(Example) (P631 2014A) SPE Paper y Pres in PDF (SPE 124961) PDF

SPE 124961
A Numerical Study of Performance for Tight Gas and Shale Gas Reservoir
Systems
C.M. Freeman, Texas A&M University, G. Moridis, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory,
D. Ilk, Texas A&M University, and T.A. Blasingame, Texas A&M University
Copyright 2009, Society of Petroleum Engineers
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2009 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, 47 October 2009.
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.
Abstract
Various analytical, semi-analytical, and empirical models have been proposed to characterize rate and pressure behavior as a
function of time in tight gas and shale gas systems featuring a horizontal well with multiple hydraulic fractures. Despite a
few analytical models, as well as a small number of published numerical studies there is currently little consensus regarding
the large-scale flow behavior over time in such systems, particularly regarding the dominant flow regimes and whether or not
reservoir properties or volumes can be estimated from well performance data.
We constructed a fit-for-purpose numerical simulator which accounts for a variety of production features pertinent to these
systems specifically: ultra-tight matrix permeability, hydraulically fractured horizontal wells with induced fractures of
various configurations, multiple porosity and permeability fields, and desorption. These features cover the production
mechanisms which are currently believed to be most relevant in tight gas and shale gas systems.
We employ the numerical simulator to examine various tight gas and shale gas systems and to identify and illustrate the
various flow regimes which progressively occur over time. We perform this study at fine grid discretization on the order of
one millimeter to accurately capture flow effects at all time periods. We visualize the flow regimes using specialized plots of
rate and pressure functions, as well as maps of pressure and sorption distributions.
We use pressure maps to visualize the various flow regimes and their transitions in tight gas systems. In a typical tight gas
system, we illustrate the initial linear flow into the hydraulic fractures (i.e., formation linear flow), transitioning to compound
formation linear flow, and eventually transforming into elliptical flow. We explore variations of possible shale gas system
models. Based on diffusive flow (with and without desorption), we show that due to the extremely low permeability of shale
(a few nanodarcies), the flow behavior is dominated by the extent of and configuration of the fractures.
This work expands our understanding of flow behavior in tight gas and shale gas systems, where such an understanding may
ultimately be used to estimate reservoir properties and reserves in these types of reservoirs.
C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame
SPE 124961
Introduction
The purpose of this work is to quantitatively demonstrate the influence of various reservoir and completion parameters on
performance of multiply-fractured horizontal wells in tight gas and shale gas reservoir systems. We seek to provide
benchmarks which may guide completion practices and lay the groundwork for future analytical solutions.
Ultra-tight reservoirs present numerous challenges to modeling and understanding. These reservoirs typically require fracture
stimulation, which creates complex flow profiles. Additionally, according to Hill and Nelson [2000], between 20 and 85
percent of total storage in shales may be in the form of adsorbed gas, and the majority of this gas may never be produced due
to the steepness of the sorption isotherm at lower pressures. Production from desorption follows a nonlinear response to
pressure and results in an unintuitive (and difficult-to-model) pressure profile behavior. Closed or open natural fracture
networks in ultra-tight reservoirs introduce further complexity through interaction with the induced hydraulic fractures.
Gas desorption from kerogenic media has been studied extensively in coalbed methane reservoirs. Many analytic and semianalytic models have been developed from the study of gas desorption from coalbed methane reservoirs, including transient
responses and multicomponent interactions (see Clarkson and Bustin [1999]). However, the sorptive and transport properties
of shale are not necessarily analogous to coal (Schettler and Parmely [1991]). Complex coal-based desorption models
provide no additional insight over the commonly used empirical models for single-component surface sorption, the Langmuir
isotherm (given by Eq. 1 below and illustrated in Fig. 01) and Freundlich isotherm.
pVL
........................................................................................................................................................................ (1)
=
p + pL
The desorption isotherms as presumed by Langmuir are typified by the VL term which expresses the total storage at infinite
pressure and the pressure at which half of this volume is stored (pL). Further, the Langmuir model assumes instantaneous
equilibrium of the sorptive surface and the storage in the pore space i.e., there is no transient lag between pressure drop
and desorption response. Due to the very low permeability of shales, flow through the kerogenic media is extremely slow, so
instantaneous equilibrium is a good assumption (see Gao et al. [1994]).
Darcys law is valid under the assumptions of continuum flow. In porous media where the average pore throat diameter is on
the order of the mean free path of the gas molecules, the continuum assumption does not apply as indicated by Javadpour et
al. [2007]. These regimes are characterized by a Knudsen or "microflow" regime in shales. Florence et al. [2007] suggest
the possibility of a model where permeability can be adjusted as a function of pressure in the microflow regime, permitting
the use of Darcys law with a Knudsen-corrected permeability. While this effect may be an important transport
consideration, its exploration will be left to future work.
The presence and state of natural fractures varies on a reservoir-by-reservoir (or even well-by-well) basis. In some cases, it is
believed that fracture stimulation effectively re-opens an existing, yet dormant or sealed natural fracture network through
alteration of near-wellbore stresses (Medeiros et al. [2007]). In other cases, a true planar vertical fracture is believed to be
formed (Mattar et al. [2008]).
Many efforts have been made to identify and model complex flow features exhibited in tight and ultra-tight shale gas and
tight gas reservoirs. Van Kruijsdik and Dullaert [1989] developed an analytical solution which provides an understanding of
the flow regimes surrounding horizontal wells with multiple transverse fractures. They developed multiple scenarios to
demonstrate that at early time, the dominant flow into such a system is linear, perpendicular to the fracture faces, until such
time as the pressure transients of the individual fractures begin to interfere, leading to a compound-linear flow regime, as
illustrated in Fig. 02 and Fig. 03.
Many models exist for inflow into single vertical fractures. Raghavan et al. [1997] provide a mathematical description of
inflow into the late-time compound-linear flow regime. Medeiros et al. [2006] introduced a semi-analytical solution which
models the entire range of flow regimes surrounding a multiply-fractured horizontal well system. Medeiros et al. extended
the idea beyond the assumption of planar hydraulic fractures to include a dual permeability region near the fracture faces to
represent a complex-fractured region surrounding the primary hydraulic fracture. The existence of such a complex fracture
network has been qualitatively corroborated by real-time microseismic observation of fracture treatments and has come to be
referred to as the so-called "stimulated reservoir volume" (SRV) concept. We suggest a "continuum" of possible complex
fracture layouts in the near-wellbore reservoir, ranging from the planar fracture case to a dual porosity fractured reservoir
case, illustrated in Fig. 04.
These semi-analytical models are robust, but do not account for desorption or a change of permeability as a function of
reservoir pressure over time. Desorption can be a significant source of produced gas, and is nonlinear and difficult to include
in analytical solutions. Permeability change in shales as a function of reservoir pressure may occur either due to matrix
shrinkage or Knudsen flow effects.
Current models for rate-decline prediction and reserves estimation and production forecast from early time data in ultra-tight
reservoir systems fail to account for fracture interference, and consequently yield optimistic predictions. The extrapolation of
linear flow in Fig. 03 illustrates the nature of this overprediction. A primary goal of this paper is to address this confusion.
SPE 124961
A Numerical Study of Performance for Tight Gas and Shale Gas Reservoir Systems
Description of Numerical Model

