History

This article is about the academic discipline. For a King Arthur), are usually classied as cultural heritage
general history of human beings, see History of the or legends, because they do not show the disinterested
world. For other uses, see History (disambiguation).
investigation required of the discipline of history.[10][11]
Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian is considered within the Western tradition to be the father of
history, and, along with his contemporary Thucydides,
helped form the foundations for the modern study of human history. Their works continue to be read today,
and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and
the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In Asia,
a state chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals was
known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although
only 2nd century BC texts survived.
Ancient inuences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over
the centuries and continue to change today. The modern
study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of
specic regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is
taught as part of primary and secondary education, and
the academic study of history is a major discipline in university studies.
Historia
by Nikolaos Gysis (1892)

1 Etymology
Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to
repeat it.[1]
George Santayana
History (from Greek , historia, meaning inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation)[2] is the
study of the past, particularly how it relates to
humans.[3][4] It is an umbrella term that relates to past
events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information
about these events. Scholars who write about history are
called historians. Events occurring before written record History by Frederick Dielman (1896)
are considered prehistory.
History can also refer to the academic discipline which
uses a narrative to examine and analyse a sequence of past
events, and objectively determine the patterns of cause
and eect that determine them.[5][6] Historians sometimes debate the nature of history and its usefulness by
discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself
and as a way of providing perspective on the problems
of the present.[5][7][8][9]

The word history comes ultimately from Ancient Greek

[12] (histora), meaning inquiry,"knowledge
from inquiry, or judge. It was in that sense that
Aristotle used the word in his [13]
(Per T Za istorai Inquiries about Animals). The
ancestor word is attested early on in Homeric
Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes' oath, and in
Boiotic inscriptions (in a legal sense, either judge or
Stories common to a particular culture, but not sup- witness, or similar).
ported by external sources (such as the tales surrounding The Greek word was borrowed into Classical Latin as his1

2
toria, meaning 'investigation, inquiry, research, account,
description, written account of past events, writing of
history, historical narrative, recorded knowledge of past
events, story, narrative'. History was borrowed from Latin
(possibly via Old Irish or Old Welsh) into Old English as
str ('history, narrative, story'), but this word fell out of
use in the late Old English period.[14]

DESCRIPTION

2 Description

Meanwhile, as Latin became Old French (and AngloNorman), historia developed into forms such as istorie,
estoire, and historie, with new developments in the meaning: 'account of the events of a persons life (beginning
of the 12th cent.), chronicle, account of events as relevant to a group of people or people in general (1155),
dramatic or pictorial representation of historical events
(c1240), body of knowledge relative to human evolution,
science (c1265), narrative of real or imaginary events,
story (c1462)'.[14]
It was from Anglo-Norman that history was borrowed into
Middle English, and this time the loan stuck. It appears
in the thirteenth-century Ancrene Riwle, but seems to
have become a common word in the late fourteenth century, with an early attestation appearing in John Gowers
Confessio Amantis of the 1390s (VI.1383): 'I nde in a
bok compiled | To this matiere an old histoire, | The which
comth nou to mi memoire'. In Middle English, the meaning of history was story in general. The restriction to the
meaning 'the branch of knowledge that deals with past
events; the formal record or study of past events, esp. human aairs arose in the mid-fteenth century.[14]
With the Renaissance, older senses of the word were revived, and it was in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the late sixteenth century, when he
wrote about "Natural History". For him, historia was the
knowledge of objects determined by space and time, that
sort of knowledge provided by memory (while science
was provided by reason, and poetry was provided by
fantasy).[15]

The title page to The Historians History of the World

Historians write in the context of their own time, and with

due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons for
their own society. In the words of Benedetto Croce, All
history is contemporary history. History is facilitated
by the formation of a 'true discourse of past' through the
production of narrative and analysis of past events relatIn an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. ana- ing to the human race.[17] The modern discipline of hislytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese ( vs. ) tory is dedicated to the institutional production of this
now designates separate words for human history and discourse.
storytelling in general. In modern German, French,
All events that are remembered and preserved in some auand most Germanic and Romance languages, which are
thentic form constitute the historical record.[18] The task
solidly synthetic and highly inected, the same word is
of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can
still used to mean both history and story.
most usefully contribute to the production of accurate acThe adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic counts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the histofrom 1669.[16]
rians archive is a result of circumscribing a more general
Historian in the sense of a researcher of history is at- archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and doctested from 1531. In all European languages, the substan- uments (by falsifying their claims to represent the 'true
tive history is still used to mean both what happened past').
with men, and the scholarly study of the happened, the The study of history has sometimes been classied as
latter sense sometimes distinguished with a capital letter, part of the humanities and at other times as part of the
History, or the word historiography.[13]
social sciences.[19] It can also be seen as a bridge between
those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from
both. Some individual historians strongly support one or
the other classication.[20] In the 20th century, French
historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of

