (standard or purpose built sub
systems) that are assembled into a main
sub sea system. Not all sub sea systems
use the same building blocks. This depends
on the system layout that is chosen to best

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The sub sea tree consists of an assembly of

valves that controls the flow of produced
fluids. The valves are mostly controlled
remotely (open/close). The sub sea tree
also facilitates vertical access to the
production
bore
to
perform
well
maintenance and injection of chemicals to
prevent hydrates, corrosion and wax buildup.

Types of Sub sea Trees

There are two types of sub sea tree designs
in the market today:
Vertical Tree
The Vertical Tree (Figure 3.30) has valves
in the vertical production and annulus
bores. It has its tubing hanger situated
below the tree - in the wellhead and hence
is needed to be pulled out prior to pulling
out the tubing hanger/tubing. The tree is
very tall and hence requires a completion
riser.
Horizontal Tree
The Horizontal Tree /Side valve tree has
no
valves
in
the
vertical
production/annulus bore. All the valves are
mounted on the sides of the tree block.
The tubing hanger is landed in the tree
block. The tree is short and does not need
a completion riser. However, part of the
subs ea well is drilled through the
Horizontal Tree with the Blow Out

3.25

Well Completion
Preventer (BOP) locked at the top of the
Horizontal Tree. The Horizontal Tree is
used in wells in which the tubing string
has be pulled out frequently since the tree
is not required to be pulled out prior to
pulling the tubing hanger/tubing.

A sub sea manifold (Figure 3.33) is used to

gather production from a cluster of individual
satellite wells typically separated by 30-50
m and connected by short flow lines and a
cluster line `jumpers. Most of the Gulf of
Mexico Deepwater developments are based
on this concept. Production can be comingled for transmission to the host
platform, minimizing flow line costs.
Cluster manifold
The cluster manifold concept is adopted
where wells are drilled within 50 m from the
manifold and flexible or rigid jumpers
connect the wells to the manifold. The
control umbilical jumpers are also used
between the cluster wells and the manifold.
The main advantage is that no infield
pipeline / control umbilical required.

Figure 3.33 Sub Sea manifold

Satellite wells with manifold

The Satellite wells with manifold concept is
adopted where wells are drilled more than
100 m to 200 m away and the infield flow
lines are required to connect manifold to the
sub sea wells. The main advantage of the
satellite wells is that the wells can be drilled
in sequence and the production can
commence from the drilled wells if the other
facilities are available for commissioning.

Template
Figure 3.30 Cameron Dual Bore sub sea Tree (Vertical
tree) manifold
The manifold with well template is adopted
where wells are drilled using the manifold as
the sub sea template and the Christmas tree
is integrated within the sub sea manifold.
The main advantage is that the drilling
vessel can be stationed in one place
throughout the drilling period for all the wells
within the template.

3.8.3.3 RISERS
Risers carry either hydrocarbon from
seabed to surface or injection fluid from the
surface to the seabed. At the foot of the
riser, it is joined to the seabed pipeline
either through a simple elbow or by a more
complex geometrical configuration that
includes a dogleg or a loop to take up the
pipelines thermal expansion.
Figure 3.31 Side Valve Tree

3.8.3.2 SUB SEA MANIFOLD

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FigureIn3.32
Cameron
Spool
shallow
waters,
risersTree
can be installed by
(Horizontal
tree)
a straightforward stalking on procedure
where a riser is bolted on to a platform using
previously installed clamps.
In greater

3.26

Well Completion
water depths, the riser is installed with the
platform and joined to the pipeline through a
spool piece a short section of pipe that
may in some situation be flexible.
Caisson risers are used when several risers
are bundled together in a large diameter
pipe.
The internal pipes carry the
temperature and pressure loads and the
external pipe carries the external wave
loads.
In some instances, these are
insulated.
For deepwater developments with floating
production systems, there are four main
types of riser systems:
Top tension vertical risers that are
supported from surface
Steel catenary risers that will attempt to
assume the shape of a catenary despite
the effects of bending stiffness and
elasticity.
Hybrid risers a combination of vertical
bundled pipes supported by buoyancy at
a certain water depth below the surface.
Flexible pipes connecting top of the
vertical bundle to the floating host
facility.

