2011 PhDCourse SpecialElectricalMachines PDF
2011 PhDCourse SpecialElectricalMachines PDF
2011 PhDCourse SpecialElectricalMachines PDF
Dipartimento
Dipartimento di
di Ingegneria
Ingegneria Elettrica
Elettrica
Summary
Introduction (motor classification and characteristics)
Magnetic materials (permanent magnets, SMC)
Small electric motors
o Line-start single-phase induction and synchronous motors
o Single-phase PM brushless motors
o DC servomotors
Single-phase self-excited alternators (low rate)
Step motors (reluctance, PM and hybrid types)
Switched reluctance motors
Linear machines
o Differences with rotating electrical machines
o Induction and synchronous machines
o Industry and transport applications
o
PM DC commutator
3-phase hybrid-PM
synchronous
DC or sinusoidal brushless
(PM excitation)
Switched reluctance
Permanent magnets
Replacement of the conventional excitation in DC and AC synchronous
machines
Efficiency improvement and volume reduction
Problems with flux control and operating temperature
High range of applications from some tens of W (ferrites) to MW
machines (rare earths)
Hard magnetic materials (Brinell hardness values as high as 690)
Wide hysteresis cycle (high amount of magnetizing and
demagnetizing energy)
High coercivity with respect to the soft magnetic materials (operation
in the II quadrant of B-H curve)
Low permeability at the normal operating point
Main materials (solid often sintered form, bonded or molded)
Ceramics (strontium and barium ferrites)
Alnico (alloy of aluminum, nickel and cobalt)
Rare earths (samarium-cobalt, neodymium-iron)
Examples of PM machines
Small DC motors
B-H characteristics
B = 0H + J Normal hysteresis loop
J-H curve Intrinsic loop (domain
orientation)
Experimental determination
o Increasing H field in the virgin
material
o Domain orientation (J=Js)
o H zero setting (B=BrJs)
o H inversion demagnetizing
curve
o Cancellation of B (H=Hc)
Influence of the magnetic knee
position (quadrant II or III)
o |H| reduction above the knee
B Br
o |H| reduction below the knee
B Br < Br
o Recoil line based on rec
B=0H+J
Magnetization curves
PM typical properties
Remanence Br: defines the PM section needed to obtain a given magnetic flux
Operating remanence Bd: B value after removing the magnetic load
o Linear curve BdBr
o Non-linear curve Bd depends on rec related to the linear part
Coercivity Hc: defines the maximum allowable electric load without the material
demagnetization
Maximum specific energy or grade BHmax: defines the minimum PM volume to
obtain a given (air-gap) energy
o Optimal operating point to minimize costs (important for design purpose)
o Constraint on the torque density (Bm /Am , Hm NI/lm)
Temperature coefficients TC(Br), TC(Hc): define the BH curve modification when
the operating temperature changes
o TC(Br)=(dBr/dT)/Br100 TC(Hc)=(dHc/dT)/Hc100
o Reversible during cooling only if the curve remains linear (condition fixed by
the maximum temperature Tmax), otherwise a new magnetization is needed
Curie temperature TC: defines the temperature limit after which the magnetic
domains lose their orientation complete and irreversible demagnetization
Alnico
9
Dexter Magnet Technology: Permanent Magnet Catalog
10
Ferrites
11
Neodymium--Iron
Neodymium
Iron--Boron
Highest magnetic performances (remanence and grade)
Low temperature and oxidation resistance (protection coating made of zinc,
nickel or polymers), electric conductivity (shielding requires), troublesome
production and machining (brittleness, toxic materials, dangerous to handle,
damage of devices sensitive to high magnetic fields)
Production by direct particle sintering (sintered magnets) or covering them by
polymers as nylon or epoxy resins (bonded magnets lower performances,
easier production and shaping, low conductivity)
Define operating temperature
Samarium cobalt
12
Sm1Co5
Sm2Co17
Bonded magnets
Precision: superior mechanical tolerances because of the elimination of the
sintering operation, finish machining not required (more cost-effective)
Isotropic behavior: multiple magnetization patterns including axial, diametric, radial
and multi-pole are possible
Form: compacted to the net shape through a die (elimination of subsequent
machining, greater consistency)
Negligible eddy currents: insulation due to the polymer bonding
Temperature dependence
Magnetic properties (rare earth)
13
14
http://www.mqitechnology.com
Sinusoidal
machine
15
Magnetization skewing
http://www.mqitechnology.com
sk
sk
sk
18 skewing
Steel plates
16
interpolation
0.2 B [T]
Measured
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
[]
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
At
hm
PM section:
Air-gap section:
Air-gap reluctance:
PM permeance:
Rotor permeance:
t/2
m
r0
2
m0
r0
2
Am
r1
Am = 2 3 (r1 t hm 2 ) Lm
At = [2 3 (r1 t 2) + 2t ] (Lm + 2t )
t =
Am
C =
At
PM flux
concentration
factor
kc t
0 At
m 0 =
0 rec Am
hm
m = m 0 +r = m 0 (1 + pr 0 )
pr0 = (0.050.2)
Rotor leakage
coefficient
17
1
t =
r
1 + m t
Bt =
PM flux density:
1
t =
m
1+rt
1 +r t
Bm =
Br
1 +m t
Permeance coefficient: H m =
Br Bm
0 rec
PM characteristic
B
Br
PC
P
Hm
Magnetic circuit
characteristic
Bm
1 + r t
=
rec =
0 H m m 0 t
1 + pr 0 rec C k c t Lm
Lm
=
C k c t Lm
C k c t
PC =
Bm
Hc
1 + mt
Br
Bm
0.85
Br
Bm
PC
=
Br
PC + rec
PC (56)
18
Parametric variations
Air-gap variation
(linear motors,
eccentricity
problems)
External m.m.f.
