Limits and An Introduction To Calculus

11
Limits and an Introduction

to Calculus
11.1 Introduction to Limits

11.2 Techniques for Evaluating Limits
11.3 The Tangent Line Problem
11.4 Limits at Infinity and Limits of Sequences
100,000
11.5 The Area Problem
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Section 11.4, Example 3

Average Cost
749
750
Chapter 11
11.1
Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
Introduction to Limits
What you should learn
The Limit Concept

The notion of a limit is a fundamental concept of calculus. In this chapter, you will learn
how to evaluate limits and how they are used in the two basic problems of calculus: the
tangent line problem and the area problem.
Example 1 Finding a Rectangle of Maximum Area
You are given 24 inches of wire and are asked to form a rectangle whose area is as large
as possible. What dimensions should the rectangle have?
Understand the limit concept.

Use the definition of a limit to
estimate limits.
Determine whether limits of
functions exist.
Use properties of limits and
direct substitution to evaluate
limits.
Why you should learn it
Solution
Let w represent the width of the rectangle and let l represent the length of the rectangle.
Because
2w 2l 24
Perimeter is 24.
it follows that
l 12 w
as shown in Figure 11.1. So, the area of the rectangle is
A lw
Formula for area
12 ww
Substitute 12 w for l.
12w w 2.
Simplify.
l = 12 w
Figure 11.1
Using this model for area, you can experiment with different values of w to see how to
obtain the maximum area. After trying several values, it appears that the maximum area
occurs when
w6
as shown in the table.
Width, w
5.0
5.5
5.9
6.0
6.1
6.5
7.0
Area, A
35.00
35.75
35.99
36.00
35.99
35.75
35.00
In limit terminology, you can say that the limit of A as w approaches 6 is 36. This is
written as
lim A lim 12w w2 36.
w6
w6
Now try Exercise 5.

cristovao 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
The concept of a limit is useful in

applications involving maximization.
For instance, in Exercise 5 on page
757, the concept of a limit is used to
verify the maximum volume of an
open box.
Section 11.1
751
Definition of Limit
Definition of Limit
If f x becomes arbitrarily close to a unique number L as x approaches c from
either side, then the limit of f x as x approaches c is L. This is written as
lim f x L.
xc
Example 2 Estimating a Limit Numerically

Use a table to estimate the limit numerically.
lim 3x 2
x2
Solution
Let f x 3x 2. Then construct a table that shows values of f x for two sets of
5
4
x-valuesone set that approaches 2 from the left and one that approaches 2 from the
right.
(2, 4)
3
2
f x
f(x) = 3x 2
1.9
1.99
1.999
2.0
2.001
2.01
2.1
3.700
3.970
3.997
4.003
4.030
4.300
From the table, it appears that the closer x gets to 2, the closer f x gets to 4. So, you
can estimate the limit to be 4. Figure 11.2 adds further support to this conclusion.
2 1
1
Figure 11.2
Now try Exercise 7.

In Figure 11.2, note that the graph of
f x 3x 2
is continuous. For graphs that are not continuous, finding a limit can be more difficult.
Example 3 Estimating a Limit Numerically

Use a table to estimate the limit numerically.
lim
x 0
lim f(x) = 2
x 1 1
x 0
Solution
Let f x xx 1 1. Then construct a table that shows values of f x for two
(0, 2)
f x
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.0001
0.001
0.01
1.99499
1.99949
1.99995
2.00005
2.00050
2.00499
Now try Exercise 9.
x
x+11
1
2
From the table, it appears that the limit is 2. This limit is reinforced by the graph of f
(see Figure 11.3).
f(x) =
sets of x-valuesone set that approaches 0 from the left and one that approaches 0 from
the right.
x
f is undefined
at x = 0.
x
1
Figure 11.3
752
Chapter 11
In Example 3, note that f x has a limit as x 0 even though the function is not
defined at x 0. This often happens, and it is important to realize that the existence or
nonexistence of f x at x c has no bearing on the existence of the limit of f x as x
approaches c.
Example 4 Using a Graphing Utility to Estimate a Limit

Estimate the limit.
lim
x1
x3 x 2 x 1
x1
Numerical Solution
Let f x x3 x2 x 1x 1.
Graphical Solution
Use a graphing utility to graph
f x x3 x2 x 1x 1
Create a table that shows values

of f(x) for several x-values near 1.
using a decimal setting, as shown in Figure 11.5.

5.1
4.7
4.7
Figure 11.4
Use the trace feature to

determine that as x gets
closer and closer to 1, f(x)
gets closer and closer to 2
from the left and from
the right.
1.1
From Figure 11.4, it appears that the closer x gets to 1,

the closer f x gets to 2. So, you can estimate the limit
to be 2.
Figure 11.5
From Figure 11.5, you can estimate the limit to be 2. As you use the
trace feature, notice that there is no value given for y when x 1,
and that there is a hole or break in the graph at x 1.
Now try Exercise 15.
Example 5 Using a Graph to Find a Limit
Some students may come to think that a

limit is a quantity that can be approached
but cannot actually be reached, as shown in
Example 4. Remind them that some limits
are like that, but, as Example 2 shows, many
are not.
Find the limit of f x as x approaches 3, where f is defined as

f x
0,
2,
x3
.
x3
Solution
Because f x 2 for all x other than x 3 and
because the value of f 3 is immaterial, it follows
that the limit is 2 (see Figure 11.6). So, you can
write
y
4
f(x) =
2, x 3
0, x = 3
lim f x 2.
x3
The fact that f 3 0 has no bearing on the

existence or value of the limit as x approaches 3.
For instance, if the function were defined as
f x
2,4,
x3
x3
then the limit as x approaches 3 would be the same.

1
x
1
1
Figure 11.6
Section 11.1
753
Limits That Fail to Exist

Whats Wrong?
In the next three examples, you will examine some limits that fail to exist.
You use a graphing utility to

graph
Example 6 Comparing Left and Right Behavior

Show that the limit does not exist.
lim
x 0
y1
using a decimal setting, as

shown in the figure. You use the
trace feature to conclude that
the limit
Solution
Consider the graph of the function given

by f x x x. In Figure 11.7, you can
see that for positive x-values
x 1,
x
x3 1
x1 x 1
lim
does not exist. Whats wrong?
f(x) = 1
2
and for negative x-values

x < 0.
x
x
x > 0
x 1,
f(x) =
x3 1
x1
5.1
f(x) = 1
This means that no matter how close x

gets to 0, there will be both positive and
negative x-values that yield
2
4.7
4.7
1.1
Figure 11.7
f x 1
and
f x 1.
This implies that the limit does not exist.
Example 7 Unbounded Behavior

Discuss the existence of the limit.
lim
x 0
Consider reinforcing the nonexistence of the

limits in Examples 6 and 7 by constructing
and examining a table of values. Encourage
students to investigate limits using a variety
of approaches.
1
x2
Solution
Let f x 1x 2. In Figure 11.8, note that as x approaches 0 from either the right or the
left, f x increases without bound. This means that by choosing x close enough to 0, you
can force f x to be as large as you want. For instance, f x will be larger than 100 when
f(x) = 12
x
1
you choose x that is within 10
of 0. That is,
0 < x <
1
10
f x
1
> 100.
x2
Similarly, you can force f x to be larger than 1,000,000, as follows.
0 < x <
1
1000
f x
1
> 1,000,000
x2
Because f x is not approaching a unique real number L as x approaches 0, you can

conclude that the limit does not exist.
1
3
1
1
Figure 11.8
754
Chapter 11
Example 8 Oscillating Behavior
Technology Tip
Discuss the existence of the limit.

lim sin
x 0
1
x
Solution
Let f x sin1x. In Figure 11.9, you can see that as x approaches 0, f x oscillates
between 1 and 1.
f(x) = sin 1
x
When using a graphing

utility to investigate the
behavior of a function
near the x-value at which you
are trying to evaluate a limit,
remember that you cannot
always trust the graphs that the
graphing utility displays. For
instance, consider the incorrect
graph shown in Figure 11.10.
The graphing utility cant show
the correct graph because
f x sin1x has infinitely
many oscillations over any
interval that contains 0.
1.2
Figure 11.9
So, the limit does not exist because no matter how close you are to 0, it is possible to
choose values of x1 and x 2 such that
sin
1
1
x1
and
sin
1
1
x2
sin
1
x
0.25
1.2
Figure 11.10
as indicated in the table.
0.25
2

2
3
2
5
2
7
2
9
2
11
x0
1
1
1
Limit does
not exist.

Examples 6, 7, and 8 show three of the most common types of behavior associated
with the nonexistence of a limit.
Conditions Under Which Limits Do Not Exist
The limit of f x as x c does not exist under any of the following conditions.
1. f x approaches a different number from the right
side of c than it approaches from the left side of c.
2. f x increases or decreases without bound as
x approaches c.
3. f x oscillates between two fixed values as
x approaches c.
Example 6
Example 7
Example 8
f(x) = sin 1
x
Section 11.1
755
Properties of Limits and Direct Substitution

You have seen that sometimes the limit of f x as x c is simply f c. In such cases, it
is said that the limit can be evaluated by direct substitution. That is,
lim f x f c.
Substitute c for x.
xc
There are many well-behaved functions, such as polynomial functions and rational
functions with nonzero denominators, that have this property. Some of the basic ones
are included in the following list.
Explore the Concept

Use a graphing utility
to graph the tangent
function. What are
lim tan x and lim tan x?
x 0
x 4
What can you say about the

existence of the limit
lim tan x?
x 2
Basic Limits
Let b and c be real numbers and let n be a positive integer.
1. xc
lim b b
2. xc
lim x c
3. xc
lim x n c n
4. xc
lim
n x
(See the proof on page 804.)
for n even and c > 0
c,
Trigonometric functions can also be included in this list.

For instance,
lim sin x sin 0 and
x
lim cos x cos 0 1.
x 0
By combining the basic limits with the following operations,

you can find limits for a wide variety of functions.
Properties of Limits
Let b and c be real numbers, let n be a positive integer, and let f and g
be functions with the following limits.
lim f x L
xc
and
1. Scalar multiple:
2. Sum or difference:
3. Product:
4. Quotient:
5. Power:
lim g x K
xc
lim b f x bL
xc
lim f x gx L K
xc
lim f x gx LK
xc
lim
xc
f x
L
,
gx K
provided K 0
lim f xn Ln
xc
Additional Example
Let lim f x 7 and lim g x 12.
x3
x3
a. lim f x gx 5
x3
Technology Tip
b. lim f xgx 84
x3
c. lim gx12 23
x3
When evaluating limits, remember that there are several ways to solve
most problems. Often, a problem can be solved numerically, graphically,
or algebraically. You can use a graphing utility to confirm the limits in
the examples and in the exercise set numerically using the table feature or
graphically using the zoom and trace features.
Aldo Murillo/iStockphoto.com
756
Chapter 11
Example 9 Direct Substitution and Properties of Limits

a. lim x 2 42 16
Direct Substitution
b. lim 5x 5 lim x 54 20
Scalar Multiple Property
x 4
x4
x4
lim tan x
tan x x
0

0
x
x
lim x

x
c. lim
Quotient Property
d. lim x 9 3
Direct Substitution
e. lim x cos x) lim x lim cos x
Product Property
x9
x
x
x
cos

f. lim x 42
x3
lim x lim 4
x3
x3
Sum and Power Properties
3 4
72 49
Explore the Concept

Sketch the graph of
each function. Then
find the limits of each
function as x approaches 1
and as x approaches 2. What
conclusions can you make?
a. f x x 1
b. gx
x2 1
x1
c. hx
x3 2x2 x 2
x2 3x 2

each function above. Does the
graphing utility distinguish
among the three graphs? Write
a short explanation of your
findings.
The results of using direct substitution to evaluate limits of polynomial and rational
functions are summarized as follows.
Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions
1. If p is a polynomial function and c is a real number, then
px pc.
lim
xc
(See the proof on page 804.)
2. If r is a rational function given by rx pxqx, and c is a real number

such that qc 0, then
lim r x r c
xc
pc
.
qc
Example 10 Evaluating Limits by Direct Substitution

Find each limit.
a. lim
x1
x2
x 6
x2 x 6
b. lim
x1
x3
Solution
a. To evaluate the limit of a polynomial function, use direct substitution.
lim x 2 x 6 12 1 6 6
x1
b. The denominator is not 0 when x 1, so you can evaluate the limit of the
rational function using direct substitution.
x 2 x 6 12 1 6
6

3
x1
x3
1 3
2
lim
Explore the Concept

to graph the function
f x
x 2 3x 10
.
x5
Use the trace feature to

approximate lim f x. What do
x4
you think lim f x equals? Is
x5
f defined at x 5? Does this
affect the existence of the limit
as x approaches 5?
Section 11.1
11.1
757
See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

For instructions on how to use a graphing utility, see Appendix A.
Exercises
Vocabulary and Concept Check

In Exercises 1 and 2, fill in the blank.
1. If f x becomes arbitrarily close to a unique number L as x approaches c from
either side, then the _______ of f x as x approaches c is L.
2. To find a limit of a polynomial function, use _______ .
3. Find the limit: lim 3.
x0
4. List three conditions under which limits do not exist.
Procedures and Problem Solving

5.
(p. 750) You create an

open box from a square piece of material,
24 centimeters on a side. You cut equal
squares from the corners and turn up the
sides.
(a) Draw and label a diagram that represents
the box.
(b) Verify that the volume V of the box is given by
V 4x12 x2.
(c) The box has a maximum volume when x 4. Use a
graphing utility to complete the table and observe the
behavior of the function as x approaches 4. Use the
lim V.
table to find x
4
x
3.5 3.9
4.1 4.5
7. lim 5x 4
x2
x
1.9 1.99 1.999 2
f x
0.9
A 2x18 x2.
x 3
2.5
2.9
3.1 3.5
A
(d) Use the graphing utility to graph the area function.
Verify that the area is maximum when x 3 meters.
cristovao 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
1.001 1.01 1.1
?
x1
x x2
2
1.1
1.01
1.001
f x
1
0.999
?
0.99
0.9
f x
10. lim
x0
sin 2x
x
(c) The triangle has a maximum area when x 3 meters.

Use a graphing utility to complete the table and observe
the behavior of the function as x approaches 3. Use the
table to find lim A.
0.99 0.999 1
f x
x1
(b) Verify that the area A of the triangle is given by
9. lim
(d) Use the graphing utility to graph the volume function.