3
history, by using such outside disciplines as economics, exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood.
anthropology, and geography in the study of global his- By studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other artory.
tifacts, some information can be recovered even in the
Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, absence of a written record. Since the 20th century, the
either in writing or by passing on an oral tradition, and study of prehistory is considered essential to avoid hishave attempted to answer historical questions through the torys implicit exclusion of certain civilizations, such as
study of written documents and oral accounts. From the those of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian Amerfor focusbeginning, historians have also used such sources as mon- ica. Historians in the West have been criticized
ing disproportionately on the Western world.[23] In 1961,
uments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources
of historical knowledge can be separated into three cat- British historian E. H. Carr wrote:
egories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three.[21]
But writing is the marker that separates history from what
comes before.
Archaeology is a discipline that is especially helpful in
dealing with buried sites and objects, which, once unearthed, contribute to the study of history. But archaeology rarely stands alone. It uses narrative sources to
complement its discoveries. However, archaeology is
constituted by a range of methodologies and approaches
which are independent from history; that is to say, archaeology does not ll the gaps within textual sources.
Indeed, historical archaeology is a specic branch of
archaeology, often contrasting its conclusions against
those of contemporary textual sources. For example,
Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical
Annapolis, Maryland, USA; has sought to understand the
contradiction between textual documents and the material record, demonstrating the possession of slaves and the
inequalities of wealth apparent via the study of the total
historical environment, despite the ideology of liberty
inherent in written documents at this time.

The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is crossed when people cease to live only in the present, and
become consciously interested both in their
past and in their future. History begins with
the handing down of tradition; and tradition
means the carrying of the habits and lessons
of the past into the future. Records of the
past begin to be kept for the benet of future
generations.[24]
This denition includes within the scope of history the
strong interests of peoples, such as Australian Aboriginals and New Zealand Mori in the past, and the oral
records maintained and transmitted to succeeding generations, even before their contact with European civilization.

4 Historiography

There are varieties of ways in which history can be orga- Main article: Historiography
Historiography has a number of related meanings.
nized, including chronologically, culturally, territorially,
and thematically. These divisions are not mutually exclusive, and signicant overlaps are often present, as in The
International Womens Movement in an Age of Transition, 18301975. It is possible for historians to concern
themselves with both the very specic and the very general, although the modern trend has been toward specialization. The area called Big History resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. History
has often been studied with some practical or theoretical
aim, but also may be studied out of simple intellectual
curiosity.[22]

History and prehistory

Further information: Protohistory

The history of the world is the memory of the past
experience of Homo sapiens sapiens around the world,
as that experience has been preserved, largely in written
records. By prehistory, historians mean the recovery of
knowledge of the past in an area where no written records The title page to"La Historia d'Italia

Firstly, it can refer to how history has been produced:

the story of the development of methodology and practices (for example, the move from short-term biographical narrative towards long-term thematic analysis). Secondly, it can refer to what has been produced: a specic
body of historical writing (for example, medieval historiography during the 1960s means Works of medieval
history written during the 1960s). Thirdly, it may refer to why history is produced: the Philosophy of history. As a meta-level analysis of descriptions of the past,
this third conception can relate to the rst two in that the
analysis usually focuses on the narratives, interpretations,
worldview, use of evidence, or method of presentation of
other historians. Professional historians also debate the
question of whether history can be taught as a single coherent narrative or a series of competing narratives.[25][26]

Philosophy of history

Main article: Philosophy of history

Philosophy of history is a branch of philosophy concerning the eventual signicance, if any, of human history.
Furthermore, it speculates as to a possible teleological
end to its developmentthat is, it asks if there is a design,
purpose, directive principle, or nality in the processes of
human history. Philosophy of history should not be confused with historiography, which is the study of history
as an academic discipline, and thus concerns its methods
and practices, and its development as a discipline over
time. Nor should philosophy of history be confused with
the history of philosophy, which is the study of the development of philosophical ideas through time.

Historical methods

Further information: Historical method

HISTORICAL METHODS

with events regularly recurring.[28]

There were historical traditions and sophisticated use
of historical method in ancient and medieval China.
The groundwork for professional historiography in East
Asia was established by the Han Dynasty court historian
known as Sima Qian (14590 BC), author of the Shiji
(Records of the Grand Historian). For the quality of his
written work, Sima Qian is posthumously known as the
Father of Chinese Historiography. Chinese historians of
subsequent dynastic periods in China used his Shiji as the
ocial format for historical texts, as well as for biographical literature.
Saint Augustine was inuential in Christian and Western
thought at the beginning of the medieval period. Through
the Medieval and Renaissance periods, history was often
studied through a sacred or religious perspective. Around
1800, German philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a more secular
approach in historical study.[22]
In the preface to his book, the Muqaddimah (1377),
the Arab historian and early sociologist, Ibn Khaldun,
warned of seven mistakes that he thought that historians
regularly committed. In this criticism, he approached the
past as strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of
the past. Ibn Khaldun often criticized idle superstition
and uncritical acceptance of historical data. As a result,
he introduced a scientic method to the study of history,
and he often referred to it as his new science.[29] His
historical method also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda
and systematic bias in history,[30] and he is thus considered to be the father of historiography[31][32] or the father of the philosophy of history.[33]