(no-load to load
condition, shortcircuit, )
19
Summary of PM characteristics
Reference sizes
Distance point P
5 mm
Flux density BP
100 mT
SmCo
20
21
http://www.ndmagnets.com
22
Linear tubular
machines
(stator
assemblies)
23
24
W/kg
f = 50 Hz
f = 100 Hz
f = 200 Hz
f = 400 Hz
Lam.35
GKN Ancor.
Lam.35
GKN Ancor.
Lam.35
B=0.5 T
1.85
0.55
3.81
1.6
8.0
2.9
17.4
7.0
B=1.0 T
6.08
1.6
12.5
4.0
26.5
10.0
58.7
24.0
Moreover:
o
o
o
o
FM
F
cos( p t ) + M cos( p + t )
2
2
F+
F /p /p F+
Electromagnetic torque
X1
I 12+
I1
E+
Xm
2
Xm
2
I 12
R 12
2s
C+
C
X 12
2
R 12
2 2s
X 12
2
Absence of a starting
torque due to the balanced
field action (s=1)
-0.5
1
C
0.5
Starting methods
Adoption of an auxiliary circuit with 90 spatial displacement
with respect to the main one and supplied by a current having a
phase shifting possibly near to 90 (2-phase winding system)
o Presence of a starting torque
o Efficiency, power factor and torque improvement (both mean
and pulsating values) because of the backward field reduction
Split phase
Auxiliary winding having different reactance/resistance ratio
Capacitor start
Capacitor connected to the auxiliary winding excluded before
reaching the operating speed
Lower phase
displacement
Ia
Im
Ia
I
|Ia | < |Ia |
Im
Permanent--split capacitor
Permanent
Capacitor permanently connected to the auxiliary winding
Split capacitor
n
[rpm]
I
[A]
(at 220 V)
cos
92
2700
1.75
250
2800
750
2850
Irated
Ts
Trated
Tmax
Trated
C
[F]
Weight
[kg]
0.7
2.33
2.5
1.8
20
6.1
2.9
0.72
2.6
25
9.8
6.8
0.76
2.5
2.2
50
17
Is
Winding
A
iA
iB
1 ON
t1 t2
B+C
2 ON
iB
Winding
B
iA
t
t1 t2
1 ON B
2 ON
A
A R
R
P
A
B R
R
P
A
t = t1
t = t2
t = t1
t = t2
H
M
L
H: high speed
L3
L2
L1
n
Operating speed
dependant on the load
characteristic L(n)
Unstable operation with
high loads and selector
switched on low speed
(problem with voltage
variations)
P: main winding
S: shading coil
s: flux due to the coil
current
: spatial displacement
between open and
shaded parts (4560
electr.)
Rotating direction
r
t=0
p-s
p+s
t=/
p + s
Is
Es
p-s
p+s
-s
Phasor diagram
10
Motor characteristics
Design solutions
C -frame design
(2-poles)
Typical applications
Tin openers
Microwave ovens
Small pumps
Hood aspirators
Video-projectors
Timers
Small fans
Video-recorders
General characteristics
Power rating: fraction of W to 3040 W
Efficiency: 0.1 0.2
Power factor: 0.4 0.6
Speed: 1500 3000 rpm
Sizes: related to power (see table)
A
[cm]
P
[W]
0.95
1.27
1.59
1.91
2.22
2.54
3.40
5.44
7.77
13.6
15.1
19.4
11
Example motor
Shaded
coil
20
Main
winding
[mA]
100
15
torque
efficiency
input power
current
10
Saturable
bridge
80
60
40
20
0
10
Hole for
bearing
support
120
0
[mNm] [%]
Aluminium
bars
6
4
2
00
1000
1500
3000
15
12
120
torque
input power
current
100
linear
quadratic
[V]
150
170
190
80
60
40
3
0
130
[mA]
750
500
[rpm]
2000
2500
18
[mNm] [W]
210
20
0
230
12
0.2
0.15
0.1
torque mean value
0.05
0
[A]
[mNm]
-0.05
2
-0.1
Current
Torque
0
-0.15
[]
10
15
20
25
-0.2
13
14
pe = pem + pec
pe = i
d
d
dl
di
= i (l i ) =
i2 + l i
dt
dt
d
dt
dWec d 1
1 dl
di
2
2
pec =
= l i = i + l i
dt
dt 2
dt
2 d
e.m. torque
pem
1 dl
= pe pec = i 2 = cem
2 d
cem =
1 dl 2
i
2 d
Sinchronous speed (
e=p
)
Series connected coils
lb () =
ms 2
m
N b b () = s N b2 ( b,0 + b, 2 cos 2 p) = Lb ,0 + Lb, 2 cos 2 p
mp
mp