Verify that the volume is maximum when x 4.
6. Landscape Design A landscaper arranges bricks to
enclose a region shaped like a right triangle with a
hypotenuse of 18 meters whose area is as large as
possible.
(a) Draw and label a diagram that shows the base x and
height y of the triangle.
2.001 2.01 2.1
8. lim 2x2 x 4
x1
Estimating a Limit Numerically In Exercises 712,

complete the table and use the result to estimate the limit
numerically. Determine whether the limit can be
reached.
0.1
0.01
f x
x
f x
0.001
0
?
0.01
0.1
0.001
758
Chapter 11
11. lim
x0
tan x
2x
0.1
0.01
0.001
f x
0.001
Using a Graph to Find a Limit In Exercises 3340, use

the graph to find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does
not exist, explain why.
33. lim 2 x2
x2 4
x2
34. lim
x0
x2
0.01
0.1
y
2
f x
2
x
12. lim ln x
x1
x1
x
0.9
0.99 0.999 1
f x
1.001 1.01 1.1

35. lim
x2
x 2
x1
15. lim 2
x1 x 2x 3
x 5 5
17. lim
x 0
x
x
2
x2
19. lim
x4
x4
sin x
21. lim
x0
x
sin2 x
23. lim
x0
x
2x 1
e
25. lim
x0
2x
ln2x 3
27. lim
x2
x2
16. lim
x2
18. lim
y
2
1
x
37. lim
x1
1
x1
38. lim tan x

x 2
3
2
1
x3
2
2
3 2 1
2
3
1 x 2
x3
1
1

x2 4
20. lim
x2
x2
cos x 1
22. lim
x0
x
2x
24. lim
x0 tan 4x
x
2
3
2
4 x2
14. lim
x2 x 2
x2
x2 5x 6
x1
Using a Graphing Utility to Estimate a Limit In

Exercises 1328, use the table feature of a graphing
utility to create a table for the function and use the result
to estimate the limit numerically. Use the graphing utility
to graph the corresponding function to confirm your
result graphically.
x2 1
13. lim
x1 x 1
36. lim sin
x2
x
2
x
2
3
2
3
2
2 cos
39. lim
x 0

x
40. lim sec x

x 2
1 e4x
26. lim
x0
x
3
1
lnx2
28. lim
x1 x 1
1 2 3
Using a Graph to Find a Limit In Exercises 2932,

graph the function and find the limit (if it exists) as x
approaches 2.
3,1, xx 22 30. f x x,4,

2x 1, x < 2
31. f x
x 3, x 2
2x,
x 2
32. f x
x 4x 1, x > 2
29. f x
x2
x2
Determining Whether a Limit Exists In Exercises 4148,

use a graphing utility to graph the function and use the
graph to determine whether the limit exists. If the limit
does not exist, explain why.
41. f x
5
,
2 e1x
42. f x
ex 1
,
x
lim f x
x0
lim f x
x0
Section 11.1
1
43. f x cos , lim f x
x x0
44. f x sin x, lim f x
Conclusions
True or False? In Exercises 69 and 70, determine whether
the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
x1
x 3 1
45. f x
46. f x
x4
x 5 4
x2
47. f x lnx 3,
69. The limit of a function as x approaches c does not exist

when the function approaches 3 from the left of c and
3 from the right of c.
70. If f is a rational function, then the limit of f x as x
approaches c is f c.
lim f x
x4
lim f x
x2
lim f x
x4
48. f x ln7 x,
lim f x
x1
Evaluating Limits In Exercises 49 and 50, use the given

information to evaluate each limit.
49. lim f x 4,
xc
lim
gx 8
xc
(a) lim 2gx

xc
(c) lim
xc
(b) lim f x gx
xc
f x
gx
50. lim f x 3,
xc
(d) lim f x
xc
lim
gx 1
xc
(a) lim f x gx2 (b) lim 6f x gx

xc
xc
(c) lim
xc
5gx
4f x
759
1
f x
(d) lim
xc
71. Think About It From Exercises 7 to 12, select a limit

that can be reached and one that cannot be reached.
(a) Use a graphing utility to graph the corresponding
functions using a standard viewing window. Do the
graphs reveal whether the limit can be reached?
Explain.
(b) Use the graphing utility to graph the corresponding
functions using a decimal setting. Do the graphs
reveal whether the limit can be reached? Explain.
72. Think About It Use the results of Exercise 71 to draw
a conclusion as to whether you can use the graph
generated by a graphing utility to determine reliably
when a limit can be reached.
73. Think About It
(a) Given f 2 4, can you conclude anything about
lim f x? Explain your reasoning.
x2
(b) Given lim f x 4, can you conclude anything

x2
about f 2? Explain your reasoning.
Evaluating Limits In Exercises 51 and 52, find

(a) lim f x, (b) lim g x, (c) lim [ f x g x], and
x2
x2
x2
(d) lim [ g x f x].
74. C A P S T O N E Use the graph of the function f to

decide whether the value of the given quantity exists.
If it does, find it. If not, explain why.
x2
51. f x x3,
gx
x
52. f x
,
3x
5
2x2
x2
(a) f 0
(b) lim f x
gx sin x
(c) f 2
(d) lim f x
54.
55. lim 2x2 4x 1

x3
56. lim x3 6x 5
x2
1
lim x3
x2 2
3
2
1
x2
5x
53. lim 10 x
x5
x0
Evaluating a Limit by Direct Substitution In Exercises

5368, find the limit by direct substitution.
2
x1
x2 2x 3
x
1 2 3 4
3x
x2 1
58. lim
59. lim
5x 3
x2 2x 9
60. lim
Simplifying Rational Expressions In Exercises 7580,

simplify the rational expression.
61. lim x 2
3 x2 1
62. lim
75.
5x
3x 15
76.
x2 81
9x
64. lim ln x
xe
77.
15x2 7x 4
15x2 x 2
78.
x2 12x 36
x2 7x 6
80.
x3 8
x2 4
57. lim
x3
x1
63. lim
x3
ex
65. lim sin 2x

x
67. lim arcsin x
x12
x 4
x2 1
x3
x
Cumulative Mixed Review
x3
66. lim tan x

x
68. lim arccos
x1
x
2
79.
x3 27
x6
x2
760
Chapter 11
11.2
Techniques for Evaluating Limits
Dividing Out Technique

In Section 11.1, you studied several types of functions whose limits can be evaluated
by direct substitution. In this section, you will study several techniques for evaluating
limits of functions for which direct substitution fails.
Suppose you were asked to find the following limit.
x2 x 6
lim
x3
x3
Direct substitution fails because 3 is a zero of the denominator. By using a table,
however, it appears that the limit of the function as x approaches 3 is 5.
x
x2
x6
x3
5.01
5.001 5.0001
4.9999
4.999
4.99
Many definitions in calculus involve

the limit of a function. For instance,
in Exercises 69 and 70 on page 768,
the definition of the velocity of
a free-falling object at any
instant in time involves
finding the limit of a
position function.
x2 x 6
x3
Begin by factoring the numerator and dividing out any common factors.
x2 x 6
x 2x 3
lim
x3
x3
x3
lim
x3
x 2x 3
x3
Factor numerator.
Divide out common factor.
lim x 2
Simplify.
3 2
Direct substitution
5
Simplify.
x3

This procedure for evaluating a limit is called the dividing out technique.
The validity of this technique stems from the fact that when two functions agree
at all but a single number c, they must have identical limit behavior at x c.
In Example 1, the functions given by
f x
2.99
Solution
x3
2.999
Find the limit.
lim
3.001 3.0001 3 2.9999
Example 1 Dividing Out Technique
x3
Use the dividing out technique

to evaluate limits of functions.
Use the rationalizing technique
to evaluate limits of functions.
Use technology to approximate
limits of functions graphically
and numerically.
Evaluate one-sided limits of
functions.
Evaluate limits of difference
quotients from calculus.
3.01
Another way to find the limit of this function is shown in Example 1.
lim
x2 x 6
x3
and
gx x 2
agree at all values of x other than

x 3.
So, you can use gx to find the limit of f x.
Vibrant Image Studio 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
Grafissimo/iStockphoto.com
Section 11.2
761
The dividing out technique should be applied only when direct substitution
produces 0 in both the numerator and the denominator. An expression such as 00 has no
meaning as a real number. It is called an indeterminate form because you
cannot, from the form alone, determine the limit. When you try to evaluate a limit of a
rational function by direct substitution and encounter this form, you can conclude
that the numerator and denominator must have a common factor. After factoring and
dividing out, you should try direct substitution again.
Example 2 Dividing Out Technique

Find the limit.
lim
x1 x3
x1
x2 x 1
Consider suggesting to your students that

they try making a table of values to estimate
the limit in Example 2 before finding it
algebraically. A range of 0.9 through 1.1
with increment 0.01 is useful.
Solution
Begin by substituting x 1 into the numerator and denominator.
x1
x3 x2 x 1
110
Numerator is 0 when x 1.
13 12 1 1 0
Denominator is 0 when x 1.
Because both the numerator and denominator are zero when x 1, direct substitution
will not yield the limit. To find the limit, you should factor the numerator and
denominator, divide out any common factors, and then try direct substitution again.
x1
x1
lim
2
x1 x x x 1
x1 x 1x 2 1
lim
Factor denominator.
Study Tip
x1
x1 x 1x 2 1
lim
1
lim 2
x1 x 1
Simplify.
1
1 1
Direct substitution
1
2
Simplify.
x3 x 2 x 1
x1
x3 x2 + x 1
f is undefined
when x = 1.
(1, 12 )
x
1
Figure 11.11
x 2x 1 x 1
x 1x 2 1
This result is shown graphically in Figure 11.11.
f(x) =
In Example 2, the
factorization of the
denominator can be
obtained by dividing by x 1
or by grouping as follows.
762
Chapter 11
Rationalizing Technique
Another way to find the limits of some functions is first to rationalize the numerator of
the function. This is called the rationalizing technique. Recall that rationalizing the
numerator means multiplying the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of
the numerator. For instance, the conjugate of x 4 is
x 4.
Example 3 Rationalizing Technique

Find the limit.
x 1 1
lim
x 0
Solution
By direct substitution, you obtain the indeterminate form 00.
x 1 1
lim
x 0
0 1 1
0
0
Indeterminate form
In this case, you can rewrite the fraction by rationalizing the numerator.
x 1 1
x 1 1
xx 1 1
Multiply.
x
xx 1 1
Simplify.
x
x x 1 1
1
,
x 1 1
x 1 1
x 1 1
x 1 1
x0
Simplify.
f(x) =
Now you can evaluate the limit by direct substitution.

x 1 1
lim
x 0
lim
x 0
1
x 1 1
1
0 1 1
1
1

11 2
1
2
You can reinforce your conclusion that the limit is by constructing a table, as shown
below, or by sketching a graph, as shown in Figure 11.12.
x
f(x)
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.001
0.01
0.1
0.5132
0.5013
0.5001
0.4999
0.4988
0.4881

The rationalizing technique for evaluating limits is based on multiplication by a
convenient form of 1. In Example 3, the convenient form is
1
x 1 1
x 1 1
Figure 11.12
(0, 12 )
x+11
x
f is undefined
when x = 0.
x
Section 11.2
763
Using Technology
The dividing out and rationalizing techniques may not work well for finding limits of
nonalgebraic functions. You often need to use more sophisticated analytic techniques to
find limits of these types of functions.
Example 4 Approximating a Limit Numerically

Approximate the limit: lim 1 x1x.
x0
Solution
Let f x 1 x1x.
Create a table that shows values
of f(x) for several x-values near 0.
Figure 11.13
Because 0 is halfway between 0.001 and 0.001 (see Figure 11.13), use the average of
the values of f at these two x-coordinates to estimate the limit.
lim 1 x1x
x0
2.7196 2.7169
2.71825
2
The actual limit can be found algebraically to be

e 2.71828.
Example 5 Approximating a Limit Graphically

Approximate the limit: lim sin x.
x 0
x
Solution
Direct substitution produces the indeterminate
form 00. To approximate the limit, begin by using a
graphing utility to graph f x sin xx, as shown
in Figure 11.14. Then use the zoom and trace features
of the graphing utility to choose a point on each side
of 0, such as 0.0012467, 0.9999997 and
0.0012467, 0.9999997. Because 0 is halfway
between 0.0012467 and 0.0012467, use the
average of the values of f at these two x-coordinates
to estimate the limit.
lim
x0
sin x 0.9999997 0.9999997
0.9999997
x
2
It can be shown algebraically that this limit is exactly 1.

Andresr 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
f(x) =
2
Figure 11.14
sin x
x
Technology Tip
In Example 4, a graph
of f x 1 x1x
on a graphing utility
would appear continuous at
x 0 (see below). But when
you try to use the trace feature
of a graphing utility to determine
f 0, no value is given. Some
graphing utilities can show
breaks or holes in a graph
when an appropriate viewing
window is used. Because the
hole in the graph of f occurs
on the y-axis, the hole is
not visible.
764
Chapter 11
One-Sided Limits
In Section 11.1, you saw that one way in which a limit can fail to exist is when a
function approaches a different value from the left side of c than it approaches from the
right side of c. This type of behavior can be described more concisely with the concept
of a one-sided limit.
lim f x L 1 or f x L 1 as x c
Limit from the left
lim f x L 2 or f x L 2 as x c
Limit from the right
xc
xc
Example 6 Evaluating One-Sided Limits

Find the limit as x 0 from the left and the limit as x 0 from the right for
f x
2x.
x
Solution
From the graph of f, shown in Figure 11.15, you can see that f x 2 for all x < 0.
y
f(x) = 2
2
1
f(x) =
2x
x
x
f(x) = 2
Figure 11.15
So, the limit from the left is

lim
x0
2x 2.
x
Limit from the left
Because f x 2 for all x > 0, the limit from the right is

lim
x0
2x 2.
x
Limit from the right

In Example 6, note that the function approaches different limits from the left and
from the right. In such cases, the limit of f x as x c does not exist. For the limit of a
function to exist as x c, it must be true that both one-sided limits exist and are equal.
Existence of a Limit
If f is a function and c and L are real numbers, then
lim f x L
xc
if and only if both the left and right limits exist and are equal to L.
You might wish to illustrate the concept

of one-sided limits (and why they are
necessary) with tables or graphs.
Section 11.2
765
Example 7 Finding One-Sided Limits

Find the limit of f x as x approaches 1.
f x
44xx,x ,
2
x < 1
x > 1
Solution
Remember that you are concerned about the value of f near x 1 rather than at x 1.
So, for x < 1, f x is given by 4 x, and you can use direct substitution to obtain
lim f x lim 4 x
x1
3
2
For x > 1, f x is given by 4x x 2, and you can use direct substitution to obtain
lim f x lim 4x x2
x1
2 1
1
41 12
Because the one-sided limits both exist and are equal to 3, it follows that
lim f x 3.
x1
The graph in Figure 11.16 confirms this conclusion.