In the West, historians developed modern methods of historiography in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially in
The historical method comprises the techniques and
France and Germany. The 19th-century historian with
guidelines by which historians use primary sources and
greatest inuence on methods was Leopold von Ranke in
other evidence to research and then to write history.
Germany.
Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC ca.425 BC)[27]
In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on
has generally been acclaimed as the father of history.
epic nationalistic narratives, which often tended to gloHowever, his contemporary Thucydides (ca. 460 BC
rify the nation or great men, to more objective and comca. 400 BC) is credited with having rst approached hisplex analyses of social and intellectual forces. A major
tory with a well-developed historical method in his work
trend of historical methodology in the 20th century was
the History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, una tendency to treat history more as a social science rather
like Herodotus, regarded history as being the product
than as an art, which traditionally had been the case.
of the choices and actions of human beings, and looked
Some of the leading advocates of history as a social sciat cause and eect, rather than as the result of divine
ence were a diverse collection of scholars which included
[27]
intervention. In his historical method, Thucydides emFernand Braudel, E. H. Carr, Fritz Fischer, Emmanuel Le
phasized chronology, a neutral point of view, and that
Roy Ladurie, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bruce Trigger, Marc
the human world was the result of the actions of human
Bloch, Karl Dietrich Bracher, Peter Gay, Robert Fogel,
beings. Greek historians also viewed history as cyclical,

5
Lucien Febvre and Lawrence Stone. Many of the advocates of history as a social science were or are noted
for their multi-disciplinary approach. Braudel combined
history with geography, Bracher history with political science, Fogel history with economics, Gay history with psychology, Trigger history with archaeology while Wehler,
Bloch, Fischer, Stone, Febvre and Le Roy Ladurie have in
varying and diering ways amalgamated history with sociology, geography, anthropology, and economics. More
recently, the eld of digital history has begun to address
ways of using computer technology to pose new questions
to historical data and generate digital scholarship.
In opposition to the claims of history as a social science,
historians such as Hugh Trevor-Roper, John Lukacs,
Donald Creighton, Gertrude Himmelfarb and Gerhard
Ritter argued that the key to the historians work was the
power of the imagination, and hence contended that history should be understood as an art. French historians associated with the Annales School introduced quantitative
history, using raw data to track the lives of typical individuals, and were prominent in the establishment of cultural
history (cf. histoire des mentalits). Intellectual historians such as Herbert Buttereld, Ernst Nolte and George
Mosse have argued for the signicance of ideas in history.
American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic groups. Another genre of social history to
emerge in the post-WWII era was Alltagsgeschichte (History of Everyday Life). Scholars such as Martin Broszat,
Ian Kershaw and Detlev Peukert sought to examine what
everyday life was like for ordinary people in 20th-century
Germany, especially in the Nazi period.
Marxist historians such as Eric Hobsbawm, E. P. Thompson, Rodney Hilton, Georges Lefebvre, Eugene D. Genovese, Isaac Deutscher, C. L. R. James, Timothy Mason, Herbert Aptheker, Arno J. Mayer and Christopher
Hill have sought to validate Karl Marx's theories by
analyzing history from a Marxist perspective. In response to the Marxist interpretation of history, historians
such as Franois Furet, Richard Pipes, J. C. D. Clark,
Roland Mousnier, Henry Ashby Turner and Robert Conquest have oered anti-Marxist interpretations of history.
Feminist historians such as Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia
Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela
Bock, Gerda Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, and Lynn
Hunt have argued for the importance of studying the
experience of women in the past. In recent years,
postmodernists have challenged the validity and need for
the study of history on the basis that all history is based on
the personal interpretation of sources. In his 1997 book
In Defence of History, Richard J. Evans, a professor of
modern history at Cambridge University, defended the
worth of history. Another defence of history from postmodernist criticism was the Australian historian Keith
Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing of History.

7 Marxian theory of history

Main article: Marxs theory of history
The Marxist theory of historical materialism theorises
that society is fundamentally determined by the material
conditions at any given time in other words, the relationships which people have with each other in order
to full basic needs such as feeding, clothing and housing themselves and their families.[34] Overall, Marx and
Engels claimed to have identied ve successive stages of
the development of these material conditions in Western
Europe.[35] Marxist historiography was once orthodoxy in
the Soviet Union, but since the collapse of communism
there in 1991, Mikhail Krom says it has been reduced to
the margins of scholarship.[36]

8 Areas of study
8.1 Periods
Main article: Periodization
Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular blocks of time. Historians
give these periods of time names in order to allow organising ideas and classicatory generalisations to be used
by historians.[37] The names given to a period can vary
with geographical location, as can the dates of the start
and end of a particular period. Centuries and decades
are commonly used periods and the time they represent
depends on the dating system used. Most periods are
constructed retrospectively and so reect value judgments
made about the past. The way periods are constructed
and the names given to them can aect the way they are
viewed and studied.[38]

8.1.1 Prehistoric periodisation

The eld of history generally leaves prehistory to the archaeologists, who have entirely dierent sets of tools and
theories. The usual method for periodisation of the distant prehistoric past, in archeology is to rely on changes
in material culture and technology, such as the Stone
Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age and their sub-divisions
also based on dierent styles of material remains. Despite the development over recent decades of the ability through radiocarbon dating and other scientic methods to give actual dates for many sites or artefacts, these
long-established schemes seem likely to remain in use. In
many cases neighbouring cultures with writing have left
some history of cultures without it, which may be used.