3.8.3.4 SUB SEA PIPELINES

The various types of pipelines that are used
consist of:
Rigid pipelines
Rigid pipe has been used extensively in all
areas of the world in shallow and deepwater
applications to fabricate flow lines and
jumpers. Various materials, most commonly
carbon steel and duplex stainless steel,
have been used to manufacture the pipe.
The main advantages in using rigid pipe, as
opposed to flexible pipelines, are the lower
material cost per metre for corresponding
sizes, and the ability to be able to assemble
the flow line offshore in long lengths (length
of flexible that can be manufactured and
transported in a single section is limited) as
it is laid.
The main disadvantages are related to the
problems of installing rigid flow lines,
especially on deepwater developments, due

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to the stress imposed on the pipe as it is

over boarded from the lay vessel.
In
addition, there is generally a need for a
more comprehensive survey of the seabed
route to be undertaken, and for pre- and
post-lay preparation of the seabed.
Bundled system
The bundled system (Figure 3.34) allows a
number of flow lines and umbilicals to be
mounted and contained within a single steel
carrier pipe. Bundles are normally
constructed onshore in sections, which are
then joined and towed out to sea for transit
to the field and final installation.
The main advantages of this arrangement
are:
It allows simultaneous installation
of a number of lines/ services.
It is also possible to incorporate a
sub sea manifold in to the bundle
assembly in the form of a towhead.
This would be attached directly to
the end of the bundle and would be
installed with the bundle.
There is no need to employ
specialised lay vessel.
Flow line diameter can be increased
with no effect on installation cost.
Use of such bundles is particularly
appropriate when the seabed is very
congested or when well streams are
prone to hydrates and wax
deposition,
since
the
bundle
configuration allows the lines to be
heated relatively cheaply compared
to non-bundled alternative.
The thermal insulation properties of
bundles make them attractive
propositions
for
deepwater
developments. If necessary, hot
heating pipes can be built into
bundles. As case in point is Total
FinaElfs landmark Girassol project
off Angola in WD 1,300m, which
features flow line bundles. Sub sea
temperatures at the Girassol site are
around 40 C and the temperature of
the crude is relatively low, meaning
that heat loss from the flow lines
must be kept below 10 C per km.

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Well Completion
feature is the employment of fail-safeoperated sub sea valves that close upon
loss of hydraulic pressure.

Figure 3.34 Bundle system

Flexible flow lines
Flexible pipe has been used extensively in
sub sea applications and has been proven
in water depths up to approximately 6,500
feet. Flexible pipe is more costly than the
equivalent size of rigid pipe but can prove
more cost effective in certain applications
due to savings in installation and connection
costs.

3.8.3.5 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Over the last decade, there has been a
huge increase in the application of sub sea
systems for the production of oil and gas
from sub sea wellheads.
A sub sea
production system comprises of a wellhead,
Christmas tree equipment, pipelines,
structures, piping system etc. and in many
instances, a number of wellheads have to
be controlled from a single location. A sub
sea control system (Figure 3.35) is part of a
sub sea production system, and proper
performance of the control system is the
critical factor in ensuring its reliable and safe
operation.
The control system provides operation of
valves and chokes on sub sea completions,
templates, manifolds and pipelines. In
addition
to
satisfactory
operational
characteristics, the design of a control
system must also provide the means for a
safe shutdown on failure of the equipment
or on loss of hydraulic/ electrical control
from the topside (a platform or floating
facility) and other safety features that
automatically
prevent
dangerous
occurrences. One example of such a safety

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Well Completion
usually powered by electric motors,
although redundancy is sometimes provided
by air drives. The HPU includes tanks,
pumps, a contamination control system and
hydraulic
control
valves.
Emergency
shutdown facilities are provided to bleed off
hydraulic fluid and thus to close sub sea failsafe valves. The hydraulic components are
fairly standard.
3.8.3.6 CONTROL UMBLICALS