Several distinct gridding schemes were applied in this work. In the first set of simulation models, a fully three-dimensional,
finely discretized grid is employed. This grid uses cell dimensions smaller than one millimeter near the fracture face which
increase logarithmically in size to a maximum dimension of half a meter. These grids are used to accurately model the nearfracture region at very early times. The layout of this model is illustrated in Fig. 05. The manner in which these repeating
well-system elements connect is illustrated in Fig. 06. Several grids of the same general design were created by varying the
effective fracture spacing, df. For example, in the base case, the distance between the fracture and the no-flow barrier is 5 m
(16.40 ft) corresponding to an df of 10 m (32.81 ft), and in the sensitivity cases, df values of 5 m (16.40 ft) and effective df is
20 m (65.62 ft) are used. It is worth mentioning that in all cases, gravity is neglected due to the reasonably thin reservoir
intervals concerned.
The third set examines the effects of laterally continuous thin high permeability layers connected to the primary fracture, with
and without microfractures in the shale.
The fourth set employs a fully transient highly fractured gridding scheme, utilizing a dual-porosity assumption. The purpose
of this grid type is to approximate the "stimulated reservoir volume" (SRV) concept, that there are no true highly conductive
planar fractures, instead there is a fractured region surrounding the well.
The fifth set represents both the features of the third and fourth sets, possessing both thin conductive horizontal layers and
dual-porosity shale matrix.
The sixth and final grid scheme utilizes less finely discretized gridding and qualitatively demonstrates the large-scale latetime flow behavior of the system. We perform sensitivity analyses on these systems varying Langmuir volume and fracture
width.
We treat the fracture as possessing a fixed dimensionless conductivity as described in Eq. 2 in order to compare the
conductivity with values obtained using other models. Consequently, we do not examine Forchheimer (inertial) flow,
because this would conflict with the finite-conductivity fracture implementation. In this work, we use a range of fracture
permeabilities corresponding to a wide range of dimensionless fracture conductivities, defined by Eq. 2:
C fD =
kf w
km x f
.................................................................................................................................................................... (2)
For example, a fracture with width of 0.1mm, possessing a dimensionless conductivity of 1.05, will possess a kf equal to 10.6
md where the matrix permeability is 1.010-4 md. The fracture permeabilities (and consequently the fracture conductivities)
used in the simulation cases are computed in Table 1 below.
Table 1 Fracture widths and equivalent dimensionless conductivities used in the simulation runs.
Fracture Width
(mm)
1
0.1
0.01
1
0.1
0.01
1
0.1
0.01
Fracture
Permeability
(md)
10,555
10.6
0.0106
10,555
10.6
0.0106
10,555
10.6
0.0106
Reservoir
Permeability
(md)
1.010-4
1.010-4
1.010-4
1.010-5
1.010-5
1.010-5
1.010-3
1.010-3
1.010-3
Fracture
Conductivity
(dimless.)
1.05104
1.05
1.0510-4
1.05105
10.5
1.0510-3
1.05103
0.105
1.0510-5
The Langmuir isotherm curve models desorption as a function of pressure. The Langmuir parameters are tuned to provide
storage in a similar range found in known shale reservoirs. The Langmuir volume parameter (VL in Eq. 1) is varied as shown
in Table 2 while the Langmuir pressure parameter (pL in Eq. 1) is held at initial reservoir pressure for all cases. The real
properties of pure methane are computed as a function of pressure at isothermal conditions using the Peng-Robinson equation
of state. Water flow is not modeled, as its interaction with the shale is poorly understood and would merely add a
confounding influence to the results. Additionally, this would only hinder analytical comparison. The other pertinent
simulation case parameters for Set A are presented in Table 2.
SPE 124961
Table 2 Description of the simulation runs and sensitivity analyses varying fracture conductivity.
Fracture
Spacing
(m)
10
10
10
10
10
10
Case
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
Permeability
(nD)
10
10
10
10
10
10
CfD
1.05 x 104
1.05 x 104
1.05
1.05
1.05 x 10-4
1.05 x 10-4
Langmuir
Volume
(scf/ton)
0
200
0
200
0
200
We note that for all the cases in Set A, a matrix permeability of 10 nd was assumed. In all the cases in Set B, presented in
Table 3, a matrix permeability of 100nd is assumed, except for the sensitivity cases where 10nd and 1000nd are shown. The
full gridding scheme also uses 100 nd permeability.
Table 3 Description of the simulation runs and sensitivity analyses using highly refined gridding scheme.
Case
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
B7
B8
B9
B10
B11
B12
Fracture
Spacing
(ft)
32.8
32.8
32.8
32.8
32.8
32.8
32.8
16.4
65.6
32.8
32.8
32.8
Permeability
(nD)
100
100
100
10
1000
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Perforations
Per
Fracture
3
1
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Drawdown
(psi)
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1400
4500
1000
Langmuir
Volume
(scf/ton)
100
100
100
100
100
0
200
100
100
100
100
2000
Results and Analysis