8 AREAS OF STUDY

8.2

Geographical locations

Particular geographical locations can form the basis of

historical study, for example, continents, countries and
cities. Understanding why historic events took place is
important. To do this, historians often turn to geography.
Weather patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a
place all aect the lives of the people who live there. For
example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed
a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt
is essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks
of the Nile River, which ooded each year, depositing
soil on its banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow
enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant
everyone did not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization.
8.2.1

History of Eurasia is the collective history of several

distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East,
South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe,
linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of
Central Asia and Eastern Europe.

Regions

History of Europe describes the passage of

time from humans inhabiting the European
continent to the present day.
History of Asia can be seen as the collective
history of several distinct peripheral coastal
regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the
Eurasian steppe.
History of East Asia is the study of the
past passed down from generation to generation in East Asia.

History of Africa begins with the rst emergence of

modern human beings on the continent, continuing
into its modern present as a patchwork of diverse
and politically developing nation states.

History of the Middle East begins with

the earliest civilizations in the region now
known as the Middle East that were established around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia
(Iraq).

History of the Americas is the collective history of

North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean.

History of South Asia is the study of the

past passed down from generation to generation in the Sub-Himalayan region.

History of North America is the study of the

past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earths northern
and western hemisphere.

History of Southeast Asia has been characterized as interaction between regional

players and foreign powers.

History of Central America is the study of the

past passed down from generation to gener- 8.3 Military history
ation on the continent in the Earths western
Main article: Military history
hemisphere.
History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains Military history concerns warfare, strategies, battles,
weapons, and the psychology of combat. The new milhave been found.
History of South America is the study of the itary history since the 1970s has been concerned with
past passed down from generation to genera- soldiers more than generals, with psychology more than
the broader impact of warfare on society
tion on the continent in the Earths southern tactics, and with
[39]
and
culture.
and western hemisphere.
History of Antarctica emerges from early Western
theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Aus8.4
tralis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe.

History of religion

History of Australia starts with the documentation Main article: Religious history
of the Makassar trading with Indigenous Australians
on Australias north coast.
The history of religion has been a main theme for both
History of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years secular and religious historians for centuries, and conto when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, tinues to be taught in seminaries and academe. Leading
who developed a distinct Mori culture centred on journals include Church History, Catholic Historical Review, and History of Religions. Topics range widely from
kinship links and land.
political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology
History of the Pacic Islands covers the history of and liturgy.[40] This subject studies religions from all rethe islands in the Pacic Ocean.
gions and areas of the world where humans have lived.[41]

8.6

8.5

Cultural history

Social history

8.6 Cultural history

Main article: Social history

Main article: Cultural history

Social history, sometimes called the new social history,

is the eld that includes history of ordinary people and
their strategies and institutions for coping with life.[42]
In its golden age it was a major growth eld in the
1960s and 1970s among scholars, and still is well represented in history departments. In two decades from
1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history
in American universities identifying with social history
rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.[43] In the history
departments of British universities in 2007, of the 5723
faculty members, 1644 (29%) identied themselves with
social history while political history came next with 1425
(25%).[44] The old social history before the 1960s was
a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it
often included political movements, like Populism, that
were social in the sense of being outside the elite system. Social history was contrasted with political history,
intellectual history and the history of great men. English
historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point
between economic and political history, reecting that,
Without social history, economic history is barren and
political history unintelligible.[45] While the eld has often been viewed negatively as history with the politics left
out, it has also been defended as history with the people
put back in.[46]

Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant

form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically combines the
approaches of anthropology and history to look at language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the records
and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs,
and arts of a group of people. How peoples constructed
their memory of the past is a major topic. Cultural history
includes the study of art in society as well is the study of
images and human visual production (iconography).[47]

8.5.1

8.7 Diplomatic history

Main article: Diplomatic history
Diplomatic history focuses on the relationships between
nations, primarily regarding diplomacy and the causes of
wars. More recently it looks at the causes of peace and
human rights. It typically presents the viewpoints of the
foreign oce, and long-term strategic values, as the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of
political history is the study of the conduct of international
relations between states or across state boundaries over
time. Historian Muriel Chamberlain notes that after the
First World War:

Subelds

The chief subelds of social history include:

Demographic history
History of education
Ethnic history

diplomatic history replaced constitutional history as the agship of historical investigation,

at once the most important, most exact and
most sophisticated of historical studies.[48]
She adds that after 1945, the trend reversed, allowing social history to replace it.

History of the family

Labor history
Rural history
Urban history
Womens history
Smaller specialties include:
History of childhood
Gender history

8.8 Economic history

Main articles: Economic history and Business history
Although economic history has been well established
since the late 19th century, in recent years academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics departments and away from traditional history departments.[49]
Business history deals with the history of individual business organizations, business methods, government regulation, labor relations, and impact on society. It also includes biographies of individual companies, executives,
and entrepreneurs. It is related to economic history; Business history is most often taught in business schools.[50]

8.9

9 HISTORIANS

Environmental history

study of ideas as disembodied objects with a career of

their own.[57][58]

Main article: Environmental history

Environmental history is a new eld that emerged in the
1980s to look at the history of the environment, especially 8.13 Gender history
in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon
Main article: Gender history
it.[51]

8.10 World history

Main article: World history
See also: History of the world and Universal history
World history is the study of major civilizations over the
last 3000 years or so. World history is primarily a teaching eld, rather than a research eld. It gained popularity in the United States,[52] Japan[53] and other countries
after the 1980s with the realization that students need a
broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.
It has led to highly controversial interpretations by Oswald
Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee, among others.

