F240 Early Childhood Education Inners FINAL Web PDF
F240 Early Childhood Education Inners FINAL Web PDF
F240 Early Childhood Education Inners FINAL Web PDF
11/01/2016 12:56
ISBN 978-0-86355-782-8
British Council 2016
10 Spring Gardens
London SW1A 2BN, UK
www.britishcouncil.org
11/01/2016 12:56
Contents
Foreword
John Knagg, OBE.......................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction
Victoria A Murphy and Maria Evangelou...........................................................................................4
1 Global Perspectives.................................................................................................................. 19
1.1 North America
Rethinking early childhood education for English language learners:
the role of language
Fred Genesee....................................................................................................................................21
1.2 South America
Early childhood bilingual education in South America
Anne-Marie de Meja.........................................................................................................................43
1.3 Europe
European perspectives on early childhood and care in English for
speakers of other languages
Victoria A Murphy, Maria Evangelou, Jenny Goff and Rebecca Tracz........................57
1.4 India
Early childhood education in English in India
Padmini Shankar and Paul Gunashekar...................................................................................75
1.5 Africa
Beyond ABC: the complexities of early childhood education in Tanzania
Nipael Mrutu, Pauline Rea-Dickins,
Fortidas Bakuza and Shelina Walli..............................................................................................91
1.6 Australia
Making the ESL classroom visible: indigenous Australian
childrens early education
Lauren Gawne, Gillian Wigglesworth and Gemma Morales..........................................111
1.7 E
astern Asia
English as a foreign language (EFL) and English medium instruction
(EMI) for three- to seven-year-old children in East Asian contexts
Yanling Zhou and Mei Lee Ng.................................................................................................... 137
|
1
Contents
11/01/2016 12:56
| Contents
11/01/2016 12:56
Foreword
The British Council asked Victoria A. Murphy and Maria Evangelou to put together
this wide-ranging book on English language learning in the early stages of
education (pre-primary, or ages 0 to seven years) as a result of increased interest
and incidence of practice in the area perhaps the final frontier in the rush to
teach and learn English at ever younger ages combined with a relative lack of
specific research and experience sharing.
Quality early childhood education and care (ECEC) has become more and more
widespread globally in both state and private sectors over recent years and
decades, though there is still lamentably a huge discrepancy in access. Research
has shown the added value to later achievements of quality education at this vital
pre-primary stage. Equally, there has been an ever-growing demand, especially
from parents, to ensure that children leave school with a mastery of English, which
is seen as the international language of communication in more and more domains,
and a key to social and economic improvement. This volume provides a variety of
perspectives on how these two social trends can come together to give children an
advantage in their multilingual development alongside physical, emotional, social
and cognitive development, in a way that is age appropriate and without the need
for a false divide between the world of work and play. The editors tell us that there
are no cognitive impediments or negative consequences to learning more than one
language in young children when done well, and the contributors show us that
doing it well includes having well-prepared teachers, a well-designed curriculum,
good resources, considered policies and supportive parents.
A number of core values and beliefs underpin this volume. We believe in quality
early childhood education for all. We believe in working tirelessly for increased
understanding across cultures, for valuing cultural diversity, and for promoting
multilingualism. That means that while we work to develop a wider knowledge of
English across the world in response to clear demand, we will never forget the
importance of the mother tongue and local languages that mean that children can
talk to their grandparents and learn from them, and which carry with them the
glorious array of cultures and ways of being that the human race embraces. As the
editors say, a world that only speaks English would be bleak indeed. We support an
additive bilingual education that supports the home language as well as the wider
development of creative and wise global citizens who will look after our planet far
into the future.
We hope that this volume will inspire practitioners and policy-makers, and form a
part of the classes and reading lists for initial and in-service early childhood
teacher education courses. Our thanks go to the editors for their expertise and
efforts in putting this innovative collection together, as well as to the many
contributors for sharing their experience and wisdom with us.
John Knagg OBE
British Council
|
3
Foreword
11/01/2016 12:56
Introduction
Victoria A Murphy, Maria Evangelou, University of Oxford
Viewed freely, the English language is the accretion and growth of every dialect,
race and range of time, and is both the free and compacted composition of all.
Walt Whitman
The story of the Tower of Babel is perhaps an interesting metaphor for the
international power of the English language. In the tale, humans are reaching for
the heavens through the construction of their tower, achievable through their
ability to communicate effectively with one another. God was not pleased with this
idea, and hence the solution was to confuse the language of the world such that
people began to speak many different languages, were no longer able to
understand each other, and hence could no longer aim to reach heaven in their
earthly lives. This story suggests that if we can communicate effectively with each
other, the sky is the limit in terms of human achievement (indeed, in the story of
Babel, maybe the sky is not even the limit!). Is the English language the new Babel?
The eagerness to learn English that we see around the world does rather suggest
that fuelling the desire to learn English is the belief that it will somehow be
transformative for peoples lives, it being considered a cornerstone of future
economic and personal success. While English is the fourth most spoken language
by native speakers (after Mandarin, Hindi and Spanish), more people (i.e. total
number of speakers) speak English around the world than any other language
(approximately one thousand five hundred million, c.f. www.statista.com). While it is
not obvious that the whole world speaking English means we will reach heaven, it is
clear that sharing such a global lingua franca has direct and specific consequences
on numerous aspects of life, including education.
A number of research studies have identified a growing international phenomenon
where different forms of education are offered through the medium of English to
non-English speakers. One of the main underlying reasons for this expansion of
such forms of education undoubtedly lies (in part) in the success of the French
immersion programmes established in Canada by Lambert and Tucker (1972). In
this programme, primary school children are educated for part of the school day in
their native language (English) and in the other part of the day, in the second
language (French). Many studies have since shown that immersion is a highly
successful form of bilingual education since it promotes higher levels of oral
language proficiency in the second language (L2) and higher levels of L2 literacy
skills than would be found in more traditional taught programmes (e.g. Genesee,
1987, 2004; Murphy, 2014). As a result of the success of immersion education,
immersion programmes have proliferated throughout the world (see Murphy, 2014
for a review). It is likely, therefore, that due to the international success of
immersion education in raising achievements in L2 or foreign language (FL)
learning, English language education (and particularly English immersion
programmes) has similarly escalated. In the sphere of higher education, for
example, Dearden (2015) reports on the rapid expansion of programmes offered
| Introduction
11/01/2016 12:56
through English Medium Instruction (EMI) around the world. Interestingly, the
general support and feelings for EMI are equivocal not everyone in Deardens
research (who were British Council staff from 55 countries) felt that EMI was
self-evidently a good idea, while some viewed it as potentially controversial and
reported feeling that EMI might have potentially negative consequences for lower
socio-economic groups or for first language maintenance and/or education. This is
an idea we will return to later on.
At the other end of the educational spectrum, Rixon (2013) shows that despite
research indicating that successful English language learning is not determined
(only) by the age of the learner, many countries have reduced the age at which
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction is introduced into the primary, and
often the pre-primary, curriculum. She suggests that introducing EFL at young ages
can be problematic when the materials, quality teacher education and generally
appropriate conditions for learning are not in place. This view is consistent with
Murphy (2014) who also argued that it is not the age of the learner that is the most
powerful predictor of EFL success but, rather, the context (i.e. nature of the
provision, materials, teachers, parental support, and the like). Rixon (2013) also
comments that the proliferation of English language teaching is particularly notable
in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) settings despite the fact that her
research showed that in many contexts resources are either lacking or not
sufficient to the task.
At the same time that English language learning is being offered in numerous
different educational programmes (from ECEC up to higher education), more and
more children are participating in ECEC. The Office for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD)s family database shows that between the years 200310, all
countries in the OECD experienced significant increases in enrolment in formal
childcare and pre-school services for children under three years of age as well as
increases in enrolment rates of children aged three to five years (OECD, 2014).
Additionally, many countries have very high proportions (sometimes close to 100
per cent) of three-to-five-year-old children attending formal pre-school educational
programmes (OECD, 2014)1. Given that higher numbers of young children are
participating in ECEC and, as Rixon (2013) showed, increasingly are being offered
English through ECEC, it is timely to examine English language learning through
ECEC with children who do not speak English.
This volume brings these two issues the proliferation of English language
education and increased participation in ECEC together. It provides an overarching discussion of pertinent issues, research findings and concerns/challenges
related to the education of children between 0 and seven years old through the
medium of English (EMI) or through EFL instruction. The first section of this volume
presents critical discussion of key issues related to specific global perspectives
where each continent is represented except Antarctica, as it is virtually
uninhabited. Contributions from North and South America, Europe, Africa, India,
Unfortunately, it is also true that many of the poorest children in the world are not able to access good quality ECEC
(UNICEF, 2014)
|
5
Introduction
11/01/2016 12:56
Australia and East Asia from researchers and/or language teaching and learning
professionals working within these regions present detailed discussion of central
topics specific to these contexts in relation to ECEC in English for non-English
speakers. The second section of this volume presents more local discussion of
particular projects related to ECEC in English across the world. These case studies
are sub-divided into those relevant to the EMI or EFL contexts and show us the
considerable variability in how researchers, teachers and other language
professionals are working within this growing international area. These discussions
range from the very quantitatively research-oriented (e.g. the control trial in Fricke
and Millard), to more ethnographic and descriptive projects carried out in English
language classrooms (e.g. Ang). While the majority of these case studies are
ultimately concerned with the child and their learning of English, some of them
focus on the environment in which the child is learning (i.e. the classroom-based
environment in Mouro and Robinson) and/or how we can best support teachers
(e.g. Ellis), parents and/or other language professionals (e.g. Paradis). One could
use the term eclectic to characterise the range of topics and approaches in this
volume. We deliberately adopted this multifaceted approach in putting this volume
together because we believe that it is important to illustrate the significant
diversity of research and areas of discussion and concern in relation to ECEC in
English internationally. This diversity is important because we believe the area of
ECEC through English for non-English speakers is itself in its early years from a
research point of view. We hope, therefore, that this volume will serve as a catalyst
for much more discussion and research.
| Introduction
11/01/2016 12:56
|
7
Introduction
11/01/2016 12:56
In some countries, English can have an official role in the society, hence leading
educationalists to introduce English language education into pre-primary settings.
For example, Shankar and Gunashekar describe the complex and diverse setting of
India where English is a second language, where higher education is offered
primarily through English, and where, for historical reasons, there is now an
English-speaking elite (residual from Britains rule). English is seen as the language
of opportunity and social mobility in India, as well as in East Asia (Zhou and Ng) and
other countries. For example, English is an official language of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) of China, and is viewed as a high-status
language, which, if learned to sufficiently high standards, can lead to greater
economic success.
These issues are also echoed in Gawne, Wigglesworth et al.s chapter, where they
discuss issues of English language education in Australia. Australia is a country with
significant linguistic diversity (over 250 different languages represented by
Australias Indigenous peoples alone) and many aboriginal children who speak a
home or community language that is not the Standard Australian English (SAE)
come to school with different linguistic and socio-cultural conventions and can
struggle in learning SAE through educational settings. Mrutu, Rea-Dickins, et al.
also discuss the importance of English language learning in Africa, where English is
associated with better quality education and, as in other contexts, is seen as an
important skill, enabling citizens to have a more successful life. As with India
(Shankar and Guneshekar), English is important for older students in Africa given
that higher education is offered through English, so the belief is that offering
English language education at very young ages sets up the path to success.
Indeed, this notion of beliefs that are held by different elements of society
underpins most of the chapters in this volume, and is an issue directly discussed in
Genesees chapter, for example. A common theme that emerges from the
discussions here is the pressure from parents. As Enever (2004) noted, there is a
strong parentocracy in relation to English language education, where throughout
the world parents beliefs that it is important for their children to learn English at
young ages creates an environment where programmes are sometimes hastily put
together to meet demand, often without appropriate teacher education and
resources/materials (e.g. Zhou and Ng, this volume). This pressure from parents is
characterised by a worrying finding described in Wongs chapter where he notes
that 49.5 per cent of parents in Hong Kong who participated in his survey would
not mind if their pre-school-aged children acquired English rather than Cantonese
as their L1 despite the fact that the respondents of this survey were from
Cantonese families. This pressure from parents, therefore, is tangible and, while
they have the best of intentions for their children, they could clearly benefit from
some evidence-based guidance regarding the benefits of different educational
programmes on bilingual development.
Educators, policy makers and parental beliefs often tend to guide and shape the
forces that lead to young children receiving some form of English language
education at young ages. Sometimes these beliefs are inconsistent with research
and one of the issues that emerges from this volume is the importance of fighting
| Introduction
11/01/2016 12:56
against these beliefs when they contradict the evidence. For example, some of the
beliefs that are discussed and dismantled in Genesees chapter include the notion
that learning and using more than one language can be burdensome and has
associated costs or disadvantages. Genesee discusses what he refers to as
assimilationist, submersion, or monolingualist educational policies and practices
and how these can be detrimental to young bilingual childrens linguistic
development. Similar issues are found in chapters throughout this volume.
There are many stakeholders involved in English language education for young
children between zero and seven. The contributions in this volume highlight some
of the unique and difficult challenges the educators involved in developing and
delivering English language education to young learners must resolve.
Teacher education
One of the most prevalent concerns is whether and to what extent English teachers
of young children in ECEC contexts have received appropriate teacher education.
This is an issue that emerges from a considerable number of chapters here. For
example, in de Mejas chapter about developing appropriate bilingual education
programmes in South America, teacher training programmes figure prominently, to
encourage teachers to develop skills and knowledge concerning the languages,
the cultures, the content, pedagogical knowledge, and general knowledge about
bilingualism and bilingual education. Teacher education is a concern in Mrutu,
Rea-Dickins et al.s chapter on Africa, and Zhou and Ngs chapter on East Asia. Zhou
and Ng, for example, describe a situation that is prevalent, but not unique to East
Asia, where an unqualified native speaker teacher is deemed sufficient, or perhaps
even more important, than a qualified, local (but non-native speaking) teacher.
These chapters, and others, identify the problems inherent in the mismatch
between the demand for native-speaking English teachers, and the numbers of
such qualified teachers available. There are, thankfully, some examples of
successful collaborative practice discussed in the contributions from de Meja,
Mouro and Robinson, and Ordoez. It is important to learn from these examples of
good practice and do more research on examining the particular variables that
lead to successful English language outcomes in young children.
Paradis also raises the issue of teacher education from the perspective of working
with children with language and/or developmental disorders. She explains how
there is a common misconception that being bilingual exacerbates the difficulties
faced by children with developmental disorders. She highlights the need for
appropriate teacher education that helps teachers understand that bilingualism
does not impede language development in either typically, or atypically
developing children.
The lack of multilingual teacher education is a theme from Murphy, Evangelou et
al.s chapter on Europe and Gawne, Wigglesworth et al.s chapter in the context of
Aboriginal children learning the standard dialect of English. For example, Gawne et
al. discuss the problem of the monolingual mindset in a multilingual context where
neither the policy nor the curriculum acknowledges the linguistic contexts that the
child is learning in, and which can actually disadvantage the learner. When teachers
|
9
Introduction
11/01/2016 12:56
are unfamiliar with, or lack understanding of, the differences and similarities
between home language and school language and social patterns, difficulties can
arise. In Australia, often the teachers who teach young SAE learners have only
received this monolingualist perspective as part of their Initial Teacher Education
(ITE) and often do not have any real understanding of the linguistic and/or sociocultural needs of aboriginal children. This can also often lead to high turnover, as
non-aboriginal teachers can sometimes find teaching in this context very
challenging not surprising given that they may not have received adequate
training for the task.
While a lack of qualified teachers with appropriate training is a common theme
throughout this volume, Ellis provides us with an example of a short course for
state pre-school teachers in France and illustrates how combining theory and
practice, providing theoretical input on childrens language development and
building on teachers pre-existing skills can be successfully and effectively
transferred to EFL for young children. Ellis project provides us with an interesting
model as to how we can support teachers as they modify their practice to
encourage their young pupils to learn English. Furthermore, as mentioned above,
Mouro and Robinson, and Ordoez, all illustrate examples of collaborative
practice that seems to have positive consequences on the childrens learning and
teachers professional development. One of the themes that emerges from this
volume is the lack of research in this area which means that it is all the more
important for us to document and discuss what we conceive of as examples of
good practice and to critically examine and identify (preferably empirically) what
leads to successful English language education for young learners. The examples
in this volume represent an important contribution in that regard (see also Mouro
and Loureno, 2015, as another example of a volume presenting critical discussion
of different topics central to early years language learning).
Lack of resources
A recurring theme in Mrutu, Rea-Dickins et al.s chapter is the lack of resources
available to teachers to help support the English language learning of young
learners. Of course, Mrutu, Rea-Dickins et al. describe the unique context of
Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) where access to engaging and appropriate resources can
be a real challenge for teachers. However, lack of resources and materials is not
unique to SSA, as evidenced throughout many of the chapters here. Mohamed
illustrates that when there is an imbalance of how resources are allocated (i.e. more
towards L2 English than L1 activities), problems can ensue. In the case described
by Mohamed, despite policy specifically identifying the importance and role of the
L1, resources being allocated more to L2 activities permeated into literacy-based
activities in English at potential cost to L1 development. Zhou and Ng also identify a
lack of resources appropriate to the learner population as being one of the
challenges of educators in the East Asian context.
10
| Introduction
11/01/2016 12:56
Curriculum
Developing and implementing an appropriate curriculum is of course inherently
connected to both teacher education and resources. A number of chapters in this
volume highlight the problem of curriculum. For example, Zhou and Ng note that in
many East Asian countries, there is a pedagogical focus on memorisation and
copying activities partly based on the fact that such activities are more
straightforward for parents to support outside of school activities (particularly if
they themselves do not have high levels of English proficiency). They note that such
activities are not generally agreed by educators to be appropriate for young
children because they fail to make language fun and communicative or meaningful.
Wong also identifies how curriculum planning is typically driven by market forces in
East Asia. Furthermore, he highlights how curricula are only very loosely bound by
educational policy. This is a common thread throughout many chapters in this
volume where there is either a lack of policy, or a very loose connection between
what is implemented in Early Years classrooms in English, and what is dictated by
policy. Indeed, policy itself does not figure prominently in this volume, which we
assume reflects the fact that policy for English language learning through ECEC is
not well developed internationally. This issue is discussed further, for example, in
Murphy et al.s chapter.
From a research perspective, Fricke and Millard show how a focus on oral language
skills through classroom-based activities can have manifest benefits on EAL
childrens development of vocabulary knowledge and skills which in turn are
important predictors of literacy development. Ang also shows, through an
ethnographic study, how an integrated curriculum for Singaporean pre-school
children (three to six year-olds) can be effective. Ang illustrates how there was an
appropriate blend of East and West where children were observed using two
distinct languages in context, and actively engaging with and participating in
various social and cultural activities. These chapters show how relevant curricular
content and activities lead to clear positive gains in developing bilinguals.
Within the EFL context, Samantray suggests that an appropriate curriculum can
benefit other skills (e.g. maths) as well as developing English language skills.
Navarro Martinez, Coyle and Roca de Larios show how young English language
learners can improve their English pronunciation through appropriate pedagogical
focus, and Hillyard describes an action research project which illustrates how
teachers can engage in enquiry-based professional activities to help guide and
support their teaching and EFL childrens learning. Therefore, there are a number
of interesting and promising examples of how different pedagogical approaches,
which of course is intimately connected to curriculum and provision, might be
beneficial for young learners of English in ECEC settings. A common but highly
relevant refrain, however, is that more research is needed in this area.
Developing the L1
Another major theme common to many chapters in this volume is the concern
about promoting the L1 of young English language learners. As countries lower the
age at which English language education is introduced, and as ECEC is increasingly
|
11
Introduction
11/01/2016 12:56
12
| Introduction
11/01/2016 12:56
The learner
As well as there being numerous themes which emerge from the discussions in this
volume for educators of young English language learners, the learners themselves
have a number of issues with which they have to contend. As mentioned above,
since 1960 we have seen a big increase in the number of young children attending
any type of childcare and pre-school education: Todays rising generation in the
countries of the OECD is the first in which a majority are spending a large part of
their early childhoods not in their own families but in some form of childcare.
(UNICEF, 2008: 3)
A review by Melhuish et al. (2015) on childcare and pre-school education (i.e. ECEC)
has affirmed once more the crucial role that pre-school education plays in
childrens development, especially for those from disadvantaged backgrounds who
enter school with fewer academic skills than their more advantaged peers, and
they often lag behind in their cognitive development during the later school years
(Stipek and Ryan, 1997). Melhuish et al. state that there is:
clear evidence that cognitive, language and academic skills can also be
enhanced by ECEC experience and these are likely to play a role also in the later
educational, social and economic success that is often found in well-implemented
ECEC interventions. (Melhuish et al., 2015: 24)
Brice Heath (1994), in her seminal book Ways with Words: Language, Life, and Work
in Communities and Classrooms, addressed the disparities between the language
children use at home and the language they are invited to use when they come to
school and what educators should know about it. She reminds us of the challenges
young children face when they enter pre-school settings especially when the
languages used at home and at the school environment are not shared. One of the
most important messages of the book is the need to be aware of the home
linguistic skills of every child in our care and build upon these further, rather than
seeing them as an obstacle.