Example 8 Comparing Limits from the Left and Right

To ship a package overnight, a delivery service charges $17.80 for the first pound and
$1.40 for each additional pound or portion of a pound. Let x represent the weight of a
package and let f x represent the shipping cost. Show that the limit of f x as x 2
does not exist.
17.80, 0 < x 1
f x 19.20, 1 < x 2
20.60, 2 < x 3
Solution
The graph of f is shown in Figure 11.17. The limit
of f x as x approaches 2 from the left is
x2
Because these one-sided limits are not equal, the

limit of f x as x 2 does not exist.
Overnight Delivery
y
Shipping cost (in dollars)
lim f x 20.60.
22
21
For 2 < x 3, f(x) = 20.60
20
19
18
17
For 1 < x 2, f(x) = 19.20

For 0 < x 1, f(x) = 17.80
16
x
1
Weight (in pounds)

Figure 11.17

Franck Boston 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
x
1
Figure 11.16
3.
whereas the limit of f x as x approaches 2 from

the right is
f(x) = 4x x 2, x > 1
3.
lim f x 19.20
f(x) = 4 x, x < 1
41
x2
7
6
x1
x1
766
Chapter 11
A Limit from Calculus

In the next section, you will study an important type of limit from calculusthe limit
of a difference quotient.
Example 9 Evaluating a Limit from Calculus

For the function given by f x x 2 1, find
lim
h 0
f 3 h f 3
.
h
Solution
Direct substitution produces an indeterminate form.
lim
h 0
3 h2 1 32 1
f 3 h f 3
lim
h 0
h
h
2
lim 9 6h h 1 9 1
h0
h
2
lim 6h h
h0
h
0

0
By factoring and dividing out, you obtain the following.

lim
h0
f 3 h f 3
6h h2
lim
h0
h
h
lim
h0
h6 h
h
lim 6 h
h0
60
6
So, the limit is 6.
Note that for any x-value, the limit of a difference quotient is an expression of the
form
lim
h 0
f x h f x
.
h
Direct substitution into the difference quotient always produces the indeterminate
form 00. For instance,
lim
h0
f x h f x
f x 0 f x

h
0
f x f x
0
0
.
0
Example 9 previews the derivative that is

introduced in Section 11.3.
Group Activity
Write a limit problem (be sure the limit
exists) and exchange it with that of a
partner. Use a numerical approach to
estimate the limit, and use an algebraic
approach to verify your estimate. Discuss
your results with your partner.
Section 11.2
11.2
767

Exercises

1. To find a limit of a rational function that has common factors in its numerator and
denominator, use the _______ .
0
2. The expression 0 has no meaning as a real number and is called an _______ because
you cannot, from the form alone, determine the limit.
3. Which algebraic technique can you use to find lim
x 4 2
x 0
4. Describe in words what is meant by lim f x 2.

x0

Using a Graph to Determine Limits In Exercises 58,
use the graph to determine each limit (if it exists). Then
identify another function that agrees with the given
function at all but one point.
2x 2 x
5. gx
x
(a) lim hx
x0
x2
(b) lim gx
(c) lim hx
x2
x3
x2 1
x1
8. f x
25.
27.
x
4
4
(a) lim gx
(a) lim f x
(b) lim gx
(b) lim f x
(c) lim gx
(c) lim f x
x1
x 0
14. lim
x4
23. lim
y0
x1
1 2x 3x 2
x1
1x
13. lim
21. lim
x1
x3
x
x1
x2 6x 5
x1
x 0
(c) lim gx
12. lim
x1
19. lim
x4
(b) lim hx
x1
7. gx
x2 x 2
x2
t3 8
t2 t 2
x5 32
17. lim
x2 x 2
9x
x2 81
29.
x1
31.
x2
x1
33.
x2
x2
x3
x3
16. lim
18. lim
x4 1
x1
x 12
6x 8
20. lim
x2 8x 15
x2 2x 3
2x x 2
4x2 x 4
22. lim
x3
x1
x3
5 y 5
y
x 7 2
lim
x3
x3
1
1
x1
lim
x0
x
1
1

x4 4
lim
x0
x
1 sin x
lim
x 2
cos x
cos 2x
lim
x0 cot 2x
35. lim
x 2
2x2 7x 4
x4
a3 64
a4 a 4
15. lim
(a) lim gx
x
2
10. lim
x9
11. lim
x2
x6
x2 36
9. lim
x6
x 2 3x
6. hx
x
Finding a Limit In Exercises 936, find the limit (if it

exists). Use a graphing utility to confirm your result
graphically.
sin x 1
x
24.
26.
28.
30.
32.
x3 2x2 9x 18
x3 x2 9x 9
7 z 7
lim
z0
z
4 18 x
lim
x2
x2
1
1

x8 8
lim
x0
x
1
1

2x 2
lim
x 0
x
cos x 1
lim
x0
sin x
34. lim
sin x
csc x
36. lim
1 cos x
x
x
x
768
Chapter 11
Approximating a Limit Numerically In Exercises 3742,

use the table feature of a graphing utility to create a table
for the function and use the result to approximate the limit
numerically. Write an approximation that is accurate to
three decimal places.
e2x 1
37. lim
x0
x
39. lim
x0
2x 1 1
41. lim 1 x2x

x0
1 ex
38. lim
x0
x
40. lim
x9
x0
3 x
x9
42. lim 1 2x1x

x0
67. (a) lim x 2 sin x 2

x 0
x
x 0 cos x
68. (a) lim
sin 3x
44. lim
x0
x
x 6
1 cos 2x
x 0
x
3
x x
48. lim
x1 x 1
x6
1
51. lim
x1 x2 1
st 16t 2 128
which gives the height (in feet) of a
free-falling object. The velocity at time
t a seconds is given by
x1
71. Human Resources A union contract guarantees an

8% salary increase yearly for 3 years. For a current
salary of $30,000, the salaries f t (in thousands of
dollars) for the next 3 years are given by
x < 1
x 1
x 1
x > 1
x 0
x > 0
x1
x0
30.000,
f t 32.400,
34.992,
Algebraic-Graphical-Numerical In Exercises 57 60,

(a) graphically approximate the limit (if it exists) by using
a graphing utility to graph the function, (b) numerically
approximate the limit (if it exists) by using the table
feature of the graphing utility to create a table, and
(c) algebraically evaluate the limit (if it exists) by the
appropriate technique(s).
x1
57. lim 2
x1 x 1
4 x
59. lim
x16 x 16
5x
58. lim
x5 25 x2
60. lim
x 2 2
x0
Vibrant Image Studio 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com

Grafissimo/iStockphoto.com
sa st
.
at
69. Find the velocity when t 1 second.

70. Find the velocity when t 2 seconds.
x 1, x 2
2x 3, x > 2
2
lim
ta
x2
1
52. lim
x1 x2 1
2x 1,
54. lim f x where f x
4x,
4x ,
3 x,
4x,
x 4,
x2
x 2
sin x 2
x 0
x2
1 cos x
(b) lim
x 0
x
(b) lim
(p. 760) In Exercises 69 and

70, use the position function
46. lim
50. lim
x2
Finding Limits In Exercises 67 and 68, state which limit

can be evaluated by using direct substitution. Then
evaluate or approximate each limit.
Evaluating One-Sided Limits In Exercises 4956,

graph the function. Determine the limit (if it exists) by
evaluating the corresponding one-sided limits.
49. lim
x6
62. f x x sin x
64. f x x cos x
1
66. f x x cos
x
61. f x x cos x
63. f x x sin x
1
65. f x x sin
x
Approximating a Limit Graphically In Exercises 4348,

use a graphing utility to graph the function and
approximate the limit. Write an approximation that is
accurate to three decimal places.
sin 2x
43. lim
x0
x
tan x
45. lim
x0
x
3 x
1
47. lim
x1 1 x
Finding a Limit In Exercises 6166, use a graphing

utility to graph the function and the equations y x and
y x in the same viewing window. Use the graph to
find lim f x.
0 < t 1
1 < t 2
2 < t 3
where t represents the time in years. Show that the limit

of f as t 2 does not exist.
72. Business The cost of sending a package overnight is
$15 for the first pound and $1.30 for each additional
pound or portion of a pound. A plastic mailing bag can
hold up to 3 pounds. The cost f x of sending a package
in a plastic mailing bag is given by
15.00,
f x 16.30,
17.60,
0 < x 1
1 < x 2
2 < x 3
where x represents the weight of the package (in

pounds). Show that the limit of f as x 1 does not exist.
Section 11.2
73. MODELING DATA
81. f x
The cost of hooking up and towing a car is $85 for

the first mile and $5 for each additional mile or
portion of a mile. A model for the cost C (in dollars) is
Cx 85 5 x 1, where x is the distance in
miles. (Recall from Section 1.3 that f x x the
greatest integer less than or equal to x.)
(a) Use a graphing utility to graph C for 0 < x 10.
(b) Complete the table and observe the behavior of C
as x approaches 5.5. Use the graph from part (a)
and the table to find lim Cx.
x5.5
5.3
5.4
Cx
5.5
5.6
5.7
(c) Complete the table and observe the behavior of C

as x approaches 5. Does the limit of Cx as x
approaches 5 exist? Explain.
4
4.5
4.9
Cx
5.1
5.5
The cost C (in dollars) of making x photocopies at a

copy shop is given by the function
1
x2
0 < x 25
25 < x 100
.
100 < x 500
x > 500
82. f x
769
1
x1
Conclusions
83. When your attempt to find the limit of a rational
0
function yields the indeterminate form 0, the rational
functions numerator and denominator have a common
factor.
84. If f c L, then lim
f x L.
xc
85. Think About It Sketch the graph of a function for
which f 2 is defined but the limit of f x as x approaches
2 does not exist.
which the limit of f x as x approaches 1 is 4 but f 1 4.
87. Writing Consider the limit of the rational function
pxqx. What conclusion can you make when direct
substitution produces each expression? Write a short
paragraph explaining your reasoning.
74. MODELING DATA
0.15x,
0.10x,
Cx
0.07x,
0.05x,
(a) lim
xc
px 0

qx 1
(b) lim
xc
px 1

qx 1
(c) lim
xc
px 1

qx 0
(d) lim
xc
px 0

qx 0
88. C A P S T O N E Given
f x
2x,
x 1,
2
x 0
,
x > 0
find each of the following limits. If the limit does not

exist, explain why.
(a) lim f x (b) lim f x (c) lim f x
(a) Sketch a graph of the function.

(b) Find each limit and interpret your result in the
context of the situation.
(i) lim Cx (ii) lim Cx (iii) lim Cx
(c) Create a table of values to show numerically that

each limit does not exist.
(i) lim Cx (ii) lim Cx (iii) lim Cx
Identifying a Conic from Its Equation In Exercises

8992, identify the type of conic represented by the
equation. Use a graphing utility to confirm your result.
(d) Explain how you can use the graph in part (a) to
verify that the limits in part (c) do not exist.
89. r
3
1 cos
90. r
12
3 2 sin
91. r
9
2 3 cos
92. r
4
4 cos
x15
x25
x99
x100
x305
lim
f x h f x
.
h
75. f x 3x 1
77. f x x
79. f x x 2 3x
x0
x0
x500
Evaluating a Limit from Calculus In Exercises 7582, find

h0
x0
76. f x 5 6x
78. f x x 2
80. f x 4 2x x 2
A Relationship of Two Vectors In Exercises 9396,

determine whether the vectors are orthogonal, parallel,
or neither.
93. 7, 2, 3, 1, 4, 5
95. 2, 3, 1, 2, 2, 2
94. 5, 5, 0, 0, 5, 1
96. 1, 3, 1, 3, 9, 3
770
Chapter 11
11.3
The Tangent Line Problem
Tangent Line to a Graph

Calculus is a branch of mathematics that studies rates of change of functions. If you
go on to take a course in calculus, you will learn that rates of change have many
applications in real life.
Earlier in the text, you learned how the slope of a line indicates the rate at which a
line rises or falls. For a line, this rate (or slope) is the same at every point on the line.
For graphs other than lines, the rate at which the graph rises or falls changes from point
to point. For instance, in Figure 11.18, the parabola is rising more quickly at the point
x1, y1 than it is at the point x2, y2. At the vertex x3, y3, the graph levels off, and at
the point x4, y4, the graph is falling.
y
(x2 , y2 )
(x4 , y4 )
(x1 , y1 )
Figure 11.18
To determine the rate at which a graph rises or falls at a single point, you can
find the slope of the tangent line at that point. In simple terms, the tangent line
to the graph of a function f at a point
Px1, y1
is the line that best approximates the slope of the graph at the point. Figure 11.19 shows
other examples of tangent lines.
y
P
x
Figure 11.19
From geometry, you know that a line is tangent to

a circle when the line intersects the circle at only one point
(see Figure 11.20). Tangent lines to noncircular graphs,
however, can intersect the graph at more than one point.
For instance, in the first graph in Figure 11.19, if the
tangent line were extended, then it would intersect the
graph at a point other than the point of tangency.
Understand the tangent line

problem.
Use a tangent line to approximate
the slope of a graph at a point.
Use the limit definition of slope
to find exact slopes of graphs.
Find derivatives of functions and
use derivatives to find slopes of
graphs.