We will first discuss the base case results. Then the effects of various completion parameters will be analyzed. Next we will
discuss the effects of desorption. Finally we will discuss other parameters related to the reservoir and the porous medium.
All results are presented in dimensionless form. The conventions for dimensionless time and dimensionless rate are
t D = 0.0002637
ct x 2f
t ................................................................................................................................................... (3)
and
q D = 141.2
B
q ................................................................................................................................................ (4)
kh( pi pwf )
This convention is adopted to better enable the identification of those variations in performance which are a consequence of
fracture interference, which is the focus of this work.
Base Case Results: The base case simulation parameters were chosen to best represent a typical shale gas reservoir and
completion. There exist a broad range of shale plays and a variety of workable completion schemes, but these parameters
should provide an acceptable starting point of comparison for any given play. We observe in Fig. 07 and Fig. 08 the
evolution of formation linear flow starting at early times. As the dimensionless time approaches 1, fracture interference
comes into effect, and the transition toward compound linear flow is marked by the approach of the rate integral and rate
integral derivative functions. However, we note that these two auxiliary functions never actually merge or cross, because no
true reservoir boundary exists.
Effect of Complex Fractures: While in some cases there may exist perfectly linear, planar induced fractures, it is possible that
a complex yet narrow region of fractured reservoir is created in a fracture treatment. We model this as the occurrence of
SPE 124961
several parallel planar fractures over a small interval of horizontal wellbore. We observe in Fig. 09 that the presence of a
more extensive group of planar fractures results in an increase in early time rate, but that the rates merge at the start of
transition from formation linear flow to compound linear flow. The rate data for all three cases has clearly merged
completely by a dimensionless time of 0.1, which is equivalent to 90 days. In Fig. 09 we are able to see that all the auxiliary
functions have the same merging behavior.
We can conclude from this observation that that late time behavior of a hydraulic fracture which is complex or branching will
not be any different from the behavior of a single planar hydraulic fracture. However, the extent of complexity of the
fractures will strongly affect early time behavior, in the case of these results increasing early time rate by a factor of 4 or
more. A practical interpretation of this result is that more intensive fracturing of a narrow volume of rock will enhance earlytime rates but will not necessarily prolong the well life.
Effect of Fracture Spacing: We observe the boundary-like effect of fracture interference by comparing runs which vary only
in fracture spacing. The data is normalized on a per-fracture basis, and does not reflect the fact that a given horizontal well
with tighter fracture spacing will possess a larger number of fractures.
The signature of fracture interference is identified by a substantial drop in flow rate and a corresponding positive slope on the
normalized rate-derivative curve. This marks the effective end of linear flow and the beginning of the transition toward
compound linear flow, seen very clearly by comparison in Fig. 10. We can also observe that the rate function and rate
integral derivative function appear to cross over during the transition to compound linear flow. This effect is clearly
illustrated in Fig. 11, where the normalized rate derivative functions for simulated cases of varying fracture density
approaching the limiting case of stimulated reservoir volume gridding. This auxiliary plot can be used to help identify the
onset of compound-linear flow. We believe that the onset of compound-linear flow is often mistakenly identified as
boundary-dominated flow. No evidence exists to indicate substantial compartmentalization of shale gas or tight gas
reservoirs, so wells with declining rate are more likely to be experiencing fracture interference and entering compound-linear
flow than to be entering boundary-dominated flow.
In Fig. 03 we present a comparison of two simulations; the first is the case of a finite reservoir (rectangular boundary), while
the other case is an effectively infinite reservoir (no boundary effects are observed). In this figure we observe similar trends
for the bounded and unbounded reservoir cases, until boundary effects dominate the response. We have imposed a half-slope
power-law straight line (representing formation linear flow) where we note that this trend would (obviously) overestimate
future rates after fracture interference begins.
We visually illustrate the typical system responses that could occur during the production of a horizontal well with multiple
fractures in Fig. 07 at early times, only flow from fractures is observed corresponding to formation linear flow, this flow
regime is identified by the half-slope. Then fracture interference begins which corresponds to a transitional flow regime.
Next, we observe the "compound linear flow regime" and finally the flow regime becomes elliptical. Similarly, Figs. 12-14
(i.e., the pressure profiles) visually depict the flow regimes of linear, compound linear, and beginning elliptic flow. It is
important to note that for these runs a matrix permeability of 100 nd was used, and Fig. 12 is reached after 100 days, Fig. 3 is
reached after 3300 days or about 10 years, and Fig. 14 requires 9000 days or 30 years, likely longer than the life of a well.
Effect of Fracture Conductivity: The clearest indication of change to the performance behavior is seen in the very early time.
The four cases shown in Fig. 15 correspond to different equivalent fracture widths, and directly to different fracture
conductivities, ranging from a low value of 5.4610-3 to a high value of 5.46103. We see from these figures that the
contribution from the fracture is greater at earlier time, and the steepness of decline is less severe in the cases with less
fracture conductivity. In middle-time ranges it is observed that the rates of the higher-conductivity stems begin to merge.
The higher-conductivity fracture aggressively evacuates the near-fracture region but production soon becomes dominated by
the low permeability of the matrix. Rate becomes dominated by fracture surface area rather than fracture conductivity.
We see from Fig. 16 that the pressure depletion near the fracture face is very severe as indicated by the steepness of the
pressure profile. With the very low-conductivity, thinner fracture, the wellbore inflow effect is more dominant in the
production data signature. In these low-conductivity cases it is difficult to identify a clear half-slope linear flow period. Real
wells with ineffective fracture treatments will display more dominant signature horizontal well flow effects and less distinct