The first time a young child attends school is fraught with change; change which
not every child will find easy to accommodate. If that educational experience is
offered through the medium of a language in which that child has limited
proficiency, this can exacerbate those difficulties. For example, in some of the
research described in Murphy, Evangelou et al., we see evidence of young children
being very quiet and not engaging much with the other children and teachers,
partly as a function of having limited English proficiency. In EFL contexts, there is
considerable evidence that shows that, in general, young children are enthusiastic
and motivated learners of foreign languages (e.g. Murphy, 2014); however, the
extent to which this enjoyment persists as the child develops his/her English
|
13
Introduction
11/01/2016 12:56
14
| Introduction
11/01/2016 12:56
Parents
It has already been mentioned in this chapter that parents have a powerful role to
play in the development, implementation and support of English language
education for young non-English-speaking children. This is a theme threaded
throughout the volume. For example, de Meja discusses some research carried out
on parents attitudes and expectations towards EnglishSpanish bilingual education
programmes. She notes that while in some cultures parents expect to be highly
involved in their childrens education, studies from some Latino families have
shown that parents are more accustomed to waiting for the schools to take the
initiative. Parents do have high expectations in EnglishSpanish bilingual
educational programmes and in most cases have explicitly chosen these forms of
education for their young children, sometimes at significant personal expense (true
also for many contexts in East Asia where ECEC is almost exclusively run by private
companies). De Meja discusses the importance of parents contributions to the
success of their young childrens learning, which is developing through a language
that is different from the home language. She discusses the role of parents as
educational partners in their childrens early learning, and how important it is that
this relationship between the home and school, facilitated by the parents, is
maximised. Similar issues are discussed in many chapters in this volume (e.g. Mrutu,
Rea-Dickins et al.s discussion of community engagement to support ECEC in
English in Sub-Saharan Africa).
While we have seen from many studies that parents have a powerful, facilitative
influence in their childrens educational achievement, Zhou and Ng (and to some
extent Wong) also talk about some of the potentially unintended negative
consequences that stem from parental influence. As already identified, parents in
East Asia (and many other contexts around the world) are deeply enthusiastic
about their young children receiving English through ECEC. They constitute a
powerful force, therefore, in the development of EMI and EFL programmes. Zhou
and Ng suggest that this has sometimes led to initiatives in English language
education being implemented perhaps before they are ready, before policy and
curricula have been well considered and before teachers have had appropriate
training. It is important that parents have high expectations for their children;
however, it is important also for them to be realistic about what young children are
likely to achieve through English language programmes in ECEC (see Wong).
Conclusions
We have suggested in this chapter that research on English language learning
through ECEC is largely in its infancy. This volume is part of a growing impetus to
develop our understanding in this area, which in turn will have positive
consequences on the development of appropriate policy, curricula, provision and
teacher education for English language learning in young children. The chapters of
this volume represent a highly diverse discussion given that many different
geopolitical contexts and many different areas of interest and concern are
represented. Despite this diversity, there are a number of common themes that
emerge, underscoring their importance. These relate to teacher education and
how important it is that we develop appropriate guidance and training for teachers
|
15
Introduction
11/01/2016 12:56
References
Barnett, WS and Hustedt, JS (2003) Pre-school: The most important grade. The First
Years of School, 60(7), 54-57.
Brice Heath, S (1994) Ways with words; language, life, and work in communities and
classrooms. Cambridge University Press: USA.
Bruner, J (1986) Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Castles, S (2013) The forces driving global migration. Journal of Intercultural
Studies, 34(2), 122-140.
Dearden, J (2015) English as a medium of instruction A growing global
phenomenon. London: The British Council.
Dockrell, JE, Stuart, M and King, D (2010) Supporting early oral language skills for
English language learners in inner city pre-school provision. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, 80/4, 497-515.
Edwards, C, Gandini, L and Foreman, G (1996) The hundred languages of children.
London: Ablex.
Enever, J (2004) Europeanisation or globalisation in early start EFL trends across
Europe? in Gnutzmann, C and Intemann, F (eds) The globalisation of English and the
English language classroom. Tbingen: Narr.
Enever, J (ed) (2011) ELLiE: Early language learning in Europe. London: The British
Council.
Genesee, F (1987) Learning through two languages: Studies of immersion and
bilingual education. Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Genesee, F (2004) What do we know about bilingual education for majority
language students? in Bhatia, TK and Ritchie, W (eds) Handbook of bilingualism and
multilingualism. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
16
| Introduction
11/01/2016 12:56
|
17
Introduction
11/01/2016 12:56
18
| Global Perspectives
11/01/2016 12:56
SECTION DIVIDER
1
Global
Perspectives
11/01/2016 12:56
20
11/01/2016 12:56
1.1
North America
Rethinking early childhood
education for English language
learners: the role of language2
Fred Genesee, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
There is an increasing proportion of children in English-speaking countries who
grow up speaking other languages exclusively or predominantly during the
pre-school years. When these children begin school, they may have virtually no
proficiency in English or relatively little. In this chapter, these children will be
referred to as English language learners, or ELLs. For example, in Canada, more
than 2.2 million families (of which 40 per cent are children or youth) immigrated to
Canada between 1991 and 2000, the highest number of any decade during the
preceding century (Statistics Canada, 2001); and this number was expected to
increase as the Canadian government increases immigration quotas (Canadian
School Boards Association Consultation Paper, 2006). In the US, in 2007, about 10.8
million (or 20 per cent) of school-age children spoke a language other than English
at home, and this number is expected to increase 50 per cent by 2025 (Passel and
Cohen, 2008). There is a number of explanations for these demographic facts, the
primary one being increased immigration of families and children from non-Englishspeaking, underdeveloped regions of the world to more prosperous Englishspeaking regions. At the same time, many children who come to school with no or
limited proficiency in English are not immigrants or the children of immigrants; but
rather are born and raised in English-speaking countries and grow up learning only
or primarily the families heritage languages. This, in turn, may reflect a number of
different factors, including lack of parental proficiency in the societal language,
parental choice to maintain the heritage language by using it in the home during
the pre-school years, or ghettoisation of children in communities where the
heritage language is the lingua franca among community members and, thus, the
language to be learned for day-to-day communication.
I would like to thank Kathryn Lindholm-Leary, San Jose State University, California, for insightful comments on an
earlier version of this chapter.
21
11/01/2016 12:56
Children who come to school with no or limited proficiency in English can face a
number of significant challenges. From a linguistic point of view, they must learn
the societally dominant language for both social and academic purposes along with
the cultural norms that govern its use in school and in the community at large. At
the same time, they must learn literacy skills along with general and subjectspecific knowledge and skills in science, mathematics, or social studies, for
example, in English. As a result of the growing recognition of the importance of the
pre-school years for childrens cognitive, social and personal development (Ontario
Ministry of Children and Youth Services, 2007), more and more children begin
education during the pre-school years. On the one hand, increasing participation in
pre-school programmes is to be favoured since it appears to close the
achievement gap between ELL and mainstream students (Barnett and Hustedt,
2003; Frede and Barnett, 2011). On the other hand, the linguistic challenges that
ELL children typically face at the onset of formal schooling may begin earlier if they
attend pre-school programmes.
These are also challenges for parents, childcare workers and educators
responsible for raising and educating ELLs because their knowledge and
assumptions about how best to promote the educational development of these
children may be called into question. There are indeed good reasons to question
our assumptions and policies with respect to best practices for educating ELLs, not
least of which is extensive evidence in the US, for example, that many ELLs, on
average, underperform in school in comparison to mainstream English-speaking
students (Abedi et al., 2006; Kim and Herman, 2009). As a result, as adults, they can
experience disproportionately high rates of unemployment, poverty, drug- and
alcohol-related problems and poor health. While all of these outcomes cannot be
explained exclusively in terms of quality of education per se, there is no doubt that
success in school can serve to ameliorate the most severe forms of these
difficulties (Barnett and Hustedt, 2003).
This chapter focuses on the role of language in the educational success, difficulty
or failure of ELL children. While focusing on language makes a great deal of sense
given the importance of language in education, it is critical to recognise that
language-related issues are not the only or even necessarily the most serious
challenges faced by ELLs in school. Depending on the background of specific
children or groups of children, their academic success can be jeopardised by
issues related to poverty, poor health, trauma linked to immigration and/or
pre-immigrant experiences, cultural differences between home and school, school
and school district policies and practices (including assessment requirements), the
quality of educational materials, instruction and curriculum, teachers attitudes and
inadequate teacher preparation. Of these, socio-economic status has been shown
to be particularly potent (National Task Force on Early Childhood Education for
Hispanics, 2009; OECD, 2010). Individual ELLs can experience a number of different
challenges simultaneously with significant and commensurate effects on their
academic outcomes (Lindholm-Leary, 2010). It is also important to recognise that
not all ELL students do poorly in school and that the academic performance of
ELLs can vary from country to country. Two notable exceptions to the general
22
11/01/2016 12:56
pattern described above are Canada (Aydemir et al., 2008) and Australia (CobbClark and Trong-Ha Nguyen, 2010). Research has shown that immigrant ELLs in
these countries, on average, perform as well or better than native-born students
on standardised tests of academic achievement. Explanations for these findings
are not entirely clear; but one reason can be found in these countries immigration
policies, which favour relatively highly educated immigrants from middle class
backgrounds. Whatever the complete explanation of these between-country
differences, suffice to say here that the academic performance of ELLs can reflect
complex, national-level factors and that across-the-board stereotypes about the
academic achievement of ELLs are to be avoided. Because the educational
outcomes of ELLs in Canada are atypical, the focus in this chapter is on issues and
challenges in educating young ELLs in the US with secondary references to Canada
where useful.
The following sections examine the beliefs and attitudes of North American
educators and the public at large with respect to the role of language in early
childhood education and during the primary school grades (ages five to seven)
because these beliefs have shaped policies and practices with respect to ELLs in
significant ways. Empirical evidence that refutes these beliefs is then discussed and
alternative strategies for educating ELLs based on this evidence are then
considered.
23
11/01/2016 12:56
Learning and using more than one language is burdensome and has
associated costs or disadvantages.
2.
3.
4.
Taken together, these beliefs have important implications for thinking about when
and how ELLs should learn English for example, to what extent ELLs should begin
to learn English during the pre-school years in order to prepare them for formal
schooling in English; the role of the L1 in pre-school and school programmes where
English is otherwise used as the only language of instruction; whether ELLs should
receive instruction in the home language to ensure acquisition of academic
objectives while they learn English; and whether their achievement in non-language
subjects (such as mathematics or science) and in English (such as reading and
writing) should be assessed in the same ways and, in the case of English
proficiency, using the same benchmarks as are used with monolingual native
English-speaking students. In fact, these beliefs have been the historically
prevalent way of thinking about educating young ELLs and about preparing them
for school entry. The influence of these beliefs and attitudes has been most evident
in educational programmes during the elementary (primary) and secondary school
years, but has also impacted thinking about pre-school education as more and
more children attend pre-school programmes.
In brief, these beliefs and theories underlie what might variously be referred to as
assimilationist, submersion or monolingualist educational policies and practices
(Wiley, 2014). Under these views, for most of the 20th century to the present, most
ELLs have attended pre-school and primary school programmes in which they have
been educated exclusively in English along with native English-speaking children.
They might receive some instruction or support in English-as-a-second-language
(ESL) in separate (or pull-out) classrooms by specialist ESL teachers; but, otherwise,
formal instruction in language arts and the rest of the curriculum has been and
continues to be provided by teachers who often have little or no background on
how to teach language or other school subjects to students who are learning
through a language they are still acquiring. Individualised instruction (or individual
educational programmes, IEPs), a cornerstone of contemporary general education,
that reflects ELLs specific backgrounds has not been commonplace for ELLs,
although it has become more common recently.
Belief in the importance of early acquisition of English has extended to families who
often think that they should begin to use English with their children as soon and as
much as possible so they are prepared for English-only schooling. In fact, at times,
parents of ELL children have been encouraged to use English with their children
even though they themselves might not speak English well. Wave upon wave of
24
11/01/2016 12:56
Examining beliefs
In this section, research is considered that examines the validity of each of the
general beliefs presented in the preceding section. This review is necessarily
selective and simplified owing to space limitations; but it nevertheless serves to
highlight research findings that challenge conventional ways of thinking about
educating ELLs and opens the door to considering alternative strategies that might
be more effective.
To begin, it has been widely believed that learning and using more than one
language is burdensome and has associated costs and disadvantages (Belief 1).
However, this commonly held belief runs into empirical obstacles from diverse
sources. An assumption of this particular belief seems to be that the human
neuro-cognitive capacity for learning and using language is fundamentally
monolingual in nature and, thus, learning and/or using two languages requires
additional cognitive resources that can stretch learners capacity and, in turn, limit
their linguistic and communicative competence. Indeed, an early theory of bilingual
acquisition argued that children who grow up learning two languages during the
pre-school years go through an early stage when input from the two languages is
treated as part of a single system (e.g. Volterra and Taeschner, 1978). Neurocognitive separation of the two languages was thought to emerge only during the
third year of life and, thus, it was only after two years of age that these learners
were truly bilingual. Bilingual childrens use of words or grammatical structures
from their two languages in the same sentence or conversation (i.e. code-switching
or code-mixing) was taken as evidence in support of this theory.
This view has been rejected by extensive research, and there is now a consensus
that young children exposed to two languages from birth are able to distinguish
their two languages, functionally and probably therefore cognitively, from the
earliest stages of development (e.g., Paradis et al., 2011). That learning and using
two languages is not burdensome is also attested by evaluations in the U.S. of the
language abilities of pre-school and school-age ELLs in bilingual programmes in
which at least 50% of instruction takes place in Spanish and the rest in English (see
Genesee and Lindholm-Leary, 2012, for more detailed discussions of these issues).
Findings from these studies reveal, that contrary to the above expectations, ELLs in
bilingual programmes demonstrate the same or even higher levels of ability in
25
11/01/2016 12:56
English as ELLs in English-only programmes, and they similarly attain the same
levels of academic achievement as ELLs in programmes in which instruction is
provided only in English (Lindholm-Leary and Borsato, 2006).
While there are other sources of evidence that challenge the notion that dual
language learning is burdensome, perhaps the most compelling evidence comes
from studies of children who grow up learning two language from birth under
conditions of neuro-cognitive impairment. Arguably, children with specific language
impairment (SLI) or Down Syndrome, for example, who have well documented
difficulties acquiring language that are known (in the case of children with Down
Syndrome) or thought (in the case of children with SLI) to be linked to geneticallybased neuro-cognitive impairments should have greater difficulty learning two
languages than one. Contrary to this hypothesis, research on such learners
indicates that they do not differ significantly from children with the same
impairments who are learning only one language (e.g., Paradis et al., 2003; KayRaining Bird, et al., 2005; see also Marinova-Todd and Mirenda, in press, for
research on children with Autism Spectrum Disorder), although they do
demonstrate more language-related difficulties than children without these
challenges. It is difficult to reconcile these diverse findings with the belief that the
human neuro-cognitive capacity for language learning is fundamentally
monolingual and is challenged when required to learn more than one language.
It is also widely believed that young children are effective and efficient language
learners (Belief 2). As a result, it is generally expected that second language (L2)
acquisition by young children will proceed quickly and effortlessly and will result in
native-like proficiency, largely through untutored, natural exposure to the target
language, especially if such exposure involves contact with native-speaking peers.
This thinking is based, in part, on the critical period hypothesis of language
learning, according to which the human neuro-cognitive abilities that are
responsible for language learning are particularly plastic during early
development, usually thought to be between birth and 12 to 13 years of age.
Accordingly, it is during this critical period when language learning is relatively
effortless and results in complete mastery of language (e.g. Long, 1990).
With respect to L2 acquisition, there is evidence that, other things being equal,
children are more likely to attain native-like levels of oral proficiency, or at least
higher levels of proficiency in an L2 in the long run than learners who begin to
learn an L2 when older (Long, 1990). However, there is no consensus on how early
is early enough for native-like competence to be acquired and, in fact, whether
monolingual native-like capacity is possible among any learners who begin to
acquire a language after one or two years of age. In this regard, research
conducted in Sweden by Abrahamsson and Hyltenstam (2009) examined the
language abilities of immigrants to Sweden who had immigrated at different ages,
including during the pre-school years. In comparison to native Swedish speakers,
most pre-school-age immigrants in their study did not demonstrate native-like
competence in Swedish as an L2 even after more than 20 years of exposure when a
battery of diverse and demanding language tests were used. In a similar vein, our
own research on internationally-adopted (IA) children from China has shown that
26
11/01/2016 12:56
27
11/01/2016 12:56
Their reclassification figure of only 25 per cent is close to the figure reported by
Grissom (2004), who found that only 30 per cent of ELLs were reclassified within
five years.
Bolstering these results, findings from a number of reviews and individual studies
on proficiency levels in English among ELLs indicate that it can take ELLs between
five to seven years to achieve proficiency in English for academic purposes (August
and Hakuta, 1997; Cummins, 1981; Lindholm-Leary and Borsato, 2006; Thomas and
Collier, 2002). In these studies, language proficiency was defined in terms of
performance on standardised tests of the type used to assess academic progress
and, thus, can be considered measures of language for academic purposes. In a
review of research on child ELL learners, Paradis (2006: 401) concluded that
obtaining oral language proficiency in the L2 on par with native speakers can take
most of the elementary school years and, moreover, that there is considerable
inter-individual variation in rate of L2 development. These estimates contrast with
informal impressions that children can acquire highly proficient levels of
competence in an L2 for social purposes very quickly.
An equally complex and related issue concerns the expectation that more
exposure to English in school will result in greater proficiency than less exposure
(Belief 3). Research findings from both minority language ELLs learning English in
the U.S. and from majority language students learning in L2 immersion
programmes in Canada (e.g., English-speaking students learning French in bilingual
programmes; see Genesee, 2004, for a review) indicate that amount of time or
exposure alone cannot explain the language learning outcomes that have been
reported for students in these programmes. On the one hand, research in the U.S.
and Canada has shown that time or amount of exposure does matter when it comes
to learning a minority language; for example, ELLs in Spanish-English bilingual
programmes with 90% exposure to Spanish achieve higher levels of proficiency in
Spanish than ELLs in bilingual programmes with only 50% exposure to Spanish
(Genesee and Lindholm-Leary, 2012). On the other hand, studies of the English
language development of Spanish-speaking ELLs in the U.S. indicate that the level
of proficiency that they achieve in English, the majority group language, is not
related to amount of exposure to English in school in a simple correlational fashion
(e.g., Lindholm-Leary and Borsato, 2006). In other words, more exposure to and
instruction in English in school does not necessarily result in higher levels of
proficiency in English. In this regard, Saunders and OBrien noted that rates of
progress in attaining proficiency in oral English by the end of elementary school
were strikingly consistent for ELLs in different types of programmes, described in
more detail in the next section, regardless of how much instruction in English they
received. ELLs who receive some instruction in English in the primary grades
sometimes demonstrate an initial advantage in English over ELLs with reduced
instruction in English; but, these differences disappear by the end of elementary
school. Of particular note, similar findings have been found in bilingual (SpanishEnglish) pre-school programmes for low SES ELLs in the U.S. (Barnett et al., 2007;
Lindholm-Leary, 2014; Rodriguez et al., 1995). More specifically, ELLs in bilingual
pre-school programmes did not differ significantly from ELLs in English
programmes on English language tests; in contrast, the bilingual programme
28
11/01/2016 12:56
29
11/01/2016 12:56
without violating the grammatical constraints of either language, most of the time
(e.g. Paradis et al., 2011). The ability to interweave two languages during oral
discourse without violating the grammatical constraints of either language
indicates that bilinguals have access to the grammars of both languages
simultaneously and automatically how else could error-free code mixing be
explained? There is also a great deal of evidence of significant and positive
correlations between reading skills in one language and reading skills in another in
bilinguals; the nature and extent of the interaction depends to some extent on the
typological similarity of the languages and their orthographic systems (e.g.
Genesee and Geva, 2006). Research on the acquisition, comprehension and
production of two languages during second language learning and during
proficient bilingual performance has revealed further that both linguistic systems
are differentially accessible and activated at virtually all times (e.g. Gullifer et al.,
2013). Moreover, the two languages of bilinguals share a common cognitive/
conceptual foundation that can facilitate the acquisition and use of more than one
language for communication, thinking and problem solving. This research also
suggests that competence in two, or more, languages engenders the development
of sophisticated cognitive skills for negotiating and minimising cross-language
competition (Kroll, 2008). Findings from these studies reveal a highly sophisticated
system of cognitive representations, access and use, and they deepen our
understanding of the language performance of bilinguals that would go
unexamined were researchers focused on the cognitive aspect of language
characteristic of monolinguals only.
Implications
Taken together, these findings challenge some traditional widely held views
concerning language learning in educational programmes for ELLs. Increasingly,
North American educators have been motivated by recent findings to explore
alternative possibilities to create more effective, evidence-based policies and
practices. Some of the implications of these findings for educating young ELLs are
discussed in this section; they will be reviewed with respect to three aspects of
early childhood education and instruction: (1) language of instruction, (2) oral
language development, and (3) pre- and early literacy instruction.