The derivative, or the slope of the
tangent line to the graph of a
function at a point, can be used
to analyze rates of change. For
instance, in Exercise 69 on page
779, the derivative is used to
analyze the rate of change of the
volume of a spherical balloon.
(x3 , y3 )
3dfoto 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com

STILLFX 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
Figure 11.20
Section 11.3
771
Slope of a Graph
Because a tangent line approximates the slope of a graph at a point, the problem of
finding the slope of a graph at a point is the same as finding the slope of the tangent line
at the point.
Example 1 Visually Approximating the Slope of a Graph

Use the graph in Figure 11.21 to approximate the slope of the graph of
f x x
f(x) = x 2
at the point 1, 1.
Solution
From the graph of f x x , you can see that the tangent line at 1, 1 rises
approximately two units for each unit change in x. So, you can estimate the slope of the
tangent line at 1, 1 to be
2
change in y
Slope
change in x
2
1
3
1
x
1
Figure 11.21
2
1
2.
Because the tangent line at the point 1, 1 has a slope of about 2, you can conclude that
the graph of f has a slope of about 2 at the point 1, 1.
Now try Exercise 7.
When you are visually approximating the slope of a graph, remember that the
scales on the horizontal and vertical axes may differ. When this happens (as it
frequently does in applications), the slope of the tangent line is distorted, and you must
be careful to account for the difference in the scales.
Example 2 Approximating the Slope of a Graph

Figure 11.22 graphically depicts the monthly normal temperatures (in degrees
Fahrenheit) for Dallas, Texas. Approximate the slope of this graph at the indicated
point and give a physical interpretation of the result. (Source: National Climatic Data
Center)
90
Solution
80
change in y
Slope
change in x
16
2
8 degrees per month.
This means that you can expect the monthly normal temperature in November to be
about 8 degrees lower than the normal temperature in October.
Now try Exercise 9.
Temperature (F)
From the graph, you can see that the tangent line at the given point falls approximately
16 units for each two-unit change in x. So, you can estimate the slope at the given
point to be
Monthly Normal
Temperatures
2
16
70
(10, 69)
60
50
40
30
x
2
Month
Figure 11.22
10
12
772
Chapter 11
Slope and the Limit Process

y
In Examples 1 and 2, you approximated

the slope of a graph at a point by creating
a graph and then eyeballing the tangent
line at the point of tangency. A more
systematic method of approximating
tangent lines makes use of a secant line
through the point of tangency and a
second point on the graph, as shown
in Figure 11.23. If x, f x is the point
of tangency and
(x + h, f(x + h))
f(x + h) f(x)
(x, f(x))
h
x h, f x h
is a second point on the graph of f, then
the slope of the secant line through the
two points is given by
msec
f x h f x
.
h
Figure 11.23
Slope of secant line
The right side of this equation is called the difference quotient. The denominator h is
the change in x, and the numerator is the change in y. The beauty of this procedure is
that you obtain more and more accurate approximations of the slope of the tangent line
by choosing points closer and closer to the point of tangency, as shown in Figure 11.24.
y
(x + h, f(x + h))
(x + h, f(x + h))
(x + h, f(x + h))
(x, f(x))
(x, f(x))
f(x + h) f(x)
(x, f(x))
f(x + h) f(x)
h
Tangent line
f(x + h) f(x)
h
(x, f(x))
x
As h approaches 0, the secant line approaches the tangent line.

Figure 11.24
Using the limit process, you can find the exact slope of the tangent line at x, f x.
Definition of the Slope of a Graph
The slope m of the graph of f at the point x, f x is equal to the slope of its
tangent line at x, f x, and is given by
m lim msec
h 0
lim
h 0
f x h f x
h
provided this limit exists.
From the definition above and from Section 11.2, you can see that the difference
quotient is used frequently in calculus. Using the difference quotient to find the slope
of a tangent line to a graph is a major concept of calculus.
Section 11.3
773
Example 3 Finding the Slope of a Graph

Find the slope of the graph of f x x 2 at the point 2, 4.
Solution
Find an expression that represents the slope of a secant line at 2, 4.
msec
f 2 h f 2
h
Set up difference quotient.
2 h2 22
h
Substitute into f x x2.
4 4h h 2 4
h
Expand terms.
4h h 2
h
Simplify.
h4 h
h
Factor and divide out.
4 h,
f(x) = x 2
h0
Simplify.
Next, take the limit of msec as h approaches 0.
Tangent
line at
( 2, 4)
4
3
m lim msec
h 0
lim 4 h
m = 4
h 0
4 0
4
The graph has a slope of 4 at the point 2, 4, as shown in Figure 11.25.
Figure 11.25
Example 4 Finding the Slope of a Graph

Find the slope of f x 2x 4.
Solution
m lim
h 0
lim
h0
f x h f x
h
2(x h 4 2x 4
h
Substitute into f x 2x 4.
2x 2h 4 2x 4
lim
h 0
h
2h
lim
h 0 h
2
f(x) = 2x + 4
Expand terms.
4
Divide out.
3
2
Simplify.
You know from your study of linear functions that the line given by
f x 2x 4
has a slope of 2, as shown in Figure 11.26. This conclusion is consistent with that
obtained by the limit definition of slope, as shown above.
m = 2
x
1
1
Figure 11.26
774
Chapter 11
It is important that you see the difference between the ways the difference quotients
were set up in Examples 3 and 4. In Example 3, you were finding the slope of a graph
at a specific point c, f c. To find the slope in such a case, you can use the following
form of the difference quotient.
m lim
h 0
f c h f c
h
Slope at specific point
In Example 4, however, you were finding a formula for the slope at any point on the
graph. In such cases, you should use x, rather than c, in the difference quotient.
m lim
h 0
f x h f x
h
Formula for slope
Technology Tip
Try verifying the result
in Example 5 by using
a graphing utility to
graph the function and the
tangent lines at 1, 2 and
2, 5 as
Example 5 Finding a Formula for the Slope of a Graph

Find a formula for the slope of the graph of
f x x 2 1.
What are the slopes at the points 1, 2 and 2, 5?
y1 x2 1
Solution
y2 2x
f x h f x
h
x h2 1 x2 1
h
Substitute into f x x2 1.
x 2 2xh h 2 1 x 2 1
h
Expand terms.
2xh h 2
h
Simplify.
h2x h
h
Factor and divide out.
msec
2x h,
h0
y3 4x 3
in the same viewing window.
You can also verify the result
using the tangent feature. For
instructions on how to use the
tangent feature, see Appendix
A; for specific keystrokes, go
to this textbooks Companion
Website.
Simplify.
Next, take the limit of msec as h approaches 0.

m lim msec
h 0
lim 2x h
h 0
2x 0
f(x) = x 2 + 1
2x
Using the formula m 2x for the slope

at x, f x, you can find the slope at the
specified points. At 1, 2, the slope is
m 21 2
and at 2, 5, the slope is
m 22 4.
The graph of f is shown in Figure 11.27.
Tangent
line at
(2, 5)
4
3
Tangent
line at
( 1, 2)
4 3 2 1
1
Figure 11.27
x
1
Section 11.3
775
The Derivative of a Function

In Example 5, you started with the function f x x 2 1 and used the limit process
to derive another function, m 2x, that represents the slope of the graph of f at the
point x, f x. This derived function is called the derivative of f at x. It is denoted by
f
x, which is read as f prime of x.
Definition of the Derivative
The derivative of f at x is given by
f
x lim
h 0
f x h f x
h
Study Tip
In Section 1.1, you
studied the slope of a
line, which represents
the average rate of change over
an interval. The derivative of a
function is a formula which
represents the instantaneous
rate of change at a point.

Remember that the derivative f
x is a formula for the slope of the tangent line to the
graph of f at the point x, f x.
Example 6 Finding a Derivative

Find the derivative of
f x 3x 2 2x.
Solution
f
x lim
h 0
f x h f x
h
3x h2 2x h 3x2 2x
h0
h
lim
3x 2 6xh 3h 2 2x 2h 3x 2 2x
h 0
h
lim
6xh 3h 2 2h
h 0
h
lim
lim h6x 3h 2
h 0
h
lim 6x 3h 2
h 0
6x 30 2
6x 2
So, the derivative of f x 3x 2 2x is
f
x 6x 2.
Derivative of f at x

Note that in addition to f
x, other notations can be used to denote the derivative
of y f x. The most common are
dy
,
dx
y
,
d
f x, and
dx
Hasan Kursad Ergan/iStockphoto.com
Dx y.
Explore the Concept

to graph the function
f x 3x2 2x. Use
the trace feature to approximate
the coordinates of the vertex of
this parabola. Then use the
derivative of f x 3x2 2x
to find the slope of the tangent
line at the vertex. Make a
conjecture about the slope of
the tangent line at the vertex
of an arbitrary parabola.
776
Chapter 11
Example 7 Using the Derivative

Find f
x for
Additional Example
Find the derivative of
f x x.
f x x2 5x.
Then find the slopes of the graph of f at the points 1, 1 and 4, 2 and equations of the
tangent lines to the graph at the points.
Answer: f
x 2x 5
Solution
f
x lim
h 0
lim
f x h f x
h
x h x
h0
Because direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 00, you should use the
rationalizing technique discussed in Section 11.2 to find the limit.
f
x lim
h 0
x h x
x h x
x h x
x h x
h 0 h x h x
lim
lim
h
hx h x
lim
1
x h x
h 0
h 0

Remember that in order

to rationalize the
numerator of an
expression, you must multiply
the numerator and denominator
by the conjugate of the
numerator.
1
x 0 x
1
2x
At the point 1, 1, the slope is

f
1
Study Tip
1
.
21 2
An equation of the tangent line at the point 1, 1 is

y y1 mx x1
y1
y
1
2 x 1
1
1
2 x 2.
Activity
Ask your students to graph f t 3t and
identify the point 3, 1 on the graph to give
some meaning to the task of finding the
slope at that point. You might also consider
asking your students to find this limit
numerically, for the sake of comparison.
Point-slope form
1
Substitute 2 for m, 1 for x1, and 1 for y1.

Tangent line
y
At the point 4, 2, the slope is

1
f
4
.
24 4
An equation of the tangent line at the point 4, 2 is

y y1 mx x1
y 2 14x 4
1
y 4 x 1.
y = 12 x + 12
(1, 1)
Point-slope form
Substitute 14 for m, 4 for x1, and 2 for y1.
Tangent line
The graphs of f and the tangent lines at the points 1, 1 and 4, 2 are shown in
Figure 11.28.
y = 14 x + 1
m=
m=
1
2
(4, 2)
f(x) =
Figure 11.28
1
4
Section 11.3
11.3
777

Exercises

In Exercises 14, fill in the blank.
1. _______ is the study of the rates of change of functions.
2. The _______ to the graph of a function at a point is the line that best approximates
the slope of the graph at the point.
3. To approximate a tangent line to a graph, you can make use of a _______ through
the point of tangency and a second point on the graph.
4. The _______ of a function f at x represents the slope of the graph of f at the point x, f x.
5. The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point 1, 5 is 2. What is the
slope of the graph of f at the point 1, 5?
6. Given f 1 2 and f
1 4, what is the slope of the graph of f at the point 1, 2?

Approximating the Slope of a Graph In Exercises 710,
use the figure to approximate the slope of the curve at
the point x, y.
y
7.
8.
(x, y)
(x, y)
1
x
2 1
2
y
9.
10.
1
2 1
(x, y)
1
x
2 1
(x, y)
x
1
gx x 2 4x, 3, 3
f x 10x 2x 2, 3, 12
gx 5 2x, 1, 3
hx 2x 5, 1, 3
4
15. gx , 2, 2
x
1
1
, 4,
16. gx
x2
2
17. hx x, 9, 3
18. hx x 10, 1, 3
19. f x 4 x 2
(a) 0, 4
(b) 2, 0
1
21. f x
x4
1
(a) 0, 4
1
(b) 2, 2
23. f x x 1
(a) 2, 1
(b) 10, 3
20. f x x3
(a) 1, 1
(b) 2, 8
22. f x
1
x2
1
(a) 0, 2
(b) 3, 1
24. f x x 4
(a) 5, 1
(b) 8, 2
Finding the Slope of a Graph In Exercises 1118, use

the limit process to find the slope of the graph of the
function at the specified point. Use a graphing utility to
confirm your result.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Finding a Formula for the Slope of a Graph In Exercises

1924, find a formula for the slope of the graph of f at
the point x, f x. Then use it to find the slopes at the
two specified points.
Approximating the Slope of a Tangent Line In Exercises

2530, use a graphing utility to graph the function and
the tangent line at the point 1, f 1. Use the graph to
approximate the slope of the tangent line.
25. f x x 2 3
27. f x 2 x
4
29. f x
x1
26. f x x 2 2x 1
28. f x x 3
3
30. f x
2x
Finding a Derivative In Exercises 31 42, find the

derivative of the function.
31. f x 4 3x2
33. f x 5
1
35. f x 9 3x
1
37. f x 2
x
32. f x x 2 3x 4
34. f x 1
36. f x 5x 2
1
38. f x 3
x
39. f x x 4
40. f x x 1
778
Chapter 11
41. f x
1
x 9

42. f x
1
x 1
67. MODELING DATA
Using the Derivative In Exercises 4350, (a) find the

slope of the graph of f at the given point, (b) find an
equation of the tangent line to the graph at the point, and
(c) graph the function and the tangent line.
43. f x x2 1, 2, 3
44. f x 4 x2, 1, 3
45. f x x3 2x, 1, 1
46. f x x2 2x 1, 3, 4
47. f x x 1, 3, 2 48. f x x 2, 3, 1
1
1
, 4, 1 50. f x
, 4, 1
49. f x
x5
x3
Graphing a Function Over an Interval In Exercises
5154, use a graphing utility to graph f over the interval
[2, 2] and complete the table. Compare the value of the
first derivative with a visual approximation of the slope
of the graph.
x
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
0.5 1 1.5
f x
f
x
1
51. f x 2x 2
53. f x x 3
Year
Population, y
(in thousands)
2015
2020
2025
2030
9256
9462
9637
9802
(a) Use the regression feature of a graphing utility to

find a quadratic model for the data. Let t represent
the year, with t 15 corresponding to 2015.
(b) Use the graphing utility to graph the model found
in part (a). Estimate the slope of the graph when
t 20, and interpret the result.
(c) Find the derivative of the model in part (a). Then
evaluate the derivative for t 20.
(d) Write a brief statement regarding your results for
parts (a) through (c).
68. MODELING DATA
1
52. f x 4 x3
x2 4
54. f x
x4
Using the Derivative In Exercises 5558, find the

derivative of f. Use the derivative to determine any
points on the graph of f at which the tangent line is
horizontal. Use a graphing utility to verify your results.
55. f x x 2 4x 3
57. f x 3x3 9x
The projected populations y (in thousands) of New