linear flow effects. No fracture interference effects are observed through this time interval.
Note that the general observations regarding the effect of complex fractures and the effect of fracture conductivity are similar.
A fracture which possesses a higher conductivity or a greater complexity will exhibit a higher initial rate, while ultimately the
rate behavior will merge with cases with lower fracture conductivity or fracture complexity. It is doubtful whether the
relative effects of fracture complexity and fracture conductivity will be extricable or identifiable in production data without a
rigorous inverse analysis (history matching) study.
Effect of Desorption: The next observation concerns the apparent effect of varying desorptive contribution. Fig. 17 clearly
shows the increase in rate and the lengthening of the rate forward in time that accompanies higher desorptive contribution,
effectively changing the energy of the system. The first apparent effect is that greater sorptive storage yields higher rates; the
second effect is that the pressure profile is steeper as it propagates away from the fracture, as visually depicted in the pressure
SPE 124961
map, Fig. 18. Pressure does not correspond linearly to mass storage, since the sorption isotherm is highly nonlinear. As
such, we visualize in Fig. 18 the dimensionless mass of gas found at various distance intervals from the hydraulic fracture.
The purpose of this figure is twofold one, to show how slowly the pressure transient moves outward and how thoroughly it
depletes a region of gas before advancing, and two, to show how much residual gas remains even after the pressure is drawn
down to near wellbore flowing pressure. Further, Fig. 19 lets us examine the steepness and near-fracture localization of the
depletion from surface sorption. This emphasizes the steepness of the pressure front due to the ultra-low permeability.
There currently exists no method by which to account for desorption in the nondimensionalization since there is no
satisfactory general analytical solution featuring desorption. Since desorption responds to pressure in a nonlinear fashion,
and desorption is more properly characterized by at least two parameters (Langmuir volume and Langmuir pressure,) it is not
strictly appropriate to scale the results by any constant. However, we obtain interesting results by altering the dimensionless
time definition to include an arbitrary variable characterizing sorptive energy.
t D = 0.0002637
ct x 2f [1 + (0.00525)VL ]
t ...................................................................................................................... (5)
The Langmuir volume term is frequently treated as being dimensionless in mathematical developments of desorption. The
constant 0.00525 was obtained through a regression fit using all the data of this work. This value of 0.00525 may hold a
physical significance (i.e. it may correspond to a unit conversion factor and/or another reservoir parameter) but determination
of its specific meaning will be the goal of future work. Using the adjustment in Eq. 5, we show in Fig. 20 that scaling the
dimensionless time by a constant factor appears to completely normalize for the effect of desorption at all timeframes.
Observing Fig. 18and comparing it with Fig. 16, it can be verified that desorption delays the effect of fracture interference
when we compare the normalized desorption signatures with the true effect of fracture interference caused by varying
fracture spacing.
Effect of Matrix Permeability: The next observation concerns the apparent effect of varying the matrix permeability. Fig. 21
shows the effect of varying matrix permeability from a very small value of 10nd to a value of 1 md. Matrix permeability
appears to affect early time behavior in particular. Convergence of the rate profiles is observed at late times, in particular
during compound linear flow.
Again, it is noteworthy that varying permeability appears to strongly affect early time rate data while the rate behavior
merges at late times. However, it must be emphasized that permeability is a term in the nondimensionalization of both rate
and time. Consequently, this behavior would not appear in rate-time data prior to nondimensionalization. The outstanding
result is that nondimensionalization with respect to permeability does not cause the three rate curves to overlie one another.
This is due to the complex evolution of the pressure profiles over time through the asymmetric near-wellbore reservoir
geometry.
Effect of Natural Fractures: The presence and influence of natural fractures in tight gas and shale gas reservoir systems is a
matter of debate. Likewise, the role of complex induced fracture networks is not fully understood and its characterization
remains a matter of conjecture. We illustrate possible configurations of in situ fracture orientations in Fig. 04. We model the
effect of a natural or complex induced fracture network by using a dual porosity model with various shale fracture network
permeabilities. As shown in Fig. 22, the presence of conductive natural or induced fractures leads to a higher initial rate but
overall a much shorter or nonexistent linear flow period, and faster depletion.
We attempt to capture the possibility that the fracture treatment creates or re-activates a region around the induced planar
hydraulic fracture. We model this by treating the region near the induced fracture by a dual porosity model with conductive
natural fractures, while the region more distant from the induced fracture is unstimulated shale of 100nd permeability. In
Fig. 23 we demonstrate that Case IIIb (corresponding to a near-fracture stimulated region) exhibits flow features from both
the base case of a single planar fracture (Case I) and the limiting case, Case IIIa, representing a fully fractured reservoir. In
fact, an inflection point in the rate behavior of Case III occurs at the exact point of intersection of Case I and Case IIIa.
Effect of High-Conductivity Layers: Core samples of shale gas reservoirs reveal a large degree of stratification and the likely
presence of higher-conductivity layers. A possible layout of this system is illustrated in Case IIa and Case IIb in Fig. 04.
Fracture stimulation may further fracture already brittle layers, such as microlayers of carbonate sediment. Microseismic
monitoring of fracture treatments indicates that microseismic events occur in a cloud around the perforations. The
distribution and extent of the cloud vary depending on the geology and the stimulation treatment design.
In Fig. 24 we compare the behavior of reservoirs with high-conductivity layers (Case IIa) against a naturally-fractured or
complex-fractured reservoir (Case IIIa) and finally a reservoir possessing both natural fractures and laterally continuous high
conductivity layers (Case IVa.) All these results are compared, once again, against the base case (Case Ia) possessing only a
single vertical fracture. We observe that late time behavior shows the same character, regardless of the fracture
configuration, indicating that at late times, the signature of laterally continuous layers may be indistinguishable from a