1) Language of instruction
The most radical innovation to have been tried in educating ELLs in the US involves
the language of instruction. More specifically, educators in the US have
experimented with the effectiveness of educating ELLs using the heritage language
along with English for instruction of significant portions of the curriculum, including
literacy- and non-literacy-related subjects. Very briefly, in bilingual elementary
school programmes for Spanish-speaking ELLs, for example, between 50 and 90
per cent of the curriculum is taught in Spanish in the primary grades
Kindergarten to Grade 2. Depending on the particular programme, instruction in
English increases gradually after Grade 2 so that it is the predominant language or
only language of instruction by the end of elementary (primary) school (see
Genesee and Lindholm-Leary, 2012, for more discussion). The rationale behind
these programmes is that teaching literacy and academic subjects initially in a
30
11/01/2016 12:56
language ELLs already know will permit them to begin to acquire literacy skills right
away and, at the same time, to keep up in academic domains while they are
learning English. Once their English skills have advanced sufficiently, then ELLs will
be better able to keep up to grade-level standards in literacy and other school
subjects taught in English. In brief, this approach is thought to be a better way to
increase the chances that ELLs will not fall behind and, in fact, will close the gap
with native speakers more readily than if they are taught entirely in English.
Likewise, there are bilingual pre-school programmes that use both Spanish along
with English (see Barnett et al., 2007; Lindholm-Leary, 2014; and Rodriguez et al.,
1995, for examples). For purposes of this discussion, these programmes will be
referred to as bilingual pre-school (three to five year olds) and bilingual elementary
(primary) school (five to ten year olds) programmes. The first language of a large
majority of ELLs in the US is Spanish, and it is for this reason that most bilingual
programmes use Spanish along with English and are the focus of discussion in this
chapter. While using ELLs heritage language is clearly not realistic in many settings
because there are too many different heritage languages and an insufficient
number of qualified teachers who speak those languages, these alternative models
of education for ELLs are worth considering here because they pose the most
serious challenge to traditional views on how best to educate ELLs. If it can be
shown that bilingual instruction in pre-school and/or elementary school
programmes does not compromise ELLs acquisition of English and/or their general
academic development or that, to the contrary, it benefits their language and
general academic development, then there would be reasons to question
traditional beliefs that favour using English only and from early on and,
furthermore, to consider alternative educational strategies besides those
that are based on exclusive use of English as the language of instruction.
Five fairly recent meta-analyses have examined the achievement of ELLs in
bilingual versus English-only elementary school programmes. They all concluded
that ELLs in bilingual programmes scored as well as or often better than ELLs in
English-only programmes on tests of literacy and other school subjects (e.g.
mathematics) in English (see Genesee and Lindholm-Leary, 2012; and Goldenberg,
2008, reviews); at the same time, the bilingual programme participants performed
significantly better on measures of Spanish language proficiency. In their review,
Genesee and Lindholm-Leary note that ELLs in English-only programmes generally
show an advantage in English in the primary grades (K-3), but differences are no
longer evident when students are evaluated in the middle or late elementary
grades, once English is used as a language of instruction. Lindholm-Leary and
Borsato (2006), in fact, report that evaluations in California, which has one of the
highest proportions of ELLs in the US, reveal that, in the long run, ELLs in bilingual
programmes often outperform ELLs in English-only programmes on statemandated tests. Evaluations of bilingual pre-school programmes, while few in
number, also report that there is no significant advantage in English among ELLs in
English-only programmes in comparison to ELLs in bilingual programmes and that
bilingual programme participants demonstrate superiority in Spanish (Barnett et
al., 2007; Lindholm-Leary, 2014; and Rodriguez et al., 1995).
31
11/01/2016 12:56
In sum, the findings from this research do not provide support for the assumptions
that underlie early and exclusive focus on English as the language of instruction
during either the pre-school or elementary school years. On the contrary, they
demonstrate that bilingual programme participants demonstrate superiority with
respect to maintenance of the heritage language and, in the case of elementary
school programmes, in domains of achievement related to English literacy and
general academic achievement. Thus, use of ELLs heritage language need not be
avoided or discouraged in school and, on the contrary, should be encouraged
where possible, in order to support maintenance of the heritage language and take
advantage of cross-linguistic facilitation that has been found among such learners,
to be discussed in the section on literacy. A further implication of these findings is
that parents or caregivers of ELLs with limited proficiency in English themselves
need not be discouraged from using the heritage language in favour of English on
the assumption that an early start will be advantageous. On the contrary, parents
of ELLs should be informed of the potential advantages of developing the heritage
language during the pre-school years, especially when parents are literate in that
language and can engage in literacy activities in the heritage language with their
children. Parents may need guidance on how to do this. Promoting bilingualism
through support of the heritage language along with mastery of English is itself a
valuable goal in an increasingly globalised environment.
2) Oral language development
Evidence, reported earlier, from research on the oral English language
development of ELLs during the school years indicates that ELLs require many
years of schooling to acquire native-like proficiency in English for academic
purposes. In fact, many ELLs do not attain native-like or even advanced levels of
proficiency by the end of elementary school; these findings are particularly likely
among ELLs from low SES backgrounds. This poses serious obstacles to their
academic achievement and literacy development because attainment of advanced
levels of reading comprehension, which are critical for academic progress as
students advance through school, can be impeded by weak oral language skills.
Clearly an emphasis on an early start to learning English along with extended
exposure to English in school without systematic support do not guarantee the
advanced levels of proficiency in oral English that ELLs need to succeed in school
in the long run. An important and obvious implication is that ELLs need planned and
systematic support in acquiring oral language proficiency in English that is
sustained over grades. Support should focus on language for academic or
cognitive purposes since most ELLs appear to have little difficulty acquiring
sufficient proficiency in English to function socially with their peers and others. The
question arises: How can the oral English language development of ELLs be
promoted so that, over the long term, they attain advanced levels of proficiency
commensurate with the academic demands of the curriculum as they progress
through school? Addressing this question brings us to considerations of pedagogy.
The available evidence, albeit limited at present, suggests that a dual-pronged
approach is called for. One prong calls for direct instructional support for oral
language development. In the US, this form of instruction is often referred to as
English Language Development, or ELD. The other prong calls for systematic
32
11/01/2016 12:56
33
11/01/2016 12:56
for specific recommendations for elementary school contexts). Goldenberg and his
colleagues (p. 95), for example, concluded that the features of what they refer to as
generic high quality pre-school programmes appear to support the learning and
development of young DLLs (i.e. ELLs, added by author) as well as monolingual
English children. Their conclusions, like those of others, are understandably
cautious because of the paucity of research and the lack of a single definition of
high-quality pre-school programme. In short, what we know to be effective early
childhood education for monolingual children can serve as the foundation for
designing pre-school programmes for ELLs.
At the same time, as Goldenberg and his colleagues and others emphasise,
important modifications are called for. At the school and programme level, it is
important that a supportive environment be created that is responsive to linguistic
and cultural diversity among students in the programme and that such diversity be
seen as an asset for both individual learners and the school as a whole. More
particularly, this means that: school administrators, education specialists and
teachers be knowledgeable about and understand the linguistic and cultural
diversity of ELL children in their care; they view ELLs existing language skills and
knowledge as resources to develop; and they know how to harness these
resources in the service of their general education. From a language learning point
of view, effective early learning environments endorse an additive view of
bilingualism and seek to foster development of ELLs home languages at the same
time as they acquire competence in English. In contexts where there are
reasonable numbers of ELLs who speak the same heritage languages, this means
incorporating those languages in instruction and, as much as possible and
appropriate, into the day-to-day life of the classroom. This is advisable not only
because research suggests that it will support their acquisition of English and
general skills and knowledge, but also because it will create an inclusive classroom
environment. Where use of ELLs heritage language is not feasible, then alternative
strategies are possible. For example, partnerships between families, communities
and the school can create an additive learning environment by bringing the
language and cultural resources linked to students backgrounds into the school
(Roberts, 2009, for suggestions). This can also enhance and enrich the learning
environment of mainstream monolingual English learners. Positive teacher
attitudes toward diversity and their ELL students and active and positive
relationships between parents, the school and teachers have been linked to
enhancements in ELL outcomes in pre-school and primary school programmes
(Vitiello et al., 2011). In brief, what is important here is that ELLs be viewed in terms
of their strengths and that any vestige of attitudes that view language and cultural
diversity as problems be replaced with attitudes that support ELLs in their diversity.
34
11/01/2016 12:56
2.
Designated times or small group work when language can be the explicit
focus of instructional attention.
3.
Focus on oral language that is useful for higher order cognitive or academic
purposes and is age appropriate, although written forms of language can
also be incorporated.
4.
5.
6.
Use of interactive activities that are meaningful and authentic and expand
students opportunities to use language.
7.
Pair or small group work with students who are more proficient in English,
provided activities are planned carefully to ensure equitable involvement by
all members of the group.
8.
9.
35
11/01/2016 12:56
36
11/01/2016 12:56
Final words
ELLs in many English-dominant countries struggle in school; statistics from
countries such as the US indicate that ELLs experience disproportionally high dropout and failure rates in school. While there is growing evidence that pre-school
programmes can enhance childrens preparedness for school (Barnett and
Hustedt, 2003), if pre-school programmes are designed using the same
assumptions and beliefs that underlie current thinking about elementary school
education, we risk recreating the same pattern of failure among ELLs in early
childhood education programmes as we see in current programmes. This chapter
considered how conventional beliefs and attitudes about second language
teaching and learning and about dual language acquisition in general may be
undermining our attempts to create successful pre-school programmes for ELLs. A
growing body of evidence from research in education, psycholinguistics and
cognitive science challenges conventional views and, in particular, argues that dual
language acquisition is not a zero-sum game and, in fact, that maintenance and
development of ELLs heritage language may facilitate English language
development. The challenge now is to reconceptualise strategies for educating
young ELLs so that educators draw on their existing language skills in ways that are
practical, effective and feasible even in classrooms with ELLs who speak multiple
heritage languages and even when teachers themselves are monolingual. Research
has begun to address these critical issues and we have the beginnings of better
understandings of how to do this; albeit much still remains to be done.
References
Abedi, J, Courtney, M, Leon, S, Kao, J and Azzam, T (2006) English Language
Learners and Math Achievement: A Study of Opportunity to Learn and Language
Accommodation (CSE Report 702, 2006). Los Angeles: University of California,
Center for the Study of Evaluation/National Center for Research on Evaluation,
Standards, and Student Testing.
Abrahamsson, N and Hyltenstam, K (2009) Age of onset and nativelikeness in a
second language: listener perception versus linguistic scrutiny. Language Learning,
59, 249306.
August, D and Hakuta, K (eds) (1997) Improving schooling for language minority
children: A research agenda. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Aydemir, A, Chen, WH and Corak, M (2008) Intergenerational education mobility
among the children of Canadian immigrants. Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA)
Discussion Paper 3759. http://ftp.iza.org/dp3759.pdf (accessed May 27, 2014).
Barnett, SW and Hustedt, JT (2003) Pre-school: The most important grade.
Educational Leadership, April 2003.
Barnett, SW, Yarosz, DJ, Thomas, J, Jung, K and Blanco, D (2007) Two-way and
monolingual English immersion in pre-school education: An experimental
comparison. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22, 277-293.
37
11/01/2016 12:56
38
11/01/2016 12:56
39
11/01/2016 12:56
Kim, J and Herman, JL (2009) A Three-State Study Of English Learner Progress. (CSE
Report 702). Los Angeles: University of California, Center for the Study of
Evaluation/National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student
Testing.
Kroll, JF (2008) Juggling two languages in one mind. Psychological Science Agenda.
Retrieved March 10 2015 from www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2008/01/kroll.
aspx
Lindholm-Leary, K (2014) Bilingual and biliteracy skills in young Spanish-speaking
low-SES children: Impact of instructional language and primary language proficiency.
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 17(2), 144-159. doi:
10.1080/13670050.2013.866625
Lindholm-Leary, K (2010) PROMISE initiative student outcomes. San Bernardino, CA:
Promise Design Center. http://www.promise-initiative.org/research.html
Lindholm-Leary, KJ and Borsato, G (2006) Academic achievement, in Genesee, F,
Lindholm-Leary, K, Saunders, W and Christian, D (eds) Educating English Language
Learners (pp. 176-222). NY: Cambridge University Press.
Long, M (1990) Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in
Second Language Acquisition, 12, 251-285.
Lyster, R, Collins, L and Ballinger, S (2009) Linking languages through a bilingual
read-aloud project. Language Awareness, 18, 366-383.
Marinova-Todd, SH and Mirenda, P (in press) Language and communication abilities
of bilingual children with ASD, in Patterson, J and Rodriguez, BL (eds) Multilingual
perspectives on child language disorders. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
National Task Force on Early Childhood Education for Hispanics (2009) Para
nuestros nios: The School readiness and academic achievement in reading and
mathematics of young Hispanic children in the US. (www.ecehispanic.org/work.html)
OECD (2010) Closing the gap for immigrant students: Policies, practice and
performance. ISBN 978-92-64-086876 (accessed May 20, 2014).
Ontario Ministry of Children and Youth Services (2007) A Framework for Ontario
Early Childhood Settings. www.children.gov.on.ca/htdocs/English/topics/
earlychildhood/early_learning_for_every_child_today.aspx (accessed May 27,
2014).
Paradis, J (2006) Second language acquisition in childhood, in Hoff, E and Shatz, M
(eds) Handbook of Language Development (pp. 387-405). Oxford, Eng.: Blackwell.
Paradis, J, Crago, M and Genesee, F (2006) Domain-specific versus domain-general
theories of the deficit in SLI: Object pronoun acquisition by French-English bilingual
children. Language Acquisition, 13(1), 33-62.
40
11/01/2016 12:56
41
11/01/2016 12:56
42
11/01/2016 12:56
1.2
South America
Early childhood bilingual
education in South America
Anne-Marie de Meja, Universidad de los Andes, Bogot, Colombia
Introduction
Conscious of the processes of globalisation and internationalisation, Latin
American governments have increasingly started to implement policies designed
to improve foreign language proficiency in their populations (Banfi, 2015). Together
with these initiatives, there has been a corresponding emphasis on young learners,
as there exists a widespread perception among the general public that if foreign
languages are not learnt in the early years of schooling, the opportunities for
mastery later on are dramatically and negatively affected (Banfi, 2015: 2). Thus,
bilingual schools catering for pupils from the higher social strata have become
increasingly popular throughout the region.
A parallel development has been the implementation of bilingual programmes
(overwhelmingly EnglishSpanish) in state (public) schools. Consequently, in 2008
Mexico launched the National Plan of English for Basic Education (Plan Nacional de
Ingls para Educacin Bsica) incorporating a Content and Language Integrated
Learning (CLIL) approach and designed to cater for students from kindergarten up
to the end of middle school education (from the ages of five to 15) (Mexican
Ministry of Education 2011, cited on the PNIEB website, 2014).
In Argentina in 2001, the City of Buenos Aires, which has a long tradition of foreign
language teaching and learning (Banfi, 2013), set out to provide foreign language
tuition (mainly in English) in the belief that the learning of a foreign language in the
state-run schools, particularly those located in socially disadvantaged areas, would
raise educational standards. Furthermore, there was the assumption that
introducing a foreign language at an early age, (from the age of six, in this case),
would improve the students academic and employment prospects (Banfi and
Rettaroli, 2008). In these bilingual (now officially plurilingual) schools the children
are taught by two teachers. On the one hand, there is the class teacher who
teaches all subjects (Spanish, Science, Social Science, and Mathematics) in Spanish.
On the other, the foreign language teacher teaches the foreign language. However,
curricular content is not taught in the foreign language.
43
11/01/2016 12:56
44
11/01/2016 12:56
Biliteracy
This section will discuss five studies carried out in three different Latin American
contexts: Colombia, Ecuador and Mexico. All are concerned with the teaching and
learning of reading and writing in two languages with different emphases: code
switching in storytelling events, the examination of pupils similarities and
differences in written production in English and Spanish, as well as an analysis of
the effect of adopting a biliterate perspective in the teaching and learning of initial
literacy processes. The section ends with the consideration of a case study of the
biliterate development of a young USMexican child.
An early project in Colombia (de Meja, 1998) focused on code switching in bilingual
storytelling in two early immersion classrooms in Cali with pre-school children
between the ages of four and five. Using visual supporting material, it was noted
that both teachers told, rather than read, the stories to their young learners and
switched between Spanish and English throughout the sessions. The teachers
generally exhibited rather relaxed attitudes to their own code-switching practices
and those of their pupils, as can be seen by this comment in one of the interviews
conducted during the study:
At this moment Im not worried about the [mixture of languages] and the parents
arent either; on the contrary they told me it was good its been something very
positive that they [the children] integrate little by little the other language into their
normal life. (de Meja, 2004: 37)
En este momento, no me preocupa [la mescla de idiomas, a los paps tampoco, sino
que al contario, me lo comentaban como cosa buena ha sido algo muy positivo
que ellos [los nios] van integrando poco a poco el otro idioma a su vida normal.
The study found that the classroom code switching functioned not only as a
meaning-making device, or contextualisation cue in Gumperzs (1982) terms, but
also allowed pupils to collaborate in the story-telling events. Analysis of the
code-switching patterns observed in the classroom interaction between teachers
and pupils showed how bilingual language use added a further dimension of
meaning to the interaction. Through the skillful and flexible use of code switching,
the young learners were able to access their first language in the process of
learning English, thus helping to maximise learning opportunities in the bilingual
classroom. Consequently, according to the results of this research, code switching
should be seen as a vital communicative resource available to children and
teachers who share proficiency in the childrens L1 and not as a practice relegated to
a strategy of last resort (de Meja, 1998: 9).
In 2005, Jo-Ellen Simpson published a chapter based on a study of early childhood
writing in English and Spanish in an early immersion school in Quito, Ecuador. In this
context, English was a foreign language for the majority of students, and in
pre-school there was a focus on oral language development along with pre-reading
and pre-writing activities. By Grade 1 the children were able to produce short texts
in both languages. As Simpson notes, the teaching of writing was primarily carried
45
11/01/2016 12:56
out in English. Spanish was used mainly in the Spanish language class and in art,
music and physical education.
The author justifies the importance of the study by referring to an earlier research
review carried out by Reppen and Grabe (1993), which found that writing in Spanish
has often been described as being more ornate and formal (p.117) than writing in
English. These researchers were interested in childrens writing in order to locate
the source of the elaborate style of native Spanish speaking adolescents and
young adults tested in earlier studies. After analysing essays from three groups of
fifth-grade students, some native English speaking and some native Spanish
speaking, it was found that the Spanish-speaking L1 fifth graders (writing in English)
have characteristics similar to those of older Spanish-speaking participants from
the other studies. Reppen and Grabe (1993) came to the conclusion that this style
of writing must be culturally influenced because the children in the study were
quite young and had not received much formal training in writing in Spanish.
Simpson was interested in finding out about writers who were six or seven years
old, so she decided to examine the writing of first grade students to see if they
reflected the same tendencies. This study also discussed the possibility of reverse
transfer of writing style from the foreign language to the native language due
to the fact that the policy at the school was to emphasise reading and writing in
English, while the teaching and learning of written skills in Spanish was limited to
one hour per day. Ten samples of writing in English and ten samples in Spanish
were randomly chosen from first grade portfolios. For the purpose of analysis,
these were divided into T-units, defined as one main clause with all the subordinate
clauses attached to it (Hunt, 1965: 20, cited in Simpson, 2005).
The researcher came to the conclusion that the first grade children who
participated in the study had similar syntactic ability in both their languages,
although they wrote longer narratives in Spanish than in English. Furthermore, the
analysis of sentence connectors showed greater variety and number in Spanish
than in English, which Simpson attributed to the childrens higher level of oral
competence in Spanish. An interesting finding had to do with the analysis of pupil
errors in the two languages. It was found that, except for spelling, the errors in the
two languages were quite different. For example, there was evidence of a tendency
in English to omit words more than in Spanish. In addition, there were twice as many
correct T-units in English, suggesting to the researcher that the students had
learned a number of simple sentences in English and were able to use them in their
own writing. However, when they had to use English in new situations, they made
many more mistakes than in Spanish, which showed a consistent level of errors
across all T-units. In Spanish the children had to struggle with the correct use of
accents and with word spacing. They often divided words that should not be
divided, such as: a wela and a guelo for abuela (grandmother) and abuelo
(grandfather). According to the results of the study, these differences in the
childrens errors in the two languages can be linked to their different experiences
writing in each, as indicated above.
With regard to spelling, there was a much greater variety noted in the errors in
46
11/01/2016 12:56
English than in Spanish, including invented sound spellings, such as animols, warol
(world), and Mayami; misspelling of words that they have used and/or read in
school, such as broder (brother) and frinds (friends); and Spanish-influenced
spellings, for example vi (bee) and tri (tree) (Simpson, 2005: 106). Simpson cites
Ammon (1985) in suggesting that invented spellings can be a strategy used by
young children when faced with the rather daunting task of writing in a relatively
unknown language (Simpson, 2005: 106). There was no evidence of the elaborate
style found to characterise writing in Spanish in the studies reviewed by Reppen
and Grabe (1993). Simpson suggests that this is probably due to the young age of
the children and the fact that they were just learning to write. She also
hypothesises that the intensive instruction in English writing probably had an effect
on their way of writing. She notes that in terms of the topical structure analysis,
while there was evidence that the children used similar amounts of sequential
progression and extended parallel progression in both languages, there was a
difference in that it was found that they used more parallel progression in English.