ib (t ) = 2 I b cos(et + ) = 2 I b cos( p + )
Mean value Cem,0
Cem,2 ()
dlb
= 2 p Lb, 2 sin (2 p)
d
ib2 (t ) = I b2 [1 + cos(2 p + 2 )]
b,0 =
Cem,4 ()
p
cem ( ) = Lb, 2 I b2 [sin 2 2 sin 2 p 2 sin(4 p + 2 )]
2
b, 2 =
d + q
2
d q
2
15
Torque profile
1
Lb,0
0.8
Lb,2
0.6
inductance
0.4
0.2
0
1
0.5
coil
current
=0
=/4
-0.5
-1
0.3
Electrical angle
=0
=/4
0.2
0.1
Cem,0
e.m. torque
0
-0.1
-0.2
0
pi/4
pi/2
3pi/4
pi
5pi/4
3pi/2
7pi/4
2pi
16
2-phase windings
2
1
Identical windings
i1 (t ) = I m cos(t + )
2
i2 (t ) = I m cos(t + 2 )
d1
d
d
d
+ i2 2 = i1 (l11i1 + l12i2 ) + i2 (l12i1 + l22i2 ) =
dt
dt
dt
dt
dl
dl
di
di
di
dl
di
= m 11 i12 + 22 i22 + 2 12 i1i2 + l11i1 1 + l22i2 2 + l12 i1 2 + i2 1
d
d
dt
dt
dt
d
dt
pe = i1
d 1 2 1 2
dl
dl 2 dl 2
di
di
di
di
+ l11i1 1 + l22i2 2 + l12 i1 2 + i2 1
dt
dt
dt
dt
1 dl11 2 1 dl22 2 dl12
cem =
i1 +
i1 +
i1i2
= pe pec = cem m
2 d
2 d
d
pec =
pem
Rotor configurations
d
17
Flux barriers
poles)
Increase of the reluctance effects
by inserting suitable flux barriers
Csm
18
19
R
0H
Electromechanical characteristics
20
21
Rated starting torque: torque developed after switching on the motor supply system; it is not
guaranteed the reaching of synchronous speed
Running torque: torque developed before reaching the synchronous speed (it can be related to
the maximum).
Synchronous torque: rated synchronous torque
Model
Starting [Ncm]
11.3
28.3
14.1
31.7
70.6
Synchronous [Ncm]
26.1
26.1
14.1
24.7
19.7
Running [Ncm]
47.3
57.2
14.1
72.0
105.9
40
50
50
50
100
2.5
4.0
4.0
5.0
8.0
Speed [rpm]
22
Small PM motors
23
1. Cam with teeth Number of linking positions dependant on the number of poles,
2. Hooking system
displacement between stator and rotor poles defined by the
3. Return spring
load torque
24
Clock motors
Supply cable
Stator teeth
Reduction gear
Asymmetric distribution of
the stator teeth to limit
cogging effect
bearing
25
Cogging torque profile more regular tapered air-gap (only two opposite
peaks per period, one stable point)
26
27
Technique 2
28
29
Torque-speed
Universal Motor
[Nm]
Brushless
[Nm]
High variation
with speed
Higher efficiency
Efficiency-speed
Brushless
Universal motor
[%]
[%]
High variation
with speed
30
Sensorless supply
31
S2
Standstill position 2
32
Brief pulse duration (instant t5 t1) rotor alignment because of the cogging
torque generated by the air-gap shaping
Counter-clockwise rotation indipendently from the current pulse clockwise
direction achievable only by mirroring the air-gap shape
Faster alignment, but some oscillations could arise around the standstill position
33
34
35
Imax
0
1+/p
1
0
0+/p
-Imax
d0
Ri
d
L
U dc
36
37
Dynamic model
Flux and torque as functions of
the position and current
determined by interpolating the
results of magnetostatic FEM
2D analyses
n1
*s = k s + L0 is
*
Tem
= kT Tem
Dynamic equations
Numerical solution by a
Simulink model
Analisys for the optimal
choice of the Hall sensor
position and of the winding
parameters
38
FEM models
3D model
2D model
0.12
zH=-7 mm
0.09
Bn [T]
0.06
zH=-8 mm
0.03
0
-0.03
-0.06
-0.09
-0.12
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
Stator angular coordinate []
150
39
Temperature
changes
Winding parameters
DC link voltage variations
Output
characteristics
PM characteristic
40
Back-emf
Incremental voltage
41
3D correction
coefficient
M.m.f.