Jersey for selected years from 2015 to 2030 are shown
in the table. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau)
56. f x x2 6x 4
58. f x x3 3x
Using the Derivative In Exercises 59 66, use the

function and its derivative to determine any points on
the graph of f at which the tangent line is horizontal. Use
a graphing utility to verify your results.
59. f x x4 2x2, f
x 4x3 4x
60. f x 3x4 4x3, f
x 12x3 12x2
61. f x 2 cos x x, f
x 2 sin x 1,
over the interval 0, 2
62. f x x 2 sin x, f
x 1 2 cos x,
over the interval 0, 2
63. f x x2ex, f
x x2ex 2xex
64. f x xex, f
x ex xex
65. f x x ln x, f
x ln x 1
ln x
1 ln x
, f
x
66. f x
x
x2
The data in the table show the number N (in

thousands) of books sold when the price per book is p
(in dollars).
Price, p
Number of books,
N (in thousands)
$10
$15
$20
$25
$30
$35
900
630
396
227
102
36

find a quadratic model for the data.
(b) Use the graphing utility to graph the model found
in part (a). Estimate the slopes of the graph when
p $15 and p $30.
(c) Use the graphing utility to graph the tangent lines
to the model when p $15 and p $30.
Compare the slopes given by the graphing utility
with your estimates in part (b).
(d) The slopes of the tangent lines at p $15 and
p $30 are not the same. Explain what this
means to the company selling the books.
Section 11.3
69.
(p. 770) A spherical

balloon is inflated. The volume V is
4
approximated by the formula Vr 3 r 3,
where r is the radius.
(a) Find the derivative of V with respect to r.
(b) Evaluate the derivative when the radius
is 4 inches.
(c) What type of unit would be applied to your answer
in part (b)? Explain.
70. Rate of Change An approximately spherical benign
tumor is reducing in size. The surface area S is given by
the formula Sr 4 r 2, where r is the radius.
(a) Find the derivative of S with respect to r.
(b) Evaluate the derivative when the radius is
3 millimeters.
(c) What type of unit would be applied to your answer
in part (b)? Explain.
71. Vertical Motion A water balloon is thrown upward
from the top of an 80-foot building with a velocity of
64 feet per second. The height or displacement s (in
feet) of the balloon can be modeled by the position
function st 16t2 64t 80, where t is the time
in seconds from when it was thrown.
(a) Find a formula for the instantaneous rate of change
of the balloon.
(b) Find the average rate of change of the balloon after
the first three seconds of flight. Explain your results.
(c) Find the time at which the balloon reaches its
maximum height. Explain your method.
(d) Velocity is given by the derivative of the position
function. Find the velocity of the balloon as it
impacts the ground.
(e) Use a graphing utility to graph the model and
verify your results for parts (a)(d).
72. Vertical Motion A coin is dropped from the top of a
120-foot building. The height or displacement s (in feet)
of the coin can be modeled by the position function
st 16t2 120, where t is the time in seconds
from when it was dropped.
(a) Find a formula for the instantaneous rate of change
of the coin.
(b) Find the average rate of change of the coin after the
first two seconds of free fall. Explain your results.
(c) Velocity is given by the derivative of the position
function. Find the velocity of the coin as it impacts
the ground.
(d) Find the time when the coins velocity is 70 feet
per second.
(e) Use a graphing utility to graph the model and
verify your results for parts (a)(d).
3dfoto 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
STILLFX 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
779
Conclusions
73. The slope of the graph of y x2 is different at every
point on the graph of f.
74. A tangent line to a graph can intersect the graph only at
the point of tangency.
Graphing the Derivative of a Function In Exercises
7578, match the function with the graph of its
derivative. It is not necessary to find the derivative of the
function. [The graphs are labeled (a), (b), (c), and (d).]
y
(a)
1
5
4
3
2
1
(b)
2 3
x
1
y
(c)
1 2 3 4 5
y
(d)
5
4
3
3
2
1
x
1 2 3
2
3
2 1
1 2 3
75. f x x
77. f x x
76. f x
1
x
78. f x x 3
79. Think About It Sketch the graph of a function whose

derivative is always positive.
80. C A P S T O N E Consider the graph of a function f.
(a) Explain how you can use a secant line to
approximate the tangent line at x, f x.
(b) Explain how you can use the limit process to find
the exact slope of the tangent line at x, f x.
which f
x < 0 for x < 1, f
x 0 for x > 1, and
f
1 0.

Sketching the Graph of a Rational Function In Exercises
82 and 83, sketch the graph of the rational function.
82. f x
1
x2 x 2
83. f x
x2
x2 4x 3
780
Chapter 11
11.4
Limits at Infinity and Limits of Sequences
Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes

As pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, there are two basic problems in
calculus: finding tangent lines and finding the area of a region. In Section 11.3, you
saw how limits can be used to solve the tangent line problem. In this section and the
next, you will see how a different type of limit, a limit at infinity, can be used to solve
the area problem. To get an idea of what is meant by a limit at infinity, consider the function
f x x 12x.
The graph of f is shown in Figure 11.29. From earlier work, you know that y 12 is a
horizontal asymptote of the graph of this function. Using limit notation, this can be
written as follows.
f x
1
2
Horizontal asymptote to the left
lim f x
1
2
Horizontal asymptote to the right
lim
x
These limits mean that the value of f x gets arbitrarily close to 12 as

x decreases or increases without bound.
f(x) = x + 1
2x
3
1
y=
1
2
Figure 11.29
Definition of Limits at Infinity

If f is a function and L1 and L 2 are real numbers, then the statements
lim f x L1
x
Limit as x approaches
and
lim f x L 2
Limit as x approaches
denote the limits at infinity. The first statement is read the limit of f x as x
approaches is L1, and the second is read the limit of f x as x approaches
is L 2.
Technology Tip
Recall from Section 2.7 that some graphing utilities have difficulty
graphing rational functions. In this text, rational functions are graphed
using the dot mode of a graphing utility, and a blue curve is placed
behind the graphing utilitys display to indicate where the graph should appear.
Evaluate limits of functions at

infinity.
Find limits of sequences

Finding limits at infinity is useful
in analyzing functions that model
real-life situations. For instance, in
Exercise 60 on page 788, you are
asked to find a limit at infinity to
decide whether you can use a given
model to predict the payroll of the
legislative branch of the United
States government.
Section 11.4
781
To help evaluate limits at infinity, you can use the following definition.
Explore the Concept
Limits at Infinity
If r is a positive real number, then
lim
1
0.
xr

to graph the two
functions given by
Limit toward the right
y1
Furthermore, if xr is defined when x < 0, then

1
lim
0.
x x r
Limit toward the left
Limits at infinity share many of the properties of limits listed in Section 11.1. Some
of these properties are demonstrated in the next example.
1
x
and
y2
1
3 x
in the same viewing window.

Why doesnt y1 appear to the
left of the y-axis? How does
this relate to the statement at
the left about the infinite limit
lim
x
Example 1 Evaluating a Limit at Infinity
1
?
xr
Find the limit.
lim 4
3
x2
Algebraic Solution
Graphical Solution
Use the properties of limits listed in Section 11.1.
lim
4 x3 lim 4 lim x3
2
1
x2
x
lim 4 3 x
lim

y4
3
.
x2
y=4
Use the trace feature
to determine that as
x increases, y gets
closer to 4.
4 30
y = 4 32
x
4
20
So, the limit of

f x 4
3
x2
as x approaches is 4.
120
1
Figure 11.30
From Figure 11.30, you can estimate the limit to be 4. Note in the figure
that the line y 4 is a horizontal asymptote to the right.

In Figure 11.30, it appears that the line
y4
is also a horizontal asymptote to the left. You can verify this by showing that
lim
x
4 x3 4.
2
The graph of a rational function need not have a horizontal asymptote. When it does,
however, its left and right asymptotes must be the same.
When evaluating limits at infinity for more complicated rational functions, divide
the numerator and denominator by the highest-powered term in the denominator. This
enables you to evaluate each limit using the limits at infinity at the top of this page.
782
Chapter 11
Example 2 Comparing Limits at Infinity

Find the limit as x approaches for each function.
a. f x
2x 3
3x 2 1
b. f x
2x 2 3
3x 2 1
c. f x
Explore the Concept

to complete the table
below to verify that
lim
2x 3 3
3x 2 1
1
0.
x
x
Solution
10 0
10 1
10 2
10 3
10 4
10 5
1
x
In each case, begin by dividing both the numerator and denominator by

x2
the highest-powered term in the denominator.
1
x
2
3
2
2x 3
x
x
a. lim
x
lim
x 3x2 1

1
3 2
x
Make a conjecture about

1
lim .
x
0 0
30
x0
0
2x 3
x
lim

3x2 1
2
b. lim
x
3
x2
1
3 2
x
2
2 0
30
2
3
2x3 3
c. lim
x
lim
x 3x2 1

2x
3
3
x2
1
x2
In this case, you can conclude that the limit does not exist because the numerator
decreases without bound as the denominator approaches 3.
Activity
Have students use these observations from
Example 2 to predict the following limits.
a. lim
5xx 3
2x
b. lim
4x3 5x
8x4 3x2 2
c. lim
6x2 1
3x2 x 2
In Example 2, observe that when the degree of the numerator is less than the degree
of the denominator, as in part (a), the limit is 0. When the degrees of the numerator
and denominator are equal, as in part (b), the limit is the ratio of the coefficients of the
highest-powered terms. When the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of
the denominator, as in part (c), the limit does not exist.
This result seems reasonable when you realize that for large values of x, the
highest-powered term of a polynomial is the most influential term. That is, a
polynomial tends to behave as its highest-powered term behaves as x approaches
positive or negative infinity.
ivanpavlisko 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
Then ask several students to verify the

predictions algebraically, several other
students to verify the predictions numerically,
and several more students to verify the
predictions graphically. Lead a discussion
comparing the results.
Section 11.4
783
Limits at Infinity for Rational Functions

Consider the rational function
f x
Nx
Dx
where
Nx an xn . . . a0
Dx bm xm . . . b0.
and
The limit of f x as x approaches positive or negative infinity is as follows.
0,
f

an
lim
x
,
bm
n < m
nm
If n > m, then the limit does not exist.
Example 3 Finding the Average Cost

You are manufacturing greeting cards that cost $0.50 per card to produce. Your initial
investment is $5000, which implies that the total cost C of producing x cards is given
by
Consider asking your students to identify

the practical interpretation of the limit in
part (d) of Example 3.
C 0.50x 5000.
The average cost C per card is given by
C
C 0.50x 5000

.
x
x
Find the average cost per card when (a) x 1000, (b) x 10,000, and
(c) x 100,000. (d) What is the limit of C as x approaches infinity?
Solution
a. When x 1000, the average cost per card is
C
0.501000 5000
1000
x 1000
$5.50.
b. When x 10,000, the average cost per card is
C
0.5010,000 5000
10,000
x 10,000
$1.00.
c. When x 100,000, the average cost per card is
C
0.50100,000 5000
100,000
x 100,000
C=
C 0.50x + 5000
=
x
x
$0.55.
d. As x approaches infinity, the limit of C is
lim
0.50x 5000
$0.50.
x
The graph of C is shown in Figure 11.31.

100,000
0
y = 0.5
As x , the average cost per

card approaches $0.50.
Figure 11.31
784
Chapter 11
Limits of Sequences
Limits of sequences have many of the same properties as limits of functions. For
instance, consider the sequence whose nth term is an 12n.
1 1 1 1 1
, , , , ,. . .
2 4 8 16 32
As n increases without bound, the terms of this sequence get closer and closer to 0, and
the sequence is said to converge to 0. Using limit notation, you can write
lim
1
0.
2n
The following relationship shows how limits of functions of x can be used to evaluate
the limit of a sequence.
Limit of a Sequence
Let L be a real number. Let f be a function of a real variable such that
lim f x L.
If an is a sequence such that

f n an
for every positive integer n, then
lim an L.
A sequence that does not converge is said to diverge. For instance, the sequence
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . .
diverges because it does not approach a unique number.
Another sequence that diverges is

1
an 14. You might want your
n
students to discuss why this is true.
Example 4 Finding the Limit of a Sequence

Find the limit of each sequence. (Assume n begins with 1.)
a. an
2n 1
n4
b. bn
2n 1
n2 4
c. cn
2n2 1
4n2
Solution
a. n
lim
2n 1
2
n4
2n 1
b. lim 2
0
n n 4
c. lim
2n2 1 1

4n2
2
3 5 7 9 11 13
, , , , , ,. . . 2
5 6 7 8 9 10
3 5 7 9 11 13
, , , , , ,. . . 0
5 8 13 20 29 40
3 9 19 33 51 73
1
, , , ,
,
,. . .
4 16 36 64 100 144
2
Study Tip
You can use the definition of limits at infinity
for rational functions
on page 783 to verify the limits
of the sequences in Example 4.
Section 11.4
785
In the next section, you will encounter limits of sequences such as that shown in
Example 5. A strategy for evaluating such limits is to begin by writing the nth term in
standard rational function form. Then you can determine the limit by comparing the
degrees of the numerator and denominator, as shown on page 783.
Example 5 Finding the Limit of a Sequence

Find the limit of the sequence whose nth term is
an
8 nn 12n 1
.
n3
6
Algebraic Solution
Numerical Solution
Begin by writing the nth term in standard rational function form

as the ratio of two polynomials.
Enter the sequence
8 nn 12n 1
an 3
n
6
an
Write original nth term.
8 nn 12n 1
n3
6
into a graphing utility and create a table. (Be sure the

graphing utility is set to sequence mode.)
8nn 12n 1
6n3
Multiply fractions.
8n3 12n2 4n
3n3
Write in standard rational form.
From this form, you can see that the degree of the numerator is
equal to the degree of the denominator. So, the limit of the sequence
is the ratio of the coefficients of the highest-powered terms.
8n3 12n2 4n 8
lim

n
3n3
3
As n increases, an
approaches 2.667.
Figure 11.32
From Figure 11.32, you can estimate that as n approaches

8
, an gets closer and closer to 2.667 3.
The result of Example 5 is supported by Figure 11.33, which shows the graph of
the sequence an and y 83.
10
an
0
0
y=
8
3
100
Figure 11.33
Explore the Concept

In Figure 11.32, the value of an approaches its limit of 83 rather slowly.
(The first term to be accurate to three decimal places is a4801 2.667.)
Each of the following sequences converges to 0. Which converges
the quickest? Which converges the slowest? Why? Write a short paragraph
discussing your conclusions.
1
1
1
1
2n
a. an
b. bn 2
c. cn n
d. dn
e. hn
n
n
2
n!
n!
786
11.4
Chapter 11

Exercises

1. The line y 5 is a horizontal asymptote to the right of the graph of a function f.
What is the limit of f as x approaches infinity?
2. Given lim f x 2 for a rational function f, how does the degree of the numerator
x
compare with the degree of the denominator?
3. A sequence that has a limit is said to _______ .
4. A sequence that does not have a limit is said to _______ .