Narrative strategies in both languages progressed from simple lists with no internal
progression in the form of repetition of key terms, through a combination of lists with
repetition and true narratives with more topical progression, to true narratives with
sophisticated use of repetition of key terms to provide internal coherence (Simpson,
2005: 114).
Thus, it may be concluded that the fact that there were more T-units in English
without errors than in Spanish in the pupils writing demonstrates the influence of
the training the children had in writing simple sentences in English, showing that
they had better control of these familiar words and patterns. However, when it
came to writing unfamiliar material in English, the number of errors was much
higher. This points to the importance of helping learners to become familiarised
with different writing patterns from a young age. The finding that the intensive
teaching of writing in English also affected the elaborate style traditionally
associated with Spanish is also evidence of the effect of the explicit teaching
strategies used in the school for initial literacy when transferred to writing in
Spanish. Helping teachers to understand the potential benefits and limitations of
cross-linguistic transfer (Cummins, 2008) as part of these explicit teaching
strategies would provide the learners with the possibility of being able to
differentiate increasingly between writing in English and writing in Spanish.
There have been two research projects carried out fairly recently at pre-school
level (Transition) and at First Grade level in bilingual schools in Bogot. The first
study (Ortiz Maldonado, 2006) looked at the ways in which teachers were
implementing processes of reading and writing in the childrens first and second
languages and whether there were connections between the two processes.
During the pre-school stage, children were expected to develop the basic motor
skills and the necessary cognitive abilities to be able to read and write in both
Spanish and English (although not at the same level) by the end of Transition (four
to five years old). However, there was no joint collaboration between the teachers
of the two languages where they could make the necessary connections to ensure
parallel development of literacy processes in English and Spanish.
47
11/01/2016 12:56
48
11/01/2016 12:56
49
11/01/2016 12:56
Teacher training
In Argentina, in the plurilingual schools of Buenos Aires mentioned above, the
foreign language teachers, who work in tandem with the qualified primary teachers,
have to attend a one-month training course that introduces them to topics to do
with bilingual education. They work with teacher trainers, tutors and carry out class
observations.
50
11/01/2016 12:56
They also have to submit a formal written evaluation (Banfi and Rettaroli, 2008).
According to these authors, there are five basic areas of knowledge for teaching in
bilingual programmes. These consist of:
Pedagogical knowledge
The results of the study carried out by the authors show that while the content,
languages and pedagogical knowledge are generally well covered in these
programmes, cultural knowledge and knowledge about bilingualism and bilingual
education are not.
In response to this last point, we will briefly turn to a research project conducted in
So Paulo, Brazil in 2009, in relation to teacher training programmes for novice
teachers in bilingual education programmes for very young children. This is a new
development in bilingual education studies in Brazil (and in much of South America)
as can be seen by the researchers acknowledgement that she did not find any
previous studies carried out on this topic (Wolffowitz-Sanchez, 2009).
The participants in this collaborative research project were student teachers who
were registered on a pre-service teacher-training course in bilingual education,
which included critical-reflexive sessions based on classroom videos, both face to
face and through emails. The results of the analysis of this data indicates that the
participants considered that the emails constituted an important space where they
could express themselves, disagree, question and contribute with their own
knowledge. There was also evidence that the participants gradually became
conscious of themselves as teachers responsible for the different decisions and
activities they were involved in. They were greatly helped in this process of
consciousness-raising and understanding by the collaborative nature of the project
and the co-authorship or co-production of knowledge. As the role of the trainees
increased in importance, the role of the teacher trainer became more peripheral.
Thus, there was an ongoing movement among all the participants from the centre
to the periphery and from the periphery to the centre (Wolffowitz-Sanchez, 2009:
119) (do centro para a periferia e da periferia para o centro, movimentos esses que
todas as participantes realizaram).
To sum up, it can be said that these developments in teacher training for bilingual
education programmes targeting young learners are relatively recent and not
enough work has been done in this area. However, such projects that have been
carried out have shown this to be a useful and potentially effective way forward in
bilingual education studies.
51
11/01/2016 12:56
Parents
In Colombia, there have been various studies carried out by teachers and
researchers into parental attitudes and expectations towards bilingual education
EnglishSpanish programmes. An early project (Arajo and Corominas, 1996)
focused on parents of children aged five to six years old, in the pre-school section
of four EnglishSpanish bilingual schools in Cali. In this study, the results of a
questionnaire sent out to parents of the four schools included in the research
showed that the main reason for parents choice of school was the fact of it being
bilingual in English and Spanish, as well as the quality, experience and recognised
high academic level of these programmes. However, parents greatest interest was
in their childrens development of the foreign language, English, rather than in their
progress in their first language, Spanish. For these parents, their childrens
bilingualism centred on the development of their proficiency in English, due to its
importance as a world language, for study, work, travel, business and international
communications (Arajo and Corominas, 1996: 180). Progress in English was
helped by the fact that most parents acknowledged that they could speak English
and in many families there were other relations, such as uncles, aunts, brothers and
sisters, who had knowledge of the language. This clearly shows the high degree of
penetration of English in the lives of middle and upper-middle class Colombian
families in 1996.
More recently, another study, carried out in Bogot in 2011, was designed to
characterise the previous conceptions and expectations of a sample of parents
and teachers about EnglishSpanish bilingual education (Aljure et al., 2011). In
similar terms to the earlier study, it was found that the majority of the parents who
participated in the project saw bilingual education as a means of advancement for
their children in a globalised world and the possibility of better job opportunities.
A further study, also carried out in Bogot, this time among teachers and parents
from different socio-economic strata (Flaborea et al., 2013), found that most
parents surveyed were conscious of the importance of the relationship between
school and home. However, many of them did not feel that their level of English was
sufficient to enable them to help their children with their homework and therefore
considered that it was the responsibility of the school to take this on. As one parent
noted:
What I would like to emphasise is the topic of teacher participation, to strengthen
this work; perhaps they can send us homework as well, maybe as reinforcement,
because, from my point of view, it is possible that not all children have access to this
support at home. (Flaborea et al., 2013: 40)
No, de pronto lo que s te quiero reforzar es el tema de la participacin con los
docentes, de afianzar ese trabajo; de pronto, que nos enven a nosotros tambin
tareas, bueno, nos, como refuerzos, porque pues desde mi punto de vista, de
pronto no todos los hogares cuentan con el manejo del idioma, y pues no todos los
nios cuentan con ese apoyo desde casita.
52
11/01/2016 12:56
However, there was also evidence that the contact between school and parents
was often in the co-operation without contact mode, involving support for the
children, but the lack of contact meant that there was little understanding on the
part of the parents of the pedagogical strategies used by the school in teaching
and learning through English. This led to parent insecurity and lack of
understanding by teachers as to what was happening in the home with regard to
family support.
Thus, it can be seen that the parents of Colombian students in all sectors are very
positive towards the development of programmes designed to improve the English
language proficiency of their children, with a view to increasing their chances of
better career possibilities. While in some cultures parents expect to be more highly
involved in their childrens education, in the studies discussed in this section,
parents are accustomed to wait for the schools to take the initiative. It can be seen
that parents have high expectations invested in these EnglishSpanish bilingual
programmes and have voluntarily chosen to send their children to these types of
school, often at great personal expense. This shows clearly the importance they
attach to their sons and daughters being able to become fluent in two or more
international languages for their future success in an ever-shrinking world.
53
11/01/2016 12:56
References
Abouchaar, A, Fajardo, LA and Vargas, N (2009) Lineamientos curriculares para los
colegios pilotos hacia el bilingismo. Unpublished document.
Aljure, LH, Arciniegas, MC, Castillo, MF, Correal, MF, Meja, ME, Meja, MV and Rueda,
C (2011) Concepciones y expectativas de padres de familia y profesores acerca del
bilingismo y la educacin bilinge en siete colegios de Bogot y Cundinamarca. El
Astrolabio, 10(2), 21-32.
Ammon, P (1985) Helping children to learn English as a second language. Some
observations and some hypotheses, in Freedman SW (ed) The Acquisition of Written
Language: Response and Revision. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex.
Arajo, MC and Corominas, Y (1996) Procesos de adquisin del ingls como segunda
lengua en nios de 5-6 aos, de colegios bilinges de la ciudad de Cali. Cali:
Universidad del Valle. Unpublished MA thesis.
Banfi, C (2010) Los Primeros Pasos en las Lenguas Extranjeras. Buenos Aires:
Ediciones Novedades Educativas.
54
11/01/2016 12:56
Banfi, C (2013) The landscape of English language teaching: roots, routes and
ramifications, in Renart, L and Banegas, D (eds) Roots & routes in language
education: Bi-multi-plurilingualism, interculturality and identity. Selected papers from
the 38th FAAPI Conference. Buenos Aires: APIBA.
Banfi, C (2015) English language teaching expansion in South America: Challenges
and opportunities, in Kamhi-Stein, LD, Diaz Maggioli G and de Oliveira, LC (eds)
English Language Teaching in South America: Policy, Preparation, and Practices.
Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Banfi, C and Rettaroli, S (2008) Staff profiles in minority and prestigious bilingual
education contexts in Argentina, in Hlot, C and de Meja, AM (eds) Forging
Multilingual Spaces. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Cummins, J (2008) Teaching for transfer: Challenging the two solitudes assumption
in bilingual education, in Cummins, J and Hornberger, NH (eds) Encyclopedia of
Language and Education. Second Edition. Volume 5. Springer.
de Meja, AM (1998) Bilingual storytelling: Codeswitching, discourse control and
learning opportunities. TESOL Journal 7(6), 4-10.
de Meja, AM (2004) Two early immersion classes in Colombia: Reformulation in
bilingual storytelling. The Welsh Journal of Education 13(1), 30-43.
Enever, J (ed) (2011) ELLiE. Early Language Learning in Europe. British Council.
Flaborea, R, Gmez, MT, Roldn, JH, Rodrguez, ML and Henao, MC (2013)
Concepciones sobre la relacin familia-colegio: fortaleciendo el aprendizaje del
ingls. Voces y Silencios, 4(2), 30-46.
Gumperz, J (1982) Conversational codeswitching, in Discourse Strategies.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hickey, TM and de Meja, AM (2014) Editorial. Immersion education in the early
years: a Special Issue. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism,
17(2), 131-143.
Ministerio de Educacin Nacional (1999) Lineamientos Curriculares: Idiomas
Extranjeros. Bogot: Ministerio de Educacin Nacional.
Ortiz Maldonado, AA (2006) Descripcin del proceso de desarrollo de la lecto
escritura adelantado por maestras de grado transicin y primero elemental en un
colegio bilinge de Bogot. Maestra en Educacin, Bogot: Universidad de los
Andes. Unpublished MA thesis.
Parrado J (2014) Enseanza de la lectura y la escritura en la lengua extranjera
ingls, teniendo en cuenta el proceso simultneo en la lengua materna en grado
transicin (Biliteracy). Maestra en Educacin, Universidad de los Andes.
Unpublished MA thesis.
55
11/01/2016 12:56
56
11/01/2016 12:56
1.3
Europe
European perspectives on early
childhood education and care in
English for speakers of other
languages
Victoria A Murphy, Maria Evangelou, Jenny Goff
and Rebecca Tracz, University of Oxford, England
Introduction
Linguistic diversity comes in many forms. Internationally, the most common means
of developing knowledge of more than one language tends to be: i) learning a
foreign language (FL) as a taught subject through educational provision, ii) learning
a second (sometimes foreign) language through participation in some form of
bilingual education (such as immersion) and/or iii) being raised bilingually (Murphy,
2014). This final category of being raised bilingually can itself happen in numerous
different ways (e.g. see Romaines (1995) categories of child bilingualism). Often
children who develop bilingually are considered minority language learners if the
language(s) in the home is (are) not the same as the majority language context, a
situation that often arises through immigration. In this chapter we will examine each
of these three contexts of learning English as another (additional) language within
the context of Early Childhood Education (ECE) (up to age seven) in Europe. We will
first discuss the nature of ECE in Europe, including identifying approximately how
many children participate in ECE and the basic characteristics of ECE across
European countries, regardless of linguistic considerations. We then look more
closely at the extent to which other languages, usually English, are introduced into
ECE in different European countries. This will be followed by a more in-depth
discussion of particular (selective) countries where we have more detailed
information about the nature of ECE programmes in English for speakers who do
not speak English in the home. We then turn our attention to the English as an
Additional Language context in the UK where children are educated through the
medium of English, who have a home language that is not English, and where
English is the majority language of the wider community. The discussion presented
in this chapter should not be considered an exhaustive or systematic review, but
rather presents a brief snapshot of the kinds of issues researchers and
practitioners are attending to within this context.
European perspectives on early childhood education |
57
11/01/2016 12:56
58
11/01/2016 12:56
59
11/01/2016 12:56
qualification requirements for working with younger vs. older children where, in a
number of countries, staff more typically are not obliged to have tertiary-level
education if working with children younger than four. Having presented this brief
snapshot of European ECEC settings overall, we now turn our attention towards
ECEC settings that offer English language instruction either as discrete sessions
or through the medium of instruction.
60
11/01/2016 12:56
61
11/01/2016 12:56
(OECD, 2014)), the extent to which ECEC in or about another language is available
beyond that (i.e. in earlier years) is highly variable. In those countries where ECEC is
not freely available, the fee is usually waived for this year immediately preceding
formal entry to primary education. As mentioned above, English is the most
commonly taught FL in pre-primary education across the countries summarised in
the European Commission (2011) document, second only to languages with
regional consequence (e.g. Estonia where Russian or Estonian is taught, or in
Flanders Belgium where French is taught). However, even in these contexts English
is also taught as a further (additional) foreign language.
It is clear from the discussion in the 2011 document that parental pressure is a key
element in the decision to introduce some form of English instruction at preprimary levels across countries in Europe. Numerous countries report that as a
consequence of parental pressure and desire for their children to learn English
(viewed as social capital and a means through which their children will have greater
opportunities in life), English is being offered at younger ages across pre-primary
contexts in Europe. Enever (2004) coined the term parentocracy to identify the
significance of this parental pressure through networks or other lobby groups.
A notable challenge, reflected throughout the document and almost all of the 28
countries included in this handbook, relates to the nature of the qualifications for
the teachers of English in ECEC settings. Some countries have very clear standards
and guidelines concerning the qualifications required by language teachers in
ECEC settings. Unfortunately, many do not, where becoming trained as a fully
qualified pre-primary teacher is only just beginning to fall under the remit of
tertiary-level education settings. In many countries it seems that simply being a
native speaker of English is sufficient to qualify an individual to teach young
children English in ECEC contexts, despite a lack of teaching qualifications. In other
contexts, specialist FL (English) teachers are brought in to supplement (and
complement) the expertise of the teaching staff. These difficulties in teacher
education and qualifications are compounded by the challenge many countries
have in accessing good quality English language teaching materials.
There is a general lack of data in many countries on numerous issues, particularly
with respect to the proportion of different types of educational settings, and the
numbers of children being educated through English (or on English) (in those
countries with a focus on English). The phrase no official data available is
ubiquitous throughout the 2011 review. As also noted by Mouro and Loureno
(2015) there is little evidence of agreed processes or shared understanding across
countries, no uniformity of approach or established indices of success. Arguably
the largest gap in knowledge concerns the nature of the actual teaching provision
that is offered across these 28 countries in the 2011 European Commission review.
Very few of the countries which focus on English are able to report on the nature of
the English curriculum and how exactly it is implemented. Furthermore, where
there is a discussion of the practices in the FL (English), there seems to be relatively
little information about programmes where the medium of instruction is English. In
some countries, there is mention of whether CLIL or immersion programmes are
offered but there is very little data about the proportion of children attending these
programmes, the qualifications of the teachers and the nature of the provision.
62
11/01/2016 12:56
This lack of information is a problem noted in Buyl and Housen (2014) who discuss
the implementation of English immersion in the Francophone community of
Belgium. In their study, childrens development of English vocabulary was evaluated
when children were in pre-school (aged five) after six months of participation in the
immersion programme. Testing continued into years 1 and 2 of primary school.
Importantly, the children, even after only six months, were able to demonstrate
they had learned specific and substantive lexical and grammatical knowledge (p.
14), but Buyl and Housen (2014: 16) argue that To date we have had only a
fragmentary view of factors, processes and outcomes in immersion education in the
Belgian FC, and we would say this is true across the European context as well. They
specifically warn against automatically assuming immersion programmes will be
successful since there is not yet enough evidence, or institutional guidance, to
support schools and teachers in this age group. Having a better understanding of
immersion education in this early years age group is particularly important since
some researchers have identified that children can sometimes have difficulties
adjusting to being educated through the medium of language that is not their own.
For example, Soderman and Oshio (2008) report on a study carried out in a dual
immersion programme (EnglishMandarin) that was offered in an international
school in Beijing, China. Dual immersion programmes are those where children who
speak the majority language (in this case Mandarin Chinese) are educated
alongside children who do not, and where two languages are used (often 50-50)
throughout the day. In Soderman and Oshios study, the non-Chinese speaking
children came from a variety of different home language backgrounds and
nationalities. The focus of their study was on analysing the social behaviour and
competence of children as they progressed in their L2 development (English for
the Mandarin Chinese-speaking children and Mandarin for the non-Mandarinspeaking children). Interestingly, they report that girls had more difficulty adjusting
than boys, a finding which contradicts previous research that suggests girls are
more pro-social than boys. Soderman and Oshio (2008) suggest that this is largely
due to a lack of receptive and expressive language skills, which hampered the
non-Mandarin-speaking girls abilities to interact with other students effectively.
Boys seemed less hampered by a lack of linguistic competence. Importantly, they
also demonstrated that as childrens linguistic skills developed, their adjustment
difficulties decreased. Thus there is nothing inherently problematic with dual
immersion programmes, but rather, in line with Buyl and Housen (2014), it is
perhaps unwise to simply assume children will automatically thrive from the
beginning of participation in dual immersion programmes like these. More research
on issues such as this will enable practitioners to be able to predict potential
problem areas like those identified in Soderman and Oshio (2008) such that these
can be attenuated.
In summary, in attempting to review the state of English language education across
ECEC throughout Europe, the European Commission (2011) document offers a
helpful start, but unfortunately also highlights the significant gaps in our
understanding of what is actually going on in ECEC settings in Europe. This lack of
consistent and reliable information makes it very difficult to develop a shared
understanding of what constitutes good practice in terms of teacher qualifications,
63
11/01/2016 12:56
the actual curriculum being followed, and the nature of the materials and resources
that are available and used. This lack of information illustrates a lost opportunity to
try and establish some coherence across Europe in terms of effective guidelines
for English language education in the early years.
64
11/01/2016 12:56
65
11/01/2016 12:56
66
11/01/2016 12:56
available for all children in the year before they begin formal schooling (as with
many other countries in Europe) and covers the age range of three to six years. In
2013, there were 2,716 pre-primary institutions in Slovakia that were financially
supported by local municipalities. Portikov (ibid.) laments the lack of research that
has been carried out on L2 English provision at the pre-primary level, together with
the lack of legislative support. There are no laws, no programmes or official
documents stipulating the content or methodology for early L2 education, despite
the proliferation of L2 provision in early educational settings.
In part as a consequence of this lack of research, Portikov (ibid.) describes the
results of a survey that was carried out to examine teacher education in Slovakia
and whether it meets the standards of learning an L2 (English) at pre-primary level.
The results of this survey, as with the Czech Republic example described above,
identified a significant challenge in the lack of qualified pre-primary L2 teachers.
This is a challenge that was also identified in the ELLiE study (Early Language
Learning in Europe (Enever, 2011), which was a four-year longitudinal project
looking at L2/FL provision at primary-level education. Portikov also notes the
problem of continuity a common theme in this chapter and indeed the volume
more generally that there is a lack of cohesion between pre-primary and primarylevel L2 English provision. One of the main conclusions Portikov (2015) makes
concerning the results of the survey is that there has not been a sufficient amount
of effort and attention paid to L2 teaching at pre-primary level in Slovakia, and that
the lack of legislation has resulted in a non-systematic approach to how languages
are taught at pre-primary level. The parentocracy (Enever, 2004) has meant,
however, that L2 learning is rapidly evolving in Slovakia, despite no critical
assessment of the conditions under which children are developing L2 (English)
knowledge.