Current dependant
coefficients
42
Main results
Check of the 3D correction formulas
(sinusoidal currents)
3D effects evaluation
(sinusoidal currents)
15 T
em
[mNm]
10
FEM 3D
Static measurements
5
0
Interpolating curves
-5
-10
-150
60
120
180
240
300
360
43
Main results
Hall sensor positioning (steady-state)
30
40
Tem,0
Is
Tem,0/Is2
35
25
30
20
25
15
20
15
Optimal range
5
-60
10
H []
250
200
-50
-40
es
-30
-20
-10
60
H = 0
H = -30
40
150
is
100
20
[V]
50
0
0
-50
-20
-100
-150
-200
-250
2.3
3560 rpm
2W
2720 rpm
1.7 W
2.305
2.31
2.315
-40
[s]
2.32
2.325
Starting torque
requirements may also be
concerned (maximum
value for H 0)
5
10
2.33
2.335
2.34
-60
[mA]
10
[rpm]10-2 [mNm
mNm] [mA]
45
Main results
Performances with different windings
44
DC servomotors
DC supply
(battery)
magnets
+
-
commutator
Mm=Hchm
+
0
d
r
PM reluctance:
Teeth reluctance:
wc
w
w
rc1 = c + 1 + c
2t
2t
2
wc t )
(
rc 2 =
5 + wc t
1-2c
wc
0
t =
Pd
kc t
0 Lm wm
hm
m Lm wm
hd
d =
d ks Lr wd nd
0 =
s
Stator yoke reluctance s =
2 s L0 hs
:
kc
Air-gap reluctance:
1 + rc21 2rc1
c =
2 1 + rc21
r t
wc = c 2
kc = 1
c wc
Pd
Rr
2 r ks Lr hr
No--load operation
No
Motor driven at the speed and with no mechanical load
2M m
0 =
2 (0 + t + d ) + s + t
N
E0 =
0 * = ke 0 * = K e *
2
Valutazione in sede di progetto della tensione alle spazzole alla velocit nominale
Valutazione in sede sperimentale del flusso 0 e della somma delle perdite
meccaniche Pm(*) e nel ferro Pfe(*) dalla potenza sviluppata dal motore primo
No-load test: voltage V applied and no mechanical load
I0
V
Ra
Rsp
E0
=0 (o Ra+Rsp(I))
E0
= V (R
+ Rsp
) I
0 =
E0
ke
Load operation
Motor operating mode: voltage V applied and = cost.
Corrente assorbita alle spazzole variabile nel tempo, a causa del transitorio dovuto
alle matasse in commutazione si considera un valore medio I = cost.
Ipotesi: 0 E E0 (a parit di ) e Vsp RspI
Caratteristica elettromeccanica della velocit =
C=
velocit a vuoto
(R + Rsp )I
V (Ra + Rsp )I
= 0 a
ke
Ke
N
C=
I = kt I = K t I
2
costante
di coppia
Kt Ke
(0 )
Ra + Rsp
Regenerative braking
Motore fatto ruotare da un carico esterno ad una velocit > 0 a V=cost. oppure
abbassamento di V con =cost.
Potenza P = EI erogata verso lalimentazione ricarica batterie
Corrente circa doppia di quella allo spunto
Brake operating mode
Applicazione di una coppia di carico in opposizione I = (V + | E|)/(Ra+Rsp)
Example
Ampere
12.5
Current
10
Load Flux
7.5
(E-3) Weber
s.
(E-3) N.m
2
150
Torque
-1
-2
-3
s.
2.5E-3
0.005
125
100
s.
7.5E-3
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
V (Rsp + Ra ) I
= 1 I + 2
Calcolo 1 e 2 dalla
caratteristica
elettromeccanica della
velocit
V
I b
= K + b
K
K
CL = 3 I + 4
Derived quantities
V
=
2 K
Rsp = 1 K Ra
b=
4 K
Ra + Rsp
3 100
3 = 3 K b
K
V
Utilizzata per verifica
Calcolo 3 e 4
dalla caratteristica
elettromeccanica
della coppia
allasse
CL = 3 I + 4
C0=4
Supplied current I
Shaft torque CL
Angular speed
0=2
polo
10
(a)
nuclei
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
11
Z
Z: zona del magnete
pi sensibile alla
smagnetizzazione
A vuoto
Solo armatura
sovracorrente
Br
P
P
r
Hc
poli
Z
A carico
HP HP
Magnete
Contromisure
Uso di espansioni polari (miglioramento
distribuzione di flusso, incremento costante
tempo elettrica) che sono solide solo se il
rotore privo di cave