natural fracture signature. However, at early times, systems possessing natural fractures show a strong fracture-depletion
signature which does not occur in the case with laterally continuous layers.
SPE 124961
Field Case Model Match: Production data was obtained from a Haynesville Shale gas well. Completion parameters were
obtained from the operator, and reservoir parameters were obtained through use of a model fit using a commercial software
package. These parameters were used as input for a simulation case. The numerical model is currently only able to perform
constant-pressure or constant-rate production, so it was not possible to match the variable bottomhole pressure data.
Regardless, a good rate match was obtained, shown in Fig. 25. The auxiliary functions were not matched, as shown in Fig.
26, which should be expected due to the failure to account for variable bottomhole pressure, and additionally due to the
nonuniqueness of the model parameter match.
Conclusions
In this work we make an attempt to characterize the influence of various reservoir and completion parameters on performance
of multiply-fractured horizontal wells in ultra-low permeability reservoir systems.
1. Contrary to intuition, the effect of desorption can be accounted for by a time scaling constant as a function of the
Langmuir storage parameter. The presence of desorption appears to shift fracture interference forward in time.
2. Ultra-low permeability systems with large fractures will possess extremely sharp pressure gradients. The steepness of
these gradients will be exacerbated where desorption is present. The onset of fracture interference is gradual and flow
regimes in these systems are constantly evolving. The use of coarse gridding schemes will fail to capture the nuance
of this evolution and will lead to inaccurate characterization of fracture interference behavior, as well as inaccurate
interpretation of production data.
3. While a simple dual porosity model with no planar fractures may appear to match field data, such a model will not
correctly capture the effect of fracture interference. Application of dual porosity or "stimulated reservoir volume"
schemes requires implicit assumptions of fractured volume. Models employing discrete fractures will capture the
transient behavior of fracture interference, which appears to approach boundary-dominated flow, but, unlike the
"stimulated reservoir volume" case, never actually reaches boundary-dominated flow
None of these three features are a true reservoir boundary. Due to the relatively small volumes of investigation of these well
systems, it is unlikely that reservoir compartmentalization is the true cause of "boundary-dominated flow" effects as
interpreted from rate data.
The features of higher permeability, higher fracture conductivity, higher induced fracture complexity, and more highly
fractured reservoir will all lead to a higher initial rate and initial dimensionless rate, yet late time dimensionless rates will
merge with lower permeability/conductivity/complexity cases sometime during the compound linear flow period. The effect
of desorption, on the other hand, is more apparent at late time than early time, tending to prolong all flow periods and extend
production.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by RPSEA (Contract No. 07122-23) through the Ultra-Deepwater and Unconventional Natural Gas
and Other Petroleum Resources Research and Development Program as authorized by the US Energy Policy Act (EPAct) of
2005.
Nomenclature
b
kf
p
VL
pL
q
sf
wf
B
m
k
h
pi
f
ct
xf
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
fracture half-width, mm
effective fracture permeability, m2
pressure, Pa
Langmuir volume, scf/ton
Langmuir pressure, Pa
Langmuir storage, scf/ton
Gas flowrate, MSCF/D
Fracture spacing, m
Fracture width, mm
Formation volume factor, bbl/stb
Viscosity, cP
Matrix permeability, md
Reservoir thickness, ft
Initial reservoir pressure, psia
Porosity, fraction
Total compressibility, 1/psi
Fracture half-length, ft
SPE 124961
References
Clarkson, C.R. and Bustin, R.M. 1999. Binary gas adsorption/desorption isotherms: effect of moisture and coal composition upon carbon
dioxide selectivity over methane. International Journal of Coal Geology. 42(2000) 241-271.
Florence, F.A., Rushing, J.A., Newsham, K.E., and Blasingame, T.A. 2007. Improved Permeability Prediction Relations for LowPermeability Sands. SPE paper presented at the SPE Rocky Mountain Oil & Gas Technology Symposium held in Denver, Colorado, 16-18
April.
Gao, C., Lee, J.W., Spivey, J.P., and Semmelbeck, M.E. 1994. Modeling Multilayer Gas Reservoirs Including Sorption Effects. SPE paper
29173 presented at the SPE Eastern Regional Conference & Exhibition, Charleston, West Virginia, 8-10 November.
Hill, D.G., and Nelson, C.R. 2000. Gas Productive Fractured Shales: An Overview and Update. Gas TIPS 6 (3): 4-13.
Javadpour, F., Fisher, D., and Unsworth, M. 2007. Nanoscale Gas Flow in Shale Gas Sediments. JCPT. 46 (10): 55-61.
Mattar, L., Gault, B., Morad, K., Clarkson, C.R., Freeman, C.M., Ilk, D., and Blasingame, T.A. 2008. Production Analysis and Forecasting
of Shale Gas Reservoirs: Case History-Based Approach. SPE paper 119897 presented at the SPE Shale Gas Production Conference held in
Fort Worth, Texas, 16-18 November.
Medeiros, F., Ozkan, E., and Kazemi, H. 2007. Productivity and Drainage Area of Fractured Horizontal Wells in Tight Gas Reservoirs.
SPE paper 108110 presented at the Rocky Mountain Oil & Gas Technology Symposium held in Denver, Colorado, 16-18 April.
Medeiros, F., Ozkan, E., and Kazemi, H. 2006. A Semianalytical, Pressure-Transient Model for Horizontal and Multilateral Wells in
Composite, Layered, and Compartmentalized Reservoirs. SPE paper 102834 presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition held in San Antonio, Texas, 24-27 September.
Raghavan, R.S., Chen, C., and Agarwal, B. 1997. An Analysis of Horizontal Wells Intercepted by Multiple Fractures. SPE paper 27652
presented at the SPE Permian Basin Oil and Gas Recovery Conference held in Midland, Texas, 16-18 March.
Schettler, P.D., and Parmely, C.R. 1991. Contributions to Total Storage Capacity in Devonian Shales. SPE paper 23422 presented at the
SPE Eastern Regional Meeting held in Lexington, Kentucky, 22-25 October.
van Kruysdijk, C.P.J.W. and Dullaert, G.M. 1989. A Boundary Element Solution of the Transient Pressure Response of Multiple Fractured
Horizontal Wells. Paper presented at the 2nd European Conference on the Mathematics of Oil Recovery, Cambridge, England.
SPE 124961
Figure 01 Langmuir isotherm storage behavior as a function of pressure.
Figure 02 "Compound linear" flow regime of van Kruysdijk" (van Kruysdijk and Dullaert [1989]).
10
SPE 124961
Figure 03 Horizontal gas well with multiple (transverse) fractures: Illustration of the transient and transition flow regimes.
SPE 124961
11
Figure 04 Cartoon of potential fracture network layouts, including laterally continuous layers, naturally or complex
fractured matrix, or a combination of both.
Figure 05 Schematic diagram of horizontal well/transverse fracture element.
12
a. Well system, full schematic.
SPE 124961
b. Using an argument of symmetry, we may model one quarter of

