AVIATION

FuEL
"PROPERTIES

.I.

Lu

REPRODUCED FROM
BEST AVAILABLE COF't

Coordinating Research Cc
10

CRC Report No. 530

"

.9
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COUNCIL

INCORPORATED
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ATLANTA.

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APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE, DISTRIBUTION UNLIMITED

HANDBOOK OF AVIATION FUEL PROPERTIES

","

In approving this Handbook, the appropriate Committee of the Coordinating

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apply to the subject matter. Prospective users of this Handbook are respon-

sible for protecting themselves against liability for infringement of patents,

I.'

Prepared by the
Coordinating Research Council, Inc.
"I

~DTIG
18

LECTE

sEPo06198

Orders for additional copies should be addressed to:

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FOREWORD

"Thepurpooe of this document is to provide a convenient source of information on properties of aviation fuels for reference use. The data presented
hereim have been compiled by the CRC Aviation Handbook Advisory Group
from the latest known sources on each particular subject. Where conflicts
arose owing to discrepancies in source material, they have been resolved

by decision of the Group. The references cited document the source of information, even though in many cases those references are no longer in print.
This document was made possible by the contributed efforts of Industry and
Government personnel considered experts in their respective fields (Appendix A). Financial support for its preparation was provided to the Coordinating
Research Council by the U.S. Air Force as part of Contract No.

DAAK70-81-C-0128.

Acces.s

XTIS

Aoe
ni
0 For
R&-,,..

DTIc TAB

Unannounced

Justificat ion__[
.-tri

but i on/".

Av__i~labil it y Codes
and/oCO-Y-

a /or
Aviit
Speoial

..

*1.

Os'lo
XINSPECTED/

','.

",

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

K
SECTION 1.
1.1

'DESCRIPTION OF FUELS/
2

'SPECIFICATIONS; ...........................................

1.1.1' Aviation Gasoline (Av Gas)..................................

1.112-tubine -F~uels, ...........................................
1.1,3Missiie FueIl......................3
1.2

2
2

.\COMPOSITION OF FUELS. ....................................

1.2.1 Tiurbine Fuels

.)......*

........

...

*..*..

*........

10
...

.....

10

...

1.2.2'Hfyd-roc'arbon Missile Fueilsy ..................................

SECTION 2.
2.1

,~ULPROPERTIES'
.."FUEL

2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1A4
2.2

15

20

Density--';..........................20
Relative Density (Specific Graviy
ity)..................
Thermal Expan~ion .................................... ,..
Unit Mass of Fuels........................................

.)VISCOSITY,')

2.3

DENSITY'..................................

.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .

SRFAC
TENSONJ......................................

2. ~OAiLT'.....................

............. *

.......

2.4.1 ASTM D istillation

.....................
\2.4.2 True Vapor Pressure......................................
2.5

2.6

:LOW-TEMPERATURE

PROPERTIES"

-74HERMAL PROPERTIE
2.6,1
2.6.2
2.6.3
2.6.4
2.6.5

............

J.......................................

Specific Heat .....

..... ,..................,....
.... .......
Thermal Conductivity
. ..................................... ,
Enthalpy ...............................................
Heat of Vaporization ...................
..................
Heat of Combustion (Specific Energy) ............... ,.,........

iim

20
21
21
33
3
4
41
41
49

52
52
52
53
53
53

TABLE OF CONTENTS -(Continued)

SECTION 2.

-FUEL PROPERTIES-..(Continued)

2.7

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS;..............64

2.8

LA2.83.2

Pg

29

2.7.1 Dielectric Constant (Permittivity)............................

2.7.2 Electrical Conductivity....................................

64
64

F_'LAMMABILITY AND IGNITION CHARACTERISTICS .....

70

2.8.1 Flammability Limits versus Altitude ..............

u......
Flash Point..............................................
2.8.3 Effects of Dynamics on Flammability Limits....... 1.............
2.8.4 Effect of Air Release on Flammability Limis.it........
2.8.5 Minimum Spark Ignition Energy of Fuels .....................
2.8.6 Autoignition Temperature ..................................

70
70
74
74
74
80

BUL

MDULSA...........

.........

...................

2.10, SOLUBILITY OF GASE~i8

2,11 k'\SOLUBILITY OF WATEp

vo

.....

......

2,12 'ITHERMAL OXIDATION STABILITY)...............98

2.12.1 Test

Deie

98
99

...................

2,12,2 Effect of Deoxygeriation

............

*...

..

*........

..

2.12.3 Effect of Soluble Metals on De'posit Formation

2.12.4 Effect of Metal Surfaces on Thermal Stability ..
2,12.5 Effect of Fuel Additives on Deposit Formation ................
*..~,.*..............
*......

,.

SECTION 3.
3.1

~USER PROBLEMS;

100
100
101

K\FUEL CONTAMINANTS,".

......................

,...

.........

,..

105

1-2

3.,11
3.1,2
3,1,3
3.1.4
3.2
3.3

F.'~~3..

Gas Contamination..i
Water Contamination
....
,......,............ ...........
Microbiological Growth ..............................
Solid Contaminants ...... .......................

\FUEL LUBRICITY;:..............
-

..................

105
105
107
108
1

MATERIAL COMPATIBILITY,,..........................*

ill

3.3.1 Metals........................

ii

332Packing

and Gasket........

................

...... .....
,,

.,....................

11

Lubricants,................................1
3.4 'ITOXICITY.....................

....... ....... .......

112

TABLE OF CONTENTS-(Continued)
Page
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

U.S. Military and Commercial Aviation Gasoline Specifications............

Commercial Turbine Fuel Specification............................
U.S. Military Specificaticns for Turbine Fuels ........................
U.S. Military Specifications for Turbine Fuels ..........................
U.S. Mitary Specifications for Missile Fuels...........................
U.S. Military Specifications for Missile Fuels ...........................
Low-Temperature Properties of Aviation and Missile Fuels ...............
Typical Flammability and Ignition Properties of Aircraft Fuels ...........
Typical Flammability and Ignition Properties of Missile Fuels .............
Fuel Thermal Stability Requirements ................................
Effects of Metal Concentration on Thermal Stability at 260C ............

SL.

4
5
6
7
9
50
71
71
102
102

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

1
2
3
4
5

Figure 6

Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Figure 18

Examples of Hydrocarbon Compound Types

Chemistry of High Density Hydrocarbon Missile Fuels...................
Typical Density vs. Temperature for Aircraft Fuels .....................
Typical Density vs. Temperature for Missile Fuels ......................
Relative Density vs. Temperature (Max., Min., Typical)
- JP-5, JP-4, Jet B ......................
: ........................
Relative Density vs. Temperature (Max., Min., Typical)
- Jet A, Jet A-i, JP-8, JP-7 .........................
Relative Density vs. Temperature (Max., Min., Typical)
- Therm ally Stable ...............................................
Relative Density vs. Temperature (Max., Min., Typical)
RJ-5, RJ-6, RJ-4 ...............................................
Relative Density vs. Temperature (Max., Min., Typical)
JP -9, JP.10 ...................................................
Thermal Expansion .................................................
Unit Mass of Aviation Gasoline ......................................
Unit Mass of Turbine Fuels ..........................................
Typical Viscosity vs. Temperature for Aircraft Fuels ...................
Typical Viscosity vs. Temperature for Missile Fuels .....................
Typical Surface Tension vs. Temperature for Aircraft Fuels
.
Typical Surface Tension vs. Temperature for Missile Fuels ...............
Typical Distillation Curves - ASTM D 86 (Jet A, Jet A-i,
JP-8; JP-4, Jet B; Av Gas) .........................................

Typical Distillation Curves

11
17
22
23
24
25
26
28
27
28
29
30
31
34
35
38
39
43

ASTM D 86 (JP-5, ,JP-7,

Therm ally Stable) ................................................

.........................

iv

44

-"

TABLE OF CONTENTS

(Continued)
Page

LIST OF FIGURES - (Continued)

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35

Typical Distillation Curves - ASTM D 86 (JP-9) .......................

Vapor Pressure - Aircraft Fuels .....................................
Vapor Pressurr - Missile Fuels ......................................
Typical Specific Heat vs. Temperature for Aircraft Fuels ................
Typical Specific Heat vs, Temperature for Missile Fuels ................
Thermal Conductivity of Hydrocarbon-Based Fuels ......................
Enthalpy Diagram, JP4
......................................
Enthalpy Diagram, JP-5 ............................................
Heats of Vaporization for Various Hydrocarbons at 1 Atm ...............
Net Heat of Combustion - Aircraft Fuels ......
Net Heat of Combustion per Unit Volume - Missile Fuels ...............
Dielectric Constant vs. Temperature for Typical Aircraft Fuels .........
Dielectric Constant vs, Temperature for Typical Missile Fuels ............
Typical Range of Conductivity vs. Temperature for Aircraft Fuels .........
Fuels Flammability Limits vs. Altitude ................................
Flash Point of Jet A and Jet B Blends ................................
Effect of Tank Dynamics on the Relative Flammability Limits
of JP-4, Jet B, and Jet A, A-1, JP-8 .................................
Effect of Air Release on Flammability Limits of JP-4, Jet B and
Jet A, A-i, JP-8...,........................................
Minimum Spark Ignition Energy at 1 Atm, Pressure for Aircraft
Fuel Sprays .....................................................
Minimum Spark Ignition Energy at 1 Atm. Pressure for Missile
Fuel Sprays .............................................
Autoignition Temperature - Av Gas ...............................
Autoignition Temperature - Turbine Fuels .........................
Bulk Modulus vs. Temperature and Pressure for Typical JP-4
and Jet B ......................................................
Bulk Modulus vs. Temperature and Pressure for Typical JP-5,
Jet A, Jet A-1, JP-8 .......................................
.
Solubility of Air in Aviation Fuels..........................
......
Solubility of CO 2 in Aviation Fuels ...................................
Solubility of 02, N2 in Aviation Fuels.............................
Solubility of Air in Missile Fuels .................................
Water Solubility vs. Temperature for Aircraft Fuels .....................
Water Solubility vs. Temperature for Missile Fuels....................
Separation of Contaminants - Water and Rust .........................

Figure 36 Figure 37 Figure 38 Figure 39 Figure 40 Figure 41 Figure 42 Figure

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

43
44
45
46
47
48
49

45
46
47
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
66
67
68
72
73
76
77
78
79
81
82
85

'

86.....
8
89
90
91
92
95
96
109

".

V..

APPENDICES
.

Appendix A

Membership of CRC Advisory Group on the Aviation Fuels Handbook .....

A-i
/ .'

5v

4.
.

-..

. . . . .. .

..

4.'

SECTION 1
DESCRIPTION OF FUELS
*FUEL SPECIFICATIONS
*COMPOSITION OF FUELS

r-0

1.1

SPECIFICATIONS
Aviation fuels and fuels for air-breathing missile propulsion are characterized and controlled by specifications. In the case of fuels for aircraft, the specifications are based
more upon usage requlrements and less upon the detailed chemistry of the fuels. The
one composition requirement common to all aviation fuels is that they shall consist completely of hydrocarbon compounds except for specified additives. There are, however,
some limits on particular hydrocarbons such as aromatics and olefins primarily due to
performance factors. The system demands are still the primary determinants of the
requirements and include such items as fluidity, combustion properties, corrosion pro"tection, fuel stability, contaminant limits, additives for various purposes, and other
miscellaneous properties. The missile propulsion fuels, unlike the aviation fuels, are
primarily controlled by specific chemical composition. In this case, the chemical composition has been tailored to satisfy the system usage demands. Additives are also
specified to meet certain requirements. Where applicable, NATO symbols have been
included.

1.1.1

Aviation Gasoline (Av Gas)

Specifications for aircraft reciprocating-engine fuels are found in Table 1. There are
three grades of fuel-80, 100, and I00LL. In this case, there is no requirement for the
and 115/145. The commercial specification as described by ASTM D 910 also covers
three grades of fuel-80, 100, and 100LL. In this case, there is no requirement for the
115/145 military fuel, but a Grade 100 of higher lead content is permitted. The low
lead, 100LL, is identical in lead content to the 100/130 military grade. The grades are
determined primarily by octane or performance number.

1.1.2

Turbine Fuels
Turbine fuels are in extensive use by both military and commercial aircraft. Although
similar, military and commercial fuel differences warrant separate specifications.

'
1.1.2.1

Commercial Turbine Fuels

The specifications for these fuels are found in Table 2. There are two basic fuels included: a kerobene type and a wide-cut (kerosene and naphtha mixture) type. ASTM
Jet A fuel is used exclusively in the United States with Jet A-1 being the primary fuel
outside the United States. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) guideline
specifications are basically the same as ASTM Jet A-1 and Jet B

*..-V

:. .....

....

-,;,V.

....

....
2

...
7

"4.2
'

1.1.2.2

U.S. Military Turbine Fuels

There are several turbine fuels in use by the military services. This is due to the different operational needs of the services, or to specific applications requiring special
fuels. The primary fuel for the U.S. Air Force and Army is the wide-cut JP-4 fuel that
meets operational requirements and reflects a broad availibility. The U.S. Navy, particularly for carrier safety, relies on JP-5, a high flash-point fuel. JP-7 and Thermally
Stable fuels (TS) are used by the Air Force for specific applications in which high thermal stability is required. JP-8 is a kerosene-based fuel very similar to the commercial
Jet A-i, and is under consideration by the Air Force as a replacement to JP-4. The
specifications for JP-4, JP-5, and JP-8 are found in Table 3. Those for JP-7 and thermally stable kerosene are shown in Table 4.

1.1.3

Missile Fuels
Missile fuels included in this Handbook consist of pure hydrocarbons or mixtures of
a few JP-9,
hydrocarbons
for use in air-breathing missile engine;;, These include RJ-4, RJ-5,
RJ-6,
and JP-10,

1.1.3.1

Ramjet Missile Fuels

Turbine Missile Fuels

JP-9 was an Air Force fuel which was specified for use in the Air-Launched Cruise
Missile (ALCM). JP-10 is a fuel meeting the - 65oF Air Force operational requirement,
and has replaced JP-9 as the operational fuel for the ALCM. Table 6 outlines the
specification requirements for JP-9 and JP-10.

"

',.

RJ-4, RJ-5, and RJ-6 are fuels originally developed for ramjet-powered missiles, RJ-4
has been selected by the Navy for the Sea-Launched Turbine-Powered Cruise Missile.
RJ-5, a high-density fuel, was originally specified by the Air Force for the Advanced
Strategic Air-Launched Missile (ASALM). Due to unsatisfactory low-temperature properties, RJ-5 has been replaced by RJ-6 for use in the ASALM. Specifications for these
fuels are found in Table 5.
1.1.3.2

..

.........-

TABLE I
U.S. MILITARY AND COMMERCIAL AVIATION GASOLINE SPECIFICATIONS
'..S.Navy
811 .GOf72F.Anaid. I mintASTM D1910I Jo
13 Maurch1970
1)181
80187
1100130
Av Giasoline,
Av (laaolint'
Red
Blute(3)

Iso-.ilig \gecV1QI
Spveofickatin:
Revision Daute:
Gjrade 1)etignatltta:
FuelIType:
Color:
COIMPOSITION

Sulfur (wt
Artomatics (vt) l w

VoLATILITY

Djistillation
Temp. 1017
Itee (11C)
401%
Rut, (11C)

Mb
MAX.
MIN.

0.06

0.051
0.11.

115/140
Av G;.asoline
Purple

ASTM
Test Meathd
1) 1290or 0) 2622
1 0 1)1:11
Dpoo

00(
5.0

or 1) 2297

REid
h'LIIiY
CIM
USIIN

Pointr(1C

'Evung1aporte
'Ceis
idl uk, ofCal'ol
".)M
MJIkglato (HI
La
ol
Goio.'ravity.
O P rauo

MLIIY
lixtur

uPeoihnt
V g

ai

COMBUSTION
2 hNot
at of0"C)nkfu
MTAIkLIT
(Btunti)(
(MIN. 1111
hr.00
Al'~mvg'ruvit Prouc
CO TMI

MX t

1017

uCper
SrpCroin

%'('I.~l
Ch angeo.)
reortednot
ive
lmt
dokvlue
B2ohlgnel
Dy
b ATe

751
751

7in
76

1)8a

MAIX,
-6011
X.t6n~i
MIAX.
13.(18111)
M
7,(10

!l

MIN
AX,1

-to0

-188

71

15
8 0

43rA8,0)

-136)11
44.tl1,10
6)41o

2
D(01
28701111or1
8

14

1)21800

7,0,0

1,15

44ing90
91800

) 4 r
1)8(11o

3.0

3.0

1.0f

1.)2701 2
)1

MAIN,

S7

218

14

DO1W

MAX.