Traferro incrementato ai bordi del magnete
nucleo
magnete
polo
(a)
(b)
12
nucleo
(d)
13
polo
magnete
Samario-cobalto
Alnico
(A): SmCo
Torque
Max power
CA/ CB
Pmax,A/ Pmax,B
1.5
2.0
(B): Ferrite
Mechanical time
constant
Electrical time
constant
Tm,A/ Tm,B
Te,A/ Te,B
0.5
0.7
14
(b)
(c)
15
Alternative structures
Motori slotless
nucleo
Motori moving-coil
Fibra di vetro
Nucleo interno
Motor comparison
Motori con cave
Motori slotless
16
Single--phase self
Single
self--excited alternator
Stator windings
Main winding (1) connected to
the load
Auxiliary winding (2) connected
to a capacitor (huge backward
field component to enable selfexcitation)
Rotor windings
1
1
1
2
2
b2b6
b5
b1
1
3
1
1
3
b8
1
2
b3 b7
1
1
1
1
Self--excitation process
Self
Residual magnetism e.m.f induced in the stator windings
Backward rotating field due to the stator currents e.m.fs induced in the
field winding (II harmonic order components)
Non-zero mean flux in the field winding due to the rectified e.m.f.s flux
and current increase in the stator winding
Final working point dependent on the magnetic saturation and on the
terminal impedances
3
i3 [A]
3 [Wb]
2.5
4
1.5
3
1
2
0.5
t [s]
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
Xm(I2)
I2
E2
Xc
(Xm,2+X+Xc)I2
E2,1
3,1
I2,1
3,3> 3,2
E2,2
(Xm,3+X+Xc)I2
3,2> 3,1
I2
I2,2
E2,3
I2
I2,3 I
2
Steady--state operation
Steady
Auxiliary current I2 90 leading the e.m.f. E2 phasor
Ohmic load (current I1 in phase with the e.m.f. E1)
E1 90 leading the e.m.f. E2 phasor (windings
displaced by 90 )
Low phase displacement between I1 and I2
High backward field component
Magnetic axes of the main field rotated of
less than 45 with respect to the d axis
Linee di Flusso
Main current
Auxiliary
current
Output characteristic
280
240
200
V0
[V]
160
120
80
40
Icc
In
V1[V]
00
10
20
30
40
voltage stability
V1
I2
I1 [A]
Magnetic saturation
Harmonic spectrum
1 3 5 7
Harmonic order
Harmonic spectrum
Harmonic order
Machine model
Main problems
High harmonic content in the air-gap m.m.f.
Complex rotor configuration
Magnetic saturation in the polar shoes (cross-coupling between d and
q axes)
Analytical methods
o Difficult to obtain a
general formulation
o Approach limited to
analyze the steady
state conditions
FEM transient
Electric equations
cage equivalent
winding
Main winding
di1
v1 = Rci1 + Lc
dt
Auxiliary winding
v5=0
i5
i3 = I 0 e
v3 Vt
Damping cages
vk=0
v1
i1
Field winding
v4=0
i4
i2
dv2 i2
=
dt C
v2
i3
v3
i6
cage equivalent
winding
6
v6=0
k=4, 5, 6
Solution of the
matrix equation
[ ] = [Lapp ] [i ]
Numerical solution
1
d 1
di
= R1i1 + v1 = R1i1 + RL i1 + LL 1
dt
dt
1 = 1 + LL i1
d 2
= R2i2 + v2
dt
d 22
d i2 1
2 = R2
+ i2
dt
dt C
i2 = C dv2 dt
d 3
= R3i3 + v3 = R3i3 + rd i3
dt
R1 = R1 + RL
rd = R f +
Rr R f
1 + e i3 / I 0
d '1
= R '1 i1
dt
d 3
= R'3 i3
dt
1,k 1,k 1
t
i1,k + i1,k 1
= R1
2
2,k 2 2 ,k 1 + 2,k 2
t
j ,k j ,k 1
t
= Rj
i j ,k
i2,k + i2,k 1
= R2 (i2,k i2,k 1 ) +
t Solution by an iterative
2C
method adopting an adequate
+ i j ,k 1
relaxation parameter to avoid
( j = 3,...,6)
2
numerical instability
Semplified approach
10
Saturation model
Definition of two equivalent m.m.f. distributions having amplitudes Md along
d axis and Mq along q axis, dependant on the position, on the winding