the system.
c. Assuming a pseudo-boundary caused by flow superposition between adjacent fractures, we designate a repetitive element
which reduces the problem size significantly.
Figure 06 Schematic diagram of horizontal well/transverse fracture system in a rectangular reservoir (note that the
"repetitive element" concept permits placement of evenly-spaced transverse (vertical) fractures).
SPE 124961
a. 4m above well, 1 year.
b. 4m above well, 3.4 years.
c. 4m above well, 15 years.
d. Parallel to well plane, 1 year.
e. Parallel to well plane, 3.4 years.
f. Parallel to well plane, 15 years.
Figure 07 Pressure map for a horizontal well with transverse fractures cross-section "slice" in xy-plane aerial view.
13
14
SPE 124961
Figure 08 Horizontal gas well with multiple (transverse) fractures: Base case parameters and dimensionless rate function
results.
SPE 124961
15
Figure 09 Horizontal gas well with multiple (transverse) fractures: Effect of complex fractures, sensitivity analysis, rates
and auxiliary functions.
16
Figure 10
SPE 124961
Horizontal gas well with multiple (transverse) fractures: Effect of fracture spacing, sensitivity analysis, rates and
auxiliary functions.
SPE 124961
Figure 11 Effect of various fracture spacings on the normalized rate derivative function (square-root time basis).
17
18
SPE 124961
Figure 12 Pressure profile: Aerial view, one-half reservoir, 100nd permeability, 25m fracture spacing, 100 Days.
SPE 124961
19
Figure 15 Horizontal gas well with multiple (transverse) fractures: Effect of fracture conductivity, sensitivity analysis, rates
20
Figure 16 Pressure map showing pressure depletion at 100 days into production, aerial view.
SPE 124961
SPE 124961
Figure 17
21
Horizontal gas well with multiple (transverse) fractures: Effect of Langmuir storage, sensitivity analysis, rates
22
Figure 18 Sorption map showing steepness of sorption gradient at 100 days into production, aerial view.
SPE 124961
SPE 124961
23
Figure 19 Total gas storage at various intervals from the fracture face over time.
Figure 20 Horizontal gas well with multiple (transverse) fractures: Effect of desorption, redefined dimensionless time
parameter normalizing for Langmuir volume.
24
Figure 21
SPE 124961
Horizontal gas well with multiple (transverse) fractures: Effect of matrix permeability, sensitivity analysis, all
rates.
SPE 124961
25
Figure 22 Induced fracture system: Effect of natural fractures with various fracture system permeabilities, sensitivity
analysis, rates only.
26
Figure 23 Induced fracture system: Effect of discontinuous fracture networks, sensitivity analysis, rates only.
SPE 124961
SPE 124961
27
Figure 24 Induced fracture system: Effect of laterally continuous high conductivity layers and interaction with natural
fracture system, sensitivity analysis, rates only.
28
SPE 124961
Figure 25 Field Example: Horizontal gas well with multiple (transverse) fractures: Model match for horizontal well with 10
transverse fractures, rate only.
Figure 26
Field Example: Horizontal gas well with multiple (transverse) fractures: Model match for horizontal well with 10
transverse fractures, rate and auxiliary functions.
SPE 124961
A Numerical Study of Tight Gas
and Shale Gas Reservoir Systems
Department of Petroleum Engineering

Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-3116
+1.979.845.4064 [email protected]
2009 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition New Orleans, LA 0407 October 2009
SPE 124961 A Numerical Study of Tight Gas and Shale Gas Reservoir Systems
(Freeman/Moridis/Ilk/Blasingame)
C.M. Freeman Texas A&M University (05 October 2009)
Slide 1/26
C.M. Freeman, Texas A&M University

G.J. Moridis, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab.
D. Ilk, Texas A&M University
T.A. Blasingame, Texas A&M University
Rationale for this Work

Orientation/Tight Gas and Shale (TGSG) Gas Reservoir
Systems
TGSG Features
Fracture Occurrence/Distribution
(Outline)
Presentation Outline
Numerical Simulation Model
Modeling and Gridding

Base Simulation Case Description
Characteristic Flowrate Behavior
Characteristic Flowrate Behavior Considerations

Effects of Completion
Effects of Desorption
Effects of Medium
This work was supported by RPSEA (Contract No. 07122-23) through the
Ultra-Deepwater and Unconventional Natural Gas and Other Petroleum
Resources Research and Development Program as authorized by the US
Energy Policy Act (EPAct) of 2005.
Slide 2/26
Conclusions and Remaining Issues
ultra-tight reservoir systems pose numerous challenges

to understanding.
Through MODELING, we hope to find a more rigorous
method for understanding the production
characteristics, estimation of reserves and evaluation
of stimulation effectiveness.
Compound Linear Flow Concept of van Kruysdijk and Dullaert [1989].

(Rationale)
Horizontal wells with multiple hydraulic fractures in
Slide 3/26
Rationale For This Work
Current Model (Texas A&M)

Fractures:
Natural fractures.
Induced fractures.
Sorption:
Surface adsorption.
Langmuir isotherm.
Issues:
(Orientation)
Orientation: TGSG Reservoir Systems
Shale Transport Mechanisms.
Difficult to distinguish
Langmuir Desorption Isotherm.
Slide 4/26
characteristic behaviors.
Future Modeling (Texas A&M)

Nanoscale Flow:
Knudsen diffusion.
Permeability Reduction:
Matrix shrinkage.
Shale creep?
(Orientation)
Water:
Effect of Knudsen Flow on Permeability.

Slide 5/26
Imbibition.
Damage in fractures.
Vaporization/condensation.
IIa
IIIa
IIb
IVa
IIIb
z
y
IVb
Fracture Extent
(Orientation)
I.
IIa.
IIb.
IIIa.
IIIb.
IVa.
IVb.
Planar fracture, transverse fracture only.

Planar fracture, stimulated thin lateral layers.
Planar fracture, with stimulated thin lateral layers, partial extent.
Planar fracture, with naturally fractured shale.
Planar fracture, with naturally fractured shale, partial extent.
Planar fracture, stimulated layers and fractured shale.
Planar fracture, stimulated layers and fractured shale, partial extent.
Slide 6/26
Fracture Type
a. Formation linear flow.
b. Compound linear flow.
(Simulation Model)
Numerical Simulation Model: Concept
c. Pseudo-elliptical flow.
Complex pressure profile behavior evolves due to fracture interference.

Onset of compound linear period marked by rate decline.
Slide 7/26
Discussion: van Kruysdijk and Dullaert [1989] Flow Regime Concept:
(Simulation Model)
Slide 8/26
Numerical Simulation Model: Concept
(Simulation Model)
Numerical Simulation Model: Modeling
The well system layout represents the full flow system.

Radial flow into the horizontal well is correctly modeled.
Slide 9/26
Discussion: Linear (Planar) Fracture Full System
(Simulation Model)
Well/reservoir system is divided along planes of symmetry.

Flow physics is retained, but number of grid blocks is reduced.
Slide 10/26
Discussion: Linear (Planar) Fracture Section View
(Simulation Model)
Repetitive element used to represent flow of individual fractures.

Fracture interference modeled by a no-flow boundary.
Slide 11/26
Discussion: Linear (Planar) Fracture Repetitive Element
Repetitive element simulated using extremely fine

grids.
500,000 1,000,000 grids
(5m x 5m x 50m system).
Accounts for wellbore,
fracture interference.
b. Repetitive element of system.
a. Schematic of fracture-well system.
c,d. Pressure map results, z-direction slices in time.
(Simulation Model)
Single fracture element:
Slide 12/26
Numerical Simulation Model: Gridding
Discussion: Numerical Simulation "Base Case"
A horizontal well with a single planar fracture (repetitive element).

This case is the basis of the sensitivity analyses carried out in this work.
(Base Simulation Case)

Slide 13/26
Base Simulation Case: Characteristic Behavior
x
y
(Base Simulation Case)
Base Simulation Case: Pressure Maps
Transverse
Fracture
Linear flow at early time.

Fractures dominate flow
at early time.
Fracture interference is
caused by fracture
spacing effects.
Pressure gradient is very
steep near the fractures.
Horizontal Well
x
y
Dimensionless Pressure Maps

Slide 14/26
Pressure Maps:
(Effects of Completion)
Flowrate Behavior: Effects of Completion
Rate and auxiliary functions merge at large times.