0.1

I,

1.2

1)2309,o )24

MAX'

(ml)ecaeRtn

1'reelptatuni)

N~lTF.~
(1 T

75
75

xatuen
iTl Av~iain Rat/ingml MIN,
Interac Rating.RAich22
Mil.thune

COROIO

MIN. at
MAX. ti

(m/100
MAit'0

MAX.

8
8

2.0.20D87

2-

etod1 210 Ar MlAX.

llcao

(2rKovk valesteob 1wmltarnd

y ASTMoMthod Dt70irotoroo

'22D19

Nnhrto 1o61r Aitn0.71atno, 1ta Table

Opvfctalne
Nurmters
lea

contert 1110iato
t
listhe
ause
gs

lool~l.l~l
mnamely
11.501
g/luIer MAX. Ilowaevr. this ctommercial gradet1110
Is ,ohtreti green: to,) has teat) etttoltl

23o92T11)

Tableat
t ofr
miitr
StM
tf

1.12g/blet MAX.

90lwtlll

TABLE 2
COMMERCIAL TURBINE FUEL SPECIFICATIONS
I -ung

'U

.\

A." NI

iii
1

ysolD t

Iim

radv kvsigrotioII:

ilw

1,

Doetor Test. N -Nviiauiv,'

1A
.1 A

1(2,2

A 12.)

AlII

,In.
'9

1.

1111,2

(A

slulfur, Tlotal oyt2 -!Ill

II

Ii) It

4311I
'II
1)1121111)0

11)MU
V1 L.A!)LIlY

Disti(ltllatio
Ilillp, (liii 11)1("C)
201%,
Rve("C()
fill% iItt- V"IC
P11014,
liP ('11)
Flinl) lit,4(1,)

P.)

FLUIlIlY
*

MAX.
MAX.
MAX.
MAX..
MAX.

3.0

.1
.

I.r

1.6

jrl

VII(lior I'128)sure.W8C(kill)

MAX.

F~reezing Pl'411I"G)
Viscosi~ty(D -. 1112Ci~t)

MAX.
MAX,

-41) (2)
9

-4210

-47
8

-50

MIIN.

42.8

42.8

42,8

42.8

MIN.

45
25
.11(4)

llColio 81(2
tlri

MIN.
MAX.

lirg a 1I81WC)

MAX,

1.2

28
21

21

'(I6
'2 Il
81

25

211

MAX.
MAX.

-,:3

MAX.
MAX.
MAX,
MAX.

7
Ill

Witily, ReioiniI Inturfitep2

Witter Helm-t~ili Sepalraionlu

-15-7
0l.75017-b.801',

JVrOT TupClor
(21112(81(

46
25
(4

25

211
11

1) :12,11)1) or

1) 3s81

11)

1I

1Wit

Ill

Agemonlyol
Optioln

011111
CIt

MlectrikuI (IoolucLivly (uN/mI) (6)

21)420

~ ~ ~t25vlI~~~(2

0)~
cotinn

lsSoePin

0MN

no04f))

li.421

it

rnIXd

Nil
tivii iy Jill 14111111111
If Kuppl(IIr ilintiflill 2011.

8MNnt

vshpe

fsp.vi

oiisutr

V'
ttnv
lvFadtmxaue(tdlvr toarrf fwtsui.tmtv.i s.i
(1)-A~

toeIoo

0MNls

11111,
JIMF
Ill
71

(31)1
ito (1))

) 1)1I)
1110114

154

1017
13 1
2)1)
I21
28))
21))

AgVU1llvinwit.
lptIill
Option
Option
Agreement~ AgrIelintlvtt
Agl'vemnte (71

Nu'VE8: (1) This isnot, it HopoQlIcist(1lt,

Ijslt (;I2110121M't-rial,
(21 lot A. 11
ts H 8im1012k&'tIometi'.l-ypi, but F'ovesliig Point Is -o.4711C
MAX.

(4

17o1,34

1)2282 ort 1) 1405

(g)
1)174(1
1)13(22
1)1840
1)1:41)

Aniilelltig
AIIIFX(luxidn
Iti~llillltlr

46

26
2I(2)

1) 23818)
1)4452

ADITIVES'
1.

ti()2)

--

D1287

1) 12119
1) 3223

Il2a1(

'16.57
172)i
0.,750l7.0I,8011I ll.77MI2.1l82118

IFTPOT
All (11111Jig)

(8)N'1AmINANT8 Vx~mitonltu (J~1lingIV

118ill
I'arIlvula111m
1mg/Il

4CorrosIIion

30012

37,8
31-5)
01753-0I.83118

123)

i1ixg)
Rp
21111

M I N.

LuhlmoIIott(r Nil.

Il(11)

1) 8))
I-

MAX,

or Smoke1Polint
or1Nap1hililtkivi, (vIII 4)

.911AIILITY

2014
1-13.3)
Ip 7.

Hilt

Los (%ill %),

8
) 1L'1li PointI (TC)
(1traviky, 'A I'i (1(1212)
k-l(,ulivio Density II p,2c)

8111 IW13T11N Net1 licii) of 122411(11,1IJ1kltl)

(2

20-1.4

r 1)I26122

8MN

.4.

isipdi

uplrntfvsutr

60-3001

1)

2)124lor 1) 11114 2741

TABLE 3
U.S. MILITARY SPECIFICATIONS FOR TURBINE FUELS
MIIL,'1'.0024L-A nid I
It! June1090)

)4ciivatulloti:
RHv,~viru
Date:
Grade Desiglttstin.

F'uel Type:

coil'M sITIIIN

VOLATILITY

11)2810 Limuits
ill purenltheses)

Wide-cut
M1
AX.
MAX,
MAX ..
0AX.
M.
MtAX.

0.015
26,0
)
0.1001
0.4

6.0
nom

('ulor, Soybolt

MAX.

Uistillutiuu
Temp. lnit. BP' ("0)
Twill,. 10%,Her (112)
2044% er (,'2)
1104%Hee("6)
9140))Hee(WC)
FilnalHP (0c)
HReildue(vol %) (fur D 81))
lose (VuI 11')(for 1)Hill
ExpiviaMveheas,peorcent

0.0011
0.4

1) 42412
D0~
13
Ia9t
1319
1323
1) 128W40)28847/

Rvport

Relport

Report

D16141

MAX,

Report

1) 8,"D 200

Re-port
146(130))

Report
2)05(1860)

Report

MAX.
MA X.

Report

Report
Report

MAX,
MAX.
MAX,
MAX.
MAX.
MAX.

Fluch PI'u)., (10

itavlty. 'API (1.;KC)
D)ensity, 1I-C (kigi)40')
Viipxr Pressure (37.8'C)

MAX.

F"reezing Point, TC(F)(

MAX.
MAX.
MIN.

Vise -sity a -20C. (c~t)

COM"USTION

A. -.e-Gravlty Product

1140
(14186
245(2001
270(3024)
1.0
1.0

)11

0.01)6
2

201, 186))

Report
Rei~ort
200 (220)

Rel'ort
300 (300)
1,r
1.6
111)1FED~L
STI)

50

MAX.

46.57

MAX.

7182788-840

14-21 (2.U.8.01
-581(-72)
-

0200

410
3041.4

37.51
770,840

(BtWlb)

D493 (2)
1
D 1298
1 1208

1)123i'1)2551

.-

-46 (-51)
8.0

-00 (-58)
8.0

D32088

D)440

4500

D)1405
D)232(1D 03338)
1) 240(0)
1) 122

or Net Ileat uf Comb., Md/kg

Smoke point
ur Hlydrogen (lontunt (wt %

Meth~od
ASTM IT011 791

0.5
11.0
5.)
.40,01
0.3

hI's (pmi)

FLUIDITY

4 April W181)
,l'*e'it
.111.
Ieriiiuene

KEro~eee

A'!ldiy, Toald iun K(4lt)i

Arotmatics (Vol '%)
01,-fins ,r,4 %)
Sulfur, Mercuptaii (w. 'V.,) 1)
Sulfur, Total lW '%)

Mil.T.310 3IA.Aind. I

,31
-'4

M IrN.

42.8 (18,400)

42.61110,800)

42,8 (18,400)

NIIN,
MIN.

20.0
1.41

19.,0
13$,5

10.0
13.0

lb

lb

lb

1)1,00

MAX.
MAX.

20
<:

20
<3

20
-0(

D32411(0)

MAX.
MAX.
MAX.

7
1
Ilb

l1b

Ilb

1)a081
1)22'70(0)
D31004

MIN.
MAX.

70 (6)
10

80(41)

70 (6)

D)2600

010-0.15
Required (7)
Requirei
Option

0,10.0,10
Option
Required
Option
Required

Navy
F'.44

00.4100
USAF
F-34; F-38 (10)

1)1018/)0042)
D 30101(4)

a 1000Q) MAX.

C2ORROSION

Copper Strip (2 bra

STAHILITY

,Th'TOTAP' (mmrHO)

.WTOT Tube Color' Code

CONTAMINANT% Existent Gum (mWlOO
ml)
Particulates (mgirilter)
Water Reaction Interface
Water Separation Index
Modified

Filtration Time (minutes)

L%

ADDITI VES

Ant-Icinif (vol0l
Antioll'dant
Cu'rrodiun Inhibitor
Mastl 1eactlvator
Antistatic

0A10.0116
Required (7)
Required
Option
Required

THE1R

Conductivlt0 (pS/mI
service
NATO Code No.

2000.400
All
F-40

(0)
530000340,
3627 lFEDSTI) 710

'0

D32624)1D)3114

NOT FS! (1IThe mueraptlt, aulfur determination maybewaived if fuel D1octor

Swept.'
(2) D)00 aiwi applicable to IP-O.
(0) D)4008only allowed for JP.4 Knit.IP-.4
141
) 003431
only allowed for ,JI'4 and JP's.
101Minimum one'gullon sample. FIltratioin time Inaccordance with Appendix A of MIL-T04)24L ala,,usedfor D)2276 particulate.
(41)With all additives except electrical counductivity additive,
(7) If hydrogen treated blend stocks used-Optional if no ll?'Potreatlng used.
(8) With all sdditives except the virrosulon Inhibitor additive or 70 with all udditives p~resent.
(a4)
Test at 2410;'tube temperature.
jll)) SanmeasJP- without addItIves.

Li

TABLE 4
U.S. MILITARY SPECIFICATIONS FOR TURBINE FUELS
lIsi3ig3 Agencly:
spee'ifialtiIInl
ReIsbilon Datel:

FuelVI
Type

COMPOSITIO3.N

UA

M311LI1(821)3A
-Anal, .
261.loooiry 1081
Low Volatilit(y

III

AL-3illty,
Total (tog 1(~lt31g3
A rooitltes (vIII %)
0113h11
(Vol1331
Sulfur, )10r13131111
(wt Y,.,)
or 1iewtor Test. N- Negative
6uIrur. Toltol (wt To)

hi

VOLATI LIlY
(1)2887Malts1(
liI
pareItheIpIum~b)

K90

.13
Itl

TM

53

5A.1- 23,41

MAX.
MAX.

01.0011

0,0031

MAX.

N
31.

N
3.)

182MIN.
Iv86MIN,
2016
MIN.

I5? 011033
MIN.
19313(174)
MAX.

RIportI

260 MAX.
288 MAX.
1.6MAX,
1,11
MAX,
dol MIN.
44 - 6

2U4(267,)MAX.
13(2381(M)
MAX.
260 (2389)
MAX.
1.11i
MAX
1,111
MAX.
413
MIN,
461
- 63

7733- 8063

76)7-7117

1)831t
1)8H6
1)fill or D H31
1)112938
1)12138

-1)113
12.3)

1)23811
U 4453

42.8

D32413,
1)2:1382
Dr'1731410
1)11322
1)1313411

1)1131)

50 1/6ReI'VC)
(-Q'C
Flu III ('C)

Remidue,
(vol 33,)
LOOK(VIII %8)
h1'itI (111,1

Orirvlty, -A1II(160C)
Penmitdy.l5*(! (lkg/io'

3II

203,70)I
3:31(1)

Frewov1ijPoint113
(IC)
V3i(iot.. 3)1~Lst)
"(
Vl"::toly 1g --1341,61C
(eS))

MAX.
MAX.
MAX.

-43,5

NwtHitl ofLuComb., MJ/133

MIN,

411.33

Lunlinotmolor No.
SnuleI'kint

MIN.
M111
IN,

7 (2)

HlydrogenI Coontuit (Wit

M61IN.

(2)

2.0,1
14

Clopper Strip (23lino a 1111C)

MAX,

lbI

111

TIIMIIMAL STAB3ILITY (.wTO or Cokr)

JFTOT1
TUDt
*1I"93V (33111
113pro13333r
dIN,)
(,o)131r,
Tube depoolt
Coker (mnin
113proititurv;)lt(,)

MAX.
MAX.
MAX.

12(100
2501))
-11 i(5
76(33)

12(41
263(4)
-t3 (6)
76 (8)

1)13241
1313241
1)11566
(1T onily)
1)16011
(ITSolys11)

COJNTAMINANTS

MAX,

50,3

510,.

D1381

MAX.
MAX,
NUN.I

.13.3
.33
811

.33
Iteport

03,111
to10.163

86 to 11,4
0,101to .13,1

(1)411.1

Option1

(Jptiuo
20U-3250(

Optical

CO1RROSIO3N

115)313131
3100(ruIlO30

MI))

I1'rtkl~ulatrainator (MICI
)
FOBlOrigin IkIiwrrloo
FOB1UpatinatlIon Dellverles
WSIl

*,.

D)80 m1I ) 2887

MAX.

C.OMBIUSTION

121123
1 122
D13

MAX.

10.3)

11311
it

1) 3227
D348-

Valpor 11reomure
a 14911
illa')
Vamo~r
l'remoure 0 260'11110)
FLUIDIITY

1) 32412.
1) 113111

MAX.

331'1

F'(ooh

GK;ei

MAX.

Distillation
Tvinp1.Itilt, HIII
('3J)
101%1
Roe (-C)
201%ReIv(-C)

ISmi

I.'2334

30I.JanuaIry 19381

Di2276
(7)
D 25003
oIr1)133348

ADDIITI VMS

JF8A-6 inti/lI
AndI-lolg (vol 133)
AntloIxlidant
Metal Deacti'vator
Lubrkiciy (p1)111)

(1911,13Thertna) l'reeIIlp13ti~o1

Ibillg

MAX

F1M1 7391,
6327

13.2(8)

NI)'I'R: (1) Vao3Ir press3Iulri test8 inI acordanev1111 witlh A(ppinuhl C, N lL.T,882 A.
(2)1It LuoinlivIInoer Nol,between 713and 763,
f1u3lneeptabiv-i3)I1.hIydro~gencontent111
INwilt (less than3 14.4wt 333
its clcuIlated1 by ASI'S 1) 3:1343,
(13)Tes11t by9 1) 13241. 11311iditioni3t3mpelfiiifl lot MIL.T.,3821(IA Aau), 2 and11tube3 rting113 iI AppenIIIlit 1).
(41)T'est by 1)113241
Cuonditlilonam3
313131111311
lIt MSI,
1/V)' 24C!,
(0) Iletivrdr F'uel Cokler - Conditiolns 333m3vv~f1Ivl it MIL-T*182l10A Anal, 1t.
(31)
Test by 1)13603. Co~ndit(ions
3303113'11331ed
lIn MIL*1'2624C,
liters (I 533).)shall11lit, filtered,
site1 of 11.7863
Mifnin10 130111311
37)
MIl-.1.382193A.
(1y Apptli3dx 11,
(8)'Test

...