These brief descriptions of how English is being introduced in four different
countries across Europe (Italy, Cyprus, Czech Republic and Slovakia) indicate a
number of interesting issues. First, is the notion of variability. While some countries
have specific legislation that covers the provision of a foreign language (again,
mostly English) at pre-primary levels, others do not. We see from Portikovs (2015)
discussion how a lack of legislation can lead to huge inconsistencies in provision. A
further issue relevant to all of these countries is teacher qualifications, teacher
education and pre- and in-service training. This seems to be a challenge for most
countries within Europe that are offering English language learning at the preprimary level and one that emerged from the European Commissions (2011) policy
handbook. The different contexts described above also demonstrate that despite
some of these challenges, children themselves are largely positive about learning
English as a foreign language at pre-primary level. This positivity is also identified in
Brumen (2011) who carried out semi-structured interviews with children aged four
to six learning English (or German) as a foreign language in Slovenia. Brumen
reports that children are happy to include foreign language into their daily routines
and that they were overwhelmingly positive about doing so i.e. 96.7 per cent of
the 120 children sampled responded yes to the question: Do you like the foreign
language (English or German)? The discussions in these country-specific
descriptions, therefore, seem to be sending the same clear message; namely, that
European perspectives on early childhood education |
67
11/01/2016 12:56
we need far more systematic research on all of these issues of how children in ECE
settings across Europe can best develop knowledge and awareness of English (or
indeed other foreign languages).
EAL in the UK
Thus far, the contexts described in this chapter relate to English as a foreign
language instruction/learning in ECEC contexts in Europe. There has been little
discussion of CLIL or other immersion-type programmes, partly due to the fact that
in reviewing the documents which attempt to review English language instruction in
pre-primary settings, little information is available on these types of bilingual
education programmes apart from a few statements that they are provided in
some countries. Exactly how many such programmes, and how many children are
enrolled in these, and the precise nature of the provision within these programmes,
is not specified. Another context that is relevant for this volume, and for Europe,
which has not yet been described is the minority language learner context in the
UK and other English-speaking countries in Europe such as Ireland. Minority
language learners are those for whom their home language is not the language of
the wider, majority society. In the UK, emergent bilingual children (i.e. those
children who have the foundations upon which they can develop bilingual language
proficiency) from these linguistically diverse backgrounds are referred to as
children who have English as an Additional Language (EAL). [Note that in the US
they are referred to as English Language Learners (ELL) and in Canada as ESL
(English as a Second Language).] Pre-primary children who participate in some
form of ECEC in the UK yet who come from non-English-speaking homes fall under
the purview of this volume (i.e. ECEC in English for speakers of other languages). It
is worth briefly, therefore, examining some issues that emerge for pre-primary
school children in the UK who fall in this category.
There are currently over one million pupils in formal education in England who are
classified as EAL and who represent over 360 different home languages (NALDIC,
2014) distributed throughout the country, though there are dense proportions of
children with EAL in major urban areas such as London. An important issue with
children with EAL is that there are observed achievement gaps between them and
non-EAL (i.e. native-speaking children) (Strand, Malmberg and Hall, 2015). Strand et
al. (2015) illustrate the achievement gap between EAL and non-EAL pupils broken
down by age.
Of particular interest for this chapter are the children in the Early Years Foundation
Stage Profile (EYFS) who are just entering formal education which happens in the
year the child turns five. By the end of the first year (Reception) of schooling only
44 per cent of children recorded as EAL achieve a good level of development as
measured by the Early Years Foundation Stage Profile (EFSP), relative to 54 per
cent of non-EAL pupils. The odds of achieving a good level of development for EAL
pupils are 0.67 (33 per cent) lower for EAL students relative to non-EAL pupils. As
stated in Strand et al. (2015: 27): We conclude that, perhaps not surprisingly, at the
end of their first year of full-time education children from homes where they may
have had less exposure to English on average achieve lower results than those with
FLE (first language English). However, as the child develops, the gap between EAL
68
11/01/2016 12:56
and non-EAL children seems to narrow where, at age seven, the odds ratio analysis
is 0.73. There are many variables associated with academic achievement in pupils
with EAL, but the strongest predictor is English language fluency (Strand et al.,
2015). In light of the research mentioned in the introductory sections of this
chapter that experiences in the early years makes a marked contribution to the
childs subsequent academic performance (e.g. Sammons et al., 2002), it is worth
examining pre-primary (i.e. under five) provision and experiences of children with
EAL. Unfortunately, there has been very little research carried out on this
population in the UK. Only a handful of studies have been published thus far, some
of which will be discussed below. [Note Fricke and Millards contribution in this
volume is an example of an empirical study aimed at supporting the English
language learning of pre-primary and early years children with EAL.]
Drury (2013) reports on a qualitative, ethnographic study of one four-year-old EAL
child in an early years setting whose L1 is Pahari. She notes that the child
experiences some difficulties in making the transition from home to school, marked
notably by a complete lack of interaction with any of the other children, and to a
large extent even with the teachers. Drury conceptualises this as a silent period,
which is characterised by a lack of non-verbal behaviours, a lack of gestures or
even eye contact with other children or staff. Drury argues that the child
investigated in her study uses silence as a strategy to be unobtrusive, but that
despite this, there was invisible learning that went on, unrecognised by the
nursery school staff, and this lack of recognition contributed to holding back the
childs educational progress. As a result of her observations, Drury urges
practitioners to i) recognise and build upon bilingual childrens linguistic and
cultural funds of knowledge in the early years, ii) recognise the role of silence in
early learning in the wider socio-cultural context of home and school, iii) create
opportunities with bilingual staff to mediate between home and school, and iv)
provide explicit and detailed guidance for practitioners working with bilingual
children. This final point is important to emphasise because this is precisely what is
missing, both in this EAL context in the UK but throughout Europe in relation to
English language learning and instruction more generally.
Drury (2000) suggests best practice is to i) provide opportunities for one-to-one
discourse with adults, ii) provide opportunities for language learning in teacher-led
small group work, iii) reduce potential for stress in the new learning environment
and maximise opportunities for participation, iv) seek ways of supporting social
interaction, and to v) make rules and routines explicit. She also urges a
commitment to avoid mother-tongue language loss because children will be less
likely to use the L1 since the message they will pick up in school settings is that
they have to focus on English.
Similar issues are raised in Safford and Drury (2013) who point out how bilingual
(i.e. EAL) children are often conceived of as a problem in early years educational
settings. They report on the fact that there is little space to respond to local
language and cultural contexts, so in turn little space for teaching and/or
assessment to take account of bilingual childrens learning paths. There are
numerous difficulties, assessment being one, where bilingual children with less
69
11/01/2016 12:56
experience and proficiency in English are assessed with the same tests as native
speakers. This happens throughout all educational levels in the UK for children with
EAL. This means that pupils with EAL (especially if they are new arrivals and have
attended education in another country) are labelled as underachievers early on,
which often becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. Safford and Drury (2013) also note
that teachers often feel under prepared to address the needs of bilingual pupils
again a similar refrain throughout this chapter and indeed many of the chapters in
this volume. A similar message is espoused in Conteh and Brock (2011), who
identify the problems faced by educators and policy makers of how to provide best
conditions for bilingual children to learn English. They point out that educational
policy is confused and contradictory because on the one hand it claims to be
supportive of linguistic diversity, while on the other the universal model of
language development and assessment is English only (measured against
monolingual norms).
One study that focused exclusively on teachers of children with EAL in early years
settings was Robertson et al (2014). They carried out some qualitative research on
two multilingual practitioners in the early years settings trying to support the
learning of three- and four-year-old children. Of particular note in their study was
the observed tensions between supporting home language and the need for
children to learn English often perceived (incorrectly) as two opposing and
irreconcilable forces within English schools early years settings. They urge that
so-called funds of knowledge need to be opened up to inform bilingual pedagogy
in the early years where funds of knowledge denotes the idea that there are
resources within communities, which, if shared and exchanged, can help support
childrens learning (e.g. families, culture, and the like).
These studies have some common themes themes that permeate not just the
English language learning contexts in this chapter, but also throughout the whole
volume. The research seems to be suggesting a significant problem in terms of the
extent to which teachers of emergent bilingual children feel prepared and
equipped to both meet policy, and the needs of the children themselves. More
guidance, and research, on what constitutes best practice across a range of
associated domains within EAL pedagogy would be welcome. One type of research
that is particularly helpful in this sense is the intervention study, where researchers
identify particular strategies that they believe will be of specific use for teaching
pupils with EAL and try them out in a research design that makes comparisons in
achievement following participation in the intervention. Importantly, these designs
have a comparison group of children who do not participate in the intervention, to
enable researchers to associate any improvements with the participation in the
intervention programme. We believe there is a need for more intervention studies
such as that described in Fricke and Millard (this volume), where they describe an
intervention aimed at supporting oral language development of EAL children in
pre-primary education and the results indicated a benefit to children who
participated in the intervention on measures of vocabulary. Similar results are
found in Dockrell et al (2010) who also carried out a study on pre-primary EAL
children and showed how specific pedagogy aimed at improving oral language
skills can have positive benefits on EAL childrens English language development.
70
11/01/2016 12:56
Conclusions
In making some concluding remarks, wed like to start with some positives. It is
encouraging to see how countries across Europe are committed to providing good
quality (and in many cases free) ECEC to children in the years before they enter
formal education at primary level. It is also heartening to see that many countries
across Europe have in mind the aim to provide foreign language learning
experiences as one of the key elements of a pre-primary curriculum. What is less
positive, however, is the lack of consistent information available across countries
in Europe about how this is implemented, the curricula being offered, the success
of FL (English) programmes and the nature of teacher education for teachers of
English at pre-primary levels. This lack of general information creates a number of
potential problems in this area. First, it is difficult to establish what is actually going
on in Europe in ECEC in English for non-English speakers. We have snippets of
information, as represented in this chapter, but we do not have detailed or
comprehensive (reliable) information that we can feel assured accurately
represents the European context. Consequently, it is difficult to share and learn
from each other within the European context (though volumes such as this one
mitigate against that problem somewhat). It is undeniable that different contexts
will encounter different issues and hence the notion of a one size fits all
curriculum is unrealistic. Nonetheless, there will also be a lot of similarities across
contexts and a lack of coherence in this area means we are less able to take
advantage of others expertise. This is most seriously problematic for teacher
education and provision.
71
11/01/2016 12:56
From a research perspective, there is also a lack of activity in this area; however,
we are hopeful that over time this will change as increasingly researchers are
paying attention to the importance of EFL or English as a Medium of Instruction
(EMI) at the pre-primary level. At the moment, there is relatively little published
research available to support teachers, teacher educators, policy makers and
families on English language learning through ECEC in Europe (Mouro and
Loureno, 2015). More research in these areas would help us adopt a more unified
approach based on a shared understanding, which would enable the development
of a set of guidelines in terms of teacher education, in-service training and
curriculum design, among other issues. We look forward to the coming years
where, we hope, we will see greater developments in these crucial areas.
References
Bialystok, E (2001) Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy and cognition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brumen, M (2011) The perception of and motivation for foreign language learning in
pre-school. Early Child Development and Care, 181(6), 717-732.
Buyl, A and Housen, A (2014) Factors, processes and outcomes of early immersion
education in the Francophone Community in Belgium. International Journal of
Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 17(2), 178-196.
Cable, C, Driscoll, P, Mitchell, R, Sing, S, Cremin, T, Earl, J, Eyres, I, Holmes, B, Martin,
C and Heins, B (2012) Language learning at Key Stage 2: findings from a longitudinal
study. Education 3-13: International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years
Education. 40(4), 363-378.
Cern, M (2015) Pre-primary English language learning and teacher education in
the Czech Republic, in Mouro, S and Loureno, M (eds) Early years second
language education: International perspectives on theory and practice. London:
Routledge.
Conteh, J and Brock, A (2011) Safe Spaces? Sites of bilingualism for young learners
in home, school and community. International Journal of Bilingual education and
bilingualism, 14(3), 347-360.
Dockrell, JE, Stuart, M and King, D (2010) Supporting early oral language skills for
English language learners in inner city pre-school provision. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, 80/4, 497-515.
Drury, R (2000) Bilingual children in the nursery: a case study of Samia at home and
at school. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 8(1), 43-59.
Drury, R (2013) How silent is the silent period for young bilinguals in early years
settings in England? European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 21(3),
380-391
Enever, J (2004) Europeanisation or globalisation in early start EFL trends across
72
11/01/2016 12:56
Europe? in Gnutzmann, C and Intemann, F (eds) The globalisation of English and the
English language classroom. Tbingen: Narr.
Enever, J (ed) (2011) Early language learning in Europe. London: The British Council.
European Commission (2011) Language learning at pre-primary school level: Making
it efficient and sustainable. A policy handbook. European Strategic Framework for
Education and Training (ET2010). http://ec.europa.eu/languages/policy/languagepolicy/documents/early-language-learning-handbook_en.pdf
Eurydice (2012) Key Data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe. Education,
Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency. European Commission. http://eacea.ec.
europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/key_data_series/143en.pdf
Eurydice (2014) Key Data on Early Childhood Education and Care in Europe. Eurydice
and Eurostat Report. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/key_data_
series/166EN.pdf
Fricke, S and Millard, G (2015) A setting-based oral language intervention for
nursery-aged children with English as an additional language, in Murphy, V and
Evangelou, M (eds) Early childhood education in English for speakers of other
languages. London: The British Council.
Hawkins, E (2005) Out of this nettle, drop-out, we pluck this flower, opportunity:
Re-thinking the school foreign language apprenticeship. The Language Learning
Journal, 32(1), 4-17.
Ioannou-Georgiou, S (2015) Early Language Learning in Cyprus: Voices from the
classroom, in Mouro, S and Loureno, M (eds) Early years second language
education: International perspectives on theory and practice. London: Routledge.
Karemaker, A, Sylva, K, Jelley, F, Kanji, G and Murphy, VA (in progress) Ready to
Read: Can a professional development programme successfully improve childrens
language and literacy skills?
Lang, G, Marrocchi, D, Lopriore, L, Benvenuto, G, Cinganotto, L and Vacca, M
(2014) Esperienze di insegnamento in lingua straniera nella Scuola dellInfanzia:
Rapporto sulla rilevazione effettuata nel November 2014. Direzione Generale per gli
Ordinamenti scolastici e la Valutazione del Sistema Nazionale di Istruzione Gruppo
di lavoro Monitoraggio esperienze di insegnamento in lingua straniera nella scuola
dellinfanzia.
Mouro, S and Loureno, M (eds) (2015) Early years second language education:
International perspectives on theory and practice. London: Routledge.
Mullis, IVS, Martin, MO, Foy, P and Drucker, KT (2012) PIRLS 2011 International
Results in Reading. Boston: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center.
Murphy, VA (2014) Second language learning in the early school years: Trends and
contexts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
European perspectives on early childhood education |
73
11/01/2016 12:56
Murphy, VA, Macaro, E, Alba, S and Cipolla, C (2015) The influence of L2 learning on
first language literacy skills. Applied Psycholinguistics, 36, 1133-1153.
NALDIC (2014) EAL Pupil attainment, gaps and progress 1997-2014. Available online
at www.naldic.org.uk/research-and-information/eal-statistics
OECD (2014) Education at a Glance (2014): OECD Indicators. OECD Publishing.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2014-en
Portikov, Z (2015) Pre-primary second language education in Slovakia and the
role of teacher training programmes, in Mouro, S and Loureno, M (eds) Early
years second language education: International perspectives on theory and practice.
London: Routledge.
Robertson, L, Drury, R and Cable, C (2014) Silencing bilingualism: A day in the life of
a bilingual practitioners. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 17(5), 610-623.
Romaine, S (1995) Bilingualism, 2nd Edition. Oxford: Blackwell.
Safford, K and Drury, R (2013) The problem of bilingual children in educational
settings: policy and research in England. Language and Education, 27(1), 70-81.
Sammons, P, Sylva, K, Melhuish, E, Siraj-Blatchford, I, Taggart, B and Elliot, K (2002)
Measuring the impact of pre-school on childrens cognitive progress over the
pre-school period. Technical paper 8a. London: Institute of Education, University of
London.
Soderman, AK and Oshio, T (2008) The social and cultural contexts of second
language acquisition research in young children. European Early Childhood
Education Research Journal, 16(3), 297-311.
Strand, S, Malmberg, L and Hall, J (2015) English as an Additional Language (EAL)
and educational achievement in England: An analysis of the National Pupil Database.
London: Education Endowment Foundation.
Tucker-Drob, EM (2012) Pre-schools reduce early academic achievement gaps: A
longitudinal twin approach. Psychological Science, 23(3), 310-319.
74
11/01/2016 12:56
1.4
India
Early childhood education
in English in India
Padmini Shankar and Paul Gunashekar
English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad, India
Introduction
India is a vast country with 1.2 billion people, 29 states, seven union territories, 22
official languages and 365 recognised dialects3. Presenting a profile of early
childhood education in English in India is a daunting task because of the plethora of
complex issues involved. In fact, there is no single policy that governs the entire
country although there are pertinent guidelines in the National Curriculum
Framework (NCF, 2005). One reason why India does not have a unitary national
policy is that education comes under the concurrent agenda of both the central
government and the different state governments, and the latter formulate their
own policies based on prevalent political agendas.
At the primary level most government schools offer instruction only in the regional
languages. There are no government pre-primary or play schools since the official
starting age of school education in India is six years. However, there is a multitude
of private pre-schools that offer pre-primary education in the English medium a
phenomenon attributable to the notion that younger is better. It is evident then
that English language education in India at both the pre-primary and primary levels
is a complex matter.
This chapter aims to provide a status report on early childhood education in
English in India. It is organised in five sections. The first section traces the history
and background of English language education in India. The second section throws
light on the socio-cultural milieu in which English education happens the
divergent contexts and organisations that are involved in the process. The third
section outlines the policy decisions that have influenced the study of English
across decades, including the debate on lowering the threshold age for introducing
English in school. The fourth section, the thrust of the chapter, turns the spotlight
on teaching practice methodology, materials and testing at the pre-primary level.
www.mapsofindia.com or www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article2474.php
75
11/01/2016 12:56
The fifth section, in conclusion, notes the challenges involved in early childhood
education in English such as designing child-friendly course materials, devising
appropriate classroom methodologies, and addressing teacher education needs.
The chapter concludes with suggestions for strengthening early childhood
education in English in India.
76
11/01/2016 12:56
Socio-cultural milieu
English education is viewed as a means of upward social mobility, which has led to
the mushrooming of private schools where English is not only taught as a subject
but is also used as the medium of instruction in all subjects right from Class 1. A
notable trend has been for poor families, in both rural and urban areas, to send
their children to private schools. Proficiency in English is developed, as Graddol
(2010: 74-75) delineates, in seven locations:
1.
The home and community: children who come from homes where English is
spoken gain a head start in English, and also are supported in schoolwork.
Communities also vary greatly in the exposure they provide children to
English out of school.
2.
3.
4.
Private language institutes, coaching colleges, private tuition: these cater for
all age groups, but access is better in urban areas and for richer families.
5.
6.
7.
The Indian Constitution has ensured that childrens educational needs are
addressed at an early age. For instance, the 86th Amendment to the Constitution
(2002) ensures provision of early childhood care and education for all children until
they reach the age of six years. The Right to Education Bill (2009) proclaims the
right of children to free and compulsory education. For school education, Indias
flagship schemes are the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA, 2001), which focuses on
primary education; the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA, 2009), which
takes care of secondary education; and the Mid-Day Meal scheme (1995), which
aims to provide nutritious meals to school children of grades 1 to 5 and in some
cases, grades 1 to 7. Between them, they account for 85 per cent of Indias school
education budget and are aimed to achieve universal primary school enrolment.
This background is important to understand the breadth and spread of English
education in India. English is now introduced into schools at an early age and more
children are learning through the medium of English. Many state governments are
responding to the competition from the private sector by switching schools to
English medium, or introducing English-medium streams. For instance, Chennai
77
11/01/2016 12:56
11/01/2016 12:56
79
11/01/2016 12:56
this stage. The local community would be fully involved in these programmes. A full
integration of childcare and pre-primary education would be brought about, both
as a feeder and a strengthening factor for primary education and for human
resource development in general (http://www.ncert.nic.in/oth_anoun/npe86.pdf).
The Eighth Five-Year Plan period from 1992 onwards saw accelerated expansion of
ICDS with a view to universalising the programme. The Ninth Five-Year Plan
addressed the issue of early childhood care and education more exhaustively than
previous plans. While acknowledging the first six years of life to be critical, it
recommended the institution of a National Charter for Children, which would
ensure that no child remains illiterate, hungry or lacks medical care by the end of
the Ninth Plan. Thus, influenced by global thinking, the concept of ECCE has
undergone a shift from a unidimensional, sectoral concept to a more holistic and
developmentally appropriate definition (Kaul, 2002: 27).
80
11/01/2016 12:56
Age of Children
Ministry
Nutritional supplementation,
nutrition and health education
0-6 years
Immunisation
0-6 years
Pre-school education
3-6 years
Childcare
0-5/6 years
Prenatal onward
The National Focus Group on Early Childhood Education (2006) clearly outlines five
major dimensions of quality: appropriate curriculum; trained, motivated and
suitably rewarded teachers; appropriate teacher-child ratio and group size; a
supervisory mechanism; and child-friendly infrastructure. In the private sector, it
argues that ECCE is plagued by such problems as: burdensome and boring
learning; anxiety ridden admission process through entrance tests; structured and
rote learning for which children are not developmentally and cognitively ready;
taxing evaluation procedures, heavy homework, lack of adequate and appropriate
play material. Children in pre-school should be taught through their L1 because it is
more natural for children to communicate using the L1 than to struggle to
communicate through the L2 that they have still not acquired. In fact, it is a matter
of the rights of learners. All individuals have the right to an education in their first
language, and this right might be violated with the premature introduction of English
into elementary education (Nunan 1999).