Gender history is a sub-eld of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past from the perspective of
gender. It is in many ways, an outgrowth of womens
history. Despite its relatively short life, Gender History
(and its forerunner Womens History) has had a rather
signicant eect on the general study of history. Since
the 1960s, when the initially small eld rst achieved a
measure of acceptance, it has gone through a number of
dierent phases, each with its own challenges and outcomes. Although some of the changes to the study of
history have been quite obvious, such as increased numbers of books on famous women or simply the admission
of greater numbers of women into the historical profession, other inuences are more subtle.

The World History Association publishes the Journal of

World History every quarter since 1990.[54] The H-World
discussion list[55] serves as a network of communication 8.14 Public history
among practitioners of world history, with discussions
among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies Main article: Public history
and book reviews.

8.11 Peoples history

Main article: Peoples history
A peoples history is a type of historical work which
attempts to account for historical events from the
perspective of common people. A peoples history is the
history of the world that is the story of mass movements
and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups not included
in the past in other type of writing about history are the
primary focus, which includes the disenfranchised, the
oppressed, the poor, the nonconformists, and the otherwise forgotten people. The authors are typically on the
left and have a socialist model in mind, as in the approach of the History Workshop movement in Britain in
the 1960s.[56]

Public history describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in the discipline
of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public history practice has quite
deep roots in the areas of historic preservation, archival
science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other related elds. The term itself began to be used in the U.S.
and Canada in the late 1970s, and the eld has become
increasingly professionalized since that time. Some of
the most common settings for public history are museums, historic homes and historic sites, parks, battleelds,
archives, lm and television companies, and all levels of
government.[59]

9 Historians

Main article: List of historians

Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information about past events. In lists
Main articles: Intellectual history and History of ideas
of historians, historians can be grouped by order of the
historical period in which they were writing, which is not
Intellectual history and the history of ideas emerged in necessarily the same as the period in which they specialthe mid-20th century, with the focus on the intellectuals ized. Chroniclers and annalists, though they are not hisand their books on the one hand, and on the other the torians in the true sense, are also frequently included.

8.12 Intellectual history

12 Teaching history
12.1 Scholarship vs teaching
A major intellectual battle took place in Britain in the
early twentieth century regarding the place of history
teaching in the universities. At Oxford and Cambridge,
scholarship was downplayed. Professor Charles Harding Firth, Oxfords Regius Professor of history in 1904
ridiculed the system as best suited to produce supercial journalists. The Oxford tutors, who had more votes
than the professors, fought back in defense of their system saying that it successfully produced Britains outstanding statesmen, administrators, prelates, and diplomats, and that mission was as valuable as training scholars. The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War. It forced aspiring young scholars to teach
at outlying schools, such as Manchester University, where
T.F. Tout was professionalising the History undergraduate programme at by introducing the study of original
sources and requiring the writing of a thesis.[62][63]

Benedetto Croce

10

The judgement of history

Since the 20th century, Western historians have disavowed the aspiration to provide the judgement of
history.[60] The goals of historical judgements or interpretations are separate to those of legal judgements, that
need to be formulated quickly after the events and be
nal.[61] A related issue to that of the judgement of history is that of collective memory.
See also: Ash heap of history

11

Pseudohistory

Main article: Pseudohistory

Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts which purport
to be historical in nature but which depart from standard
historiographical conventions in a way which undermines
their conclusions. Closely related to deceptive historical
revisionism, works which draw controversial conclusions
from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence,
particularly in the elds of national, political, military,
and religious aairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory.

In the United States, scholarship was concentrated at the

major PhD-producing universities, while the large number of other colleges and universities focused on undergraduate teaching. A tendency in the 21st century was
for the latter schools to increasingly demand scholarly
productivity of their younger tenure-track faculty. Furthermore, universities have increasingly relied on inexpensive part-time adjuncts to do most of the classroom
teaching.[64]

12.2 Nationalism
From the origins of national school systems in the 19th
century, the teaching of history to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States after
World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to
give students a common heritage with Europe. In the U.S.
after 1980 attention increasingly moved toward teaching
world history or requiring students to take courses in nonwestern cultures, to prepare students for life in a globalized economy.[65]
At the university level, historians debate the question of
whether history belongs more to social science or to the
humanities. Many view the eld from both perspectives.
The teaching of history in French schools was inuenced by the Nouvelle histoire as disseminated after the
1960s by Cahiers pdagogiques and Enseignement and
other journals for teachers. Also inuential was the Institut national de recherche et de documentation pdagogique, (INRDP). Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of
teacher training, said pupils children should learn about
historians approaches as well as facts and dates. Louis
Franois, Dean of the History/Geography group in the
Inspectorate of National Education advised that teachers

10

13

SEE ALSO

should provide historic documents and promote active 13.1 Historiography

methods which would give pupils the immense hap Historian
piness of discovery. Proponents said it was a reaction
against the memorization of names and dates that char Historiography
acterized teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists protested loudly it was a postmodern innovation that
threatened to leave the youth ignorant of French patrio- 13.2 Methods
tism and national identity.[66]
Annals

12.3

Bias in school teaching

Auxiliary sciences of history

Chronicle
Archival research
Auxiliary sciences of history
Historical method
List of historians, inclusive of most major historians
List of historians by area of study
List of history journals
Philosophy of history

History books in a bookstore.