TABLE 5
U,S. MILITARY SPECIFICATIONS FOR MISSILE FUELS
Issuing Agency:
Specification:
Revision Date:
Gradl Designation:
Fuel Type:
COMPOSITION
Wt %

VOLATILITY

U.S. Navy
MILF.82522A
8(Oct 71"6
1,2 4
T41. Dimer

lxottetrahydrodi lcyclopentudlone)
Perhydrodil (norbornadlene)
Tet ahydromethyleyclopentsLdienv
Other Hydrocarbons
Distillation
Temp. Inlk, HP (1C)

60% Rei (IC)

90% Rec (1C)
Final BP (1C)

Residue ivoi %)

RJ130
)Test
Itigh lXnoity

Method
ASTM

36.0 to W:
58.0 to 64.0

98,1 to 100
1.b MAX.

212.7

MAX,
MAX.
MAX,

Report
Report
221,1

(1)

C.

1.5 MAX.

MAX.

1,5

D Si

Loss (vol %)R

MAX.
I60oC(kPa)
Flash Point (0()
Gravity
(156,6C)
Specific Gravity (15.01"C103.60C)
Density 016DC (kg/mi)

1,0

Freesing point (00)

Pour point (0C)
Viscosity, centihtokes tit OC)
-64
-18
-17.8

-40 MAX.

"OAPI

60

,,

..

79.4

95 MIN.

23
60 MIN.

1.060 MIN.

1.010.

(2)
D 93/D 3242

10.0 22.3

) 287
1) 1218,
D 1298

1.010

020 940

1) 2386 (3)
D 97
D 445

-84 MAX.
-30

MAX.

400 MAX.
40 MAX,

400 MAX,
:10.0 MAX,

37.,8

4.

4.2 MAX.

Net Heat of Combustion

1)240

MJikg (BtuIWb)
MJtvm (B1tulgalonh)
STABILITY

RJ.5
High Density

100

M1AX.

"Vapor Pressure,

COMBUSTION

USAF
MIL P (Tentativo)

204.4

5%Rec(IC)

FLUIDITY

USAF
MilL 1P(Tentative)

Potential Gum (mgllO

42,3 (18,200)
l(9900 (1189,450)
nl)

41,3 (17,.70) MIN.

44,600 (100,000) MIN,

41.A (17,800) MIN,

42,300 (1062.)01 MIN.

D 2"182
1) 873

60MAX. (4)

CONTAMINANTS Iron (parts per million)

Exiitvnt gum (mg/liter)
Prtlculate matter (mglllter)
WSIM

310MAX.
1.0 MAX,
85 MIN, (7)

ADDITIV4S

Antiluxidant
Anti.Iaing (vul %)

Required

Bromine Number
Color, Saybolt

1,0 MAX.

10 MAX,
100 MAX,
1,0 MAX,

10 MAX.
100MAX,
1.0 MAX.

(6)
) 281.
D 2276 (6)
.0

0.10 to 0,16

Fed Std 71Ji,

+20

0 1150
D 101H

Methtsi 011327
OTHER

+211MIN.

MIN,

NO'TES (1) Test procedure outlIned in Appendix A Opeciflcavon.

(2) Test procedure outlined in Appendix C Specifiisotion,
(3) For RJ,5 and RW-, test procedure outlined in Appendix D Specification.
(4) Use only 60 nd product.
(5) Test procedure outlined in Appendix It Specification.
(61)Ule 0,46 mmmembrane filter,
(7) A blend of Ot'% R1J-4and 401%lenoctane (98 WSIM) shall be ued.,

E;
.

'....

......................

'=k'5
. 'L. L. . L'-L=J
. ..

.'.

......
,..,

''"""

'.,..',..'..

"'-.

.="-

.-

"

..

,"'

TABLE 6
U.S. MILITARY SPECIFICATIONS FOR MISSILE FUELS
leeuing Agency:

USAF'
IL.I'47 107 14,AmdI,I

speciicaton:
Hevielon D~ate:
G~radefleelgnation:
Fuel Type:

23 April 198)1

J4P44
Ifigh LDenvity
SyntheticIl4 n

COMPOSITION: C/hem. Comp. iW To//

Methyleyeloltexane
Exo.TlI dicycdpenatdlenttt.norbvrnadiene dimers,
Other H~ydrocarbons

pVOLATILITY
p

COMBUSTION

STABILITY
CONTAMINANTS
ADDITIVES
'4OTHIER

IA IMAX,

Flash Point (OC)

21 MIN,

65 MIN.

1)194

Frevaing Point ('C)

Viscosity contlatolics at
-644'C
-32'C244
.144'C12

-r/4 MAX.

-71) MAX.

(2)

BotMAX.
MAX.
MAX.

117
MAX.
14MAX.
14MAX.

U)4464

Net Host or Comrb.

Mj/kig (I4444/44)
MjII/r (Btu/Igal)

41.944(184,5004)
MIN,
484,573
(142,0004)
MIN.

42.1044A18,14)MIN,
394,4344
(4,141,001
MlIN.

1)Z18)2or
D424/0

Change In preseure drolp(mmHgd)

Hleater tube depoalt rat tiig

10 MAX.
Code 2 MAX.

14oMAX,
Code 2 MAX.

1)14241004)'
1) 1414(34)

14/MAX,
1,0 MAX,

1,.0MAX.

14)
4)2276/

0.10-.04)
004.10
I4t4

0.,10- 0,11/
90 1/4

led.d,14.7)41
Method, 53127

+2r, MIN,

+25/ MIN,

1)1fill

94346. 966)
164.8.20.44

Irnn Content (I'1rn)

Par4ticula4te ingilo
Antil.ithng (vo"%4)
Antloaldants (p44m)
Color, Sayholt

NOTE: )I)Teat
42)Test
134Te:4
l4) Test

ASTM

10.1
or, 70985
241-26
.1 MAX,

DJensity, kgt/rnait 154'C

or
GIravity, -At)I

FLUIDITY

W.10'
4
High IDengity
synk4/4/t
M/441Va4n4144(114(

9:16 - 9434
/44.1/ 20A1

11)

/1)129H1
1)12118

~
4

prlwe4Iure outlined lit Appenidix A Spec. MIL-1 .01107A,

peocedure outlin4ed In Appendix C.Test waived f44rJ1'1410.
t4r)1tsarid onodltlone In Spite M1L.P.447l07A.
proeeduro outlined In Appendix B Spec. MIL.I'.87107A,

I%"

LA

1.2
%

COMPOSITION OF FUELS
Turbine fuels, unlike missile hydrocarbon fuels, are made up of hundreds of different
hydrocarbons. They are, therefore, not specified by chemical composition, but by general
property limits. This category includes Jet A, Jet A-I, Jet B, JP-4, JP-5, JP-7, JP-8,
and thermally stable fuels. The missile fuels RJ-4, RJ-5, RJ-6, JP-9, and JP-10 are, on
the other hand, essentially pure or mixtures of a few pure synthesized hydrocarbon
compounds tailored to their operational use with high density as a primary requirement.

1.2.1

Turbine Fuels
Although made up of many different hydrocarbons, the turbine fuels consist of essentially four types of compounds. These hydrocarbons can be grouped into the following
series: the paraffins, including isoparaffins; cycloparaffins or naphthenes; aromatics;
and olefins, The proportion of each will vary with the types of crude oils from which
the final fuel is derived and the refining process used. Figure 1 gives examples of the
chemical structures of the above compounds,

1.2.1.1

Paraffins and Cycloparaffins

Paraffins
on
and cycloparaffins are the major components of turbine fuels. The paraffins

consist of singly-bonded chains of carbon in which each carbon atom is fully saturated
with hydrogen. They may be straight-chain or branch-chain molecules. This makes for
a very stable structure not readily reacting with materials with which they come in
contact such as elastomers, paints, and various metals, The high hydrogen-to-carbon
ratio gives them high heat release per unit weight, and makes them cleaner burning
than other hydrocarbons.

Cycloparaffins have a saturated ring structure which decreases the hydrogen-to-carbon

ratio, lowering their heat release per unit weight, but increasing their density. They
are also very stable and clean burning. Their primary advantage is that, in general,
their freezing points are lower than ccmparable paraffins with the same number of
carbon atoms.

'.44.

.1"0 I,?

"

Figure I
Examples of Hydrocarbon Compound
Types

I
H,'3
H-C- 4H -Y-S-K
HCHH4l~

HF{HHH
Isooctane

flPeltane

-6

H IIHHHH

Cyclo Paraffin
FH

HI\H
.. C.,H
C
C,
H

Cyclopentane

Aromatics
H-C
H-C
H-C

C-HK61
Toluene
C-H

II I

Naphthalene

~H

C-H

H-C

Clef ins
HIIH
I-I-C=C-C-C-H

Butylene,
HHHHH-C/

StyreneH,,
C-HH

HC
\C

1.2.1.2

Aromatics
Aromatics are fully.unsaturated six-carbon ring compounds. The six member ring structures may be substituted with paraffin or olefin structures and/or may be coupled to
form polynuclear aromatics; e.g., naphthalenes. They have, in general, a higher heat

content per unit volume, but a lower heat content per unit weight than the paraffins.

They tend to cause swelling effects on rubbers and certain sealants. In addition, they
are smoky in burning, and tend to form combustor coke and contribute to high-luminosity
flames. Due to these factors, the maximum concentration of aromatics permitted in
turbine fuel specifications is 20 to 25 percent by volume. Aromatic content of fuels derived from crude oils is typically 10 to 20 percent.
1.2.1.3

Olefins
The olefins are similar to the paraffin series, but are unsaturated and, therefore, have
lower hydrogen-to-carbon ratios. They are the most reactive of the hydrocarbons and
are capable of reacting with many materials. For example, they combine with air to
form varnish or rubber-like materials, and can react with each other to form polymers
of higher molecular weight, The olefins, due to their unstable nature, are not generally
found in crude petroleum, but may be formed in large quantities in refinery cracking
processes. The specification content of olefins in the final fuel is limited to five percent
by volume in order to reduce the formation of gums and polymers which limit the useful

life of fuels in storage. Thermal stability of turbine fuels would also be adversely affected by high olefin fuels,
1.2.1.4

Nonhydrocarbon Types

.... ,

N onhydrocarbon compounds that may be found in aviation fuels contain sulfur, oxygen,
or nitrogen, They are present in low concentrations and do little to contribute to fuel
quality but, in the majority of cases, cause problems,
1.2.1.4.1

Sulfur and Sulfur Compounds

Practically all known crude oils contain sulfur in varying amounts, It may be present
as free sulfur, mercaptans, sulfides, disulfides, and thiophenes, Free sulfur can be corrosive to certain metals in the fuel system, and therefore, free sulfur is controlled not
by weight but by its corrosive effect on copper as determined by the copper strip corrosion test, ASTM D 130, The mercaptans are compounds that contain sulfur, hydrogen,
and carbon, They attack cadmium plate and can cause deterioration of some types of
synthetic rubbers. The amount of these compounds is, therefore, limited by specification limits, or if the fuel is considered "Doctor Sweet" when tested in accordance with
the doctor test of ASTM D 484. The other sulfur compounds are controlled by the total
sulfur content limits found in the specifications.

12

.
i.
.'

"'":

1.2.1.4.2

Gums and Gum Forming Compounds

Gums are high molecular weight compounds containing hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and
usually sulfur and nitrogen. They may occur in refined fuels in either soluble or insoluble forms. They may be produced in storage when the fuel is exposed to air, The formation of gums during storage is accelerated if the stored fuel is exposed to sunlight,
elevated temperatures, and contains high concentrations of sulfur compounds.

These gums, when precipitated, can cause filter plugging, sticking and binding of fuel
valves and controls, and plugging of metering orifices, Even though the insoluble gums
are more deleterious to fuel systems, the soluble type can be expected to cause trouble
when thin films of fuel are exposed to air. This fuel then evaporates, leaving gum
"deposits.Although fuel specifications do not differentiate between soluble and insoluble gums, they do limit the existent and, occasionally, potential gums.
1.2.1.4.3

Water Soluble Materials

Certain materials such as alcohol, sodium soaps, and other water soluble constituents
contribute to fuel system corrosion, poor water/fuel separation, filter clogging, and poor
performance of filter separators, To control this, a water tolerance test is included in
fuel specifications.

1.2.1.4.4

Naphthenic Acid
Naphthenic acids are organic acids which originate from the crude oil, and which may
be present in aviation fuels, They can cause corrosion with aluminum and magnesium
if water is present. Zinc is rapidly attacked by these acids to form zinc naphthenates
which are soluble in the fuel, Naphthenlc acid can also form surfactants if it reacts with
metals to form soaps which can cause free water to remain in suspension for prolonged
periods, This can also cause poor performance of filter separators. Although there is
no direct method of limiting the naphthenic acid in the specifications, the total acidity
and the Water Separation Index indirectly control this contaminant, Advanced refining techniques in conjunction with clay filters have, for the most part, eliminated this
potential problem.

AI

13

.......

,.

1.2.1.5

Additives
Additives for improving the properties and overcoming particular problems are in some
cases required and, in other cases, they are optional. Only officially-approved additives
are permitted, and the amount is controlled.

1.2.1.5.1

Antioxidants
The main function of antioxidants is to prevent the formation of gums and peroxides.
Heavily hydrotreated fuels have a tendency to form peroxides, and the additive is required. In other fuels, antioxid-nts are optional.

1.2.1.5.2

Metal Deactivators
Metal deactivators are allowed in all fuels. They are used primarily in those fuels that
have been refined by copper sweetening processes. These additives react with soluble
copper and other metal compounds, thus preventing undesirable reactions leading to
filter-blockage troubles,

1.2.1.5.3

"-

Fuel System Icing Inhibitors

These additives prevent the formation of ice resulting from water coming out of solu-

tion at low temperatures and from water condensing in fuel tank ullage. They have

"',"-

also been found to be an effective barrier to microbiological growth. Ethylene glycol

monomethyl ether is specified for most military fuels and is permissible in commercial

turbine fuels. Diethylene glycol monomethyl ether is specified for use with JP-.b
1.2.1.5.4

Corrosion Inhibitors
These additives are intended to minimize rusting in product pipelines and fuel storage
tanks.
They have
alsonhiitor;:::2":'
been found to improve the lubricity of some fuels azd are man;J
Iing
,2.15,3FuelSysem
datory in certain military fuels for this purpose. The exact composition of these materias

is proprietary, but they are controlled by Specification MIL-I-25017.

1.2.1.5.5

Static Dissipator Additives

Static dissipator additives are added to JP-4 and JP-8. They are permitted in most other
fuels to raise their electrical conductivity, thereby preventing the buildup of hazardous

static charges.
Thseadiiespevn tefomtinofie
1h4,:.
eslin
14e..

ro

atrcoig

u o

.~.:.

1.2.2

Hydrocarbon Missile Fuels

These fuels are essentially pure synthesized hydrocarbons or mixtures of pure synthetic
hydrocarbons. They are compounds of high energy content per unit volume tailored
to meet the operational requirements of their assigned system. These fuels are based
on bridged ring hydrocarbon structures (which contain high carbon-to-hydrogen ratios)
which increase both density and volumetric heat of combustion. The simplest bridged
structure which forms the building block for all the hydrocarbon missile fuels is norbornane or bicyclo (2.2.1) heptane. Though never found as such in the final fuels, its
structure can be observed as the basic part of each compound. Figure 2 presents the
chemical structures of the various high-density fuels.

1.2.2.1

RJ-5

"RJ-5 is a mixture of hydrogenated dimers of norbornadiene, an unsaturated derivative

S'.

of the bridged compound norbornane. This high-density fuel is called perhydrodi(norbornadiene). It has the highest energy per unit volume of all the missile fuels, but its
high freezing point makes it unusable for many applications,
1.2.2.4

-.