The National Focus Group on Teaching of Indian Languages (2006) recommends
that even at the primary level, learning should be imparted only in the L1: Primary
education is essentially language education. Even elementary arithmetic and early
knowledge about society and environment are best acquired through the mothertongue(s) of learners. The medium of instruction at the level of primary school must
be the mother-tongue(s) of learners, building upon the rich experiential, linguistic,
and cognitive resources that they bring to schools (p.30). It may be argued that
ECE can be provided in the L2 too but it would require trained and informed
teachers and well-written coursebooks coupled with the availability of and
exposure to the L2 outside of school. It is worthwhile noting what The National
Focus Group on Teaching of English (2006) says: The level of introduction of
English has now become a matter of political response to peoples aspirations,
rendering almost irrelevant an academic debate on the merits of a very early
introduction. There are problems of systematic feasibility and preparedness, for
example, finding the required number of teachers (p.1). What Agnihotri (2008,
cited in Mathew, 2012) remarked about primary education is true of pre-primary
Early childhood education in English in India |
81
11/01/2016 12:56
education too: First, there are no teachers; if there are some, they dont know any
English themselves; and if some do know it, there are no materials and support
systems. Mathew (2012: 88) reiterates this point when she states: First of all India
does not have sufficient English-proficient teachers to teach the millions of children
who have made this early start.
The National Focus Group on Teaching of Indian Languages (2006: 30) holds the
view that where qualified teachers and adequate infrastructural facilities are
available, English may be introduced from the primary level, but for the first couple of
years it should focus largely on oral-aural skills, simple lexical items, or some
day-to-day conversation If trained teachers are not available, English should be
introduced at the post-primary stage and its quantum increased in such a way that
learners should soon reach the level of their classmates who started learning English
early.
Furthermore, in a multilingual country like India, language teaching is not a
straightforward issue. Any Indian language used as a medium of instruction,
especially in towns and cities, may cause problems to both children and teachers,
and it indeed is a challenge to bridge the gap between the home language/dialect
and the school language. To elaborate, we cannot assume that the language of a
given State is the L1 of all the children studying in that State. Also, in the border
areas, the L1 spoken by the children is not necessarily the same as the state
language. For instance, children studying in a Kannada-medium school near the
border of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh may speak Telugu at home, and if
Kannada is used as the medium of instruction, they will find it difficult to transact
learning. It makes sense, therefore, for children to be allowed to express
themselves in their home language while they gradually acquire the regional/
school language through exposure. Prioritising listening and speaking alongside
free play with peers should help in this regard. As Mathew (2012: 101) argues:
Adopting a multilingual approach and addressing other pedagogical issues are
extremely important although not easy. For example, L2 literacy skills may have to be
introduced gradually and after learners are fairly conversant with oral skills. This
means that the first two or three years of instruction would have to largely focus on
speaking and listening.
In a multilingual classroom, children should be encouraged to express themselves
in their own language and to pay attention to and learn from each other. This is a
natural and easy process in play situations. This argument applies with even
greater force to children in tribal areas who enter directly into a primary school
that uses the state language totally unfamiliar to them. The National Focus Group
on Teaching of English (2006) suggests that multilingualism can help counter some
of the problems arising from the early introduction of English such as the loss of
ones own language(s), or the burden of sheer incomprehension (p.1). Indeed, as
Cameron (2001) argues, scaffolding L2 learning with the L1 is quite beneficial,
especially to young children.
82
11/01/2016 12:56
Further, in their craze for English the general public has equated/confused learning
English with so-called English medium, and the growing popularity of these
English-medium schools has lead to rapid privatisation of education at the primary
and pre-school levels. To quote the National Focus Group on ECC: English has
become the line dividing the privileged from the rest, and the base of the continuing
dual track in our educational system. These are issues of class, power and social
inclusion rather than of pedagogy, and hence have to be approached from a political
standpoint (p. 32). In fact, the primary education scenario in India is very
complicated with hundreds of home languages and many in most classrooms and
defies straightforward solutions (Jhingran, 2009, cited in Mathew, 2012). There are
government schools that are considered low quality institutions. These schools
offer instruction in the mother tongue with English as one of the subjects from
Class 1 where English could be the childrens fourth language (the first three
languages being home language, link/street language and school language). Quite
often, these schools do not have teachers who can teach English. There are private
schools which offer instruction in English medium in response to parental/societal
demands, although a large majority of them, especially in rural/semi-urban areas,
do not have English-proficient or qualified teachers. It is ironic that the Indian
constitution provides for education in the mother tongue at the primary stage, but
there is no national language policy that is binding on all the states
(Mathew 2012: 87).
Pedagogical practices
It is important for policies to consider the complex realities about the role of
English and its relation to economic development and education; but it is also
important that this is reflected in the pedagogic practices promoted within
programmes that aim to teach English as a language for international development
(Seargent and Erling, 2011). The years at primary school are extremely important in
childrens intellectual, physical and social-emotional development. Hence it is
important to adopt effective pedagogic practices. Arguing that the pedagogy of
primary teachers has always been under-theorised and the complexity of the task
under-rated, Eaude (2014: 11) states that the expertise required to teach young
children successfully is especially complex and demanding because of the
combined effects of: the social and cultural context outside the classroom; the
people involved in the classroom and the interactions between them; and how the
role and identity of primary school teachers affects, and is affected by, their values
and beliefs. Research (Phillips, 1993; Cameron, 2001; Slattery and Willis, 2001)
suggests that while teaching young learners we need to:
83
11/01/2016 12:56
In this regard, it would help to examine some of the pedagogical practices followed
in early childhood education. The scenario can be described from three
perspectives: how the practice should be in general, how it used to be in India, and
how it is now.
Acquire through hearing and experiencing lots of English, in much the same way
as they acquire their first language.
Learn through doing things and playing: they are not consciously trying to learn
new words and phrases for them it is incidental.
Love playing with language sounds, imitating and making funny noises.
Are not able to organise their learning. Often they will not realise that they are
learning a foreign language. They simply see it as having fun!
Will have their grammar develop gradually on its own provided they hear lots of
English and learn to understand a lot of words and phrases.
84
11/01/2016 12:56
Stories
Stories and associated activities help children develop a wide range of abilities
such as empathising, analysing, evaluating and hypothesising (Wright, 2008). For
instance, they help children to: research into the subject matter of the story, reflect
on the story and its meaning, predict what might come next in the story, infer what
is meant but not said, visualise what the place, people or object might look or
sound like, etc. All this helps children not only to put to use the language that they
have at their disposal, but also enables them to learn new vocabulary and
structures through meaningful contexts.
Drama
Drama activities are very useful for children because drama involves children at
many levels, through their bodies, minds, emotions, language and social
interaction. They boost childrens confidence, address different learning styles,
personalise language and contextualise language (Phillips, 1999). Therefore, using
drama with very young learners of English helps identify and label emotions and
experiences.
Assessment
Although assessment sounds threatening and unsuited to a young childs nature it
is a necessary part of teaching and learning. Assessment of young learners should
occur in a familiar, psychologically safe environment. Texts used in assessment
tasks should deal with familiar content with home and family and school and with
familiar, simple genres like childrens stories and folktales (McKay, 2006: 9-10).
Child-friendly techniques that are compatible with everyday classroom activities
have to be used (Pinter, 2006). A variety of techniques have to be used to get a
comprehensive picture of young childrens language achievement.
85
11/01/2016 12:56
The Committee also complained that textbooks are filled with tersely written facts
and do not encourage children to think and explore. Textbooks and guidebooks
form a tight nexus and sometimes children are compelled to buy the guidebook (or
key) along with the textbook. Each time the textbooks are revised, new topics are
added and the teachability of the textbook the quotient of content that an
average teacher can put across gets jeopardised. Concepts and information get
repeated because of the flawed structure of the syllabus. In the primary classes,
ideas and information are presented in a synoptic manner, making the content of
the text deceptively simple. In the later classes, the same ideas are repeated, with
some elaboration, resulting in a sense of trivialisation and boredom. Curriculum
inquiry and reform are not undertaken in a systematic manner and teachers have
no role to play in it but for a token involvement of a handful.
The catch them young notion controls the system and pre-school children are
burdened with textbooks and the formal learning they represent since parents and
teachers feel that unless academic training begins early, children cannot cope with
the fast-paced pedagogy and the competitive ethos of the later school years. The
Yashpal Committee expresses its deep anguish thus:
The pernicious grip of this false argument manifests itself in absurd, and of
course deeply harmful, practices in pre-schools and primary schools, such as
early emphasis on shapely drawing, writing and memorising information. Intrinsic
motivation and the childs natural abilities are being smothered at a scale so vast
that it cannot be correctly estimated. Our national commitment to the development
of human resource is daily challenged in our nurseries and primary schools. (p.14)
What it is: National Curriculum Framework, 2005
In its Position Paper, the National Focus Group on Curriculum, Syllabus and
Textbooks (2006) advocated a curriculum framework that emphasises learning with
understanding and learning to learn, and one that helps children develop their own
understanding based on their lived experiences (p. vii). Curricular knowledge
should be selected and organised in view of the aims of education, an
epistemological perspective, the childs learning and mental development, and the
childs context. Pedagogic practices are to be based on the following principles:
The Focus Group made the following observations. Instead of a single textbook, a
package of teaching learning material could be used to engage children in active
learning, with the textbook a part of this package. The materials should recognise
learner concerns; classroom activities should promote in learners a clear sense of
86
11/01/2016 12:56
self-worth; textbook tasks should direct learners to the goal of personalisation; and
textual context should reflect the uniqueness of Indias multiculturalism. A large
number of packages should be developed at the state and district levels with
adequate provision for cluster- and school-level modifications and supplementary
materials. The examination system should be revamped and continuous
comprehensive evaluation is to be implemented with the collective effort of
children, teachers, parents and institutions. Further, the learning experience itself
must be evaluated, and not only its outcomes.
It is important to understand that in the first year in which English is introduced as a
subject, the learning goal is to develop the basic abilities of listening, speaking,
reading and writing in children (see Table 2 below):
Table 2: Learning goals in English in the first year of English teaching in primary
schools in India
Letters
Listening
Speaking
Reading
Writing
Small and capital letters introduced with words and pictures. Many textbooks are similar to
workbooks where practice writing can be undertaken in the book itself.
Words
Listening
Speaking
Reading
Writing
Practice in writing
words. (Usually copy
and write.)
Sentences
Listening
Speaking
A number of different activities including recitation of poems so that children can listen and repeat.
Listen and repeat sentences after the teacher. Greeting. Instructions and a few basic sentence
structures are practised.
87
11/01/2016 12:56
Mention must be made here of the welcome change that has been occurring in
English language teaching at the pre-primary level. Primers with colourful artwork
and attractive layout have been designed that offer a multi-sensory learning
experience to young Indian learners of English. These primers reflect the
understanding that at the kindergarten stage, children need to learn the rudiments
of a variety of life skills: eye-hand co-ordination; ability to colour, sketch and draw;
ability to perform activities involving cutting, sticking and folding; ability to solve
puzzles and do activities involving the recognition of similarities and differences;
the essential skills of identifying, sorting, classifying, matching and recognising the
odd one out; conceptualisation of character, quality, position, size and amount; and
the ability to follow chronological order. The role of the primers during this stage is
to help children develop in all these life skills and to prepare the ground for the
more formal kind of teaching that will follow in primary schools. The primers
therefore focus on providing an array of interesting language tasks and activities
intended to develop the psychomotor, cognitive and affective skills of the young
learner. In other words, the goal is to enable the very young learners to actively
construct meaning using a range of verbal and non-verbal cues as well as visual
and context-embedded clues. Oxford University Press New Broadway primers
with their rich content of childrens songs, nursery rhymes, mini-stories, games and
activities and with a happy blend of the Phonic, the Whole Word, and the Whole
Sentence methods to introduce the young learners to the basics of reading are a
case in point.
Conclusion
To reaffirm the point, the primacy and supremacy accorded to the English language
in the socio-cultural and economic ethos of India stays unquestioned and both the
government and non-government organisations have been investing efforts and
resources towards improving pedagogical practices. And yet, there are issues that
still plague us: large class size, the pressure to cover the syllabus and to teach
what will be tested, lack of time and resources to truly implement activity-oriented
learning, incompatibility vis--vis teaching materials and methodology and testing
content and format, excessive workload coupled with non-academic chores for
teachers, and teachers own low proficiency and competence in English. Elaborate
training programmes and the need for scaling up teaching skills are the concerns
to be immediately addressed. Further, constant dialogue between all stakeholders
teachers, trainers, parents and policy makers can help plug loopholes. Such
attempts at communication can tailor English language education to the local
needs of communities attempting to engage fully in a rapidly globalising world
(Seargent and Erling, 2011: 269). Additionally, there is a need for a two-pronged
measure: attitudinal makeover (in both the teaching community and the general
public) and pedagogic training. To elaborate, lack of early achievement in English,
especially in the case of children from rural or underprivileged backgrounds,
should not be equated with lack of potential to learn. Massive teacher training
programmes, offering attractive pay cheques to teachers, exploring indigenous
models of development, and bridging the gap between research and teaching
practice are the measures that could strengthen early childhood education in
English in our country.
88
11/01/2016 12:56
References
Banerji, R and Bobde, S (2013) Evolution of the ASER English tool, in Berry, V (ed)
English Impact Report: Investigating English Language Outcomes at the Primary
School Level in Rural India. Berry, V (ed) London: British Council, 27-32.
Cameron, L (2001) Teaching language to young learners. Cambridge: CUP.
Curtain, HA and Dahlberg, CAP (2000) Planning for Success: Common Pitfalls in the
Planning of Early Foreign Language Programmes. ERICDIGEST EDO-FL-00-11
DECEMBER 2000.
Eaude, T (2014) What makes primary class teachers special? Exploring the features
of expertise in the primary classroom. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice,
20(1), 4-18.
Graddol, D (2010) English Next India. British Council.
Kaul, V (2002) Early childhood care and education, in Govinda, R (ed) India
Education Report: A Profile of Basic Education. New Delhi: OUP, 23-34.
Mathew, R (2012) Young learner English language policy and implementation: A
view from India, in (pp.83-106), in Spolsky, B and Moon, Y (eds) Primary School
English-Language Education in Asia: From Policy to Practice. New York and London:
Routledge, 83-106.
McKay, P (2006) Assessing Young Language Learners. Cambridge: CUP.
Meganathan, R (2011) Language policy in education and the role of English in India,
From library language to language of empowerment, in Coleman, H (ed) Dreams
and realities: Developing countries and the English language. London: British
Council, 59-87.
Ministry of Human Resource Development (1986) National Policy on Education.
Government of India. www.ncert.nic.in/oth_anoun/npe86.pdf
Ministry of Human Resource Development (2009) Right to Education Act.
Department of School Education and Literacy, Government of India. http://mhrd.
gov.in/rte
National Council of Educational Research and Training (2005) National Curriculum
Framework. www.ncert.nic.in/rightside/links/pdf/framework/english/nf2005.pdf
Nunan, D (1999) Does younger = better? TESOL Matters, 9(3), 3.
Phillips, S (1999) Drama with Children. Oxford: OUP.
Phillips, S (1993) Young learners. Oxford: OUP.
Pinter, A (2006) Teaching Young Language Learners: Oxford Language Teachers
Handbook Series. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
89
11/01/2016 12:56
90
11/01/2016 12:56
1.5
Africa
Beyond ABC: the complexities of
early childhood education in
Tanzania
Nipael Mrutu, Pauline Rea-Dickins, Fortidas Bakuza, Shelina Walli,
Aga Khan University, Institute for Educational Development,
East Africa
Alan Pence, University of Victoria, Canada
The importance of early childhood care and education has gained increasing
recognition in Tanzania, resulting in various transformations in the education
landscape in the country. Without disregarding the developmental milestones that
the provision of education has undergone over the years, this chapter, based on
data collected from 14 regions in the country as part of the Tuwaendeleze Watoto
Wetu (TWW), Let Us Develop our Children study, describes some of the complexities
in the provision of early childhood education in Tanzania. The project4 was
designed to contribute to what is known about effective approaches to support
young childrens development and education in Tanzania. Early childhood care and
education in Tanzania is mainly provided by private institutions, including religious
institutions, and in some cases community-owned pre-schools. The language of
instruction in privately run early childhood centres tends to be English while in
public schools, including pre-primary centres and classes, the language of
instruction is Kiswahili, the national language. This divide between public and
private education providers is also associated with the quality of education where
English, on the one hand, is associated with a higher quality education and
Kiswahili, on the other, is viewed as weak and therefore a poor medium of
instruction when it is associated with the quality of education. Drawing on the
relationship between language competency and literacy in the early years and the
findings from the TWW study, this chapter highlights a situation whereby the pursuit
of ensuring the right to education for Tanzanian children may lead to the creation
of injustice and inequalities for the majority of young children. While we
This research, one of several related studies in the area of early human development, was made possible
through funding from the Department for Foreign Affairs Trade and Development (DFATD) within the Programme
for the Advancement of Human Development in Africa and Asia.
91
11/01/2016 12:56
6
7
8
92
In this chapter we use ECE Early Childhood Education to cover a range of provision for young children,
which variously is referred to elsewhere as ECCE (Early Childhood Care and Education, or ECD (Early Childhood
Development). Our focus here is primarily on education and we therefore use ECE throughout
These policies cover ECE, ECCE, ECD
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001211/121147e.pdf)
www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140-6736%2811%2960889-1.pdf
11/01/2016 12:56
Date
Location and
# of
# of SSA
# of
African-
African
Attendees
Countries
Presenters
based
Government
participation
Representation
Theme
Kampala, Uganda
1999
200
19
35
75%
3 national
ministers
2002
200
28
60
80%
6 national
ministers; 1
international
minister
2005
300
39
80
85%
6 national
ministers; 27
international
ministers/
delegates
2009
600
42
146
89%
35 national
ministers; 113
international
ministers/
delegates
Showcasing ECCD:
Innovation and
Application in
Africa
Asmara, Eritrea
Health, Nutrition,
Early Childhood
Care and
Education, and
Children in Need of
Special Protection
Accra, Ghana
Moving Early
Childhood Forward
in Africa
Dakar, Senegal
From Policy to
Action: Expanding
Investment in ECD
for Sustainable
Development
ADEAs Working Group on Early Childhood Development (WGECD) was created in 1998, superseding a group
known as the Early Childhood Development Network in Africa (ECDNA). The WGECD, with funding through ADEA,
supported ECD in Africa through its activities in areas of research, dialogue, advocacy and networking. As from
February 2015, WGECD responsibilities have been passed to the Inter-Country Quality Node on Early Childhood
Development (ICQN-ECD). The ICQN-ECD has been created at the instigation of the Ministry of Education and
Human Resources, Higher Education and Scientific Research of Mauritius, which has taken the responsibility
of its leadership. Its main objective is to improve ECD policies and practices, so that every African child gets a
good start in life through the implementation of effective ECD programmes.
10
One such event was the Inaugural Conference and Official Launch of the Institute for Human Development, February
1415, Nairobi, East Africa. There were 220 participants from 22 countries, many of which were from Sub-Saharan
Africa. The theme of the conference was: Investing in Early Childhood Development for a Better World (see also www.
aku.edu/ihd/Pages/home.aspx).
93
11/01/2016 12:56
Date
Location and
# of
# of SSA
# of
African-
African
Attendees
Countries
Presenters
based
Government
participation
Representation
Theme
Arusha, Tanzania:
First Biennial
National Forum on
Early Childhood
Development in
Tanzania
2012
160
N/A
29
90%
5 national
ministers
Zanzibar, Tanzania:
Affordable, Quality
Pre-primary
Education for All
2014
c. 200
14+
All country
delegations
+ invited
speakers
Vast majority
14 delegations
representing
ECCE at country
policy level
While the volume of ECE international research and scholarly literature has
expanded dramatically since 2000, along with very significant increases in the
number of SSA countries with ECE-related policies, SSA-specific and SSA-led
research remains, problematically, an insignificant contributor to the global
literature. Most SSA countries (with the exception of South Africa) have a very
restricted locally focused and locally led literature upon which to base policy,
programme and practice guidelines. This chapter presents some of the findings
from the Tuwaendeleze Watoto Wetu (TWW) project that was designed to address
such evidence-based shortfalls at country (Tanzania) and regional (SSA) levels. This
project also provided support for the development of the ECE international
compendium led by the University of Victoria, Canada11.
In what follows, we first provide an overview and details of the research design.
This is followed by a summary of findings with specific reference to languages in
ECE, and we then highlight some central discussion points arising from the TWW
research.