In most countries history textbook are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism, and give students the ocial
line about national enemies.[67]
In many countries history textbooks are sponsored by
the national government and are written to put the national heritage in the most favorable light. For example, in Japan, mention of the Nanking Massacre
has been removed from textbooks and the entire Second World War is given cursory treatment. Other
countries have complained.[68] It was standard policy
in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist
historiography.[69][70]

Popular history
Primary source documents, correspondence,
diaries
Secondary source interpretations, written history
Tertiary source textbooks and encyclopedias
Public history, Including museums and historical
preservation
Historiography at Wikiversity, where it is part of the
School of History

Academic historians have often fought against the politi- 13.3 Topics
cization of the textbooks, sometimes with success.[71][72]
Historiography of Argentina
In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is characterized not by super Atlantic history
patriotism but rather by an almost pacistic and deliber Historiography of Canada
ately unpatriotic undertone and reects principles formulated by international organizations such as UNESCO
Classics
or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards human
rights, democracy and peace. The result is that German
Greek historiography
textbooks usually downplay national pride and ambitions
Historiography of Alexander the Great
and aim to develop an understanding of citizenship cen Roman historiography
tred on democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and Europeanness.[73]
Historiography of the fall of the Western
Roman Empire

13

See also

Historiography of the Cold War

Chinese historiography

11
Historiography of the French Revolution
Annales School, in France
Historiography of Germany
Bielefeld School, in Germany
Historiography of early Islam
Historiography of Japan

American urban history

Whig history, History as the story of continuous
progress
Womens history
Gender history
Main articles: Outline of history and Glossary of history

Middle Ages
Dark Ages (historiography)
Historiography of the Crusades
Historiography of Switzerland
Historiography in the Soviet Union
Historiography of the United States
Frontier Thesis
Historiography of the United Kingdom
Historiography of Scotland
Historiography of the British Empire
World history
Historiography of the causes of World War I
Historiography of World War II

13.4

Themes

Cultural history
Diplomatic history
Economic history
Business history
Environmental history
History of ideas
Intellectual history
Marxist historiography
Military history
Political history
History of religions

14 References
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[2] Joseph, Brian (Ed.); Janda, Richard (Ed.) (2008). The
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[3] History Denition. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
[4] What is History & Why Study It?". Retrieved 21 January
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[5] Professor Richard J. Evans (2001). The Two Faces of
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[7] Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History (4th ed.). Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 1-4058-2351-8.p 52
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[9] Nash l, Gary B. (2000). The Convergence Paradigm
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[11] Lowenthal, David (2000). Dilemmas and Delights of

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[16] Whitney, W. D. The Century dictionary; an encyclopedic
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Knowledge, Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic
Thought & Culture 12 (3).
[34] See, in particular, Marx and Engels, The German Ideology
[35] Marx makes no claim to have produced a master key
to history. Historical materialism is not an historicophilosophic theory of the marche generale imposed by fate
upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances
in which it nds itself (Marx, Karl: Letter to editor of
the Russian paper Otetchestvennye Zapiskym, 1877). His
ideas, he explains, are based on a concrete study of the
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[36] Mikhail M. Krom, From the Center to the Margin: the
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[37] Marwick, Arthur (1970). The Nature of History. The
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[20] Ritter, H. (1986). Dictionary of concepts in history. Reference sources for the social sciences and humanities, no.
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[38] Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History. Pearson Education Limited. pp. 168169.

[21] Michael C. Lemon (1995). The Discipline of History and

the History of Thought. Routledge. Page 201. ISBN 0415-12346-1

[39] Pavkovic, Michael; Morillo, Stephen (2006). What is Military History?. Oxford: Polity Press (published 31 July
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[22] Graham, Gordon (1997). Chapter 1. The Shape of the

Past. Oxford University.

[40] Cochrane, Eric (1975). What Is Catholic Historiography?". Catholic Historical Review 61 (2): 169190.
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[23] Jack Goody (2007) The Theft of History (from Google

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[24] Carr, Edward H. (1961). What is History?, p.108, ISBN
0-14-020652-3
[25] Ernst Breisach, Historiography: Ancient, medieval, and
modern (University of Chicago Press, 2007).
[26] Georg G. Iggers, Historiography in the twentieth century: From scientic objectivity to the postmodern challenge
(2005).
[27] Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C.; Jeremy A. Sablo (1979).
Ancient Civilizations: The Near East and Mesoamerica.
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[28] Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C.; Jeremy A. Sablo (1979).
Ancient Civilizations: The Near East and Mesoamerica.
Benjamin-Cummings Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 0-88133834-6.
[29] Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood (1967), The
Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, p. x, Princeton
University Press, ISBN 0-691-01754-9.
[30] H. Mowlana (2001). Information in the Arab World,
Cooperation South Journal 1.
[31] Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim
Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1-85065-3569.
[32] Enan, Muhammed Abdullah (2007). Ibn Khaldun: His
Life and Works. The Other Press. p. v. ISBN 983-954153-6.