JP-10
JP.10 has the single chemical structure exo-tetrahydrodi(cyclopentadiene). It is prepared
by hydrogenating commercially-available di(cyclopentadiene), which yields the solid
material endo-tetrahydrodi(cyclopentadiene). The intermediate endo structure is then
isomerized in the presence of a catalyst to produce pure JP-10.

1.2,2.3

RJ-4
RJ-4 is a mixture of eight isomeric forms produced by the hydrogenation of
methylcyclopentadiene dimer. The product, tetrahydromethylcyclopentadiene dimer,
or TH Dimer, is a high-density hydrocarbon having substantially more energy per unit
volume than kerosene fuels. The mixture of isomers accounts for the ranges in the boiling
and freezing temperatures,

1.2,2.2

%
V..,
-

RJ-6
RJ-6 is made up of a mixture of RJ-5 or perhydrodi(norbornadiene) and exo-tetrahydrodi(cyclopentadiene). Exo-tetrahydrodi(cyclopentadiene) is JP-10. Although RJ-6 has a
lower volumetric heat of combustion, it has better low-temperature properties than RJ-5.

S15

.'

!:. :

1.2.2.5

I
-.

JP-9
JP-9 is a high-density hydrocarbon fuel composed of three different components tailored

~to have ahigh volatility permitting proper ignition at low temperatures. It is made.9
up of methylcyclohexane, JP-10 exo-tetrahydrodi(cyclopentadiene), and RJ-5 (H-norbornadiene dimers).

16

,.

Figure 2
Chemistry of High Density Hydrocarbon Missile Fuels
HR

Building Block

WH

H
HH

Li

c/

RJ-4

HI-

H-c
Hc

H-~H
C

H-

HI
H
Endo and Bxo-'rabrahy-dwdi Cznethylcyciopentadineu)

Li

Exo.~Totrshydradi (cyciopentadiene)

~RJ-5

-t/k

H-r

CTH- Dimer)

C-H
H-.

lU-C

IH

-H

nH

MvJycyloI10m +Wi-5

Hr C17

11

Al

REFERENCES
1. Exxon Company, USA, Data Book for Designers-Fuels, Lubricants, and Hydraulic Fluids,
September 1973.
2. M. Shayeson, "Fuels for Aviation Gas Turbine Engines," General Electric Technical Memorandum No. 81-315, May 1981.
3. H. Barnett and R. Hibbard, "Properties of Aircraft Fuels," NACA Technical Note 8276, August
1956.V

4. Coordinating Research Council, Inc., CRC Aviation Handbook-Fuels,andFuel systerns, NAVAIR

06-5-504, May 1967.
5. G. W, Burdette, H. R, Lander, and J. R. McCoy, "High Energy Fuels for Cruise Missiles," AIAA
Paper No. 78-267, June 1978.

t*~

6. American Society for Testing and Materials, 1981 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Petroleum
Products and Lubricants, Parts 28, 24, and 25.

144

.4~4

18"

.~

SECTION 2
FUEL PROPERTIES

10~

2.1

FUEL DENSITY
Density is the mass per unit volume relationship of fluids. The relative density, commonly referred to as specific gravity, is usually the ratio of the density of a particular
liquid fuel to the density of water at 15.50C. These relationships are important in the
design of aircraft and missiles, since variations in fuel density can have large effects
on determining their loaded weight and the range attainable. They are also used in
flow calculations, fuel gaging, metering device considerations, fuel loading, thermal
expansion of fuels, and fuel tank design.

2.1.1

Density

Density is defined in terms of mass per unit volume at a given temperature. It can
be
expressed
mass
volume
units(kg/ms).
with the
standard forhas
metric
practice
defined
in termsinofseveral
kilogram
pertocubic
meter
Temperature
a marked
effect
on the density of fuels. As the temperature increases, the density of a fuel decreases,
Figure 3 shows the effect of temperature on the density of a number of typical avia"tionfuels. Figure 4 shows the same effect as it pertains to a number of hydrocarbon
missile fuels.
2.1.2

Relative Density (Specific Gravity)

Relative density or specific gravity is dimensionless, since it is a ratio of the density
of a substance to the density of a reference substance, namely water. Since density
varies with temperature, the temperature of the liquid which is being compared with
the reference substance must be given, as well as the temperature of the reference
substance. Relative density can also be expressed in terms of API gravity. The following equation gives the relationship between API gravity and relative density:
141.5

"API =

-131,5
0

Relative Density (60 F)

4-s in the case of density, the relative density of a fuel decreases with an increase in

,""

"temperature,iigures 5 through 9 show the effect of temperature on the relative densities of aircraft and missile fuels. Maximum and minimum values are given wiLth typical
values derived from inspection data on these fuels.

.2

. .. . . .

i:!:.20

. .

. .

..

..

. -

. .

. .

. .

..

. .

. .

. .200-

..

2.1.3

Thermal Expansion
Another approach in showing the effect of temperature on density is to consider the
thermal expansion of a fuel as it is heated. Figure 10 depicts the multiple of volume
for aircraft and missile fuels as compared with their volumes at 15.50C when the
temperature is increased. Pressure is specified, since highly elevated pressures tend
to depress slightly this volumetric increase.

2.1.4

'

Unit Mass of Fuels

Figures 11 and 12 provide a general method for determining the appropriate unit mass
of aviation gasoline and turbine fuels, respectively, at a given temperature when the
relative density at 15.5 0 C is known.

I.4

4.'% '

21~1

.iL.

1%A
Ct

LA

'"'..O

21

-- '"'44

880

840
s4;~

780.

740~

4"

700

620

1! l

lH

K).

-40 -30 -20 -10

Ill

10

20 3040
Teimperature,

5060

0C

Figure 3
Tvvkcal Density vs. Temperature For Aircz'ah Fuels
10
I kgi'mni=.O625 11h,'

22

70 80 90

1120

1080

44

10430

~10200

980le

920

880

INK

-40-3-20-0

70090,

020340500

INN
Natre,

900a

Tyicl

~iiit v.TemperatureXFi

1 kg/rn"= .4)625 lbIW '

23

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.............................................

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.1

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ft*,*

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26

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:Il1 i

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31.

REFERENCES
1. Exxon Company, USA, Data Book fin, Designers-Fuels, Lubricants, and Hydraulic Fluids,
September 1973,
2. E. Shelton, "Aviation Turbine Fuels-1980," U.S, Department of Energy, DOE/BETC/PPS-81/2,
March 1981.
3.

F, N, Hodgson and J, Tobias, "Analysis of Aircraft Fuels and Related Materials," Monsanto Research Corporation/U.S. Air Force, AFAPL-TR,,79-2016, March 1979.

4. M, Shayeson, "Fuels for Aviation Gas Turbine Engines," General Electric Technical Memorandum No. 81-315, May 1981.,..5. H. Barnett and R. Hibbard, "Properties of Aircraft Fuels," NACA Technical Note 3276, August

1956.
6.

Coordinating Research Council, Inc., CRCAviation Handbook-Fuels and Fuel Systems, NAVAIR
06-5-504, May 1967,

32

S!!ii~32

:. --

VISCOSITY

2.2

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to motion caused by cohesive forces among the fluid molecules, It is of primary interest to the fuel system
designer as a prime factor in calculating pressure drops in lines through its relationship to Reynolds number. The cohesive or interaction forces among the molecules appear as shear stresses between the moving layers of fluid. The shear stress at a point
"dividedby the velocity gradient at that point is defined as absolute viscosity. The pascal
second is the unit of absolute viscosity specified in the Standard for Metric Practice.
In practice, absolute viscosity is used in conjunction with density, particularly in the
calculation of Reynolds number. Also, the determination of viscosity is usually done
in combination with density as a function of time. This relationship between viscosity
and density is defined as kinematic viscosity, the ratio of the absolute viscosity of a
fluid to the density with both properties measured at the same temperature and
pressure. Kinematic viscosity is usually found in terms of centistokes, In2the Standard
for Metric Practice, it is defined in terms of square meter per second (m /s). One centistoke is equivalent to one mm 2/s.

Viscosity variei considerably with temperature, Lowering the temperature of the fuel
has the effect of increasing its viscosity. In fact, many fuel specifications specify maximum viscosity limits at low temperatures to assure pumping and flow capabilities.
Figures 13 and 14 give typical kinematic viscosities versus temperature for various
aircraft and missile fuels plotted on an ASTM chart modified from ASTM D 341-89.
The variation of viscosity with temperatbre plots on this chart as a straight line.
Therefore, viscosities can be extrapolated to any desired temperature by connecting
known viscosity points at two different temperatures. Caution must be taken not to
extend these extrapolations through phase changes.
Coinparison of Figures 13 and 14 shows that missile fuels are generally higher in viscosity at a given temperature than turbine aircraft fuels. This is due to the difference in
"chemicalcomposition between aircraft and missile fuels. The missile fuels are gener"allycomposed of hydrocarbons high in density, such as cyclic paraffins or condensed
five- or six-membered ring structures, It is characteristic of such hydrocarbons to exhibit large intermolecular cohesive forces compared with aircraft fuels made up of mostly
straight-chain paraffins.

" :' .

.:

33
.

..

N.

..

..

-.

tdt
20.00
15.00
10.00
:

6.00

5.00r
3-0

.
...

..

1I.#

.. .

52.00

1.t75

..

.~1.50

1.25
.J

1.00!
I"IN

.80 ,

~*

..
. ... ... .::
.7... ..

.70I

~~.50

i..'

40'
-50

4.

30

10

30

70

Temperature, 'C10
Figure 13L
Typical Viscosity vs4. Temperature For Aircraft Fuels9
1mm'/s

centistoke

34

110JF13

1517
Et-

2000-00
500,00

20.00
15,00
10n00

"

5.00
3400

4,,4,

200
1,75

,.

~1,00.,..
::

,90.,

.,

80
.70
.60

.50
.40
-50

-30

-10

10

30

1 YpIcai~ Viscosity

mi/s

50

70

90

FIigu re ,
v's. ITflhpri~tthi il lor MislII

110

130 150

170

utis

ceatistokc

35
'; . ...

. .-

.....

.,. ..

. i,I

..

,' , ,.

REFERENCES

1. Exxon Company, USA, Data Book for Designers-Fuels,Lubricants, and Hydraulic Fluids, September 1973.
2, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1981 Annual Book ofASTM Standards, Petroleum
Products and Lubricants, Part 23.
3. M. Shayeson, "Fuels for Aviation Gas Turbine Engines," General Electric Technical Memorandum No, 81-315, May 1981,
4. F, N, Hodgson and J. Tobias, "Analysis of Aircraft Fuels and Related Materials,". Monsanto
Research Corporation/U.S, Air Force, AFAPL-TR-79-2016, March 1979,
5, F. N, Hodgson, W. Scribner, and A. M. Kemmer, "Environmental Degradation of Fuels, Fluids,
and Related Materials for Aircraft," Monsanto Research Corporation, AFAPL-TR-74-8, March
1974,
6. E. Shelton, "Aviation Turbine Fuels-1980," U,S, Department of Energy, DOE/BETC/PPS-81/2,
March 1981,
7, H, Barnett and R, Hibbard, "Properties of Aircraft Fuels," NACA Technical Note 3276, August
1956,

8. Coordinating Research Council, Inc., CRC Aviation Handbook-Fuelsand Fuel Systenw, NAVAIR
06.5.504, May 1967.

..

.. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

. . . . . . . . .

2.3

SURFACE TENSION

Surface tension is defined as the specific free energy of a liquid surface at interface
with another fluid. Values for surface tensions are usually given when the surface of
the liquid is in contact with air. It is of importance in gas evolution and solubility, and
has a pronounced effect in atomization characteristics of fuels.

.,

Fluids with large cohesive forces among molecules such as water exhibit high surface
tensions. Nonpolar fluids such as hydrocarbons have lower internal cohesive forces and
lower surface tensions. Surface tensions decrease toward zero as temperature increases
and cohesive forces are overcome. At the fluid's critical temperature, surface tension
be estimated
using
Referenceif 2,density,
surface molecular
tension canweight,
ceases
to exist.
found in
and thebycritical
correlation
findAsShields
the Ramsey

I "$4

temperature of the fluid is known.

The surface tension data for aircraft fuels in Figure 15 has been estimated from the
Ramsey and Shields correlation, and shows the reduction of surface tension with in"creasingtemperature. Figure 16 shows higher surface tensions for missile fuels, because
of their higher molecular weights and densities, In the correct Standard for Metric Practice, newton per meter (N/im) is specified as the standard unit for surface tension,
Impurities have a very important effect on surface tension, since they cause a reduc.
tion on surface tension as does increased temperature. These factors have a major influence on the atomization and ignition of fuel droplets which are favored by low surface tension.

,.
I,

kdb

,-.,",3

4I
I.:.,

,.

.',..,

29

iti
26

23
~22

...

-40

04

...

Ir

08

TcxnpcatuIlk

I.,. :lit

1* 1:

24

....

Nil.

42

...

~36

to

~34
~32

i
iti

.IL...L..
.~
.OlH

-40

-20

20

40

TemperatureC
Figure 16
'1JyJkalI Surface' Tens~iona vs 'rczuj r~awr For Mimsile Fuels
IwnN/n

dyne/cin

39

60

80

"REFERENCES
1, Coordinating Research Council, Inc,, CRC Aviation 11andbook-Fuesand Fuel Systems, NAVAIR
06-5-504, May 1967,
2.

53.

H. Barnett and R. Hibbard, "Properties of Aircraft Fuels," NACA Technical Note 3276, August
1956.
M, Shayeson, "Fuels for Aviation Gas Turbine Engines," General Electric Technical Memorandum No. 81-315, May 1981.

4.

F. N, Hodgson and JI Tobias, "Analysis of Aircraft Fuels and Related Materials," Monsanto Research Corporation/U.S, Air Force, AFAPL-TR-79-2016, March 1979.

5.

R. Guthrie, "Surface Tension of TH Dimer Fuel," Department Correspondence, Vought Systems

Division, February 1973.

4-0

S..

2.4

VOLATILITY
Volatility, or tendency to change from liquid to vapor, is a fuel property that affects
its ability to vaporize and form a combustible mixture with air. This property determines the pressure exerted by the fuel vapor, which is called the vapor pressure. Volatility is particularly important to the engine and fuel system designer since it affects
vapor and entrainment losses, vapor lock effects on pumping, flammability hazards,
and engine-starting characteristics.

2.4.1

ASTM Distillation
Fuel volatility is controlled by specification limits derived from distillation data based
on the ASTM D 86 test for distillation of petroleum products. ASTM D 2887, the gas
chromatography test for boiling-range distribution of petroleum fractions, is a more
precise modern method, but it is not yet being widely used, D 2887 separates components
of fuel into a wider spectrum of hydrocarbons than D 86 kn a manner similar to a fifteenplate distillation column such as ASTM D 2892 employs. By comparison, the D 86 distillation corresponds to a crude one.plate fractionating device. Nevertheless, D 86 distillation data on volatility can be related to some service performance characteristics.
Figures 17 and 18 give ASTM distillation (ASTM D 86) curves for aircraft fuels based
on averaged inspection data for the past three years, Figure 19 depicts the ASTM
distillation curve for JP-9 missile fuel, Other missile fuels, being essentially pure chemical
entities, are not plotted since they vaporize at a constant temperature.

2.4.2

True Vapor Pressure

The vapor pressure of a fuel is defined as the pressure exerted by Its vapors in
equilibrium with the liquid at a specific temperature with the absence of air in or over
the fuel, In the case of a pure substance, this pressure does not vary with evaporation
as long as there is liquid present.
used to
Fairly simple experimental methods, such as the vapor reflux method, can bechemical
mixtures of known
determine the vapor pressure of pure chemicals or simple
compositions. This is the case for missile fuels which are either essentially pure compounds or simple mixtures of such compounds.