currents and on the geometric configurations by suitable shape factors Ki
(harmonic analysis of the air-gap m.m.f. waveform)
Calculation of the d and q permeances d and q, using the characteristics
d(Md) and q(Mq) obtained by FEM analyses
Mutual permeance ij between i-th and j-th windings
Self-inductance
Lii = N ( ii ( i ) + 0i )
2
i
Mutual inductance
Lij = N i N j ij (i , j )
Simplified approach
11
d (M d ) = d M d = d 0 K sd (M d ) M d
80
q (M q ) = q M q = q 0 K sq (M q ) M q
Ksd, Ksq: reduction factors
because of the magnetic
saturation (values 1)
[mWb/m]
70
60
50
40
30
20
In linear condition
d01.5 q0
FEM
10
[A]
0
12
Simplified approach
1.6
15
i3 [A]
1.4
i1 [A]
10
1.2
1
0.8
0
0.6
0.4
-5
0.2
-10
0
0
2.5
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
[s]
0.14
i3 [A]
Experimental
Simulated
-15
6 i [A]
2
Experimental
Simulated
2.0
2
1.5
0
1.0
-2
0.5
0.0
t0
t0+10
Experimental
Simulated
[ms]
t0+2
0
-4
-6
t0
t0+10
t0+20
t0+30
[ms]
t0+40
13
(
+ j, h , k ({i }))
l h , k ( , {i }) = L j, h , k ({i })cos j
j= 0
T h ,k
n h ,k
h , k = 1,.., 6
Dependance on current
Definition of an equivalent air-gap current distribution () which
reproduces the resultant m.m.f. distribution
Ampereturns
Mh
mh , j ( ) = h , j
cos( j ( h ))
2
Position of
Winding coefficient
h , j ( ) = j h , j
( ) =
nd
d, j
j =1
j odd
magnetic axis
Mh
2R
cos j +
d ()
sin ( j ( h ))
q, j
j =1
j odd
sin j
q ()
Resultant d-q
current distribution
(by elaborating the
previous equation)
14
15
Elementary circuits
d2
d1
d3
4
d4
5
Elementary stator coil
16
i4
Rb23 2
Rb2
2
i5
Rb12 2
Rb3
2
Rb23 2
Rb34 2
i6
Rb34 2
Rb4
2
R '4
R b2 2
0 i4
d 4
5 = R b2 2
R '5
R b3 2 i5
dt
0
R
2
R
'
b3
6
6
i6
R ' 0 0 i4
d 4
d 1 4 4
5 = [] 5 = 0 R '5 0 i5
dt
dt
0
0
R
'
6 i6
6
6
Diagonalization matrix
Connection matrix
[L ] = [C ] [L ] [C ]
t
app
*
app
[C s ] ns 2
[C ] =
[ 0 ] 52
Position = 0
0
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
[Cs ] =
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
[ 0 ] n s 4
[Cr ] 54
1
[Cr ] =
[0]
14
[0] 31
[Cd ]
1 1 0 0
Indepen[Cd ]t = 0 0 1 1
dant
1 1 1 1 from
Database of the
elementary
inductances
(2D FEM analyses)
Preliminary
step
Step 1
Step 2
Coefficients of the
Fourier series
expansion
(+ j,h,k ({i}))
l h,k (,{i})= Lj,h,k ({i}) cos j
j=0
Th,k
Actual self and mutual
h,k=1,..,6
nh,k
17
inductances
Step 3
V=230 V
f=50 Hz
n=3000 rpm
RL=24.04
C=13.5 mF
R1=2.07
R2=9.24
R3=5.36
R4=0.78 m
R5=1 m
R6=0.78 m
Rr=6 k
I0=3.33 mA
Rf=1 m
18
19
1000
v1 [V]
Experimental
Simulated
300
500
100
250
-500
V1,rms = 221.6 V
THD = 4.4 %
-300
-400
0.56
-250
V1,rms = 217.1 V
THD = 4.6 %
-200
0.565
-750
t [s]
0.57
0.575
i3 [A]
V2,rms = 479.0 V
V2,fund = 643.4 V
V2,rms = 466.8 V
V2,fund = 624.5 V
-1000
0.58
0.56
Experimental
Simulated
7
6
5
4
0.565
t [s]
0.57
0.575
0.58
Very good
concordance as
regard load voltage,
V2,rms and i3
Reduced THD for v1
3
2
Mean value
1
0
0.56
Experimental
Simulated
750
200
-100
v2 [V]
0.565
0.57
0.575
Problems: saturation
probably
underestimated,
t [s]
0.58 auxiliary modelization
Test bench
Alternator ratings
P1=5 kVA
V0=230 V
f=50 Hz
n=3000 rpm
Capacitor C=30 F
20
21
Output characteristic
Compound effect due to the
main winding
8
V1
250
7
6
200
V1 [V]
P1
150
4
Measured
100
d-q model
2
FEM transient
50
10
15
I1 [A]
20
25
1
0
30
P1 [kW]
22
Initial configuration
Conf.