[41] For example see Gajano, Soa Boesch; Cali, Tommaso

(1998). Italian Religious Historiography in the 1990s.
Journal of Modern Italian Studies 3 (3): 293306.
[42] Peter Stearns, ed. Encyclopedia of Social History (1994)
[43] Diplomatic dropped from 5% to 3%, economic history
from 7% to 5%, and cultural history grew from 14% to
16%. Based on full-time professors in U.S. history departments. Stephen H. Haber, David M. Kennedy, and
Stephen D. Krasner, Brothers under the Skin: Diplomatic History and International Relations, International
Security, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Summer, 1997), pp. 34-43 at p.
4 2; online at JSTOR
[44] Teachers of History in the Universities of the UK 2007 listed by research interest
[45] G. M. Trevelyan (1973). Introduction. English Social
History: A Survey of Six Centuries from Chaucer to Queen
Victoria. Book Club Associates. p. i. ISBN 0-58248488-X.
[46] Mary Fulbrook (2005). Introduction: The peoples paradox. The Peoples State: East German Society from Hitler
to Honecker. London: Yale University Press. p. 17. ISBN
978-0-300-14424-6.
[47] The rst World Dictionary of Images: Laurent Gervereau
(ed.), Dictionnaire mondial des images, Paris, Nouveau
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275 specialists from all continents, all specialities, all periods from Prehistory to nowadays) ; Laurent Gervereau,
Images, une histoire mondiale, Paris, Nouveau monde,
2008, 272p., ISBN 978-2-84736-362-3

13

[48] Muriel E Chamberlain, Pax Britannica'? British Foreign

Policy 1789-1914 (1988) p 1

[67] Jason Nicholls, ed. School History Textbooks across Cultures: International Debates and Perspectives (2006)

[49] Robert Whaples, Is Economic History a Neglected Field

of Study?, Historically Speaking (April 2010) v. 11#2
pp 17-20, with responses pp 20-27

[68] Claudia Schneider, The Japanese History Textbook Controversy in East Asian Perspective, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, May 2008,
Vol. 617, pp 107-122

[50] Franco Amatori, and Georey Jones, eds. Business History Around the World (2003) online edition
[51] J. D. Hughes, What is Environmental History (2006)
excerpt and text search
[52] Ainslie T. Embree and Carol Gluck, eds., Asia in Western
and World History: A Guide for Teaching (M.E. Sharpe,
1997)
[53] Shigeru Akita, World History and the Emergence of
Global History in Japan,Chinese Studies in History,
Spring 2010, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp 84-96
[54] http://www.historycooperative.org/jwhindex.html

[69] Problems of Teaching Contemporary Russian History,

Russian Studies in History, Winter 2004, Vol. 43 Issue 3,
pp 61-62
[70] Blackwell-Synergy.com. Blackwell-Synergy.com. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
[71] Teaching History in Schools: the Politics of Textbooks in
India, History Workshop Journal, April 2009, Issue 67,
pp 99-110
[72] Tatyana Volodina, Teaching History in Russia After the
Collapse of the USSR, History Teacher, February 2005,
Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp 179-188

[56] Wade Matthews (2013). The New Left, National Identity,

and the Break-up of Britain. BRILL. pp. 2021.

[73] Simone Lssig and Karl Heinrich Pohl, History Textbooks and Historical Scholarship in Germany, History
Workshop Journal Issue 67, Spring 2009 pp 128-9 online
at project MUSE

[57] Grafton, Anthony (2006). The History of Ideas: Precept

and Practice, 19502000 and beyond (PDF). Journal of
the History of Ideas 67 (1): 132.

15 Further reading

[55] http://www.h-net.org/~{}world/

[58] Horowitz, Maryanne Cline, ed. (2004). New Dictionary

of the History of Ideas 6.
[59] David Glassberg, Public history and the study of memory. The Public Historian (1996): 7-23. in JSTOR
[60] Curran, Vivian Grosswald (2000) Herder and the Holocaust: A Debate About Dierence and Determinism in the
Context of Comparative Law in F. C. DeCoste, Bernard
Schwartz (eds.) Holocausts Ghost: Writings on Art, Politics, Law and Education pp.413-5
[61] Curran, Vivian Grosswald (2000) Herder and the Holocaust: A Debate About Dierence and Determinism in the
Context of Comparative Law in F. C. DeCoste, Bernard
Schwartz (eds.) Holocausts Ghost: Writings on Art, Politics, Law and Education p.415
[62] Ivan Roots, Firth, Sir Charles Harding (18571936)",
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford University Press, 2004) Online; accessed 10 Nov 2014
[63] Reba Soer, Nation, duty, character and condence: history at Oxford, 18501914. Historical Journal (1987)
30#01 pp: 77-104.
[64] Frank Donoghue, The Last Professors: The Corporate
University and the Fate of the Humanities (2008)
[65] Jacqueline Swansinger, Preparing Student Teachers for
a World History Curriculum in New York, History
Teacher, (November 2009), 43#1 pp 87-96
[66] Abby Waldman, " The Politics of History Teaching in
England and France during the 1980s, History Workshop
Journal Issue 68, Autumn 2009 pp. 199-221 online