41
*

.* .

~~~~~
..

.. . .,

..

. *.

. .

~
.

j.
.

.. .

. .

.. .

.. .

. ..

Aviation fuels, unlike missile fuels, are complex mixtures of mnly hydrocarbons o1 Wifferent vapor pressures. In this case, evaporization alters the composition of liquid, and
the vapor pressure decreases with the amount evaporated. The mneasure of the amount
of this vaporization is the "vapor/liquid ratio" which is the ratio, vapor volume/liquid
volume. The "true" vapor pressure of a mixture such as a petroleum fuel is defined
as the pressure exerted as this vapor/liquid ratio approaches zero, It is the maximum
pressure attainable at a given temperature since the vapor pressure decreases with
increasing vapor/liquid ratio. There are several methods available for determining the
true vapor pressure of complex hydrocarbon mixtures, These fall into two general categories: the empirical correlation techniques; and the experimental techniques. The experimental techniques, namely gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry, may

'be used, but are expensive and time-consuming, The empirical correlation techniques
are more commonly employed and are based on two general approaches: the derivation from Reid vapor pressure data as determined by ASTM D 328 or the more accurate ASTM D 2551; or the derivation from distillation data as developed by ASTM
D 86 in combination with equilibrium flash vaporization calculations or determinations,
Derivation of true vapor pressure by the Reid method is found in Reference 1, pages
48 through 109, This method is limited -to vapor pressures up to 20 psi, It is also not
directly applicable to petroleum fuels of low volatility such as JP.5 and JP.- in which

I,.

flash-point temperatures, as measured by ASTM D 93, are used instead of Reid vapor
pressures. The above reference Includes the flash-point approach along with the deter.

mination of changes in true vapor pressure with temperature over a range of vapor-Lo.
liquid ratios.
Distillation data derived from ASTM D 86 is used for determining true vapor presuure
by the Edmister technique found in ASTM D 2889, and the British Petroleum method
described In Reference 5. A combination of these above methods using experimentally
determined equilibrium flash vaporization by the vapor reflux method is found in the
JP-7 specification MIL.T.38219A (USAF), Appendix C, The Edmister technique is
recommended in Rference 5 for vapor pressures up to 3160C, but is not reliable for
fuels having a boiling range of less than 37,80C (1000F) between 10 percent and 90
percent distilled temperatures, This includes low-volatility fuels such as JP-5 and JP-7,
The British Petroleum method and the JP-7 specification method do not have the limita.
tions that are present with the other empirical methods, and are recommended for
precise true vapor pressure determinations when high accuracy is required,
True vapor pressure curves derived from Reid vapor pressure data for aircraft fuels
are found in Figure 20, except for JP-5 and JP-7 whose vapor pressures were determined using the JP-7 specification method. For missile fuels, Figure 21 gives vapor
pressure curves derived experimentally,

42

*~,,

230
I

260

220

IL,

1'II'~I~IIi*

200IIIII

WI

ICOI

404

1.4..

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4068

434

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280

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7 1 ij~~IlH I- ''~

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440

280

240 - -1 !':.

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:
111

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ill:

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11Hlwi.v
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445

06

1002

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80
50

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00.

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41

I1/'Kx10' 3,6
OC 5

3.4
20

3.2
40

3.0
60
remperature,lc

2.8
80

Figuve 20
Vao Prssr -

1 kPa

.145i psi

46

Aircafr.t I.Nels

2.6
100

120

24
140

30.0

*~~1

*V

20.0

LI~

0oi.

9.0 1

'

7.0

FII

A '

'i

I.

A,

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3.0F

ow

1.I0

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.3

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i

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'C

34

3.2

35o

40

.8262

60
Tempcratu

80
'-

Figure 21
VpiPrtxNure
1 kPa =145 psi
47

Ntfissile Fuels

100

120

140

RE FERENCES
1. Coordinating Rlesearch Council, Inc., CRC Aviation Handbook-Fuelsand Fuel Systems, NAVAIR
06-5-504, pages 48-109, May 1967.
2. H. Barnett and &IHibbard, "Properties of Aircraft Fuels," NACA Technical Note 3276, August
1956.
3. E. Shelton, "Aviation Turbine Fuels-- 1980," U.S, Department of Energy, DOE/BETC/PPS-81/2,
March 1981.
4. W. C. Edmister, Applied Hydrocarbon Therrnody'na'mics, Gulf Publishing Company, T'.ouston,

Texas, 196 1.

5. Coordinating Research Council, Inc., "Techniques for Measurement of Physical Properties of Potential Supersonic Transport Fuels," CRC Report No. 394, June 1966.
6. F. N. Hodgson anid J. Tobi .s, "Analysis of Aircraft Fuels and Related Materials," Monsanto
Research Corporation/U.S. Air Force, AFAPL-TR-79-2016, March 170),
*

7. American Society for Testing and Materials, 1981 Anntual Buok of ASTM~AI
Products and Lubricants, Part 24.

484

.vs

Petroleum

"2

"2.5 L(W-TEMPERATURE, PDERPTIES

The low.temperature pr,:)perties of' fuels must be controlled to insure adequate and
reliable system operation both in fMght and on the ground. Basic fuel properties such
as freezing point and viscoaity are important factors in a fuel's pumpability. In addition, the formation of solid materials can cause flow restrictions, The low-temperature
properties of fuels also have a profound effect on the availability of fuels and, therefore,
must not be overly restrictive.
In view of the above, the optimal low-temperature criteria for fuels should be based
on
some ..direct
means
of exposed,
insuring This
fuel pumpability
the temperatures
the
systemL,
nd fuels
will be
approach hasatbeenattractive
due to
to which
the ability
of dry uncontaminated hydrocarbon fuels, particularly fuel ,ypes made up of complex
mixtures, to be pumpable below their so called "freeze point." The freeze point deter.
mined under ASTM D 2886 is the temperature at which the visible solid fuel particles
disappear on war'ming, the dry fuel having been chilled until %'rystalsappear, Extensive efforts nt developing a suitable pumpability test have not r,.iulted in specification
requirernteis based on numpability due to the many variables f, .uuntered in such tests.
The low-temperature characteristics of fuels are, therefore, rather arbitrarily controlled
by the freezing point and viscosity limits at - 200C for those fuels which may be m'arginal
from a flow standpoint at tlh lower temperatures, Table 7 tabulates freeze point and
viscosity values for typical fuels,

.., ',,
l, '

':-

i4,,

%.

, .%

TABLE 7

LOW-TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES OF AVIATION FUELS

P~x
4

M;)RIrL.UI(POINT, 11C

11P___
.6i

r~2~

__________________________Max_
__________
58

4G~'

WT____
A
4Ua~U
-40oUC

.1NA-I

JX

BI

JV-17

,2~2'MO~II"

,a.O'

.11-9__
,~.('

X~U

5~2

LOW-TEMPERATUAE PROPERTIES OF MISSILE FUELS

41
FR,1'PoI'T

ppefotol141L tu

11 4-,4. 1

1IY1vl
llu- ( 1

STAI~II'l

K
1.

_j

REFERENCES

E. Shelton, "Aviation Turbine Fuels-1980," U.S. Department of Energy, DOE/BETC/PPS-81/2,

March 1981.

2. K. Ruh, K. Cuddlingtons, W. Dukek, and T. Shei, "Summary Report on Low Temperature Pumpability of Turbine Fuels," American Society for Testing and Materials, Research Division VII,
Section E, May 1979.
3. Coordinating Research Council, Inc., CRC Aviation Handbook-Fuels and Fuel Systems, NAVAIR
06-5-504, May 1967,

~51

2.6

THERMAL PROPERTIES
Thermal properties of fuels include those properties of a fuel which are involved in heat.
energy transfer to and from the fuel, the heat released or absorbed in the change of
state of a fuel, and the heat released in the combustion of the fuel. These properties
include specific heat, thermal conductivity, enthalpy, heat of vaporization, and net heat
of combustion. These properties play an important role in the design of an aircraft
system, and are essential to the performance of the system.

2,6,1

Specific Heat
The specific heat of a fuel is the amount of heat.energy transferred into or out of a
unit mass of the fuel when increasing or decreasing its temperature, In fuel system
analysis, specific heats are used in the calculation of heat-transfer, as the fuel is used
as a coolant or as a heat sink. Specific heat is given in terms of kilo joules per kilogram
Kelvin (kJ/kg K) in the ASTM StAndaro for Metric Practice,
Figures 22 and 23 give the specific heats of aircraft fuels and missile fuels plotted against
temperature, These data were derived from experimental and calculated methods, Thu
experimental data were developed using a differential scanning calorimeter, while the
bulk of the determinations were calculated from a correlation published by J, B, Max.
well using averaged fuel gravity and distillation data,

2.6.2

Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity of a fuel is that thermal property of a fuel which controls
the rate at which heat can flow by conduction through that fuel,
In the ASTM Standard for Metric Practice, it is expressed in terms of watt per meter
Kelvin (W/m' K). It is extensively used in heat-transfer calculations when fuel is heated
in heat exchangers, when it is used as a heat sink, when fuel is heated or cooled in
flight or on the ground, or whenever there is a temperature gradient within the fuel,
In Figure 24, the thermal conductivity is plotted as a function of temperature for hydro.
carbon fuels. This curve is based on experimental data developed for JP-4, J P.5, JP-7,
JP.8, Jet A, Jet A-1, Jet B, and RJ.6. The accuracy of values obtained from this chart
should be within 10 percent of actual values,

52

,*

2.6.3

Inthaipy

Enthalpy is the heat-energy required to bring a fuel from one reference state to another
"state; therefore, it is a function of the integral of the specific heat between the two
states, and any latent heat of vaporization that was required in the interval, Enthalpy

2{

Isquantified in terms of kilo joule per kilogram (kJf kg) inthe ASTM Standard for Metric
Practice.
Figures 25 and 26 are enthalpy diagrams for typical JP 4 and JP-5, respectively, In
these figures, the saturated liquid curve represents the heat that can be absorbed in
the liquid phase alone, and the saturated vapor curves represent the heat absorbed to
completely vaporize the fuel, The intermediate area represents partial vaporization,
whereas the curves above this saturated vaporization line represent super-heated vapor.
The line of constant pressure provides the pressure relationship to determine the state
of vaporization of the fuel for the addition of a given amount of heat,

2.6,4

Heat pf Vaporization
The heat of vaporization is the amount of heat added to vaporize a unit weight of a
liquid at a constant pressure below the critical point, As the pressure increases, the
heat of vaporization decreases- and at the critical point, the heat of vaporization becomes
zero. The heat of vaporlzation can be calculated at sea-level pressure by the use of equa.
tions in Reference 5, At other temperatures and pressures, a general method outlined
in Reference 6 must be used, Figure 27 is a plot of the heat of vaporization of various
fuels versus temperature in kilo joules per kilogram (kJ/kg),

2.6.5

Heat of Combustion (Specific Energy)

Thu energy stored in fuel Is reloased as heat when a unit weight Is burned in a bomb.
type calorimeter under controlled conditions to produce gaseous carbon dioxide and
liquid water containing sulfuric and nitric acids, The gross heat of combustion or specific
energy of the fuel in terms of mega joules per kilogram (MJ/kg) or Btu per pound (Btu/Ilb)
Is calculated from the rise of temperature after suitable corrections are made, In an
aircraft gas turbine, the product water from combustion leaves in the vapor phase; hence,
the heat of vaporization of water as determined from the hydrogen content of the fuel
is subtracted from the gross heat of combustion to determine net heat of combustion,
the proper basis for comparison of aircraft fuels,

-t-

,,,,,

,,i,
e
*I.

B.

' ._'v'..

5---3-

2'

2.6.5.1

Net Heat of Combustion of Aircraft Fuels

The net heat of combustion per unit weight is an important factor in aircraft performance. Empirical methods ASTM D 1405 and D 3338 are used to calculate the heat
of combustion of some aircraft fuels. Experimental methods ASTM D 240 and D 2382
can also be used and are specifically required in some specifications. In the ASTM Standard for Metric Practice, the heat of combustion is quantified in mega joules per kilogram

(MJ/kg).
Figure 28 presents typical net heat of combustion ranges for the various aircraft fuels.
Where available, typical values are given.
2,6.5,2

"4,

Net Heat of Combustion of Missile Fuels

The heat of combustion per unit volume is an important factor as applied to missile
performance. Experimental methods ASTM D 240 and D 2382 are used to determine
the basic values in terms of heat release per unit volume depending upon the density
of a particular fuel. In the ASTM Standard for Metric Practice, the volumetric heating
value is quantified in terms of mega joules per cubic meter (MJ/ma),

Figure 29 presents typical net heat of combustion ranges per unit volume for the various
missile fuels,

- .% W,,l

*', r,..

,]

~~54:

2.

2.80

il.!

0'

2 .70

.I

2.60
2.50

IT

11.

........

01

4~ 2.45

~2.40

2.1.5

2.10

2.05

o'

Hi 0I

2.00~~
210

20

601010
0e

prtr,

TyiclpeiicHet

I kj/kg eI(

.239 WWuIIb.

IF

.Temperature,
CI frAicat

*I

2.6
2.51

246

23
I

24~0

00!

I.

0.

2.0

1401820

60

-20~ 20

~~1.74N

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.*

.1200
.1175

Rt
.1125

1100F

'

I'iFF~i!~I

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1025
;.1000

11F'
~

1 K

'~K

0925............

.0900

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.0850

Fji''

,F

:H,

,0 . ....
0 ...

-20 0

I %Vin

20 40 60

.5~7H flit f h( Ii T' F)

80 100

120 140 160 180 200 220

1120
1040

880
800

640

it
480

'TtIl

800
30I

50

100

200
150
0
Temperature, C
Figur'e 25

Enthallpy Diagram, j P-.I

11)
I kJ kg - .43 11111

58

250

300
-

1120
*1040

I-

iis

960

56
1

II''.

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320

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50

100

150

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Figurei

U5

26

300

400

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W
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''I

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0
I kJ kg

~~rein jerautLle, *C
d roca r'bons at I3 tit
Heats of Vapor'iz ation For Various HyJ
J31 ~ui Ili
60

'.7
.

4+.

- 1

1X4

Hit
t1W

ti

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71
171

00.

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41
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II

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F'

REFERENCES
1. F. N. Hodgson, W. Scribner, and A. M. Kenner, "Environmental Degradation of Fuels, Fluids,

and Related Materials for Aircraft," Monsanto Research Corporation, AFAPL-TR-74-8, Volume
2, March 1974.

'.

2.

J, B. Maxwell, Data Book on Hydrocarbons, February 1957.

",, Q

3.

Coordinating Research Council, Inc,, "Techniques for Measurement of Physical Properties of Potential Supersonic Transport Fuels," CRC Report No, 394, June 1966,

4.

H. Barnett and R. Hibbard, "Properties of Aircraft Fuels," NACA Technical Note 3276, August
1956.

5. 0. A. Hangan, K. M. Watson, R. A. Ragatz, Chemical ProcessPrinciples-Part I: Material and

Energy Balances, second edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, and Chapman and Hall
Ltd, London,

6. K. M, Watson, "The Prediction of Critical Temperatures and Heat of Vaporization," Ind. Eng.,
Chem, 23, 360 (1931), 35, 398 (1943).
7.

E. Shelton, "Aviation Turbine Fuels-1980," U.S. Department of Energy, DOE/BETC/PPS.81/2,

May 1981,

,,,

0.

8.

Exxon Company, USA, Data Book for Designers-Fuels, Lubricant, and Hydrauli0 Fluids,
September 1973,

9.

F. N, Hodgson and J. Tobias, "Analysis of Aircraft Fuels and Related Materials," Monsanto Research CorporationlU,S. Air Force, AFAPL-TR-79-2016, March 1979,

10. American Society for Testing and Materials, 1981 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Petroleum

Products and Lubricants, Parts 23, 24, and 25.

3'

t,,6,,

"%

L' '

..

2.7

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Fuels have electrical charactbristics that are important to aircraft and fuel system
designers. These characteristics become evident in the manner in which a fuel reacts
to the flow of an electrical current, Of major importance is the conductivity of a fuel