Identifying the Graph of an Equation In Exercises 512,
match the function with its graph, using horizontal
asymptotes as aids. [The graphs are labeled (a), (b), (c),
(d), (e), (f), (g), and (h).]
3
(a)
9
3
6
3
(f)
9
6
9
8
lim
y
27.
lim
x
x2 3
5x2 4
4y 4
22. lim 2
y y 3
5 6x 3x2
24. lim
x 2x2 x 4
12
lim
lim
31. t
4x 2
5. f x 2
x 1
1
7. f x 4 2
x
x2
9. f x 2
x 1
x2
6. f x 2
x 1
1
8. f x x
x
2x 1
10. f x
x2
1 2x
11. f x
x2
1 4x2
12. f x 2
x 4
x x 1
3t
1
2
4
5t
t2
t 2 9t 10
2 4t 3t 2
2x 2 6
28. lim
x x 12
2x 2
30. lim 7
x
x 32
x
3x 2

32. lim
x 2x 1
x 32
26. lim
t
x 2 3
2 x2
x
5 3x
x4
20. lim
x
3 8y 4y 2
3 y 2y 2
25.
29.
10
4
4x2 3
2 x2
t2
21. lim
t t 3
4t 2 3t 1
23. lim 2
t 3t 2t 5
(h)
6
18. lim
x
19. lim
x
6
3x
3x
5x 2
6x 1
(d)
(g)
17. lim
x
(e)
lim
15. x
(c)
5
2x
2 7x
lim
16. x
2 3x
14. lim
x
x2
13. lim
x
(b)
Evaluating a Limit at Infinity In Exercises 1332, find

the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain
why. Use a graphing utility to verify your result graphically.
Algebraic-Graphical-Numerical In Exercises 33 38,

(a) complete the table and numerically estimate the limit
as x approaches infinity, (b) use a graphing utility to
graph the function and estimate the limit graphically,
and (c) find the limit algebraically.
x
100
101
102
103
104
105
f x
33. f x
3x
1x
34. f x
x2
x2
4
106
Section 11.4
2x
1 x2
3
37. f x 1 2
x
35. f x
36. f x
2x 1
x2 1
38. f x 2
1
x
Estimating the Limit at Infinity In Exercises 3942, (a)

complete the table and numerically estimate the limit as
x approaches infinity and (b) use a graphing utility to
graph the function and estimate the limit graphically.
x
10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
f x
39. f x x x 2 2
40. f x 3x 9x 2 1
2
41. f x 32x 4x x
42. f x 44x 16x 2 x
Finding the Limit of a Sequence In Exercises 4352,
write the first five terms of the sequence and find the
limit of the sequence (if it exists). If the limit does not
exist, explain why. Assume n begins with 1.
n1
43. an 2
n 1
45. an
n
44. an 2
n 1
4n 1
n3
4n2 1
48. an
2n
3n 1!
50. an
3n 1!
1n1
52. an
n2
n
2n 1
46. an
n2
3n 2
n 1!
49. an
n!
47. an
51. an
1n
n
Finding the Limit of a Sequence In Exercises 5356, use

a graphing utility to complete the table and estimate the
limit of the sequence as n approaches infinity. Then find
the limit algebraically.
n
10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
an
1
1 nn 1
n
n
n
2
4
4 nn 1
54. an n
n
n
2
10 nn 13n 1
55. an 3
n
6
3nn 1
4 nn 1
4
56. an
2
n
n
2
53. an
787
57. Business The cost function for a certain model of a

personal digital assistant (PDA) is given by
C 13.50x 45,750, where C is the cost (in dollars)
and x is the number of PDAs produced.
(a) Write a model for the average cost per unit produced.
(b) Find the average costs per unit when x 100 and
x 1000.
(c) Determine the limit of the average cost function as
x approaches infinity. Explain the meaning of the
limit in the context of the problem.
58. Business The cost function for a new supermarket
to recycle x tons of organic material is given by
C 60x 1650, where C is the cost (in dollars).
(a) Write a model for the average cost per ton of
organic material recycled.
(b) Find the average costs of recycling 100 tons and
1000 tons of organic material.
(c) Determine the limit of the average cost function as
x approaches infinity. Explain the meaning of the
limit in the context of the problem.
59. MODELING DATA
The table shows the numbers R (in thousands) of
United States military reserve personnel in the years
2002 through 2008. (Source: U.S. Dept. of Defense)
Year
Reserves, R
(in thousands)
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
1222
1189
1167
1136
1120
1110
1100
A model for the data is given by

Rt
61.018t 2 1260.64
,
0.0578t 2 1
2 t 8
where t represents the year, with t 2 corresponding

to 2002.
(a) Use a graphing utility to create a scatter plot of the
data and graph the model in the same viewing
window. How do they compare?
(b) Use the model to predict the numbers of reserves
in 2009 and 2010.
(c) Find the limit of the model as t and interpret
its meaning in the context of the situation.
(d) Is this a good model for predicting future numbers
of reserves? Explain.
788
Chapter 11
60.
(p. 780) The table shows

the annual payrolls P (in millions of dollars)
of the legislative branch of the United States
government for the years 2001 through
2008. (Source: U.S. Office of Personnel
Management)
Year
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Payroll, P
(in millions
of dollars)
1682
1781
1908
1977
2048
2109
2119
2162
A model for the data is given by

Pt
182.4312t 2 1634.39
,
0.0808t2 1
1 t 8
where t represents the year, with t 1 corresponding to

2001.
(a) Use a graphing utility to create a scatter plot of the
data and graph the model in the same viewing
window. How do they compare?
(b) Use the model to predict the payrolls in 2009 and
2010.
(c) Find the limit of the model as t and interpret
its meaning in the context of the situation.
(d) Is this a good model for predicting the annual
payrolls in future years? Explain.
Conclusions
True or False? In Exercises 6164, determine whether
61. Every rational function has a horizontal asymptote.
62. If a rational function f has a horizontal asymptote to the
right, then the limit of f x as x approaches exists.
63. If a sequence converges, then it has a limit.
64. When the degrees of the numerator and denominator
of a rational function are equal, the limit as x goes to
infinity does not exist.
66. Think About It Use a graphing utility to graph the

function f x xx2 1. How many horizontal
asymptotes does the function appear to have? What are
the horizontal asymptotes?
Exploration In Exercises 6770, use a graphing utility
to create a scatter plot of the terms of the sequence.
Determine whether the sequence converges or diverges.
If it converges, estimate its limit.
2
67. an 4 3
31 1.5n
69. an
1 1.5
n
71. Error Analysis Describe the error in finding the limit.

1 2x x2
0
x
4x2 1
lim
72. C A P S T O N E Let f be a rational function whose

graph has the line y 3 as a horizontal asymptote to
the right.
(a) Find lim f x.
x
(b) Does the graph of f have a horizontal asymptote
to the left? Explain your reasoning.
(c) Find lim f x.
x
(d) Let 3x3 x 4 be the numerator of f. Which of

the following expressions are possible denominators
of f?
(i) x2 1
(ii) x3 1
(iii) x 4 1

Sketching Transformations In Exercises 73 and 74,
sketch the graphs of y and each transformation on the
same rectangular coordinate system.
73. y x 4
(a) f x x 34
(b) f x x 4 1
1
4
(c) f x 2 x
(d) f x 2x 44
74. y x3
(a) f x x 23
1
(c) f x 2 4 x3
(b) f x 3 x3
(d) f x 3x 13
Using Sigma Notation In Exercises 7578, find the sum.

6
75.
2i 3
i1
10
65. Think About It Find functions f and g such that both

f x and gx increase without bound as x approaches
, but lim f x gx .
3
68. an 3 2
31 0.5n
70. an
1 0.5
77.
15
k1
8
78.
k0
3
1
76.
5i
i0
Section 11.5
11.5
The Area Problem
Limits of Summations
Earlier in the text, you used the concept of a limit to obtain a formula for the sum S of
an infinite geometric series

a r
S a1 a1r a1r 2 . . .
i1
i1
a1
,
1r
r < 1.
Using limit notation, this sum can be written as
ar
i1 1
i1
a11 r n
n
1r
lim
a1
.
1r
Find limits of summations.

Use rectangles to approximate
and limits of summations to find
areas of plane regions.

Limits of summations are useful in
determining areas of plane regions.
For instance, in Exercise 46 on page
795, you are asked to find the limit
of a summation to determine the
area of a parcel of land bounded by
a stream and two roads.
S n
lim
789
The Area Problem
lim r n 0 for 0 < r < 1
The following summation formulas and properties are used to evaluate finite and
infinite summations.
Summation Formulas and Properties
n
1.
c cn, c is a constant.
2.
i1
i1
3.
i2
i1
n
5.
nn 1(2n 1
6
i1
i1
i3
n 2n 12
4
i1
kai k
4.
nn 1
2
a b
bi
i1
6.
i
i1
a , k is a constant.
i
i1
Example 1 Evaluating a Summation

Evaluate the summation.
200
i 1 2 3 4 . . . 200
i1
Solution
Using Formula 2 with n 200, you can write
n
i
i1
200
i
i1
nn 1
2
200200 1
2
40,200

2
20,100.
Now try Exercise 5.
Lukasz Laska/iStockphoto.com
Study Tip
Recall from Section 8.3
that the sum of a finite
geometric sequence is
given by
n
a1r i1 a1
i1
11 rr .
n
Furthermore, if 0 < r < 1,

then r n 0 as n .
790
Chapter 11
Example 2 Evaluating a Summation
Technology Tip
Evaluate the summation

S
i2
2
i1 n
n
4
5
n2
3
. . .
n2 n2 n2
n2
for n 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000.
Solution
Begin by applying summation formulas and properties to simplify S. In the second line
of the solution, note that
Some graphing utilities

have a sum sequence
feature that is useful
for computing summations.
For instructions on how to
use the sum sequence feature,
see Appendix A; for specific
keystrokes, go to this textbooks
Companion Website.
1
n2
can be factored out of the sum because n is considered to be constant. You could not
factor i out of the summation because i is the (variable) index of summation.
i2
2
i1 n
Write original form of summation.
1 n
i 2
n2i1
Factor constant 1n2 out of sum.
1
n2
S
i 2
n
i1
i1
1 nn 1
2n
n2
2
1 n 2 5n
n2
2
n5
2n
Write as two sums.
Apply Formulas 1 and 2.
Add fractions.
Simplify.
Now you can evaluate the sum by substituting the appropriate values of n, as shown in
the following table.
n
i2 n5

2
2n
i1 n
10
100
1000
10,000
0.75
0.525
0.5025
0.50025
Now try Exercise 15(a) and (b).

In Example 2, note that the sum appears to approach a limit as n increases. To find
the limit of
n5
2n
as n approaches infinity, you can use the techniques from Section 11.4 to write
lim
n5 1
.
2n
2
Point out that finding the sums of

progressively larger numbers of termsi.e.,
larger values of nwill give better and
better approximations of the limit of the
summation at infinity. For instance, compute
the sum in Example 2 for n 100,000 and
n 1,000,000. What values are these sums
approaching?
Section 11.5
Be sure you notice the strategy used in Example 2. Rather than separately evaluating
the sums
i2
,
2
i1 n
i2
,
2
i1 n
10
100
1000
i1
i2
,
n2
10,000
i1
i2
n2
it was more efficient first to convert to rational form using the summation formulas and
properties listed on page 789.
S
i2 n5

2
2n
i1 n
n
Summation
form
Rational
form
With this rational form, each sum can be evaluated by simply substituting appropriate
values of n.
Example 3 Finding the Limit of a Summation

Find the limit of Sn as n
Sn
1 n n
n
i1
Solution
Begin by rewriting the summation in rational form.
Sn
1 n n
n
Write original form

of summation.
i1
i1
n 2 2ni i 2
n2
1n
1 n 2
n 2ni i 2
n3i1
1
n3
Square 1 in and
write as a single fraction.
Factor constant 1n3

out of the sum.
n 2ni i
n
i1
i1
i1
nn 1
1 3
nn 12n 1
n 2n

n3
2
6
14n3 9n2 n
6n3
lim Sn n
lim
Use summation formulas.
Simplify.
In this rational form, you can now find the limit as n

14n3
Write as three sums.

n 14 7

3
6
3
6n
9n2
Now try Exercise 15(c).
Study Tip
As you can see from Example 3, there is a lot of algebra involved in
rewriting a summation in rational form. You may want to review simplifying
rational expressions if you are having difficulty with this procedure.
The Area Problem
791
792
Chapter 11

y
The Area Problem
You now have the tools needed to solve the second basic problem of calculus: the area
problem. The problem is to find the area of the region R bounded by the graph of a
nonnegative, continuous function f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x a and x b,
as shown in Figure 11.34.
When the region R is a square, a triangle, a trapezoid, or a semicircle, you can find
its area by using a geometric formula. For more general regions, however, you must use
a different approachone that involves the limit of a summation. The basic strategy
is to use a collection of rectangles of equal width that approximates the region R, as
illustrated in Example 4.
Example 4 Approximating the Area of a Region
Figure 11.34
Use the five rectangles in Figure 11.35 to approximate the area of the region bounded
by the graph of
f(x) = 6 x 2
f x 6 x 2
the x-axis, and the lines x 0 and x 2.
Solution
Because the length of the interval along the x-axis is 2 and there are five rectangles,
the width of each rectangle is 25. The height of each rectangle can be obtained by
evaluating f at the right endpoint of each interval. The five intervals are as follows.
0, 5,
5, 5,
5, 5,
2 4
5, 5,
4 6
5, 5
6 8
Notice that the right endpoint of each interval is

the areas of the five rectangles is
8 10
2
5i
3
2
1
for i 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The sum of
Figure 11.35
Height Width
2i 2
2i
2
5 5 6 5 5
5
i1
i1
2
5
6 254 i
5
i1
i1
2
44
30
5
5
212
25
8.48.
So, you can approximate the area of R as 8.48 square units.
By increasing the number of rectangles used in Example 4, you can obtain closer
and closer approximations of the area of the region. For instance, using 25 rectangles
2
of width 25
each, you can approximate the area to be
A 9.17 square units.
The following table shows even better approximations.
n
Approximate area
25
100
1000
5000
8.48
9.17
9.29
9.33
9.33
Consider leading a discussion on why

increasing the number of rectangles used to
approximate the area gives better and better
estimates of the true area.
Section 11.5
793
The Area Problem
Based on the procedure illustrated in Example 4, the exact area of a plane

region R is given by the limit of the sum of n rectangles as n approaches .
Area of a Plane Region
Let f be continuous and nonnegative on the interval a, b. The area A of the
region bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x a and
x b is given by
f a
n
A n
lim
i1
b ai
n
ba
.
n
Height
Width
Example 5 Finding the Area of a Region

y
Find the area of the region bounded by the graph of

f x x 2
1
and the x-axis between

x 0 and
f(x) = x 2
x1
as shown in Figure 11.36.
Solution
Begin by finding the dimensions of the rectangles.
x
ba 10 1
Width:

n
n
n
Height: f a
b ai
1 0i
i
i2
f 0
f
2
n
n
n
n
Next, approximate the area as the sum of the areas of n rectangles.