C
[mF]
V1
[V]
v%
[%]
THD
[%]
I1
[A]
I2
[A]
I3
[A]
3m
[mWb]
Pd
[W]
Initial
32.8
18.4
9.9
4.5
23.6
7.93
5.66
7.7
1419
Modified
29.2
13.6
8.2
4.3
23.1
7.13
5.72
7.8
1314
Diff. [%]
-11.0
-26.5
-2.3
-10.1
1.1
2.2
-7.3
23
fob = 1
V1
v %
Pd3
Pd
+
2
3 *
4 *
*
v %
Pd3
Pd
V1*
250
V1
Optimized connection
200
Optimized configuration
Initial configuration
5
V1 [V]
150
P1
100
3
2
50
6 5 4 3
1
0
Initial connection
10
15
I1 [A]
20
25
P1 [kW]
4 5
2 3
Stepper motors
Electromechanical converters operated to obtain an incremental (not
continuous) motion a current pulse produces a fixed rotation depending
on the stator/rotor poles
Benefits
Open control loop operation (no sensors are needed)
Suitable for digital control (no current modulation
Economic manufacturing (simple magnetic configurations)
Drawbacks
Low efficiency
Fixed (discrete) angular step (problematic for fine rotations)
Oscillations around the standstill position with high inertial loads
Positioning errors with high frictional loads
Motor types (based on rotor configuration)
Applications
+ phase A
A
B
C
B'
C'
A
C
B
C
S
N
C
A'
6/2 (m=3 phases)
A
12/8 (m=3 phases)
Wec (F , ) 1 2
C=
= F
C (12/8
12/8 motor)
motor
typical operation
step angle
Step angle = 2
/(mNr)
o m: number of phase
o Nr: rotor teeth (high to reduce )
o np=m Nr : n.steps/rev
0
phase A
phase B
phase C
15
30
45
60
2
2
4
stator poles
2
/Nr
2
/Ns
Example
Verification
2
q/Nr
maximum n.teeth for each stator pole
B+
IA
IB
IA
IB
IA
IB
VR
PM
Frequency
1200 imp/s
400 imp/s
Step angle
1.8 15
15 90
2 i =1
2
i =1
Cylindrical
torque
full-step supply
resultant
IB
0
+
B
+
A
reluctance torque
S1
S2
phase
S3
S4
S1
S2
tightly coupled
coils
2
3
Motor
exploded view
Front
rotor
+A +B
-B
-A
-B
+B +A
+A
+B
+A
-A
Phase supply
sequence (final
state indicated)
+A
+
S N S N S N S
+B
+B
S N S N S N S
-A
+
-A
N S N S N S N
-B
-B
N S N S N S N
10
PM
Hybrid
Torque/mass
Low
High
High
Steps/rev
High
Low
high
n switch/phase
4 (2 if bifilar)
4 (2 if bifilar)
Efficiency
Low
High
High
Dynamic
performance
(torque/inertia)
Low
High
High
Manufacturing
complexity/cost
Low
Medium-high (1)
High
(1):
11
Torque characteristic
Torque which can be produced without losing the step as a function of frequency
o Performance decrease with increasing frequency (less time to drive the load)
o Different curves according to the dynamic operation (pull-in and pull-out)
Cm
coppia di trattenuta
holding torque
coppia di agganciamento
pull-in torque
coppia di sganciamento
pull-out torque
campo di risposta
start-stop region
campo di
funzionamento continuo
slew range
f (n.steps/s)
12
Torque characteristic
pull-in torque
upper bound of the start-stop region (dynamic operation)
pull-out torque
upper bound of the slew range (continuous operation)
Maximum torque-frequency values that can be applied at constant frequency
operation (without accelerating)
f
Cm
coppia di trattenimento
coppia di agganciamento
holding torque
pull-in torque
coppia di sganciamento
pull-out torque
t
campo di risposta
start-stop region
campo di
funzionamento continuo
slew range
t
f (npassi/s)
13
Torque characteristic
Holding torque
Maximum torque with locked rotor which can be produced by supplying the phase
with constant current
With no supply detent torque: maximum torque due to the interaction between
the magnets and the salient stator poles (rotor locked without current, presence of
a torque ripple at load)
holding torque
+B
detent torque
Stable standstill
points (without
supply)
+A
Torque equation
d2
2
dt
= Cem - Cfr - Cm
d2
dt2
Cem - Cfr - Cm
J
1
2
2J
t2 = t =
=
2
Cem - Cfr - Cm
Step angle
t is the minimum interval needed to cover the step angle and then the
waiting time before supplying the next phase
The supplying frequency f must be therefore lower than 1/t:
start-stop region
Cem - Cfr - Cm
1
f<
=
t
2J
14
d2
dt
15
=0
Torque equation
v = Ri +
di
d
i=
= Ri +
+
dt
i dt
v-
d di
d i dt
R
f.c.e.m. increase with (f) current decrease for a given voltage Cem
decrease
16
2
m=3
3 efficiency)
m=4
m=4
6/4
8/6
24/18
Main characteristics
Benefits
+V
17
Drawbacks
High torque ripple and radial forces (source of the motor noise)
Very low air-gap length to maximize the torque production
High current ripple (need of a capacitive filter)
High supply frequency for a given winding utilization with respect to 3-phase motors
because of the pulsed supply (vernier effect)
18
Applications (1)
http://www.srdrives.co.uk/
Applications (2)
Electric motorbike (Lectra 24)
19
Applications (3)
20
21
1
R1
R2
R3
1
R2
R3
R2
r-s
L1
L2
2/Nr-r-s
L3
I1
I2
I3
22
2 2
= fs
=
n
t
N r 60
Nr
fs =
n
60
Synchronous (p=1): f 0 =
p
n
n
60
60
SRM 6/4: f s = N r f 0
2
=
m Nr
Phase number
mNr : pulses/rev.