which plays a primary role in the electrostatic charge buildup in a fuel as it flows through
a system. The dielectric properties relate to the way a fluid varies the capacitive reactance of a pair of parallel electrodes, and is the key to the design of fuel gages.

2.7,1

Dielectric Constant (Permittivity)

The dielectric constant of a fuel is experimentally determined by establishing the ratio
of the electrical capacitance of a device filled with the fuel as compared with the electrical capacitance of the same device when filled with air, Measurements of the dielectric constant of a fuel at various temperatures show hat the dielectric constant is a
linear function of temperature, decreasing with increasing temperature and varying
with the applied frequency. Figures 30 and 31 give the relationship between dielectric
constant versus temperature for the various aircraft and missile fuels. The data presented are at 400 Hz, which is the most used frequency in commercial and military
aircraft, This indicates that fuel gages based on this fuel property must be calibrated
for the particular fuel being measured.

2.7.2

.
.. *

boo
,

'.

,;

Electrical Conductivity
Pure hydrocarbons and mixtures of hydrocarbons such as fuels are essentially nonconductors of electricity. In practice, however, they always contain trace amounts of
materials which increase their conductivity to a lesser or greater extent, depending
upon the chemical nature and the concentration of the impurities. In most cases, the
conductivity of the fuels is still very low. In any event, this low conductivity is the fundamental property that can cause a very hazardous situation to arise in handling flowing fuels.
A fuel when flowing tends to become electrically charged due to a shearing mechanism
called "charge separation." This phenomenon can cause the development of high levels
of electrostatic charges within the fuel which cannot be dissipated due to the low conductivity of the fuel. These free charges can build up to levels high enough to cause
static discharges through the vapors in tanks, Depending upon the composition of the
vapor phase, ignition may occur. The phenomena are highly complex and involve a
multitude of variables depending upon the system and conditions being encountered.",
Such factors as high contact areas encountered in filter separators, relaxation time
required for charge dissipation, fuel system design, protruding devices in flow channels, impurity levels in the fuel, and many other factors influence the degree of hazard.
At the root of the problem, however, is the fundamental low conductivity of fuels which
in most cases is in the range of 0,1 to 5.0 pS/m, even with trace impurities present.

64
,.

~~ ~~

.........

~ ..........................
~
~
~~.

..

.'

.I

Although devices have been developed in an effort to decrease and measure the charge
buildup in fuels, the most successful approach has been the introduction of an additive
to increase the overall conductivity of the fuel. A minimum of 50 pS/rn is considered
to furnish adequate conductivity for handling safety. The maximum limit of 600 pS/mr
is set low enough to prevent malfunctions of fuel quantity gages. Fuels will generally
show decreased conductivities at lower temperatures. Due to this factor, most fuels
are treated with enough additive to produce a conductivity of 175 to 200 pS/m at 15.5OC,
so that they will still retain conductivities of at least 50 pS/m at lower temperatures.
Figure 32 shows the change in conductivity versus temperature for typical JP-4 and
JP-8, with and without additives.
A complete review of the generation and dissipation of electrostatic charge with a
selected literature survey can be found in Reference 1.

65

2.65

.'::'

2.60*

'

'''

INA

m2.15

II'

..

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44i,

1.85

'I
1.80
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orTpcA-Ca Costmv.Te

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255'
'"A.'11

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2.00
-40

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20

40

60

80

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67

I
8 V.,

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,1

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200

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Tepektr, t

808
w...........-.,.,,.

REFERENCES

1. Coordinating Research Council, Inc., "Generation and Dissipation of Electrstatic Charge During Aircraft Fueling-A Selected Literature Survey," CRC Report No. 466, May 1974,
2.

H. Barnett and R. Hibbard, "Properties of Aircraft Fuels," NACA Technical Note 3276, August

1956.
3.

Exxon Company, USA, Data Book for Designers-Fuels,Lubricants, and Hydraulic Fluids,

4.

F. N. Hodgson, W. Scribner, and A. M. Kemmer, "Environmental Degradation of Fuels, Fluids,

and Related Materials for Aircraft," Monsanto Research Corporation, AFAPL-TR.74-8, March
1974,

5,

F. N. Hodgson and J. Tobias, "Analysis of Aircraft Fuels and Related Materials," Monsanto Research Corporation/U.S. Air Force, AFAPL-TR.79-2016, March 1979.

---

-----------

(39

".,,

2.8

FLAMMABILITY AND IGNITION CHARACTERISTICS

The combustion properties of fuels have been studied extensively due to their importance in the safety aspects of system design and performance of propulsion devices.
The basic ingredients necessary for combustion are fuel vapor, air, and an ignition
source. In actuality, a multitude of variables and influencing factors must be taken into consideration. A complete review of this subject is beyond the scope of this report,
and only selected data are presented. The goal of this report is mainly to establish relationships among the various fuels. The data should be used with caution, since each
specific situation may have other factors which must be considered, Extensive literature
references are found in the referenced documents, which cover many of the influences
of non-equilibrium conditions and system design effects.
Table 8 presents typical flammability and ignition properties of aircraft fuels which
are measures of the relative fire hazards of the fuels. These values are typical, and
vary significantly within the same fuel specification. Table 9 gives typical flammability
and ignition properties of missile fuels.

2.8,1

Flammability Limits Versus Altitude

Self-sustained combustion occurs within certain ranges of fuel vapor-air ratios which
are a function of temperature and pressure. Therefore, at any given pressure or altitude,
a particular fuel will have a lean (lower) flammability temperature limit; and at a higher
-temperature, a rich (upper) flammability limit, Outside these limits, combustion will
not occur if the system is in equilibrium with no spray or mist present, Figure 33 gives
the flammability temperature limits for various fuels versus altitude in meters,

2.8,2

Flash Point
Flash point is the best known and most widely used flammability property for the evaluation of the flammability hazard of combustible liquids. It is an important criterion for
the fire-hazard rating of these liquids. A number of methods have been developed for
the determination of flash point, which are based on placing a sample of the liquid
being tested in a cup and heating at a constant rate. A small flame is directed into
the cup at intervals, and the lowest temperature at which the vapor of the sample ignites is taken as the flash point. The methods used are classified either as closed-cup
(closed to the atmosphere and exposed only at the moment of application of the test
flame), or open-cup (open to the atmosphere). Usually, flash points obtained by closedcup methods are lower and more reliable than those obtained by open-cup methods.
Figure 34, using the closed-cup ASTM Method D 93 for flash point determinations,
illustrates the fact that very small quantities of a volatile fuel such as Jet B reduces
the flash point of a low-volatility Jet A fuel in a nonlinear manner. For example, a
10-percent addition of Jet B to Jet A reduces the flash-point temperature of Jet A by
300C.

70

TABLE 8
TYPICAL FLAMMABILITY AND IGNITION PROPERTIES OF AIRCRAFT FUELS

PROPERTY

AV GAS
100/130

JP-4
JET B

JET A
JP-8

JP.5

JP-7

40-148
108
46

61-239
178
18

167-266
99
1,4

182-258
70
0.6

189-251
62

44,150
31,130

43,570
33,190

43,240
35060

43,050
35,200

43,682
39,700

1.2
7.0

1.3
8,0

0.6
4.7

0.6
4.6

0.6
4.6

-44
-12
443

-23
1.8
246

53
77
238

64
102
241

60...
100
241

0.20
0.3.0,6

0.20
0.3-0,6

0,20
0.3-0,6

0,20
0,3-016

Distillation Range (IC)

"Magnitude of Distillation Range (OC)
Reid Vapor Pressure, 380C (kPa)
Net Heat of Combustion
By Weight (kJ/kg)
By Volume (MJ/rm)
Flammability Cone, Limits' (Vol, %)
Lower ("lean") Limit
Upper ("rich") Limit
Flammability Temperature Limits' (0C)
Lower ("lean") Limitg (1 atm)
Upper ("rich") Limit (1 atm)
Autoignitlon Temperature (OC)l (1 atm)
Minimum Eleotric Spark Ignition
Energy (mJ)'
Approximate Burning Velocity' (mls)

,-.

*.-

0,20
0.3-0,6

Fuel vapors In air,

Tag closed - cup flash-point data, Experimental flash points are generally higher than limit data.

,:*. ',

TABLE 9',
TYPICAL FLAMMABILITY AND IGNITION PROPERTIES OF MISSILE FUELS
PROPERTY

RJ-4

RJ-5

RJ-6

J P-9

JP-10

Distillation Range (uC)

Magnitude of Distillation
Range (0C)
Net Heat of Combustion
By Weight (kJ/kg)
By Volume (MJ/m3)
Autolgnitlon Temperature ("C)
Flash Point (IC)

207.221

260-285

182-285

99-295

182

14

25

103

186

42,182
391600
329
71

41,300
44,900
234
104

41,792
42,400
232
61

42,087
39,700
250
23

42,100
39,600
245
53

71.--

--

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73

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2.8.3

Effects of Dynamics on Flammability Limits

Equilibrium conditions for the determination of flammability limits must only be used
for comparative purposes. In actual practice, tank movement or flow through nozzles
will affect these limits by the formation of mists and droplets, Figure 35 depicts the
change of the equilibrium limits due to a sloshing situation in a tank. Hlere, pressure
rises due to ignition which occurred at temperatures well below the equilibrium flammability limits, The rich limits are not affected, however, since dynamic sit'iations
only add fuel to an already-rich condition.
2,8.4

Effect of Air Release on Flammability Limits

At sea-level conditions, fuels normally contain a quantity of dissolved air, Since oxygen has higher solubility than nitrogen, as the pressure is decreased with increased
altitude, oxygen-rich gas is released into the vapor phase over the tank, This additional
oxygen will increase the rich flammability markedly. The lower limit is for all practical
purposes unchanged, This effect is depicted in Figure 36 for certain aircraft fuels,

2.8.5

Minimum Spark Ignition Energy of Fuels

The minimum amount of energy required for a spark discharge to ignite an optimum
hydrocarbon fuel/air mixture under ideal conditions is 0.20 millijoules (mJ). The optimum fuel/air mixture is normally found at a point on the rich side near the
stoichiometric point; ideal conditions refer to glass-flanged metal electrodes at a gap

of about 0,4 cm, As conditions depart from an ideal state, the energy requirements
increase, Thus, changing the fuel/air mixture, the electrode geometry, or the gap
distance will increase the amount of energy required for ignition. Likewise, if the fuel
is present in the form of a mist or spray as opposed to a vapor, the ignition energy
requirements will increase, On the other hand, an increase in the oxygen concentration of the air, such as found in aircraft ullage at altitude, will decrease the amount
of energy required for ignition,

,,'.,,
*,?.

"

,,

The minimum Ignition energy for sprays of aircraft fuels are given in Figure 37, This
indlcates that the spark ignition energy required to ignite a spray of fuel varies with
the temperature and is dependent upon the volatility of the fuel in question. Other
variables come into effect such as the configuration of the nozzle delivering the spray,
and pressure on the fuel which determines the droplet sizes in the spray.

! ." '*. y

74
hgN

4~~4

*:

These data, therefore, should not be taken as absolute for all spray devices, and are
only presented to give relative values. Laboratory data with premixed air spray mixtures give much lower ignition energy values, but are still in the same relative order
and spread. The data for Jet B and Jet A were determined experimentally with the
balance estimated from flash-point data. For all practical purposes, all the aircraft fuels
covered, except Jet B and JP-4, fall into the same ignition level requirement for ignition. Figure 38 presents estimates based on flash-point data for missile fuels and, again,
should only be used from a relative standpoint.

.
,

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MIinimumi Spark Igni liol

Iiguflv 37
Euergy at I Alm. Pressure For Aircraf FLIVl Spraly~s

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Figure 38
MIinimum Spark Ignition Energy at I Atnn. Pressure For Nlissile Fuel Sprays

Imj

.7

x lO0'liti

79

40

2.8.6
C

Autoignition Temperature
The autoignition temperature (AIT) of a fuel, frequently called the spontaneous ignition temperature (SIT), is that temperature at which fuel vapors will ignite in air at
atmospheric pressure, even though an external source of ignition is not present. Laboratory AIT values are determined by heating the fuel vapors in a flask, Hot surface
ignition temperatures (where the fuel is vaporized un a hot surface) is similar in concept, but ignition temperatures so obtained are higher than AIT values. The AIT for
highly volatile fuels such as aviation gasoline is about 2001C higher than for lower volatility fuels such as JP-8 and JP-5. Figure 39 reveals that AIT increases for Av gas as
pressure is reduced below one atmosphere, which is characteristic of high altitude flight.
Figure 40 illustrates that the AIT of JP-4 also rises with reduced pressures, but the
particular autoignition temperature observed is a function of the size of the test flask,
and is also co:.,plicated by the existence of "cool flame" reactions which lack sufficient
energy to cause true ignition to occur, Much of the data in Figures 39 and 40 were
obtained with ASTM D 2155, a method now cancelled and replaced with ASTM E 659,
which uses a larger flask considered more reliable in producing AIT data.

"

,,

In practice, as one designs for safety, consideration must be given to all the parameters

involved such as fuel temperature, pressure, flow velocity, size or length of hot surfaces, obstructions, and insulation effects. Generally, the temperature of all surfaces
on which a flammable fluid may Impinge should be below its minimum autoignition ternperature,

.A

I.,,-

'.4

,o,

L_ ',.

so
.0
.. .....
---------- ----------- -- --- -- -----------L4Y

._
4

'

1-

4L.
.

A.'..

I-

P.

I.

V
I,

I,.

.r.T

1b

F.II

,.t1I

@1

t....'

'

II

KILl

81
.I&*

.
I* *

**,>%
*4.

****,
*4

**,*4q
*

1.4.1,*

*h

**

1*'
-

*
LI.

*
11,4,.

4**-**

**.

*h*,*

*,

III

'"I
I'

F.

I'

.... ...

..

......

J l

eJ

ii.

it!:!

lid

` ;i 1 !1.

J1 i

....

I''d'
o

II

tI

IIt
I

'~'~'

i'82

REFERENCES

1. Coordinating Research Council, Inc., "Aviation Fuel Safety-1975," CRC Report No. 482,
November 1975,
2. I. Liebman, et al, "Ignition of Tank Atmospheres During Fuel Loading," Proceedings: American
Petroleum Institute, Section III: Refining, Page 227, 1965.
3. J. M. Kuchta, "Fire and Explosion Manual for Aircraft Accident Investigators," Bureau of Mines
No. 4193, August 1973.

'

". '.

4, H. Barnett and R. Hibbard, "Properties of Aircraft Fuels," NACA Technical Note 3276, August
1956.
5. L, J. Nestor, "Investigation of Turbine Fuel Flammability Within Aircraft Fuel Tanks," Federal
Aviation Administration No. DS-67-7, July 1967,
6, Coordinating Research Council, Inc., CRC Aviation Handbook-Fuels and Fuel Systems, NAVAIR
06.5-504, May 1967.
7, W. A. Affens, "Shipboard Safety-A Meaningful Flash-Point Requirement for Navy Fuels," Naval
Research Laboratory Raport No. 7999, October 1976,
8. B. Lewis and G. von Elbe, Combustion, Flames, andExplosion of Gases, second edition, Academic
Press, New York, 1961.
9, W. Affens and H. Carhart, "The Determination of Auto-Ignition Temperatures of Hydrocarbon
Fuels," Naval Research Laboratory Report No, 7665, April 1974.
10. Exxon Company, USA, Data Book for Designers-Fuels,Lubrcants, and Hydraulic Fluids, September 1978,
11, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1981 Annual Book ofASTM Standards, Petroleum
Products and Lubricants, Parts 23, 24, and 25,

81

.~~i

2.9

."

..

BULK MODULUS
The compressibility of a fluid is the decrease in the volume of a fixed amount of the
fluid when pressure is applied to that fluid. The measure of this compressibility is called
the bulk modulus of the fluid. It is defined by the following differential equation:
bulk modulus

-v ' P\

The units of bulk modulus are those of unit force per unit area. A fluid with a high
bulk modulus shows a small change in volume for a given change in pressure and, there-