A
f a
n
i1
b ai
n
b n a
i
1
n n
n
i1
i2
3
i1 n
1 n 2
i
n3i1
1 nn 12n 1
n3
6
2n3 3n2 n
6n3
Finally, find the exact area by taking the limit as n approaches .

2n3 3n2 n 1

n
6n3
3
A lim
Figure 11.36
794
Chapter 11
11.5

Exercises

n
1.
i _______
2.
i1
_______
i1
3. Can you obtain a better approximation of the area of the shaded region using
10 rectangles of equal width or 100 rectangles of equal width?
4. Does the limit of the sum of n rectangles as n approaches infinity represent the
exact area of a plane region or an approximation of the area?
1
x
1

Evaluating a Summation In Exercises 512, evaluate
the sum using the summation formulas and properties.
60
5.
45
6.
i1
20
7.
8.
k1
25
11.
10.
j
12.
3
1
2k 1
k1
10
j1
i1
50
2
1
22. f x 2x 13
(4 rectangles)
i1
30
i1
20
9.
1
21. f x 4x3
(8 rectangles)
1
x
1
3j
j1
Finding the Limit of a Summation In Exercises 1318,

(a) rewrite the sum as a rational function Sn. (b) Use
Sn to complete the table. (c) Find lim Sn.
Approximating the Area of a Region In Exercises

2326, complete the table to show the approximate area
of the region using the indicated numbers n of rectangles
of equal width.
n
100
101
102
103
104
i
14.
2
n
i1
n
2i 3
16.
n2
i1
1
23. f x 3x 4
i3
13.
4
i1 n
n
3
1 i 2
15.
3
i1 n
n
i2
2 1

17.
3
n n
i1 n
18.
i1
y
10
8
6
i
32
n
1
n
x
4
Approximating the Area of a Region In Exercises

1922, approximate the area of the region using the
indicated number of rectangles of equal width.
19. f x x 4
12
y
5
4
6
5
2
2
x
1
3 2 1
1
26. f x 3 4x3
1
25. f x 9x3
20. f x 2 x2
50
24. f x 9 x 2
20
Approximate area
Sn
n
x
1 2 3
x
1
2 1
x
1
Section 11.5
The Area of a Region In Exercises 2732, use the given
expression for the sum of the areas of n rectangles. For
each finite value of n in the table, approximate the area of
the region bounded by the graph of f and the x-axis over
the specified interval. Then find the exact area as n .
4
20
50
100
46.
795
The Area Problem
(p. 789) The table shows

the measurements (in feet) of a lot bounded
by a stream and two straight roads that meet
at right angles (see figure).
x
50
100 150
450 362 305 268
200 250 300
245 156
Area
Function
Interval
27. f x 2x 5
28. f x 3x 1
Sum of areas
of n rectangles
0, 4
36n2 16n
n2
0, 4
28n2 24n
n2
30. f x x 1
4, 6
46n3 12n2 4n
3n3
158n3 60n2 4n
3n3
31. f x 2x 4
1, 3
18n2 4n
n2
1
32. f x 2x 1
2, 2
4n2 4n
n2
29. f x 9 x
0, 2
Finding the Area of a Region In Exercises 3344, use

the limit process to find the area of the region bounded
by the graph of the function and the x-axis over the
specified interval.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
Function
Interval
f x 4x 1
f x 3x 2
0, 1
0, 2
0, 3
2, 5
0, 4
0, 1
0, 1
0, 3
0, 1
0, 2
0, 6
0, 1
f x x 4
f x 3x 6
f x 16 x 2
f x x 2 2
gx 1 x3
g x 64 x3
gx 2x x3
gx 4x x3
f x x 2 4x
f x x 2 x3
45. Geometry The boundaries of a parcel of land are two

edges modeled by the coordinate axes and a stream
modeled by the equation
y 3.0
106 x3 0.002x 2 1.05x 400.
Use a graphing utility to graph the equation. Find the

area of the property. (All distances are measured in feet.)
Lukasz Laska/iStockphoto.com
y
450
Stream
360
270
Road
180
90
Road
x
50 100 150 200 250 300

find a model of the form y ax3 bx2 cx d.
(b) Use the graphing utility to plot the data and graph
the model in the same viewing window.
(c) Use the model in part (a) to estimate the area of the lot.
Conclusions
47. The sum of the first n positive integers is nn 12.
48. The exact area of a region is given by the limit of the
sum of n rectangles as n approaches 0.
49. Think About It Determine which value best
approximates the area of the region shown in the graph.
(Make your selection on the basis of the sketch of the
region and not by performing any calculations.)
y
(a) 2
(b) 1
3
(c) 4
2
(d) 6
1
(e) 9
x
1
50. C A P S T O N E Describe the process of finding the

areas of a region bounded by the graph of a nonnegative,
continuous function f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines
x a and x b.
796
11
Chapter 11
Chapter Summary
What did you learn?
Understand the limit concept
( p. 750) and use the definition of
a limit to estimate limits ( p. 751).
Explanation and Examples

If f x becomes arbitrarily close to a unique number L as x
approaches c from either side, then the limit of f x as x
approaches c is L. This is written as lim f x L.
Review
Exercises
14
xc
Determine whether limits of

functions exist ( p. 753).
Conditions Under Which Limits Do Not Exist

The limit of f x as x c does not exist under any of the
following conditions.
1. f x approaches a different number from the right side of
c than it approaches from the left side of c.
58
2. f x increases or decreases without bound as x approaches c.

3. f x oscillates between two fixed values as x approaches c.
11.1
Use properties of limits and direct

substitution to evaluate limits
( p. 755).
Let b and c be real numbers and let n be a positive integer.

1. lim b b
xc
2. lim x c
xc
3. lim x n c n
xc
n x
n c,
4. lim
for n even and c > 0
xc
Properties of Limits
Let b and c be real numbers, let n be a positive integer, and
let f and g be functions where
lim f x L
xc
and
lim gx K.
xc
1. lim bf x bL
2. lim f x gx L K
3. lim f xgx LK
4. lim
xc
xc
922
xc
xc
f x
L
,
gx K
K0
5. lim f xn Ln
xc
11.2
Use the dividing out technique

to evaluate limits of functions
( p. 760).
When evaluating a limit of a rational function by direct

substitution, you may encounter the indeterminate form 00.
In this case, factor and divide out any common factors, then
try direct substitution again. (See Examples 1 and 2.)
2330
Use the rationalizing technique

to evaluate limits of functions
( p. 762).
The rationalizing technique involves rationalizing the

numerator of the function when finding a limit. (See
Example 3.)
31, 32
Use technology to approximate

limits of functions graphically and
numerically ( p. 763).
The table feature or zoom and trace features of a graphing

utility can be used to approximate limits. (See Examples 4
and 5.)
3340
Evaluate one-sided limits of

functions ( p. 764).
Limit from left: lim f x L1 or f x L1 as x c

xc
Limit from right: lim f x L2 or f x L2 as x c
4148
xc
Evaluate limits of difference

quotients from calculus ( p. 766).
For any x-value, the limit of a difference quotient is an

f x h f x
.
expression of the form lim
h0
h
49, 50
Chapter Summary
What did you learn?

Understand the tangent line
problem ( p. 770) and use a
tangent line to approximate the
slope of a graph at a point (p. 771).
Explanation and Examples

The tangent line to the graph of a
function f at a point Px1, y1 is the
line that best approximates the slope
of the graph at the point.
Review
Exercises
5158
x
Use the limit definition of slope

to find exact slopes of graphs
( p. 772).
11.3
Definition of the Slope of a Graph

The slope m of the graph of f at the point x, f x is equal
to the slope of its tangent line at x, f x, and is given by
f x h f x
h0
h
5962
m lim msec lim

h0

Find derivatives of functions and
use derivatives to find slopes of
graphs ( p. 775).
11.4
The derivative of f at x is given by

f x h f x
h
provided this limit exists. The derivative f
x is a formula
for the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point
x, f x.
f
x lim
h0
Evaluate limits of functions at

infinity ( p. 780).
If f is a function and L1 and L2 are real numbers, then the

statements lim f x L1 and lim f x L2 denote
x
x
the limits at infinity.
Find limits of sequences (p. 784).
Limit of a Sequence
Let L be a real number. Let f be a function of a real variable
such that lim f x L. If an is a sequence such that
x
f n an for every positive integer n, then lim an L.
6378
7986
8792
Find limits of summations

( p. 789).
Summation Formulas and Properties

n
1.
c cn, c is a constant.
i1
n
2.
i
i1
n
3.
nn 1
2
i1
n
nn 12n 1
6
93, 94
n2n 12
4.
i3
4
i1
5.
i1
n
11.5
6.
i1
i1
ka k a , k is a constant.
i
i1
Use rectangles to approximate

and limits of summations to find
areas of plane regions ( p. 792).
a b
bi
i1
A collection of rectangles of equal width can be used to

approximate the area of a region. Increasing the number of
rectangles gives a closer approximation. (See Example 4.)
Area of a Plane Region
Let f be continuous and nonnegative on a, b. The area A of
the region bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis, and the
vertical lines x a and x b is given by
A lim
f a
n
n i1
b ai
n
b n a.
797
95105
798
Chapter 11
11

Review Exercises
11.1
Estimating a Limit Numerically In Exercises 1 4,

complete the table and use the result to estimate the limit
numerically. Determine whether the limit can be
reached.
Evaluating Limits In Exercises 9 and 10, use the given

information to evaluate each limit.
9. lim f x 2, lim gx 5
xc
(b) lim3f x gx
(c) lim f xgx
(d) lim
xc
1. lim 6x 1
x3
xc
xc
2.9
xc
(a) lim f x3
2.99
2.999
f x
3.001
3.01
3.1
x2
xc
x2
3x 2 4x 4
1.9
xc
1.999
f x
2.001
2.01
2.1
(b) lim
(c) lim f xgx
(d) lim f x 2gx
x4
0.1
0.01
0.001
f x
0.001
0.01
0.1
0.1
0.001
f x
0.001
0.01
0.1
Using a Graph to Find a Limit In Exercises 58, use the

graph to find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not
exist, explain why.
6. lim
x1
x2
1
x2
1 2 3
x3
7. lim
x3 x 3
2 3 4 5
1
2
3
2 1
2
3
21.
22. lim arctan x
x12
x3
arcsin x
x0
Finding Limits In Exercises 2332, find the limit (if it

exists). Use a graphing utility to confirm your result
graphically.
t2
t2 t 2 4
23. lim
x5
5x 50
4
3
2
1
x
1
2
1
1
x2
lim
29. x1
x1
31. lim
u 0
lim
x2 7x 8
x1 x2 3x 2
x2 1
8. lim
x1 x 1
3
2
x1
x0
27. lim
x
16. lim 5 x
20. lim 2 ln x
x5 x 2
3
2
1
x
3x 5
x2 5x 3
14. lim
19. lim ex
25. lim
3
2
1
x3
11.2
5. lim 3 x
12. lim 5x 4
18. lim tan x
x1
0.01
xc
17. lim sin 3x

x
ln1 x
x0
x
t2 1
13. lim
t3
t
3
15. lim 4x
x2
4. lim
xc
Evaluating Limits by Direct Substitution In Exercises

1122, find the limit by direct substitution.
11. lim 12 x 3
1 ex
3. lim
x0
x
f x
18
3 f x
(a) lim
xc
1.99
f x
gx
10. lim f x 8, lim gx 3

xc
2. lim
xc
4 u 2
24. lim
t3
t2 9
t3
26. lim
x1
x1
x2 5x 6
x2 8x 12
x2 x 2 3x 10
1
1
x1
30. lim
x 0
x
28. lim
32. lim
v0
v 9 3
Approximating a Limit In Exercises 3340, (a) graphically

approximate the limit (if it exists) by using a
graphing utility to graph the function and (b) numerically
approximate the limit (if it exists) by using the table
feature of the graphing utility to create a table.
1 2 3 4
33. lim
x3
x3
x2 9
lim
34. x4
4x
16 x2
Review Exercises
35. lim e2x
36. lim e4x
x0
Finding a Formula for the Slope of a Graph In Exercises

5962, find a formula for the slope of the graph of f at
the point x, f x. Then use it to find the slopes at the two
specified points.
x0
sin 4x
2x
2x 1 3
39. lim
x1
x1
37. lim
x0
tan 2x
x
1 x
40. lim
x1 x 1
38. lim
x0
Evaluating One-Sided Limits In Exercises 41 48, graph

the function. Determine the limit (if it exists) by evaluating
the corresponding one-sided limits.
41. lim
x3
x 3
8 x
42. lim
x3
2
x2 4
x5
45. lim
x5 x 5
44. lim
x2
x 6,
x 4,
63.
65.
67.
69.
x 0
x < 0
x0
Evaluating a Limit from Calculus In Exercises 49 and 50,

f x h f x
find lim
.
h0
h
49. f x 3x x 2
50. f x x2 5x 2
11.3
Approximating the Slope of a Graph In Exercises 51

and 52, use the figure to approximate the slope of the
curve at the point x, y.
y
51.
2
52.
5
x
1
2
3
4
(x, y)
(x, y)
f x x 2 2x
f x 6 x2
f x x 2
f x x2 5
6
57. f x
x4
1
58. f x
3x
f x 5
1
hx 5 2x
64.
66.
68.
70.
gx 3
f x 3x
f x x3 4x
gt t 3
6
72. gt
5t
gx 2x 1
f t t 5
4
71. gs
s5
1
73. gx
x 4
2
74. f x
1
12 x
Using the Derivative In Exercises 7578, (a) find the

slope of the graph of f at the given point, (b) find an
equation of the tangent line to the graph at the point, and
(c) graph the function and the tangent line.
75. f x 2x2 1, 0, 1
76. f x x2 10, 2, 14
77. f x x3 1, 1, 0 78. f x x3 x, 2, 6
11.4
3
2
1
x
1
1 2 3
Evaluating a Limit at Infinity In Exercises 7986, find the

limit (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain why.
Use a graphing utility to verify your result graphically.
Approximating the Slope of a Tangent Line In Exercises