The American Historical Associations Guide to Historical Literature, 3rd ed., eds. Mary Beth Norton
and Pamela Gerardi (2 vol, Oxford U.P. 1995) 2064
pages; annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history books in all elds and
topics
Benjamin, Jules R. A Students Guide to History
(2009)
Carr, E.H., with a new introduction by Richard J.
Evans. What is History? Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2001, ISBN 0-333-97701-7.
Evans, Richard J. In Defence of History. W. W.
Norton (2000), ISBN 0-393-31959-8.
Furay, Conal, and Michael J. Salevouris. The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide (2010)
Kelleher, William. Writing History: A Guide for Students (2008) excerpt and text search
* Lingelbach, Gabriele. The Institutionalization
and Professionalization of History in Europe and the
United States. in The Oxford History of Historical
Writing: Volume 4: 1800-1945 4 (2011): 78+ online
Presnell, Jenny L. The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to Research for History Students
(2006) excerpt and text search
Tosh, John; The Pursuit of History (2006), ISBN 14058-2351-8.

14

16

Woolf D. R. A Global Encyclopedia of Historical

Writing (Garland Reference Library of the Humanities) (2 vol 1998) excerpt and text search
Williams, H. S. (1907). The historians history of
the world. (ed., This is Book 1 of 25 Volumes; PDF
version is available)

16

External links

Best history sites .net

BBC History Site
Internet History Sourcebooks Project See also
Internet History Sourcebooks Project. Collections
of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts
for educational use
The History Channel Online
History Channel UK

EXTERNAL LINKS

15

17
17.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

History Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History?oldid=726636253 Contributors: AxelBoldt, MichaelTinkler, Derek Ross, Brion

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Stevertigo, Mrwojo, DennisDaniels, Edward, Quintessent, Ghyll~enwiki, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Lexor, Isomorphic, MartinHarper, Sam
Francis, Ixfd64, Tango, IZAK, Tomi, Dori, Ahoerstemeier, Pjamescowie, Mac, Nanshu, Snoyes, CatherineMunro, Angela, Jebba, BigFatBuddha, Cyan, Andres, Deisenbe, Evercat, Alex756, Mxn, Denny, Nikola Smolenski, Crusadeonilliteracy, Alex S, Guaka, Adam Bishop,
Timwi, RickK, Reddi, Aion, DJ Clayworth, Vancouverguy, KRS, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Mrand, Ryuch, Hyacinth, ZeWrestler, Geraki, Bcorr, Veghead, Lumos3, Robbot, Paranoid, Sander123, ChrisG, Kizor, Fifelfoo, Altenmann, Yelyos, Nurg, Romanm, Babbage,
Merovingian, Gidonb, Roscoe x, Bkell, Hadal, Wereon, Borislav, Michael Snow, Mushroom, Jooler, Alan Liefting, Ancheta Wis, Kevin
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ShakataGaNai, Jossi, Adamsan, Kesac, Gsociology, DragonySixtyseven, Pat Berry, Ganymead, Bodnotbod, Icairns, Gscshoyru, Neutrality, Imjustmatthew, Ukexpat, Seirios~enwiki, Zondor, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Grunt, Vcool, Flex, Zaf, SYSS Mouse, A5ehren,
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El C, Walden, Lycurgus, Mwanner, Surachit, Aude, Shanes, Haxwell, Brisis~enwiki, Sietse Snel, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Vipul, Wareh,
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Seeker, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Suruena, Staeiou, RainbowOfLight, Sciurin, Dominic, Pfahlstrom, W7KyzmJt, LordAmeth, Redvers,
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Graham87, WBardwin, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, MC MasterChef, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, Jclemens, Icey, Chenxlee, Paulie-k,
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SMC, Nneonneo, CQJ, ScottJ, Boccobrock, THE KING, Ucucha, Twerbrou, DirkvdM, Yamamoto Ichiro, FayssalF, Titoxd, FlaBot, UltraMako101, Nihiltres, Nivix, Chanting Fox, AI, RexNL, Gurch, Jrtayloriv, Str1977, Codex Sinaiticus, EronMain, Alphachimp, Malhonen,
OpenToppedBus, BMF81, Psantora, King of Hearts, Chobot, Bgwhite, Hall Monitor, Hahnchen, Gwernol, Tone, Cornellrockey, SujinYH,
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Osioni, JarrahTree, RussBot, Crazytales, Kevs, BTLizard, Bhny, Pigman, Theathenae, SpuriousQ, Yamara, Akamad, Noypi380, Stephenb,
Polluxian, Hyperbole, CambridgeBayWeather, Wimt, RadioKirk, MarcK, Diesel2k, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Rick Norwood, SEWilcoBot,
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