fore, is difficult to compress.

When a fuel is used to activate hydraulic equipment, a high bulk modulus of the fuel
is desirable to make a responsive system. There are two kinds of bulk moduli. The first
is defined at constant temperature and is called the isothermal bulk modulus. It is used
when a relatively slow compression process takes place. The second is called the adiabatic
bulk modulus and applies to conditions in which sudden changes in pressure are exerted on the fuel, It is used in calculating reaction speeds of servomechanisms and the
forces acting on pump components. The isothermal and adiabatic bulk moduli are related
through the expression:
BS

BT
where:'
BS = adiabatic bulk modulus
BT = isothermal bulk modulus

= 1.15 for jet fuels

Bulk moduli can be calculated from P-V-T measurements or determined directly from
ultrasonic velocity measurements, The P-V-T measurements method is mostly used
under isothermal conditions. The ultrasonic velocity method yields the adiabatic bulk
modulus directly, and is a more accurate method since it is dependent upon the quantitles being measured rather than their derivatives, Figures 41 and 42 show the adiabatic
bulk moduli for JP-4, Jet B, JP-5, Jet A, Jet A-I and JP-8 versus pressure and
temperature.

84

',

.- .

".:'.'

1550

1450

Nii
`35

fji

-- 111

1250..I
l

~1200

'1150

9~100

kililhtI
1~''

850t

800

I':

750

IIL'
0

20

40

60
80
TemperatureX'

100

Figure .11
h~~~~ulk
NLAIUlS V'S. hiiwaiieand I'rsstimc I'.,TypicaI I P-I amid

I MIa 1l4 5po

120

Be
I

1650

iI

1550

1450~

Ilk. ~ilpjfrFrd~i~I~~4

1400
1350

ifHj

tII

120 t

1150
IlIlk

10250

r..r

.I~I

1150

Bulk
Sh~uus vs. T11waladPesr
pI

.12

1050Fiur

IM&=14

sit,

.:.l

ol
I

yia

'

11,
oA

eiA1

1-

REFERENCES

1. Exxon Company, USA, DataBook for Designers-Fuels, Lub'ricants,and IlydraulicFluidsa, Septeraber 1978.
2. Coordinating Research Council, Inc., "Techniques for Measurement of Physical Properties of Potential Supersonic Transport Fuels," CRC Report No. 394, June 1966,
3. R, L, Peeler and J. Green, "Measurement of Bulk Modulus of Hydraulic Fluids," ASTM Bulletin
No. 235, January 1959.
4. M. Shayeson, "Fuels for Aviation Gas Turbine Engines," General Electric Technical Memorandum No. 81-315, May 1981.
5. W. A. Wright, "Prediction of Bulk Moduli and PVT Data for Petroleum Oils," Paper presented
at 22nd Annual ASLE Meeting in Toronto, Canada, May 1967.

LL

53

p-7

S--

....

87

*;*V

~..%'

'

Ilk

2.10

SOLUBILITY OF GASES
The solubility of gases in fuels is of high importance to the proper design of fuel systems
and their components. High evolution of gases during climb can cause loss of fuel due
to decreased pressure. In pumping fuel, gas phase separation can occur leading to vapor
lock or cavitation problems. There are several variables which affect the solubility of
gases in fuels including temperature, pressure, nature of fuel, and the gas itself, The
Ostwald Coefficient is defined as the volume of gas dissolved in one volume of solvent,
the gas volume being measured at the conditions of solution. This coefficient is independent of pressure. Figures 43 through 45 give the typical solubility of air, CG2 , 0,, and
N2

in aviation fuels. Figure 46 gives the typical solubility of air in missile fuels. Carbon

dioxide, unlike the other gases, decreases in solubility with increasing temperature,
and the solubility of this gas is very high.

88.L

*,*

..

. .. .

. . .

. . .

..

.. .

.~
.

.-

"

0.4I
0.3.

0.

041~

0
N.1
t I

II~II

~.05

.04p

PIZ
.03:

At 1471s

AST

,27

No

.01

in accoFigucrewi3
No.Ai 2779o Solbiit

.0189

ii

Fel

4.0

.7

~.3

.{...

V."

.2.

-4

2-0-68

1010

lepe

F;uiivA
Q.4

reo

Fiur

OinAito
I

90

ul

0.4

0.3
*0.2

025

4%

'.09
~.08I

.07~

.<04
0.03

.02
in~iAt 14.7 psi
in accordanice with
ASTM No. D 2779

.01
-40 -20

20

40

60

80

100

Temperature, 0C
Figure 45
Solubility of 01. N2 in Aviation Fuels
91

120

140

160

0.3

C21

0.11

'~.09

.03
06

-.

*iln
.16

.02hiil

fit Ai

......................................

llM ssl

F:

REFERENCES

1. F. N. Hodgson and J. Tobias, "Analysis of Aircraft Fuels and Related Materials," Monsanto
Research Corporation/U.S. Air Force, AFAPL-TR-79-2016, March 1979.

2.

American Society for Testing and Materials, "Estimation of Solubility of Gases in Petroleum Liquids," 1981 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM Standard No. D 2779.

3.

H. Barnett and R. Hibbard, "Properties of Aircraft Fuels," NACA Technical Note 3276, August
1956.

4.

M. Shayeson, "Fuels for Aviation Gas Turbine Engines," General Electric Technical Mmorandum No. 81-315, May 1981.

5.

Exxon Company, USA, Data Book for Designers-Fuels,Lubricants, and Hydraulic Fluids,
September 1973.

'_

93

,...,

2.11

SOLUBILITY OF WATER
The quantity of water dissolved in aircraft fuels is determined by the partial pressure
of water in the vapor space above the fuel. When this vapor space is saturated with
water at a given temperature, i.e., 100 percent relative humidity, the water dissolved
in fuel at equilibrium will reflect the saturation values shown in Figures 47 and 48,
"Atrelative humidity values less than 100 percent, the amount of water dissolved in
fuel will he correspondingly less than saturation values in accordance with Henry's Law,

'7
.'.
.

Because of the sensitivity of water solubility to temperature, it is evident that a drop

of 100 C in fuel temperature when that fuel is water-saturated will create from 15 to
25 ppm of undissolved or "free water," It is difficult to visuahy detect "free water"
at levels below 30 ppm-, and several tests, including ASTM D 3240, are used to detect
levels from 5 to 30 ppm.

LA9

94

94

,00

.08

.07

.06
"*":.

.05
10

.040

.02n

op,

S.02
I

..

.003

F'igur.. 1

Wae

. . .

Zoo

l~ig7 t7'.

-.

005

/.-

004.

9%
.mm003

,.

20-.,,,

. . 40.. .

.-60.

",

80

:;,.';
100.'i
, .'

, ,

.020

- ,

JP-9

IJP-10
.01

.002

-2.05

0.0406

TemperatureI

Figi.......

=itWit0u4

18

vs Tlieiur. FrMsil.u

96

"REFERENCES
1. F. N. Hodgson and J. Tobias, "Analysis of Aircraft Fuels and Related Materials," Monsanto Research Corporation/U.S. Air Force, AFAPL-TR-79-2016, March 1979.
2. American Society for Testing and Materials, 1981 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Petroleum
Products and Lubricants, Part 25.
3.

H. Barnett and R. Hibbard, "Properties of Aircraft Fuels," NACA Technical Note 3276, August

1956.

"4. Exxon Company, USA, Data Book for Designers-Fuels,Lubricants, and Hydraulic Fluids, Sep"
tember 1973.
5.

W. Affens, R. Hazlett, and J. DeGuzman, "The Solubility of Water in Current JP-5 Jet Turbine
Fuels," Naval Research Laboratory Memorandum No. 4609, August 1981.

9.7

,4.'..,.,-

Il'

44. ,:

: .

:.:..

.:.,

. .

...

2.12

THERMAL OXIDATION STABILITY

The high-temperature stability of a fuel is a characteristic of that fuel which describes
its tendency to resist breakdown at high temperatures to form undesirable degradation products, Of major importance in this degradation process are the trace contaminants found in fuels. Minimizing these contaminants is an effective method of improving stability. As higher temperatures are encountered, the basic stability of the
hydrocarbons themselves comes into play. Long-time, high-temperature exposure increases the thermal stresses on the fuel and its tendency to form deposits.
The stability of fuels is of high importance to the design of jet engines, particularly
to the fuel system designer. Fuel is often used as a heat sink to cool the oil in an engine
or to cool avionics and other equipment. Breakdown of the fuel can cause decreased
heat transfer from the oil to the fuel with resulting degradation of the oil, In other
parts of the engine system, deposits and gum formation can cause performance degradation. In high Mach-number applications, aerodynamic heating can break down fuel in
the tankage, forming undesirable deposits. A detailed review of these phenomena will
be found in Reference 1.

2.12.1

Due to the variety of crude sources and the differences in refining processes, as well
as the different stress environments to which a jet fuel is exposed, deposits form by
many mechanisms. Simple laboratory test procedures are therefore not applicable for
predicting fuel stability, and extensive efforts have been expanded to develop complex
simulators to predict this fuel characteristic. These devices range from laboratory static
tct devices to complete system simulators.

.*:i
-.

Test Devices

2.12.1.1

ASTM-CRC Fuel Coker (ASTM Method D 1660)

After extensive efforts, the ASTM-CRC Fuel Coker was established as a specification
test for thermal stability. In this test, fuel is pumped over a preheater tube and through
a heated sintered 20-micron filter. Controlled variables include the temperature of tie
fuel out of the preheater tube, pressure, filter temperature, fuel flow rate, and test
duration. Fuel performance is rated by the visual appearance and color of deposits on
the preheater tube and the pressure drop across the filter. Table 10 includes the ASTMCRC Coker parameters versus the specification requirements for some aircraft fuels.

98'

S98

2.12.1,2

Jet Fuel Thermal Oxidation Tester (JFTOT) (ASTM Method 1) 324 1)

Along with technical improvements, the Jet Fuel Thermal Oxidation Tester (JFT(r.T)
was developed to simplify the ASTM-CRC Fuel Coker procedure, In this procedure,
the maximum preheater tube temperature is controlled throughout the test, rather than
the fuel temperature as in the Coker. Fuel is displaced by a floating piston pressured
"bynitrogen, avoiding possible contamination by the pump. Sample size has been reduced
"fromover 19 liters (5 gallons) to about 600 ml, and the test duration has been cut from
five hours to 2.5 hours. Several studies have compared the JFTOT with the ASTMCRC Coker. While the ratings are comparable, there can be significant differences in
the pressure drop ratings of the JFTOT against the ASTM-CRC Fuel Coker. The JFTOT
method is required in the following specifications: JP-4, JP-5, JP-8, JP-9, JP-10, and
thermally stable turbine fuel. A modified JFTOT procedure is an alternate test for JP-7
fuel. Table 10 includes the JFTOT parameters versus the specification requirements
for the above fuels.

2.12.1.3

'

Research Coker
The very stable fuel JP-7 used for high-temperature operations cannot be evaluated
in the standard ASTM-CRC Coker, since this device cannot provide the temperatures
required, A higher temperature apparatus, termed the Research Coker, was developed
to stress fuels at these higher temperatures. In addition, to simulate supersonic operation in which the fuel is heated in aircraft tanks to high temperatures before it is used
in the engine, the Research Coker incorporates a heated reservoir, JP-7 requires fuel
to be tested in the Research Coker at a reservoir temperature of 149C (300 0F), a preheater-out temperature of 2600C (5000F), and a filter temperature of 3160C (600 0 F).
The flow rate is 2.7 kg (6 pounds) per hour for five hours,

2,12.2

Effect of Deoxygenation
Jet fuel will normally contain forty to fifty parts-per-million of air, which is the
"equilibrium amount present at atmospheric pressure and room temperature. Dissolved
molecular oxygen takes part in complex free-radical chain reactions which result in the
formation of sediments, gum, and deposiL6 at elevated temperatures, This indicates
"thatthe high-temperature oxidation stability of fuels could be improved by the removal
of dissolved oxygen from a fuel.

99

"

Extensive programs have been conducted to study the effect of deoxygenation on deposit formation. In general, the removal of air from a fuel does markedly reduce the
deposit formation with all fuels except those of the poorest quality. It was found that
two deposit formation processes occur: the first, a lower temperature deposit formation process, involves molecular oxygen; and the second, a higher temperature pyrolysis
process, is independent of oxygen. With stable hydrocarbons, deoxygenation greatly
reduces low-temperature liquid phase deposit formation rates, and significant rates of
deposit formation do not occur until higher temperatures. Deoxygenated fuels are also
more thermally stable in the presence of contaminants and metal catalyzing surfaces
than normal air-saturated fuels.

'"1

To date, no operational application has required the use of deoxygenation to minimize

deposit formation. Fuels of high stability, such as JP-7 and thermally stable fuels, have
been specified for very high-speed application without undue problems. In addition,
aircraft and engine systems can do much in their design to minimize the problem, This
approach seems at the present to be much more cost effective than the use of deoxy
genation procedures.
2.12,3

Effect of Soluble Metals on Deposit Formation

Soluble metals are believed to be present in fuels in the form of acid salts or organic
complexes. They are picked up in fuels during transit by the reaction of the fuels with
certain metal surfaces, Some metals are highly reactive toward fuels and are a source
of soluble metals, Copper, zinc, lead, and cadmium will react with fatty acids in fuels
to form acid salts. Table II is an example of fuel stability degradation due to different
soluble metals, namely copper, iron, and zinc. The breakpoint of each of the six JP-5
fuels is shown before any metal addition. The amount of each separate metal required
degrade each fuel to a breakpoint level of 2600C is then recorded, This shows that
copper is the most detrimental of the three soluble metals shown here using the least
amount of metal addition to reduce the breakpoint to 260oC. Iron follows copper in

1to

b,-

activity, with zinc taking the most metal addition to reach the same breakpoint level,
:

~2.12.4 Effect of Metal Surfaces on Thermal Stability,--.

Certain metal surfaces have been found that catalyze the degradation of fuels. This
is very important in the design of aircraft fuel systems, particularly where high temperatures are encountered as in heat exchangers. Copper and its alloys such as brass
"seem to be the least attractive of the metals from this standpoint, Other metals and
alloys such as titanium vanadium alloys, beryllium, lead, tungsten, tungsten alloys, zinc,
nickel, silver, L-605 alloy, 1015 steel, and 304 stainless steel were found to decrease

,;

fuel stability. Metals and metal alloys that had little or no affect on fuel stability ineluded 446 stainless steel, 6061 aluminum, nickel 200, 316 stainless steel, Inconel 600,
and Hastelloy C. Additional information is found in Reference 1,

..

100

"? '=
:'%:

'

" ' : *:'%,,'-

: , :,: ' , :,: ,: ' :o.';: L,........................,.........

:'.

= ,.

2.12.5

Effect of Fuel Additives on Deposit Formation

There are two broad categories of fuel additives: those which may reduce operational
difficulties due to thermal degradation of fuels (antioxidants, metal deactivators, metal
passivators, dispersants); and those added for other purposes (corrosion inhibitors, lubricity additives, anti-icing additives, anti-static additives). In practice, only one fuel,
Thermally Stable Fuel (MIL-T-25524), specifies an additive containing a dispersant to
increase its thermal stability. In all other cases, fuels as currently produced are of satisfactory quality without the use of additives from a thermal stability standpoint, The
concentrations of all other additives are controlled by specification to preclude a degradation of the thermal stability of each fuel.

L'

-4'-

,01

,. , .. . ,-

, . . . , . , .,. , .. .,. .. .: - ., . . .. ,, . -. . : '::. :' ' ,:i" ' ' : ' : ' ' : : . "

101

"

':

TABLE 10
FUEL THERMAL STABILITY REQUIREMENTS
1(eat [evices .and Condoitiors

SpieifivatinoIolqreotiuit-

ASTM-CRC Coiker
Reavchrl Coke' *1'1

J11t
J7

Reservoir Terop. T
Preheater Temrn, 0C

1491
260

Filter Tet, -, IC

316

Fuol FVow.Kg/h

2.7

(lb/h)

IS

10,000

(mmHg)
Time of Test, win

(76.2)
300

Preheater lepost Code, Mes:

J b'fOT

305
3326
(25)
300
12TDR"

('4

(',.11-7-

A..
ATS~

tII

.1

I.(

2.7
(6)

A*.

10,00(0

(76.2)
200
.o3

'

Preheater Temp, -C
Fuel Flow. ml/mins
Pressure Rise, Pa
(mmilgi
Tinie of Test. rain
Preheater Deposlt Code, max

lr

282

(6)

Pressure Rise, Pa

Will
3
3132r)
(25)
10
16
12TDR"

:'.I, L

260
3
33225
(25)

IN

-!3i

260
260
3
3
.1262
332-5
(28)
(26)
(, ) I
IN
,I
<3

21611
:1
31326
(2r)
150
.e3
I

260
3
(325
(25)
I50
.3

?A)0
'
:M26
120)
150
-.:

S001
3
1333
) (I26
lo
2

300
3
(2133
(14i)
IN,
-2

Research Coker only used for JP-Tube

l)Dpslt Rating

Z.".

--

I'

TABLE 11
EFFECTS OF METAL CONCENTRATION ON THERMAL STABILITY AT 2000C

_____'__

Breakpoint Temp, tC
Before Metal Addition

Fuel
A
__B
C

Threshold Metal Concentration,

parts/billion, for Soluble Metals

Copper or Iron or Zinc!

271

74

136

268
282

99
105

165
154

250

279

89

151

200

282

50

145

260

296

100

152

420

"
.

Determined by JFTOT ASTM D 3241

1 0'. a

4.

S~~102

* *

q2!
.!~

'k'bS

'.

REFERENCES
*1.

Coordinating Research Council, Inc., "Thermal Oxidation Stability of Jet Fuels-A Literature