must be lower than s to have continuous torque
90
10A
80
12A
70
14A
60 16A
18A
50
40
30
20
10
Aligned position
-5
-10
-15
[]
-20
-25
-30
Un-aligned position
23
30
18A
16A
25
14A
20
12A
15
10A
10
8A
5
4A
0
Aligned position
-5
-10
-15
[]
-20
-25
-30
Un-aligned position
24
25
11
20
Flux lines
10
26
Tav
=-
15
'
=-(
+)
-15
-30 []
Wm
W'f
30
Wm
O
in
Design consideration
s
2
s + r = ___
r
s = r
s=
27
A
r
Vertex A: higher room for the winding, but remarkable effect of the flux fringing at
the pole edges (increase of the minimum inductance)
Vertex B: high minimum inductance value and smaller volume available for the
winding
Vertex C: higher efficiency and power density, but significant increase of the torque
ripple
28
Most convenient pole arc/pitch ratio 4045% with r=s (higher values lead to
room and weight problems)
Stator pole arc/pole pitch more sensitive
as regards the mean torque
Pole arc
(rotor)
Pole pitch
Pole arc
(stator)
Pole pitch
Pole arc
(s= r)
Pole pitch
29
Pole arc
(rotor)
Pole pitch
s / r
30
B
50
Favorable zone
27.5
48
25.0
46
22.5
P
20.0
Conversion
efficiency
44
17.5
15.0
92
30.0
D
20
25
r []
30
35
B
Favorable zone
27.5
88
25.0
s []
[Nm/m]
40
Torque ripple
30.0
Favorable zone
27.5
42
C
15
Mean torque
[%]
s []
20
25.0
[%]
22.5
84
s [] 22.5
15
20.0
20.0
80
17.5
15.0
17.5
C
15
D
20
r []
25
30
35
15.0
76
10
D
15
20
25
30
35
31
Dynamic analysis
Voltage equation
di
di
d
v = Ri +
= Ri +
+
= linc (i, ) + k (i, )
dt
i =cost dt
i =cost
dt
Incremental
inductance
Torque equation
d
Cem (i, ) = Cm + J
+ Cf
dt
Back-emf
coefficient
d
=
dt
Numerical integration
ik ik 1
1
ik + ik 1
k + k 1
Vk + Vk 1
=
R
k (ik , k )
t
linc (ik , k ) 2
2
2
k k 1 1
= [Cem (ik , k ) Cm C f ]
J
t
k k 1 k + k 1
Algebraic non-linear system of equations to be solved
=
iteratively for each k-th step
2
t
32
Flux linkage
0
-10
[]
-20
-30
0.8
0.6
[Wb]
0.4
0.2
0
15
10
i [A]
5
0
33
Static torque
30
20
Cem [Nm]
10
0
0
15
-10
10
i [A]
-20
5
0 -30
[]
Incremental inductance
0
[]
-10
-20
-30
100
80
l inc [mH]
60
40
20
0
15
10
i [A]
34
35
Back--emf coefficient
Back
15
k [Wb/rad]
i [A]
10
1
0
0
-10
-20
-30
[]
Low speed
(a)
[Nm]
(a)
Useful interval
as concerns
the torque
production
[A]
High speed
(b)
Advanced and
longer conduction
angle
[Nm]
(b)
36
Conduction
angle
Operation with
increased voltage
Switching frequency
limitation
(23) b
Angular speed
37
Comments
Low speed
Very low back-emf current controlled by chopping the supply voltage
Possibility to operate with increased voltage current increase saturation
increase higher converted energy reduction of the conducting interval
Frequency limitation for the switch current reduction to limit th switching losses
Base speed b: highest speed value for which i imax only by voltage commutation
(the conduction angle D and the maximum voltage VMAX are fixed)
High speed
Increase of D by advancing the phase turn on to enable a faster current rising
Current increase limited by Linc and C
Advanced turn off to avoid the operation in generator mode (dL/d<0)
Maximum limit on D to avoid mean voltage components on an inductive circuit
(unlimite flux increase causing high saturation)
Torque 1/2 with D=cost., because the conduction time as well as the flux are
decreased
38
Supply circuits (3
(3--phase)
Asymmetric bridge converter
39
B,C
B,C
v*
A
PWM control
Monostable
40
47
Dipartimento
Dipartimento di
di Ingegneria
Ingegneria Elettrica
Elettrica
References
Books
References
Papers
S.K. Hong, H.K. Kim, H.S. Kim, and H.K. Jung, Torque Calculation of Hysteresis Motor Using Vector
Hysteresis Model, IEEE Trans. on Magnetics, Vol. 36, No. 4, July 2000, pp 1932-1935
S. Bentouati, Z. Q. Zhu, and D. Howe, Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motors for Consumer
Products, 9th Int. Conf. on Electric Machines and Drives, pp. 118-122, 1-3 Sept. 1999, Canterbury,
UK
W. Wang, Z. Wu, W. Jin and J. Ying, Starting Methods for Hall-less Single Phase BLDC Motor,
IECON 2005, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA, 6-10 November 2005
W. Wang, Z. Wu, W. Jin and J. Ying, Sensorless Control Technology for Single Phase BLDCM
Based on the Winding Time-sharing Method, IECON 2005, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA, 6-10
November 2005
Andriollo, M., Martinelli G., Morini A., Tortella A., Zerbetto M., Performance improvement of low-rate
single-phase alternators, IEMDC 2003
Andriollo M., De Bortoli M., Martinelli G., Morini A., Tortella, A., Design Improvement of a SinglePhase Brushless Permanent Magnet Motor for Small Fan Appliances , IEEE Trans. on Industrial
Electronics, Vol.57, pp. 88-95