Overview
Within a context in which quality ECE is increasingly recognised as an essential
building block in an individuals educational trajectory, their capacity to participate
productively at community or society level and enhance their overall wellbeing, a
key question that needs answering focuses around what is known about ECE
education provision in any given country. In other words, are the important
foundation stones being provided for all young children? As we have seen above,
there has been a surge of interest in recent years but while certain assumptions
might be possible to make about ECE in north American or European contexts,
much less is known in terms of a strong evidence base about ECE in Sub-Saharan
Africa. In any case, knowledge and constructions of ECE from and about one
context, while they have the potential to inform practice in another, are not directly
applicable and a huge danger exists of importing wholesale perspectives and
11
94
The Compendium project led by the ECDVU and supported through this research has been described in other
publications (Pence and Ashton, in press; Ashton and Pence, 2014)
11/01/2016 12:56
practices from elsewhere. The foundation for all school learning is what children
bring from their home and community environments and it is essential to
understand these particular life experiences in their community languages that
children bring with them to school. There is, thus, a need to understand better the
prevailing local landscapes. This study therefore aimed to strengthen the evidence
base with respect to national capacity and approaches to interventions for the
delivery of effective ECE interventions in Tanzania.
Factors that led to the identification of these regions included visiting each of the
seven Teacher Training Colleges (TTCs) that had been nominated by the Ministry of
Education to become the centres of excellence for ECE in Tanzania. We also
gathered data in the private sector, including some private teacher training
colleges (TTCs) and universities offering ECE programmes, given, as mentioned
earlier, that the private sector plays a decisive role in the provision of ECE in
Tanzania. In tracing the ECE landscape in Tanzania one cannot easily disentangle
education institutions from the civil society and\or NGOs. Civil society collaborates
95
11/01/2016 12:56
HEI12
Education
CSO13
Government
centre
Mwanza
Mara
Kilimanjaro
Tanga
Singida
Morogoro
Iringa
Rukwa
Zanzibar
Dar es Salaam
Lindi
Dodoma
Arusha
Kigoma
As observed in Table 2, we also gathered data from three main ministries in the
forefront of supporting ECE, namely the Ministry of Education and Vocational
Training (MoEVT), the Ministry of Community Development Gender and Children
(MCDGC) and the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MoHSW).
12
13
96
Higher Education Institution: universities, teacher training colleges, vocational educational colleges
Civil Society Organisations
11/01/2016 12:56
Approach
We adopted an interactive and stakeholder engagement approach to the TWW
research design. An initial workshop was conducted with diverse ECE stakeholders
government, learning institutions and civil society where participants engaged
in a series of questions such as:
a.
What ECE curricula, materials and resources do you provide to trainers and
practitioners?
b.
What funding (and by whom) does your sector provide or receive for ECE
activities?
c.
d.
What does Early Childhood Education mean to your sector how do you
define it and how does your sector agree or disagree on the definition?
e.
What is your sectors current role in ECE? Future roles and responsibilities?
f.
ECE stakeholders also supported the identification of key themes (see Table 3) and
perceived gaps in ECE in Tanzania and the development and validation of the
interview protocols. Subsequently, working in collaboration with the national
Tanzanian Early Childhood Development Network (TECDEN14), two data collection,
archiving and analysis workshops were conducted, the interview protocols were
piloted, revised, and Kiswahili and English versions developed. Interview data was
collected in the period April to September 2014 around the following major focal
areas, as summarised in Table 3.
Table 3: Guiding themes for data collection
Themes
Themes
Leadership
Quality Assurance
Resources
Standards
Assessment
Advocacy
Community Engagement
Conceptualisations of ECE
Attitudes
Policy
Policy Implementation
As noted from the above listing of identified research themes, this study did not set
out to research issues of language in ECE specifically, nor was language flagged as
major in any way during the research start-up phase. However, as we collected and
analysed the data it became clear that language issues raise significant challenges
for quality ECE provision. In the next section, we present some of our findings
focusing on the language of ECE training, conceptualisations of ECE and
instructional implications, and attitudes to language and quality.
14
TECDEN is a national network with 18 chapters in each of the regions in Tanzania. Four of these TECDEN chapter
members supported the data collection in the regions.
97
11/01/2016 12:56
Selected findings
Language for training ECE teachers and caregivers
In this study we observed that pre-school teacher training in the government TTCs
visited was conducted in Swahili, as per policy. The private TTCs on the other hand
undertook their training in English. The explanation for this observed difference is
based on the rationale that the government-trained pre-school teachers are sent to
teach in government pre-schools where the medium of instruction is Swahili. The
government, however, is not responsible for the job placement of pre-school
teachers trained in private institutions who, thus, seek employment independently
and usually end up in employment in the private ECE sector; that is, private
pre-schools where the medium of instruction is English. It can therefore be argued
that the use of English or Swahili in educational institutions that train teachers to
teach in early years classes is shaped by the prevailing circumstances such as the
demands of the job market.
However, while some may argue that the use of two different languages to train
pre-school teachers might not necessarily be a cause for concern, this situation
does raise some critical issues for those tutors training future ECE teachers in the
public sector TTCs. These tutors will normally be graduates and have studied
through the medium of English at university. This means that tutors will have
received their university education through English only to be expected to conduct
their training for pre-primary and primary teachers in state-run TTCs through
Swahili. Our data strongly suggests that the assumption that there can be a smooth
transition between language use across the sectors university and TTC is
misguided, as the following quotation highlights:
We were taught all the jargons and concepts in English, and here we are teaching in
Swahili, its difficult. (12\A\3\NM\20.5.14)15
But such concerns are not restricted to the tensions arising from the use of two
different languages at different times and for different purposes. A second issue
that has emerged from our data has to do with the levels of English proficiency of
the teacher trainers, even for those who studied ECE through the medium of
English:
It is a problem, as you have seen yourself, our students [teacher trainees] cant
comfortably express themselves in English and yet they are expected to teaching16
pupils in English medium schools after graduating its not their fault, its the
education system, Its the language policy in the country we shift from one
language to the other just like that. (6\A\6\NM\20.3.14)
What we observe here therefore is a dual problem: one of transitioning from one
language to the other and another concerning poor English proficiency levels of
future ECE teachers.
15
16
98
Our coding is as follows: 12 refers to region; AD refers to the type of institution sampled; 3 denotes the
informant; initials refer to the individual interviewers, followed by the date that the data were collected
These are verbatim transcriptions and some contain syntactic infelicities
11/01/2016 12:56
Compounding the issues above were factors around the lack of ECE resources,
such as books and other print and learning materials, to allow for or support an
effective shift from one language to the other. Our informants told us that they
lacked Swahili teaching resources and materials such as books, and that they
depended on online resources available through the internet. However, those that
they could locate online were unfortunately resources in English and thus there
was a need for them to be translated into Kiswahili before using them, and it was
reported that they struggled in this translation process.
The lack of resources does not only affect the state-run TTCs which use Swahili as
the language for training ECE practitioners, and a challenge of a different kind was
evidenced in the private TTCs. The private sector TTCs reported that they
depended to a considerable extent on the available online resources in English.
However, although their college trainers will have gained their undergraduate
degrees through English-medium instruction, the private TTCs reported a lack of
sufficient tutors with a good enough command of the English language, noting that
many of their tutors struggled with the material in English and that they were also
challenged in providing the ECE training through the medium of English. In other
words, there is a situation in which college tutors struggle to both comprehend the
resources available in English and to instruct the ECE trainee teachers through the
medium of English. This finding therefore raises issues of quality in the
implementation of the ECE training at the college tutor level and the impact that
inadequate English language skills on the part of the tutors may have on those
trainees who, in turn, will be expected to provide quality English languagemediated ECE for young children in the private sector.
A third challenge linked to training for ECE is also related to resources. Not only did
our respondents report a significant lack of materials in Swahili or in the ethnic
community languages17, when contrasted with the wealth of materials available in
English, they also commented that materials accessed by and large via the internet
are by default not grounded in the ECE realities of Sub-Saharan Africa, let alone the
specific contexts found across Tanzania. For example:
However, we lack resources like teaching materials, we depend much on searching
online on the internet and see how the West are doing it. The thing is we see how
they do it, but in most cases they are kind of things which we cant get hold of them
here in Morogoro, and the way they teach is far beyond our capability, so in most
cases we end up printing out only some articles. (4\A\5\NM\19.3.14)
Our findings are compounded by the very significant difficult circumstances in
which ECE trainers find themselves, with the complexity of the issues, language and
others, explained as follows:
We use the government curriculum but since ECE is still quite new course, we spend
a lot of time planning for a lesson, searching for references, for learning materials.
We try our best searching for books but we end up getting very old books from the
17
There is the expectation that in government-run primary and pre-schools the medium is Swahili
99
11/01/2016 12:56
library, and no books at all in our books stores here in Singida, we do not even have
modern technology like projectors and other modern technology. Our classes are
crowded as you have seen, we now have 184 students, but we are only three ECE
teachers, we dont even have enough chairs and tables for our students. (6\A\3\
NM\20.3.14)
I visited a school called X Primary School18 in Dodoma; it had 140 students and one
teacher. (Informant L, 19.3.14)
Taken together, these findings, we suggest, point to issues of quality in the
implementation of ECE training and the impact that inadequate English language
skills and a paucity of resources for ECE in an appropriate language may have on
the teacher trainees who, in turn, will be expected to provide quality ECE for young
children mediated through either English or Swahili.
Conceptualisations of ECE
Unsurprisingly in our research, what constitutes good practice in ECE was
articulated and explicitly defined in several different ways. We were also able to
capture understandings and operationalisations of ECE through, for example, the
focus of the advocacy activities of the educational institutions visited. Interestingly,
in this study all participants engaged in advocacy initiatives, describing advocacy
as (i) enabling providing ECE basic needs and training teachers appropriately; (ii)
education/engagement educating and engaging parents and communities about
the importance of ECE; and (iii) collaboration working with different stakeholders.
Participants who understood advocacy as enabling, embraced broad
conceptualisations of ECE, encompassing issues such as the protection of child
rights, development of basic social and emotional needs, good parenting skills,
physical, cognitive and linguistic development, and the welfare of vulnerable
groups. We heard about many programmes providing competently trained
teachers by addressing childrens holistic development. Of particular relevance to
this chapter is the finding that a number of informants in this study noted that the
renewed interest in the provision of ECE services in Tanzania is a reaction to the
poor primary school learning outcomes where a significant number of primary
school leavers cannot read or write, in English or Swahili (www.twaweza.org/
uploads/files/Uwezo_EA_Report-EN-FINAL.pdf; UWEZO 2010). Without ignoring the
connection between pre-primary school attendance and primary school learning
outcomes, we highlight the possibility and indeed the narrowness of the view of
pre-primary schools being seen as an opportunity to teach reading and writing
formally. The danger here obviously being that an exclusive or narrow focus on
teaching students to read and write ignores the development of other important
skills and capacities, such as the passing to the next generation knowledge about
plants used for the preparation of herbal medicine.
18
100
The observation was undertaken in a Standard 1 class (first year of primary) with children aged approximately
seven years old
11/01/2016 12:56
Fortidas Bakuza
Fortidas Bakuza
Figure 2
The example above was taken from a caregiving context in a Masai community and
illustrates how indigenous knowledge is developed in community contexts. Also
observed in the same community is a locally produced play area, where children
are playing in a construction that inside resembles a maze they are having fun
interacting in a safe play environment with their peers.
Figure 3
This contrasts starkly with the quotation below from one of the TTC tutors as he
explained the advocacy initiatives that his institution was engaged in, highlighting
the perceived importance of ECE as providing opportunities for formal literacy and
numeracy development:
We have a group made up of ten people, some from the TTC and others from
N. primary school. Together we have formed an advocacy committee to inform
teachers on three main things which are essential skills for pre-school children, and
these are counting, reading and writing. We inform them on how to train kids to
acquire these essential skills, the 3Ks Kuhesabu-Kusoma-Kuandika19 (TTC Tutor
12\A\3\NM \12.05.2014)
What seem to be missing from such explanations or accounts are the processes
through which the foundations for formal learning are established and capacities
19
101
11/01/2016 12:56
acquired, through, for example, play, games and structured talk. There was a
perspective coming through some of our data that ECE is an opportunity to bring
formal classroom learning into the pre-school with a focus on formal learning and
outcomes, as a means to ensure better learning outcomes at the end of the
primary phase. In other words, there is a disconnect in some quarters where
pre-primary is viewed as primary for younger children, as opposed to being a
phase that focuses on the whole child and understanding the role, for example, of
play in developing both linguistic and narrative skills as a preparatory phase which
helps children be prepared for primary school.
102
11/01/2016 12:56
good quality of education, out of reach for low income families and a
manufacturer of elites on account of the medium of instruction, namely English.
Schools that use English as a medium of instruction are seen or perceived to be
raising elites, and most of these schools are privately owned. It is these privately
owned schools that have learning materials, better teacherstudent ratios and so
forth. In addition, state-funded programmes run through Swahili only introduce
English as a subject in Standard 3; thus in this respect children in the private sector
have a distinct advantage at one level as far as English language skills development
is concerned. These private schools are also mostly located in the cities, are
expensive and so accessible to the privileged few, thus evidencing some of the
injustices within the system: children go to different schools but are assessed the
same way (i.e. national examinations), and at the end of the day they compete in the
job market, in an unfair competition. You would not pit a heavyweight and a
featherweight boxer against each other in a boxing match.
Further, it is not the case that all English-medium ECE is of a high quality and, as
seen above, there are challenges to achieving quality and high standards on
account of language issues. Nonetheless, the view that English medium is best is
fairly widespread. Reasons for this perception are varied. One is that since the
elite referred to above do well, there is the assumption that this achievement will
be universally available to all if ECE is through the medium of English. There are
then attitudes that have been, perhaps, entrenched since earlier decades in
Tanzanias history, a legacy that prevails from colonial times (albeit over 50 years
ago) where professional occupations required English and minor administrative
positions required only Swahili. Whilst the current generation of parents will not
have experienced colonial Tanzania, it is their parents who may have perpetuated
this attitude towards English. Thus English for this and other reasons is seen as a
prestige language, and a corollary of this is that English medium means that the
quality is higher.
There is little if any objective evidence that these private English programmes are
actually providing a higher quality at the ECE level, an area we suggest needs
further focused research. We can say, therefore, that there is an in-built bias
towards English as quality. However, it is the case that many not all Englishmedium schools (mostly owned by the private sector) are indeed better resourced,
in terms of human resources and learning materials, and in the primary and
secondary school leaving examinations rank higher in the national exams. An
example of one such well-resourced English-medium primary class in the capital
city is seen in the photo below.
103
11/01/2016 12:56
Fortidas Bakuza
Fortidas Bakuza
Figure 4
This privileged environment can be contrasted with the situation that is
unfortunately somewhat typical in rural Sub-Saharan African pre-schools.
Figure 5
In summary, a complexity of factors contributes to the view of English is better. It
is clear from our data that these assumptions do not always hold.
Discussion
As stated earlier, language was not identified at the outset of this research as a
major issue for the analysis of the ECE landscape in Tanzania. In reality, the data we
have gathered and the findings pertaining to language issues are just the tip of the
iceberg, with a whole host of related issues remaining to be investigated. Below, we
discuss three possible implications for language use in ECE within a context that is
essentially multilingual.
Firstly, while Tanzania has 120 ethnic communities, many with their own languages
albeit unscripted, Swahili, the national language, is culturally used as the common
language of communication among communities and is the medium of instruction
at pre-primary and primary school (Bakuza, 2014). As revealed in our sample
findings, data from the TWW project indicates that civil society relates language of
instruction to quality of education, in particular the superiority of English as the
medium for quality ECE. However, while the general impression of public early
childhood centres and pre-schools may be that of poor quality due to the use of
104
11/01/2016 12:56
20
105
11/01/2016 12:56
106
It is to be noted that Kiswahili medium primary schools will teach English as a subject but this is usually from
Standard 3, i.e. the third year of primary school
11/01/2016 12:56
linguistic fissure in the continuum for children who move from the home where an
ethnic community language is spoken to pre-school where the medium is for the
majority to be Swahili (in the case of Tanzania) and for a minority English? To what
extent are we actually limiting a childs potential right at the start of their lives
through language policies that work for the elite few? As persuasively summarised
by Shaeffer (2013: ix):
(1) hundreds of millions of children around the world are forced to study in a
language they barely understand; and (2) children become most easily literate in
their mother tongue, their language of daily use, and the skills they gain in this
process can be applied subsequently to gain literacy in national and international
languages. Bringing their languages and cultures into the classroom is thus an
important way to make education more inclusive and equitable.
What we have observed however in our research, this particular study and others
(e.g. Rea-Dickins et al., 2008, 2013), is the allure of English and the promises it
brings in terms of a better life and bright economic futures, resulting in a situation
where English-medium instruction even in pre-primary ECE represents a strong
pull for parents. While there is agreement among many ECE practitioners and
researchers on the importance of interaction, whether it be child-child, parentchild, or teacher-child interaction, for the holistic development of the children,
we run the risk of promoting inequity through policies and practice that limit
through various means opportunities for children to access quality ECE in their
own languages.
It is interesting to reflect, from an historical perspective, that in 1953
UNESCO stated:
We take it as axiomatic that the best medium for teaching is the mother tongue
of the pupil. (p.6)
Further, in 2006, ADEA reported the following encounter between a government
minister and a parent in a rural village who told the minister:
Its not skill in his mother tongue which makes a child succeed in life, but how much
English he knows. Is it going to be one type of school for the rich and another for
the poor? At the end of the day we are expected to pass examinations in English!
(ADEA, 2006: 6)
Does current policy that elevates proficiency in English as the gateway to quality
ECE and, more generally, future economic opportunities do so in the knowledge
that this will reinforce the already privileged positions of the middle classes who
are much more likely to have increased exposure to books, to spoken English
and in the knowledge that this policy will further perpetuate the economic and
social divide?
107
11/01/2016 12:56
Conclusion
This chapter has highlighted some of the problems, disparities and inequalities that
exist in the provision of ECE in Tanzania. The issue of language medium, of mother
tongue instruction in ECE, has been found to be a key issue and a challenge for
quality early years provision in Tanzania. And the situation would not be expected
to be much different in similar multilingual education contexts. These language
issues have become a key topic in recent years internationally. UNESCO, for
example, launched in 2014 a consultation on mother-tongue instruction in
accordance with UNESCO General Conference Resolution 12:
the requirements of global and national participation, and the specific needs
of particular, culturally and linguistically distinct communities can only be
addressed by multilingual education. (www.unesco.org/new/en/education/
themes/strengthening-education-systems/languages-in-education/single-view/
news/ongoing_consultation_measuring_mother_tongue_instruction_in_early_
childhood/)
We can see from the data from our TWW ECE research that Tanzania has a long way
to go in addressing such needs.
In conclusion, ECE has become a major focus for international development
globally, and that focus is evident in Africa as much as in other parts of the Global
South. A concern expressed by some authors is that such development is being led
by donors from the Global North, utilising child development and ECD research that
is largely from the North. The project described in this chapter represents an effort
to give voice to and attempt to better understand key dynamics regarding ECE in
one country in the Global South Tanzania. It is believed that such enhanced
understandings can support a generative process wherein Tanzania can avail itself
not only of recent research and priorities of the Global North, but research and
priorities identified from within Tanzania itself.
The promise, it seems to us, lies in the hands of policy makers to develop language
polices and strategies that will minimise disadvantage and ensure that all learners
and teachers have a more equal share of resources and opportunities that are
available. Recognising and celebrating the linguistic diversity and resources that
students and teachers have through the formulation of a linguistically inclusive ECE
policy would be one suggestion. Parents and guardians, too, will need to be
mobilised, as they represent an extremely powerful force in wanting more English
and the earlier the better. The use of media such as radio and newspapers in
particular, as well as television in areas where this is available, prove to be very
effective ways of communicating with the wider public.
108
11/01/2016 12:56
References
Alidou, A, Boly, A, Brick-Utne, B, Diallo, YS, Heugh, K and Wolff, H (2006) Optimizing
Learning and Education in Africa The Language Factor: a stock-taking research on
mother tongue and bilingual education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Working Document,
ADEA. Biennial Meeting, Gabon, March 27th 31st.
Ashton, E and Pence, A (2014) Early childhood education, care and development in
sub-Saharan Africa: A glimpse at the published literature, in Pence, A (ed) Africa
ECD Voice, 3, 12-26.
Bakuza, FR (2014) Educating Tanzanian Children in the New Millennium: Progress
and Challenges. Childhood Education, 90:6, 407-413, DOI:
10.1080/00094056.2014.982970.
Christ, T and Wang, XC (2013) Exploring a community of practice model for
professional development to address challenges to classroom practices in early
childhood. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 34(4), 350-373.
Engle, P, Fernald, LCH, Alderman, H, Behrman, J, OGara, C, Yousafzai, A, de Mello, M,
Hidrobo, M, Ulkuer, N, Ertem, I, Iltus, S and the Global Child Development Steering
Group (2011) Strategies for reducing inequalities and improving developmental
outcomes for young children in low-income and middle-income countries. The
Lancet, 378(9799), 1339-1353.
Gonzalez, N, Moll, LC and Amanti, C (2006) Funds of knowledge: Theorizing practices
in households, communities, and classrooms. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.
Hardman, F, Ackers, J, Abrishamian, N and OSullivan, M (2011) Developing a
systemic approach to teacher education in sub-Saharan Africa: Emerging lessons
from Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and
International Education, 41(5), 669-683.
Heckman, JJ, Stixrud, J and Urzua, S (2006) The effects of cognitive and
noncognitive abilities on labor market outcomes and social behavior. Journal of
Labor Economics 24(3), 411-482.