Figure 3.35 Control systems

The control of various production functions,
executed at the seabed, is carried out from
a topside production facility (a platform or a
floating vessel). A satisfactory response time
for a control system is an important factor
that may have a dramatic effect on reliability
and safety of environmentally critical
operations.
As communication distance between
topside production facilities and sub sea
installations increases, due both to multiple
well developments and water depth, early
methods of well control using direct
hydraulic control of sub sea valves have
become less feasible due to operational
limitations of such controls and due to both
the size and cost of the multi-core umbilicals
required to provide hydraulic power
transmission. This has led to the
development of more advanced and
complex control methods using piloted
hydraulic systems, sequential piloted
systems and electro-hydraulic systems
(hard-wired
and
multiplexed).
The
complexity and performance characteristics
of sub sea control systems depend on the
type of control used.

An umbilical (Figure 3.36) is a conduit

between the topside host facility and the sub
sea control system and is used for chemical
and/ or hydraulic fluids, electric power and
electric control signals. The hydraulic power
and control lines are individual hoses or tubes
manufactured from steel or thermoplastic
materials and encased in the umbilical.

Figure 3.36 Control umbilical

The electrical control cables supplying power
and control signals can either be bundled with
hydraulic lines or laid separately.

To avoid any potential faults, the

umbilicals are fabricated in continuous
lengths, i.e. without splices.

Topside
control
system
equipment
comprises of a hydraulic power unit (HPU),
an electronic power unit (EPU) and a well
control panel. The HPU provides high and
low-pressure hydraulic supplies and is

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3.29

Well Completion

ROV

Figure 3.36 Control umbilical & reel

3.8.4 MODES OF INTERVENTION

Intervention describes a corrective or
preventative action for the purpose of
detecting damage location & assessment and
minor or major repair. The methods used for
accessing a sub sea system are:
Divers
Remotely operated vessels
Manned submersibles
Depth constraints are a key factor in defining
the specific capabilities and limitations of
intervention techniques. The general depth
constraints for various intervention techniques
are:

Saturation diving 1500 feet.

One atmospheric diving suit
2300 feet
Manned submersible 2600 feet
Unmanned submersible3300 feet.
Multi-manned submersibles 8300
plus feet.
Unmanned, tethered vehicle 6500
feet.
Unmanned, un-tethered vehicle
25,000 feet.

Divers
Current and proposed research places an
emphasis on improving diving intervention in
the depth range currently considered fully
operational and on developing methods for
extending the depth to which a man can
descend and perform significant work.
Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs)
These are designed to replace diver tasks and
are at an intermediate stage of development.

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Modifications are still being examined by

manufacturers to improve ROV versatility and
dexterity in replacing the operations of a
driver.The range of intervention associated
operations that can be performed by a heavy
work type ROV( Figure 3.37) are:

Damage location and assessment.

Pipe cutting.
Pipe grinding
Cable cutting.
Operation of hydraulic tools.
Water jetting.
Seal replacement.
Flange seal repair
Anode retrofit.
Rig and platform support.
Valve maintenance (seal replacement)

Figure 3.37 ROV

ROV operations may be influenced by effects
of depth and currents but the depth in which
current and planned pipelines of the near
future are to be installed these are not really
the major obstacle to ROVs. Greater depths
can easily be achieved simply by upgrading
those parts of the ROV, which are susceptible
to high pressures. Some specialist inspection
ROVs currently have a 20,000 feet depth
capability. For deepwater works, steady state
currents are rarely greater than 0.3 knots.
Most ROVs are desired to operate adequately
in currents up to about 2 to 3 knots.
Manned submersibles
One-atmosphere diving suits (ADS), Manned
(or dual purpose) submersible and Multimanned submersible fall under this category.

3.30

Well Completion
The limitations and capabilities of manned
submersibles are generally similar to those of
ROVs. However, depth limitations for manned
submersibles on a whole are less than those
for ROVs.
One
beneficial
aspect
of
manned
submersibles is the lack of reliance on
cameras to record sub sea operations. The
presence of the vehicle operator next to the
intended task may simplify the resolution of
any complications that may arise.

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3.31