5358, use a graphing utility to graph the function and
the tangent line at the point 2, f 2. Use the graph to
approximate the slope of the tangent line.
53.
54.
55.
56.
(a) 1, 1
(b) 4, 2
Finding a Derivative In Exercises 6374, find the

derivative of the function.
x3
62. f x x
(a) 7, 4
(b) 8, 2
1
x2 9
x2
46. lim
x2 x 2
5 x, x 2
47. lim f x where f x 2
x2
x 3, x > 2
43. lim
1
60. f x 4 x4
(a) 2, 4
1
(b) 1, 4
59. f x x 2 4x
(a) 0, 0
(b) 5, 5
4
61. f x
x6
8x
x8
799
4x
2x 3
2x
lim
x x 2 25
3x
lim
x 1 x3
x2
lim
x 2x 3
3y 4
lim 2
y y 1
lim
79. x
lim
80. x
81.
82.
83.
84.
x 2 3
2x
lim 2
x 1

85. lim
86.
7x
14x 2
800
Chapter 11
Finding the Limit of a Sequence In Exercises 8792,

write the first five terms of the sequence and find the
limit of the sequence (if it exists). If the limit does not
exist, explain why. Assume n begins with 1.
87. an
2n 3
5n 4
2n
n2 1
88. an
Function
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
1n
1n1
89. an
90. an
3
n
n
1
91. an 2 3 2nn 1
2n
2
2 nn 1
n
n
92. an
n
n
2
11.5
Finding the Limit of a Summation In Exercises 93 and

94, (a) use the summation formulas and properties to
rewrite the sum as a rational function Sn. (b) Use Sn
to complete the table. (c) Find lim Sn.
n

10 0
101
10 2
10 3
i1
4i 2
i

2
n
n

1
n
f x 10 x
0, 10
3, 6
0, 3
0, 1
0, 4
0, 2
f x 2x 6
f x x 2 4
f x 6x x 2
f x x3 1
f x 8 x3
105. Civil Engineering The table shows the measurements

(in feet) of a lot bounded by a stream and two straight
roads that meet at right angles (see figure).
x
100
200
300
400
500
125
125
120
112
90
90
600
700
800
900
1000
95
88
75
35
4 n n
n
94.
Interval
10 4
Sn
93.
Finding the Area of a Region In Exercises 99104, use

the limit process to find the area of the region bounded
by the graph of the function and the x-axis over the
specified interval.
3i
3i
i1
125
Stream
100
Approximating the Area of a Region In Exercises 95

and 96, approximate the area of the region using the
indicated number of rectangles of equal width.
95. f x 4 x
75
50
25
96. f x 4 x
Road
Road
x
200 400 600 800 1000
4
3
2
1

find a model of the form
y ax3 bx2 cx d.
2
1
1 2 3 4
Approximating the Area of a Region In Exercises 97

and 98, complete the table to show the approximate area
of the region using the indicated numbers n of rectangles
of equal width.
4
20
106. If the degree of the numerator Nx of a rational

function f x NxDx is greater than the degree
of its denominator Dx, then the limit of the rational
function as x approaches is 0.
107. The expression f
z gives the slope of the tangent line
to the graph of f at the point z, f z.
98. f x 4x x 2
3
2
108. Writing Write a short paragraph explaining several

reasons why the limit of a function may not exist.
x
1
Conclusions
True or False? In Exercises 106 and 107, determine
whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
50
Approximate area
1
97. f x 4x2
(b) Use the graphing utility to plot the data and graph
the model in the same viewing window.
(c) Use the model in part (a) to estimate the area of the
lot.
x
1
801
Chapter Test
11

Chapter Test
Take this test as you would take a test in class. After you are finished, check your
work against the answers in the back of the book.
In Exercises 13, use a graphing utility to graph the function and approximate
the limit (if it exists). Then find the limit (if it exists) algebraically by using
appropriate techniques.
x2 1
x2
2x
1. lim
x2 5x 3
x1
1x
2. lim
3. lim
x 2
x5
x5
In Exercises 4 and 5, use a graphing utility to graph the function and approximate
the limit. Write an approximation that is accurate to four decimal places. Then
create a table to verify your limit numerically.
e2x 1
x0
x
sin 3x
x0
x
4. lim
5. lim
6. Find a formula for the slope of the graph of f at the point x, f x. Then use it to
find the slope at the specified point.
(a) f x 3x2 5x 2, 2, 0
(b) f x 2x3 6x, 1, 8
In Exercises 79, find the derivative of the function.
2
7. f x 3 x
5
8. f x 2x2 4x 1
9. f x
1
x1
In Exercises 1012, find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain
6
x 5x 1
10. lim
1 3x2
x x2 5
11. lim
12.
x2
x 3x 2
lim
In Exercises 13 and 14, write the first five terms of the sequence and find the limit
of the sequence (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain why. Assume n
begins with 1.
13. an
n2 3n 4
2n2 n 2
14. an
1 1n
n
15. Approximate the area of the region bounded by the graph of f x 8 2x2 shown
at the right using the indicated number of rectangles of equal width.
y
10
6
4
2
x
1
Figure for 15
In Exercises 16 and 17, use the limit process to find the area of the region bounded
by the graph of the function and the x-axis over the specified interval.
16. f x x 2; interval: 2, 2
17. f x 7 x2; interval: 0, 2
18. The table shows the height of a space shuttle during its first 5 seconds of motion.
(a) Use the regression feature of a graphing utility to find a quadratic model
y ax2 bx c for the data.
(b) The value of the derivative of the model is the rate of change of height with
respect to time, or the velocity, at that instant. Find the velocity of the shuttle
after 5 seconds.
Time
(seconds), x
0
1
2
3
4
5
Table for 18
Height
(feet), y
0
1
23
60
115
188
802
Chapter 11
1011

Cumulative Test
Take this test to review the material in Chapters 10 and 11. After you are finished,
check your work against the answers in the back of the book.
In Exercises 1 and 2, find the coordinates of the point.
z
1. The point is located six units behind the yz-plane, one unit to the right of the
xz-plane, and two units above the xy-plane.
2. The point is located on the y-axis, five units to the left of the xz-plane.
3. Find the distance between the points 2, 3, 6 and 4, 5, 1.
4. Find the lengths of the sides of the right triangle at the right. Show that these
lengths satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem.
5. Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining 3, 4, 1 and
5, 0, 2.
6. Find an equation of the sphere for which the endpoints of a diameter are 0, 0, 0
and 4, 4, 8.
7. Sketch the graph of the equation x 22 y 12 z2 4, and then sketch
the xy-trace and the yz-trace.
8. For the vectors u 2, 6, 0 and v 4, 5, 3, find u v and u v.
(0, 4, 3)
(0, 0, 3)
2
(0, 0, 0)
2
2
4
x
Figure for 4
In Exercises 911, determine whether u and v are orthogonal, parallel, or neither.

9. u 4, 4, 0
v 0, 8, 6
10. u 4, 2, 10
v 2, 6, 2
11. u 1, 6, 3
v 3, 18, 9
12. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with the vertices A1, 3, 2, B3, 4, 2,
C3, 2, 2, D1, 1, 2, E1, 3, 5, F3, 4, 5, G3, 2, 5, and H1, 1, 5.
13. Find sets of (a) parametric equations and (b) symmetric equations for the line
passing through the points 2, 3, 0 and 5, 8, 25.
14. Find the parametric form of the equation of the line passing through the point
1, 2, 0 and perpendicular to 2x 4y z 8.
15. Find an equation of the plane passing through the points 0, 0, 0, 2, 3, 0, and
5, 8, 25.
16. Label the intercepts and sketch the graph of the plane given by 3x 6y 12z 24.
17. Find the distance between the point 0, 0, 25 and the plane 2x 5y z 10.
18. A plastic wastebasket has the shape and dimensions shown in the figure. In
fabricating a mold for making the wastebasket, it is necessary to know the angle
between two adjacent sides. Find the angle.
19. lim 5x x 2
x4
22. lim
x0
x 4 2
1
1

x3 3
25. lim
x0
x
x2
x2 x 2
x4
23. lim
x4
x4
20.
lim
x2
26. lim
x0
x 16 4
21. lim
x7
x7
x2 49
24. lim sin

x0
27. lim
x2
x
x2
x2 4
z
6
( 1, 1, 3)
(0, 0, 0)
(3, 1, 3)
( 1, 3, 3)
(3, 3, 3)
4
4
(2, 0, 0)
4
x
Figure for 18
(2, 2, 0)
(0, 2, 0)
Cumulative Test for Chapters 1011

In Exercises 2831, find a formula for the slope of the graph of f at the point
x, f x. Then use it to find the slope at the specified point.
28. f x 4 x 2,
2, 0
29. f x x 3, 2, 1
1
1
,
1,
30. f x
x3
4
31. f x x2 x, 1, 0
3 7x
x x 4
2x
35. lim 2
x x 3x 2
3 4x x3
37. lim
x
2x2 3
x3
x2 9
3x2 1
34. lim 2
x x 4
32. lim
33. lim
36. lim
3x
x2 1
In Exercises 38 40, evaluate the sum using the summation formulas and properties.
50
38.
20
1 i2
39.
40
3k 2 2k
40.
k1
i1
12 i
3
i1
In Exercises 41 44, approximate the area of the region using the indicated
number of rectangles of equal width.
y
41.
42.
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
y = 5 12 x 2
y = 2x
3
2
1
x
1
43.
y=
1
1)2
y=
1
x2 + 1
x
1
44.
1
(x
4
x
1
In Exercises 4548, use the limit process to find the area of the region bounded by
the graph of the function and the x-axis over the specified interval.
45. f x x 2
Interval: 0, 1
47. f x 4 x2
Interval: 0, 2
46. f x x2 1
Interval: 0, 4
48. f x 1 x3
Interval: 0, 1
803
804
Chapter 11
Proofs in Mathematics
Many of the proofs of the definitions and properties presented in this chapter are beyond
the scope of this text. Included below are simple proofs for the limit of a power
function and the limit of a polynomial function.
Limit of a Power Function (p. 755)
Proving Limits
lim x n cn, c is a real number and n is a positive integer.
xc
Proof
lim xn limx x x . . .
xc
xc
n factors
lim x lim x lim x . . .

xc
xc
xc
lim
xc
Product Property of Limits
n factors
c c c . . .
Limit of the identity function
n factors
cn
Exponential form
Limit of a Polynomial Function (p. 756)

If p is a polynomial function and c is a real number, then
lim px pc.
xc
Proof
Let p be a polynomial function such that
px an x n an1 x n1 . . . a2 x 2 a1x a0.
Because a polynomial function is the sum of monomial functions, you can write the
following.
lim px lim an x n an1 x n1 . . . a2 x 2 a1x a0
xc
xc
lim an x n lim an1x n1 . . . lim a2 x 2 lim a1x lim a0

xc
xc
xc
ancn an1cn1 . . . a2c2 a1c a0

pc
xc
xc
Scalar Multiple Property of

Limits and limit of a power
function
p evaluated at c
To prove most of the definitions

and properties from this chapter,
you must use the formal
definition of a limit. This
definition is called the epsilondelta definition and was first
introduced by Karl Weierstrass
(18151897). If you go on to
take a course in calculus, you
will use this definition of a limit
extensively.

Limits and An Introduction To Calculus

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Limits and An Introduction To Calculus

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11

Limits and an Introduction

11.1 Introduction to Limits

11.5 The Area Problem

Section 11.4, Example 3

Limits and an Introduction to Calculus

What you should learn

The Limit Concept

Example 1 Finding a Rectangle of Maximum Area

Understand the limit concept.

Why you should learn it

Formula for area

Now try Exercise 5.

The concept of a limit is useful in

Example 2 Estimating a Limit Numerically

Now try Exercise 7.

Example 3 Estimating a Limit Numerically

Now try Exercise 9.

Limits and an Introduction to Calculus

Example 4 Using a Graphing Utility to Estimate a Limit

Create a table that shows values

using a decimal setting, as shown in Figure 11.5.

Use the trace feature to

From Figure 11.4, it appears that the closer x gets to 1,

Now try Exercise 15.

Example 5 Using a Graph to Find a Limit

Some students may come to think that a

Find the limit of f x as x approaches 3, where f is defined as

The fact that f 3 0 has no bearing on the

then the limit as x approaches 3 would be the same.

Limits That Fail to Exist

You use a graphing utility to

Example 6 Comparing Left and Right Behavior

using a decimal setting, as

Consider the graph of the function given

does not exist. Whats wrong?

and for negative x-values

This means that no matter how close x

Example 7 Unbounded Behavior

Consider reinforcing the nonexistence of the

Similarly, you can force f x to be larger than 1,000,000, as follows.

Because f x is not approaching a unique real number L as x approaches 0, you can

Limits and an Introduction to Calculus

Example 8 Oscillating Behavior

Discuss the existence of the limit.

When using a graphing

as indicated in the table.

Now try Exercise 39.

Properties of Limits and Direct Substitution

Explore the Concept

What can you say about the

(See the proof on page 804.)

for n even and c > 0

Trigonometric functions can also be included in this list.

lim cos x cos 0 1.

By combining the basic limits with the following operations,

Limits and an Introduction to Calculus

Example 9 Direct Substitution and Properties of Limits

Scalar Multiple Property

e. lim x cos x) lim x lim cos x

Sum and Power Properties

Explore the Concept

Use a graphing utility to graph

(See the proof on page 804.)

2. If r is a rational function given by rx pxqx, and c is a real number

Example 10 Evaluating Limits by Direct Substitution

Now try Exercise 55.

Explore the Concept

Use the trace feature to

See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

Vocabulary and Concept Check

4. List three conditions under which limits do not exist.

Procedures and Problem Solving

(p. 750) You create an

1.9 1.99 1.999 2

1.001 1.01 1.1

3,1, xx 22 30. f x x,4,