Functions merge during transition from formation linear flow.
Slide 15/26
Discussion: Effects of Complex Fractures
Rate and auxiliary functions merge during compound linear flow.

Smaller fracture spacing causes earlier fracture interference effect.
Slide 16/26
Discussion: Effects of Fracture Spacing
Discussion: Effects of Fracture Conductivity
Horizontal well signature is apparent in low-conductivity case.

Slide 17/26
(Effects of Desorption)
Flowrate Behavior: Effects of Desorption
Sorption impacts rate more significantly at late times.

Sorption appears to prolong flow periods/delays fracture interference.
Slide 18/26
Discussion: Effects of Desorption Langmuir Volume
(Effects of Desorption)
Flowrate Behavior: Effects of Desorption
Nonlinear Depletion:
Sorption surfaces near
fracture are significantly

more depleted.
Pressure/Density/Sorptive
Storage is not intuitively
related.
Flowrates with Various Langmuir Volumes.
Dimensionless
Desorption Map
Dimensionless
Density Map
Slide 19/26
(Effects of Medium)
Flowrate Behavior: Effects of Medium
Matrix permeability affects the early time rate behavior in particular.

Convergence of rate profiles are observed at late times.
Slide 20/26
Discussion: Effect of Matrix Permeability
(Effects of Medium)
Presence of natural fractures increases rate and hastens depletion.

Early time fracture drainage flow period is evident with high permeability.
Slide 21/26
Discussion: Effect of Natural Fractures
(Effects of Medium)
Natural fractures cause early time fracture depletion signature.

Conductive lateral layers increase rate and hasten depletion.
Slide 22/26
Discussion: Effect of Hydraulic Fractures and Horizontal Layers
Discussion: Effect of Partial Natural Fracture Enhancement
Grid type IIIb exhibits flow character of both regions (coincidence?).

(Effects of Medium)
Slide 23/26
Conclusions:
For TGSG reservoir systems, many factors affect performance.

Numerical modeling must be robust and tied to flow physics.
Desorption effects originate near fractures.
The well completion controls early time behavior.
Complex fractures (any type) substantially enhance early rates.
(Conclusions and Remaining Issues)
Conclusions and Remaining Issues:
Flowrates with Various Langmuir Volumes.
Dimensionless
Desorption Map
Dimensionless
Density Map
Slide 24/26
Correct assessment of the fracture distribution must be made
to ensure proper flow regime identification and forecasting.

Desorption is highly nonlinear, but it defies direct assessment.
Assessment of fracture conductivity is non-unique.
Well completion issues are critical particularly well clean-up.
(Conclusions and Remaining Issues)
Issues for Well Performance in TGSG Systems:
Slide 25/26
Conclusions and Remaining Issues:
SPE 124961
A Numerical Study of Tight Gas
and Shale Gas Reservoir Systems
END OF PRESENTATION
Department of Petroleum Engineering

Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-3116
+1.979.845.4064 [email protected]
Slide 26/26
C.M. Freeman, Texas A&M University

G.J. Moridis, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab.
D. Ilk, Texas A&M University
T.A. Blasingame, Texas A&M University

(Example) (P631 2014A) SPE Paper y Pres in PDF (SPE 124961) PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

(Example) (P631 2014A) SPE Paper y Pres in PDF (SPE 124961) PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

(Example) (P631 2014A) SPE Paper y Pres in PDF (SPE 124961) PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SPE 124961

C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame

Description of Numerical Model

C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame

Results and Analysis

C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame

C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame

Figure 01 Langmuir isotherm storage behavior as a function of pressure.

C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame

Figure 05 Schematic diagram of horizontal well/transverse fracture element.

C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame

a. Well system, full schematic.

b. Using an argument of symmetry, we may model one quarter of

a. 4m above well, 1 year.

b. 4m above well, 3.4 years.

c. 4m above well, 15 years.

d. Parallel to well plane, 1 year.

e. Parallel to well plane, 3.4 years.

f. Parallel to well plane, 15 years.

C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame

C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame

C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame

C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame

C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame

C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame

C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame

C.M. Freeman, G. Moridis, D. Ilk, and T.A. Blasingame

Department of Petroleum Engineering

C.M. Freeman, Texas A&M University

Rationale for this Work

Numerical Simulation Model

Modeling and Gridding

Characteristic Flowrate Behavior Considerations

Conclusions and Remaining Issues

ultra-tight reservoir systems pose numerous challenges

Compound Linear Flow Concept of van Kruysdijk and Dullaert [1989].

Horizontal wells with multiple hydraulic fractures in

Rationale For This Work

Current Model (Texas A&M)

Orientation: TGSG Reservoir Systems

Shale Transport Mechanisms.

Langmuir Desorption Isotherm.

Future Modeling (Texas A&M)

Orientation: TGSG Reservoir Systems

Effect of Knudsen Flow on Permeability.

Orientation: TGSG Reservoir Systems

Planar fracture, transverse fracture only.

a. Formation linear flow.

b. Compound linear flow.

Numerical Simulation Model: Concept

Complex pressure profile behavior evolves due to fracture interference.

Discussion: van Kruysdijk and Dullaert [1989] Flow Regime Concept:

Numerical Simulation Model: Concept

Numerical Simulation Model: Modeling

The well system layout represents the full flow system.

Discussion: Linear (Planar) Fracture Full System

Numerical Simulation Model: Modeling

Well/reservoir system is divided along planes of symmetry.

Discussion: Linear (Planar) Fracture Section View