Survey," CRC Report No. 509, April 1979.
2. American Society for Testing and Materials, 1981 Annual Book of ASTM1 Standards, Petroleum
Products and Lubricants, Parts 23 and 25.
3. Coordinating Research Council, Inc., CRC Avi ation Handbook-Fuels and Fuel Syst ems, NAVAIR
06-5-504, May 1967.

rz

103

'Z

rt4

SECTIvN 3
I *I 4t

USER PROBLEMS

*4

.44

,-.

4t

"3.1 FUEL CONTAMINANTS

Contaminants can be introduced into jet fuels during the refining process, and particularly in the transfer of the fuel from the refinery to the aircraft. The fuel specification controls the fuel as produced by the refinery, and insures a satisfactory product
from the standpoint of impurities. During the transfer process, water, rust, dust particles, and micro-organisms are the major contaminants that can be added into the fuels.
Good housekeeping, both in transfer equipment and storage facilities, is most important in this case, Added protection is provided by the use of filter separators capable
of efficiently removing excess water and solid particles. The coalescing capability of
the filter separators is protected by specification requirements limiting materials
detrimental to the ability of filter separators to perform their functions.

,.

-.

,"~*

Contamination can also occur in the aircraft, usually due to the ability of the fuel to
absorb soluble gases mad water. The following discussion deals with these contaminants
which cannot be controlled prior to their introduction into the aircraft.
3.1.1

Gas Contamination
The solubility of gases in aviation fuels must be considered in the design of aircraft
systems. They can cause various difficulties including fuel pump cavitation, vapor lock,
fuel expulsion from vents during ascent due to outgassing, and added hazard by oxygen enrichment of the vapor phase in aircraft tanks. The only solution to the above
problems is to design aircraft systems capable of safely adapting to the escaping gases
based on data previously presented in paragraph 2.10.

3,1.2

Water Contamination
Water contamination in an aircraft system can stem from two sources, First, the fuel

introduced to the aircraft contains soluble water which is -not removed by filter
separators. Even though the amount is small, as shown in Figure 47, it is a potential
problem since it comes out of solution at low temperatures often encountered in long,
high-altitude flights. This water may accumulate in the bottom of fuel tanks, or may

....

form ice crystals which can plug filters in fuel systems. The second source of water

"contamination is excess water generated in the cold fuel tanks after prolonged highaltitude flights. On descent, warm, moist air entering the cold tanks condenses water
"inthe tanks which ends up in the tank bottoms or possibly as ice crystals in the fuel.

105

105

_I

3.1.2.1

Excess Water
Excess water in a fuel system usually is found in aircraft tank bottoms. It is, therefore,
important that this water be removed as often as possible through the drain plugs designed in the system. Traps or pockets which cannot be drained must be avoided in the
design of the system. Even with this precaution, however, in very cold climates water
bottoms can be frozen and therefore cannot be drained. In this case, it is possible to
carry large dead weights of ice in the tanks and have severe problems during thaw
periods, Some relief from excess water has been incorporated in filter design and by
the use of fuel heaters to melt any ice formed before it is introduced into the engine.
Also, small jet pumps located in low or undrainable places in the tank and discharging
near the inlet of the main boost pumps have proven to be effective in removing water
via the engine, The use of a particular anti-icing additive has proven to be a most effective method for solving this problem for the U.S, Air Force.

K..

3.1.2.2

Dissolved Water
The solubility of water in fuels versus temperature is shown in Figures 47 and 48. It
is a basic property of the fuel, and this water cannot be extracted by the itse of water
separators. The water c,,n come out of solution at lower temperatures in the form of
very fine droplets, and also is one of the sources of excess water in tank bottoms.
Although the amounts are small, the crystals that are furmed can cause filter plugging
unless properly designed. The anti-icing additives have been formulated to protect the
system from this problem,

U
3,1.2.3

Fuel System Icing Inhibitors

V %

A fuel system anti-icing additive, ethylene glycol monomethyl ether (EGME), conforming tu MIL-I-27686 Amd. 2 has been found to be highly effective in controlling icing
difficulties due to both free and dissolved water in JP-4, JP-8, JP-9, and JP.10, It is
also specified in military high-density fuels RJ-5 and RJ-6, It may also be used in most
commercial specifications with agreement between supplier and purchaser, A higher
molecular weight product, diethylene glycol monomethyl ether (DIEGME), conforming to MIL-I-85470 (AS) is required in JP-5 because of the tendency of EGME to lower
the flash point of the base fuel by about 40C. This flash-point depression does not occur
with DIEGME and makes it easier for refiners to blend JP-5 to a 600C minimum flash
point.

106

-. 4

Both additives, after extensive testing, have been found to be not only highly effective
as anti-icing additives, but do not in most cases affect other required properties of fuels,
Both additives are prone to oxidation instability unless inhibited, and can form active
"by-products which lower the water separation rating of fuels.
3.1.3

Microbiological Growth
Microbiological growth has, from time to time, caused major fuel contamination problems. It has been found that hydrocarbons, particularly straight-chain compounds, are
a prime source of food for certain types of microorganisms. Using the fuel as a nutrient
and propagating at the fuel/water interface, they form slime and large mats of matter,
These lead to a variety of problems in fuels and aircraft systems.

3.1,3.1

Effects of Fuel Systems

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In aircraft fuel-handling systems, and in aircraft fuel systems themselves, microbiological

growth can cause plugging of filters. They contribute to the surfactant problem, which
causes poor water coalescing in fiiter/separator equipment, They have been identified
as the cause of aircraft fuel probe fouling and engine fuel pump seizing. The most serious
"problem, wing tank corrosion, has been related to the interplay among water, rust,
surfactants, and these microorganisms,
3.1.3,2

Remedies
Microbiological growth, due to its dependence upon water and other fuel contaminants,
is most effectively controlled by "good housekeeping," both in the fuel-handling system
and in the aircraft itself. If contamination does occur, there are effective biocides for
treating water bottoms in storage facilities. In aircraft themselves, water should be
drained from tankage at frequent intervals.

3.1.3.3

Role of Fuel System Icing Inhibitor

The jet fuel anti-icing additives have demonstrated biocidal control in service. It has
not been suggested that these additives be a substitute for "good housekeeping," but
as an added protection against microorganism contamination. By virtue of being already
approved for and compatible with materials of aircraft construction, they provide a
single means of biocidal control in all elements of fuel handling and storage.

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3.1.4

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Solid Contaminants
Solid contaminants are a continual threat to fuel quality. Even though fuel specifications have strict restrictions on solid content, this only guarantees that fuel leaving
the refinery is satisfactory for use. During its journey from the refinery to the aircraft,
it can be exposed to solid contamination in a variety of ways. These solid contaminants
may be in various forms such as rust from handling systems or dirt brought in from
the atmosphere through vents, There is also the possibility of solid contamination produced by microbiological growth,
The primary protection against solid contaminants is "good housekeeping" which entails continual awareness. Protective measures include pipeline and tank coatings or
linings, and the requirement for corrosion inhibitors in the fuels. The aircraft and the
engine are also protected from excessive contamination by the use of filters. In addition, it is required by specification that the engine be designed with the ability to tolerate
fairly high levels of contamination, This has been achieved not only through improved
engine filters, but by design of engine fuel controls less sensitive to dirt particles.

3.1.4.1

Separation of Solids from Fuels

Contamination can be introduced into fuels in spite of all precautions. The methods
for removing solid contaminants from the fuel are settling and filtration. Settling is
an effective procedure if the fuel can be retained in storage tanks for a period of time,
The rate of settling is a function of the size and density of the particles and the viscosity of the fuels. Figure 49 illustrates the rate at which rust and water will settle out
of various fuels depending upon the particle size of the contaminants,

Filtration is accomplished at various points in the transfer of the fuel and just prior
to introduction into the aircraft, Extensive development has resulted in highly efficient
and reliable filter separators i, maintained and operated properly. An extensive bibliography pertaining to this equipment is found in the references.

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3.2

FUEL LUBRICITY
The lubrication properties of jet fuels are important in rubbing surfaces such as engine
controls, servo valve6, pump bearings, gear and piston-type pumps, The low viscosity
of jet fuels (less than 2.0 cs at 37.80C or 100 0 F) will, in many cases, prevent sustaining
a hydrodynamic film and cause Puccessful lubrication to depend upon boundary lubricants
in fuel that adsorb on the rubbing surfaces to form protective films. High temperature
"encounteredat high speeds and in advanced performance engines reduce the viscosity
of jet fuels and reduce the adsorption tendency of boundary lubricants. Lack of lubrication results in increased wear rates or high friction that can lead in some cases to adhesion and scuffing of runbing metal parts.
The high friction and wear rates that characterize poor boundary lubrication derive
from surface oxidation reactions; in the complete absence of oxygen and water, a fuel
that lacks boundary lubricants shows no wear or high-friction tendencies. Fuels contain natural boundary lubricants in trace amounts which are primarily polar compounds
of oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur, but may also be multi-ring aromatics. Such polar compounds form films on metal and protect against corrosion, thus improving boundary
lubrication. Under severe refining conditions, these natural lubricants in fuel are removed; hence, a fuel that has been refined to remove trace materials to a high level
of thermal stability is apt to become poor in lubricity. The lubrication properties of fuels
can be improved by adding a corrosion inhibitor meeting Specification MIL-I-25017.
Most of the approved corrosion inhibitors are excellent lubricity agents and are usually
not detrimental to thermal stability and to the ability of filter separators to work effectively.

',.

Corrosion and boundary lubrication of rubbing surfaces are not only a function of fuel
lubricity properties, but also of the metallurgy of the system, It is the practice to test
advanced materials used in pumps and engine controls using a fluid of poor lubrication
quality; such a fluid can be made by severe refining, and maintained in Its desired lubricity condition by constantly removing any oxidized species that form during recirculation in the presence of air (an absorbant such as clay is commonly used for this purpose), Oxidation products are polar species that tend to be lubricity agents, and would
therefore give a misleading impression of the capabilities of specific metallurgy under
test. A laboratory test under development by the CRC called the Ball-on-Cylinder
Lubricity Test is used to monitor test fluids and to teat the lubricity properties of fuels.

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3.3

3.3.1

MATERIAL COMPATIBILITY
Proper materials selection for use with hydrocarbon fuels is required in the design of
fuel-handling equipment and the aircraft and engine fuel system. Noncompatible metals
result in degradation of the fuel, while the fuel may attack nonmetals and gaskets to
destroy their function as well as degrading the fuel itself.

Metals

,,,,

The following lists categorize metals that are satisfactory for use with hydrocarbon
aircraft and missile fuels, and those that are not recommended:

3.3,2

Satisfactory

Unsatisfactory

Aluminum and all its alloys

Carbon Moly Steel
1/2to 3% Ni Steel
4 to 6% Chr. Moly Steel
300 Series Stainless Steel
400 Series Stainless Steel
Monel

Bronze
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Cadmium
Brass

Packing and Gasket

The following materials are recommended for use for packing and gasket applications
with aircraft and missile hydrocarbon fuels;
Nylon
Kel-F
Trithene
Polyethylene
Buna N (linear compound MJ-70)
for JP-4, JP-8 only

Fluorothene A
Vinylite
Teflon
Fluorel
Viton

The choice of material depends upon the temperature level of the application.
3.3.3

Lubricants

II

Lubricants used in conjunction with fuel system components such as pumps and controts may come in contact with the fuel being transferred. The following lubricants are
recommended for use in fuel systems handling aircraft and hydrocarbon missile fuels:
Molykote
Fluorolubes

L4-A

MIL-G-6032 Grease
Electrofilm Graphite Coating

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3.4

TOXICITY
Hydrocarbon fuels are generally not considered highly toxic materials, and under normal situations, medical surveillance and special tests are not required on a periodic basis.
However, these materials should be handled with caution, since overexposure can have
harmful effects. The high-density hydrocarbon missile fuels have not been completely
investigated to date from the standpoint of toxicity, but all indications are that they
are very similar in this respect to the other hydrocarbon aircraft fuels. More detailed
information is found in Reference 8.

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112

REFERENCES
1. H. Barnett and R. Hibbard, "Properties of Aircraft Fuels," NACA Technical Note 3276, August
1956.
2.

Coordinating Research Council, Inc., CRC Aviation Handbook-Fuel and Fuel Systems, NAVAIR
06-5-504, May 1967.

3. Exxon Company, UJSA, Data Book for Designers-Fuels,Lubricants, and Hydraulic Fluids,
September 1973,
4. AFSC Design Handbook-System Sfety, DH 1-6 Series 1-0 General, December 1978.
5.

Coordinating Research Council, Inc., "Water/Fuel Separation Characteristics-A Bibliography,"

CRC Report No. 460, July 1973.

"El.
11

6.

A. R. Garabrant, "Lubricity of JP.5 and Diesel Fuels," Exxon Research and Engineering Com.r
pany, US. Army Materials Report No. GRU.1PD,74, December 1974.

7.

Coordinating Research Council, Inc., "Microbiological Aircraft Fuel Tank Contamination-A Bibliography," CRC Report No, 469, July 1974.

8.

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Occupational Diseases, revised edition, June
1977.

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APPENDIX A

MEMBERSHIP OF THE CRC ADVISORY GROUP ON THE AVIATION FUELS HANDBOOK

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RCC ADVISORY GROUP ON THE AVIATION FUELS HANDBOOK

Name

Company

S. Bonifazi, Leader
W. A. Affens
J. A. Bert
A. V. Churchill
W. G. Dukek
J. T, Leonard
M. E. LePera
A. T. Peacock
F. E. Salb
M. W. Shayeson
K. H. Strauss
F. F. Tolle
E. F, Versaw

Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Group

Naval Research Laboratory
Chevron Research Company
Air Force Aero Propulsion Laboratory
Exxon Research and Engineering Company
Naval Research Laboratory
U.S. Army (MERADCOM)
Douglas Aircraft Company
Consultant (formerly Detroit Diesel Allison, GMC)
General Electric Company
Consultant (formerly Texaco)
Boeing Military Airplane Company
Lockheed-California Company

M, P. Dunnam was engaged, with support from the U.S. Air Force, as a consultant to the Group in

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the preparation of this Handbook,

Earlier membership of the Group included the following individuals, and their company affiliation

at the time of their membership:

Name

Company

P. P. Campbell
J. S. Grobman
R. T. Holmes
H. R. Lander, Jr.
A, R. Marsh
L. Maggitti
J. V. Mengenhauser
J. K. Siddons
W, A. Sutton

United Airlines
NASA-Lewis Research Center
Shell Oil Company
Air Force Aero Propulsion Laboratory
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Group
Naval Air Propulsion Center
U.S. Army (MERADCOM)
American AirlineI
Ashland Petroleum

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