Heckman, J (2006) Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged
children. Science, 312/57820, 1900-1902.
Howard, TC (2001) Telling their side of the story: African-American students
perceptions of culturally relevant teaching. The Urban Review, 33(2), 131-149.
Pence, A and Ashton, E (in press) Early childhood research in Africa: The need for a
chorus of voices, in Farrell, A. Kagan, SL and Tisadall, EKM (eds) The SAGE
Handbook of Early Childhood Research (Ch. 23). London: Sage.
Pence, A and Benner, A (2015) Complexities, capacities, communities: Changing
development narratives in early childhood education, care and development.
Victoria, BC: University of Victoria.
109
11/01/2016 12:56
110
11/01/2016 12:56
1.6
Australia
Making the ESL classroom visible:
indigenous Australian childrens
early education
Lauren Gawne, Gillian Wigglesworth, Gemma Morales,
University of Melbourne
Susan Poetsch, Sally Dixon, Australian National University
Introduction
The Indigenous population of Australia makes up approximately three per cent of
the overall Australian population, with the majority living in New South Wales.
However, the Northern Territory, with a total population of under 250,000, has the
highest percentage of Indigenous residents at 30 per cent. In this chapter, we
focus on the education and language of Indigenous children living in the Northern
Territory who are attending schools classified as remote or very remote22 rather
than those attending schools situated in urban localities.
Indigenous children in Australia grow up in a variety of contexts, but those growing
up in remote communities are often raised in complex linguistic environments with
a great deal of variation in terms of their access to amenities and services. The
data that we will be drawing on for this chapter comes from a series of studies of
children living in different remote communities in the Northern Territory.
Remote areas have very restricted accessibility of goods, services and opportunities for social interaction,
while very remote areas have very little accessibility of goods, services and opportunities for social interaction.
(Australian Government, 2001: 22)
Making the ESL classroom visible: Indigenous Australian childrens early education |
111
11/01/2016 12:56
112
11/01/2016 12:56
Making the ESL classroom visible: Indigenous Australian childrens early education |
113
11/01/2016 12:56
own (often complex) linguistic skills and experience (Ciborowski, 1976: 120-121; Hill,
2008; Kral and Ellis, 2008; Angelo, 2013a).
When a students first language is a contact variety with a strong English influence,
such as Kriol or Aboriginal English, negative attitudes may result from the
erroneous view that these languages are inferior or deviant versions of the
standard (Siegel, 2006; Wigglesworth and Billington, 2013). The effects of these
attitudes may be compounded when there is little understanding of the differences
(and similarities) between (SAE) learner and L1 language features. Childrens
non-standard output is seen through the SAE lens, potentially resulting in
assessments of language as being delayed (Gould, 2008). To demonstrate the
effect of the SAE lens, Dixon (2013) examined the language produced by one
seven-year-old child, Tiffany, who speaks the contact language, Alyawarr English
(discussed in more detail below) as her mother tongue. She attends an Englishmedium school and has begun her acquisition of SAE in this context. Dixon
examined Tiffanys speech from the perspective of a traditional error analysis and
then re-examined the data from a perspective incorporating an understanding of
her L1. Dixon demonstrated that features of Tiffanys language considered errors
in an L1 context are in fact features of her own L1 variety. The analysis was able to
provide a more nuanced picture of Tiffanys language development, which included
demonstrating her movement toward acquisition of SAE.
Not only do childrens existing language competencies tend to be ignored (or seen
only through the SAE lens), but their existing linguistic knowledge and literacies are
generally likewise unrecognised. Recent years have seen increasing recognition of
the variety of traditional practices in which children engage. For example, Kral and
Ellis (2008: 160) note that our tendency is to conflate literacy with printed materials,
but while Indigenous communities may not be print rich, they have their own
culturally acquired literacies. They may learn sand drawing narratives (Eickelkamp,
2008; Kral and Ellis, 2008) as well as gestural sign systems (Capell, 1963; Kral and
Ellis, 2008; OShannessy, 2011). Authors who talk about these practices also note
the high value that communities place on strong oral narrative competency
(Eickelkamp, 2008: 85; OShannessy, 2011: 148). As Kral and Ellis (2008) argue, we
should not assume that Indigenous communities are devoid of literacy, an
approach which plays into the deficit model of Indigenous language and literacy
competencies. Instead, we need to remember that the types of literacy that we
expect from Indigenous students in remote communities has been experienced by
only a few generations, and at a time during which there has been profound
language shift and cultural change.
114
11/01/2016 12:56
cultural experiences of Indigenous children for the classroom in ways that could also
assist in facilitating student comprehension of teaching material (Hill, 2008: 295;
Malcolm, 2013; Angelo and Carter, 2015). Instead, there is a tendency for teachers to
enter the remote classroom with the cultural attitudes towards learning of their
mainstream peers, assuming that the students have the English competency
necessary to engage with the class in the same way as their monolingual peers,
which, as we will demonstrate below, is clearly not always the case. Teachers may
then erroneously attribute poor SAE skills to other factors such as socio-economic
disadvantage, poor hearing, inattentiveness or cultural differences (Angelo and
Carter, 2015). One important caveat to this is the many Indigenous teachers and
assistant teachers who are employed throughout the remote north, and who usually
speak the same first language(s) as the students and permanently reside in the
community.
So while the implementation of best practice models is repeatedly observed as vital
for teaching literacy, there is currently no consistent implementation of training for
teachers to deal with the challenges of working in an English-medium classroom
where none of the children are English L1 speakers of SAE (Moses and Wigglesworth,
2008; Hill, 2008: 295). This is also true for speakers of contact language varieties
such as Kriol and Aboriginal English varieties, where the creole-lexifier relationship
blurs the L2 target for children to varying extents, and often makes L2 errors
invisible to teachers not trained to deal with the EFL (or ESL) context (Sellwood and
Angelo, 2013; Angelo, 2013a).
This puts a heavy load on the school to provide in-service support and training for
teachers in remote contexts, and as a result practices vary greatly from classroom to
classroom. In schools that have operated as bilingual schools there may be greater
residual awareness of the language needs of students, and one of the legacies of this
approach to schooling has been the development of co-teaching strategies that
utilise the strengths of both Indigenous and non-Indigenous teachers (Disbray, 2014).
For example, in Poetschs research context, the school is supported by a languages
and literacy curriculum consultant who works with both teachers and students in five
remote schools. The consultant has ESL qualifications and extensive experience in
remote communities. This support helps teachers and draws attention to the
complex linguistic environment these English-medium schools are situated in. In this
school context, staff, both Indigenous and non-Indigenous, have worked together to
try various ways to incorporate the childrens L1 into teaching and learning. Arrernte
is used as a support for learning (referred to as getting the meaning across) in all
classes, right through to the upper grades even though the children in the upper
grades have stronger English than the children in the lower grades.
However, in general the teaching context in the Northern Territory is characterised
by very high staff turnover: the average length of time a teacher spends in a remote
school in this jurisdiction has been as short as nine months (Milburn, 2010). In
addition to the effect it has on morale and motivation (Hill, 2008), it severely
compromises the efficacy of the current model, which relies so heavily on in-service
training to give teachers the skills to meet the multilingual language needs of their
students.
Making the ESL classroom visible: Indigenous Australian childrens early education |
115
11/01/2016 12:56
11/01/2016 12:56
2014). This is in addition to the fact that Indigenous students are the only ethnocultural group disaggregated (and negatively correlated with NAPLAN results),
making their performance highly visible and subject to policy scrutiny, and with the
result that poor NAPLAN performance is more likely to be attributed to being
Indigenous than being a learner of English as a second or foreign language.
Policy environment
Educational policy documents rarely acknowledge the linguistic contexts that
disadvantage Indigenous students in their learning, and often fail to mention their
EFL status. Language policy aspirations regarding proficiency are assumed to refer
only to SAE, and do not acknowledge explicitly students different L1s (McIntosh et
al., 2012). Angelo and Carter (2015) examined two national policies that influence
Indigenous education: the National Indigenous Reform Agenda (NIRA) and the
National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education Action Plan (NATSIEAP),
both of which have targets relating to NAPLAN results. The NIRA does not
acknowledge students language backgrounds at all, while the NATSIEAP does so in
the contextualising information at the start of the report, but not in the quantifiable
responses and targets for improving students educational outcomes. Such policy
foci, and the data that drives them, contribute to making the linguistic challenges
Indigenous students face invisible (Dixon and Angelo, 2014).
McIntosh et al., (2012) note a particular silence in policy documents regarding the
complexity of Indigenous language situations, including a lack of recognition of
contact languages. Even widely recognised creole varieties, and the well-attested
use of Aboriginal English, remain unacknowledged at State and Federal level.
Indeed, the documents even fail to acknowledge children who speak traditional
Indigenous languages who are the most visible of these groups. While the focus in
many of these documents is literacy, children will struggle in an education setting
without proper acknowledgement of the basic L2 language competency needed to
develop literacy in a second language.
Angelo and Carter (2015) argue that without making language(s) a central feature
of educational policy, schools face a challenge in educating their Indigenous
students. In general, the education system does not acknowledge that children
arrive at school with fully-fledged competence in their first language(s). Yet this
awareness is the first step in understanding that schools operating in these
contexts are multilingual learning environments in which students are moving
towards Standard English proficiency. Although researchers consistently advocate
for bi- or multilingual programmes (Hill, 2008; Simpson et al., 2009) this rarely
appears to impact on policy.
Making the ESL classroom visible: Indigenous Australian childrens early education |
117
11/01/2016 12:56
Data
The data in this chapter is drawn from three corpora of classroom interactions
between primary school children aged between four and eight, and their teachers.
The corpora come from a variety of linguistic and educational contexts, but they all
centre on Indigenous Australian children beginning their formal education. In all of
these contexts the children speak a contact language variety, or local traditional
languages (or a combination of the two) as their first languages and are learning
SAE, the language of the classroom, as a second language. All of the recordings
were made as part of the Aboriginal Child Language Acquisition 2 (ACLA2)
project.23
The Dixon corpus consists of over 50 hours of naturalistic video recordings made
between September 2009 and April 2011. The recordings focus on six children
aged four to eight, plus their relatives, classmates and teachers at six-monthly
intervals over a two-year period in a small remote community south of Tennant
Creek. Recordings used here were made in the school context. Children in this
community speak a contact variety called Alyawarr English (AlyE) as their mother
tongue. AlyE includes influences from a number of sources including English, Kriol
(Munro, 2000; Schultze-Berndt et al., 2013), Aboriginal English varieties (Koch,
2000), and Alyawarr, a Pama-Nyungan language from the Arandic sub-group
(Yallop, 1977). The lexicon of AlyE is mainly derived from English and/or Kriol with
some Alyawarr words in common usage. Alyawarr, the traditional language, is
commonly heard in the home, and children will frequently respond (in AlyE) to
conversation in that language. The teachers in this corpus received quite variable
pre- and in-service training or support for working in English as a Foreign or
Second Language classrooms.
The second corpus (Morales corpus) is a collection of recordings of children, their
teachers and caregivers in a small and very remote community on the North East
coast of the Northern Territory. This corpus includes recordings at school in formal
classroom situations and unstructured, less supervised, play. This corpus was
collected in October and November 2014. Unlike the children from the Dixon
corpus who speak an English-based contact variety, the children in this community
grow up primarily speaking Dhuwaya, a dialect of Yolu Matha. Yolu Matha is the
Indigenous language of the area, which has over a dozen clanlects. We have
included these children in the discussion to show that as English as a Foreign
Language speakers because they live in a non-English-speaking community
they face similar classroom challenges and difficulties to the students in the Dixon
corpus who speak a contact language and have greater exposure to SAE. The
teachers in this corpus received no additional pre-service training or support for
working in English as a Foreign or Second Language classrooms.
The Poetsch corpus is a collection of recordings of six- to seven-year-old children
in a remote Aboriginal community in Central Australia. In this corpus the children
23
118
This project, A longitudinal study of the interaction of home and school language in two Aboriginal communities,
is the second phase of a longitudinal study funded by the ARC. We refer to the project as ACLA2 (the Aboriginal
Child Language Acquisition project, phase 2). This project is funded by the ARC Discovery Grant (200812)
DP0877762.
11/01/2016 12:56
are engaged in conversations with their teachers and peers during maths and
science lessons in an English-medium Year 12 classroom (composite-level
classrooms are common in Australia, particularly in remote communities where
school populations may be small). The children in this community grow up with
Arrernte as their first language, which is the traditional language of the area
(Wilkins, 1989; Henderson and Dobson, 1994). Unlike the children in the Morales
corpus, the children do not come to school speaking a koine variety of their
language, but a traditional form. The teacher is usually the only person in the
classroom who is a native speaker of English, but the school has a number of
Arrernte teaching assistants to facilitate communication, and access to a
languages and literacy curriculum consultant who periodically visits the school, as
described above. Of the three schools in our discussion this is the one in which the
language situation is rendered most visible and both teachers and students are
offered the most support.
While some of the children in these corpora, particularly in the Poetsch and Dixon
corpora, have access to pre-school, this is not always a norm for remote
communities, although it is increasingly being implemented in the Northern
Territory. Attending school (or sometimes pre-school) is often the first encounter
children have with SAE, although they may have some limited exposure through
media or older members of their family interacting with non-Indigenous members
of the community. The start of schooling is also the first time they are required to
use SAE themselves. By drawing on corpora that include children who are native
speakers of English-based contact varieties (Dixon corpus), as well as children who
speak traditional languages (Morales and Poetsch corpora), we explore some of the
childrens encounters with the SAE classroom environment.
Making the ESL classroom visible: Indigenous Australian childrens early education |
119
11/01/2016 12:56
Example 1
MT
This one,
or this one?
MC1
MT
Okay.
(age 6;7 Morales corpus 7:18.2-7:48.3)
The teacher adheres to an obviously unsuccessful exchange pattern, in this and
subsequent interactions, as she tries to engage the student. This example is
representative of the one-sided exchange discussed elsewhere in the literature
(see also Moses and Wigglesworth, 2008, for a more extreme example of this,
where the teacher also provides the expected responses to fulfil the discourse
pattern), where often the accompanying analysis focuses solely on the child, and
speculates about specific Aboriginal learning styles that preclude the use of direct
questioning or the impact of differences in general interactional styles (such as
preference for longer between-turn silences, concepts of shame at being singled
out (see Harris, 1984, as an example of this approach)). However, more recent
corpus-driven work has shown Aboriginal children engaging in very similar
questionanswer routines with caregivers at home in their first languages (see
Moses and Yallop, 2008), and using direct questions as part of information-seeking
activities (Reeders, 2008), suggesting that the reticence of the children in the
classroom is as or more likely to stem from unfamiliarity with SAE, rather than
unfamiliarity with the questionanswer routine itself. In that vein, we suggest that
this interaction speaks more explicitly to the students developing proficiency in
SAE: a (non-verbal) response is eventually forthcoming once the teacher
reformulates her complex questions into the more simple: This one or this one?
The interaction as a whole is representative of the lack of teacher training in
working in non-English-speaking classroom contexts. As a primary-trained teacher,
she had received very limited language teaching training, and only minimal
additional training and support for working in remote communities.
120
11/01/2016 12:56
Sensitivity to how the ESL/EFL classroom may differ in terms of discourse patterns
is essential. And given that it is good practice to give second language learners
more wait time for them to formulate a response, this is a useful practice to
recommend to teachers regardless of whether longer silences also conform to
more L1 discourse styles. However, in our experience teachers are more likely to
receive this (sound) advice than they are expected to teach the L2 explicitly. In the
ESL/EFL context, any differences in interactional style or unfamiliarity with
classroom routines may exacerbate communicative disfluency, but they are not the
primary drivers of it.
Making the ESL classroom visible: Indigenous Australian childrens early education |
121
11/01/2016 12:56
Example 2
MT
[3.1 seconds]
MC1 Feeding.
MT Feeding.
[10.0 seconds]
[name],
I saw you
[7.6 seconds]
MCC Colouring.
MC1 Colouring.
MT Colouring.
122
11/01/2016 12:56
1991, 2001). An Arrernte teaching assistant was also present in the classroom to
support the childrens learning.
There are lengthy silences and delays in the childs responses to the teachers
questions but it is also evident that the child has learned key concepts and can use
English vocabulary related to the topic taught. The silences and delays may be a
sign of the cognitive load involved for the children in explaining the concepts in
English rather than her L1, which is consistent with Moses and Yallops (2008)
findings that children are more likely to respond to questions in their L1, and that
the reticence of children in the classroom may stem from unfamiliarity with English
rather than unfamiliarity with classroom questionanswer routines.
Example 3
PT
[3.4 seconds]
PC1
PT
[8.0 seconds]
PC1
air
PT
PC1
PT [smiles]
no what is it?
[1.1 seconds]
PC1
umm
[1.3 seconds]
PT
something is stopping the ball from going all the way down
PC1
gravity
PT
[6.2 seconds]
PC1 water
[2.5 seconds]
PT
Making the ESL classroom visible: Indigenous Australian childrens early education |
123
11/01/2016 12:56
In response to the teachers question, Whats that a picture of?, the student
responds pushing the ball. The teacher then tries to elicit the missing subject,
using a what-question that incorporates the students prior answer. She adheres
quite tightly to this format in subsequent turns: something is pushing the ball,
something is stopping the ball, whats pushing it up? whats holding it up?
allowing the student to offer a variety of fitted responses to fill the subject slot (air,
gravity, water). In this way she can pursue a focus on the concept of gravity in a
way that is less likely to be derailed by use of more complex or haphazard
questioning.
However, this is still clearly a content-focused lesson, since the student is not
supported to produce more than a one-word response in each case. In fact, the
one-word or partial clause is an overwhelming SAE utterance type for the children
across the corpora. When there is little focus on explicit language instruction,
students are often given few opportunities to practise larger chunks of SAE.
As in these examples, in many of the classroom interactions recorded, the
discourse is focused on content, and not language instruction, entirely
understandable given the teachers lack of training in language instruction, and the
lack of focus on language teaching generally in teacher training.
124
11/01/2016 12:56
um we bin touch
PC1
Um we touched
[.] we bin get that ball big ball and we bin put it down but thewe got that ball big ball and we put it down but the -
[3.4 seconds]
PT
Making the ESL classroom visible: Indigenous Australian childrens early education |
125
11/01/2016 12:56
Example 5
DT
[.]
DT
[1.3 seconds]
DC1
DT
2 (.)
3
DT
(0.2)
5 DT fantastic
(0.2)
6
DT
another one
126
11/01/2016 12:56
not stress this point of difference between her sentence and the students she
appears to be impressed that the student has used the word when and praises
her. The teachers focus on the question words results in overt praise of an
already-known item, which consequently overshadows the passive correction of
are. This example illustrates the challenge in teaching SAE in a context where the
L1 is a contact variety, and where, in addition to no formal ESL/EFL training, the
teacher has no knowledge of how the structures of the L1 overlap and diverge from
the L2. In this way the language repertoires and learning needs of students who
speak contact varieties can be more invisible in the classroom as the
communicative imperative can more easily override the need to address
grammatical differences (Angelo, 2013a: 78).
However, there are some occurrences of overt correction, as in Example 7:
Example 7
DC2
(0.5)
DC3
DC2
is growing
[is growing,
(.)
DT yep
(0.2)
DT
not is not is
(.)
DC2 are
DT
Making the ESL classroom visible: Indigenous Australian childrens early education |
127
11/01/2016 12:56
or direct language feedback (7). This can be challenging for children who need to
work out what the focus is, but we reiterate again that this is really an issue of
training for the teacher. In todays climate, all teachers need language training
because there are few teachers who will not encounter a child who does not speak
English as an L1 in their classroom.
malany
put.into groups
MC1
yow cents-tja
yes
coins-EMPH
Yes coins.
Dhuwa nh
yuwalk-dja?
this
what
truly-EMPH
24
128
11/01/2016 12:56
Dhaa i?
lots.of
right
nh dhuwa Gamandjan?
what this skin.name
Wukirray
excitement.PART
how exciting!
Makarrp
atha
mala-ny
Nice.to.see
food group-EMPH
yanhe
anteme
ake-
and
that(mid)
now
cut-IMP
PC2
nhenhe ampere arrule-ipenhe-nge-ntyele
this
place
long.ago-AFTER-ABL-ONWARDS
this is from a long time ago. (image of football oval and players)
Making the ESL classroom visible: Indigenous Australian childrens early education |
129
11/01/2016 12:56
PC2
train-irre-ke
itne-areye
mape
eh?
train-INCH-PST
3PL-GRP PL
eh
PC1
mhm
there
ingkerrinyeke
there
all/every
mhm
anthurre anteme
INTENS
now
PC1
oi
ayenge anthe--aye
oi
1SGO
give-IMP-EMPH
just.kidding
PC1
Ill
or
kele
this
or
ok
Ill
cut-GENEVT
unte
ake-rlane-eye
2SGS/A
cut-CONT-PERM
PC2
the
arle
ake-rlane-me
[.]
1SGA
FOC
cut-CONT-PRES
unte
glue-eme-ile-me
2SGS/A
glue-E.TR-CAUS-PRES
11/01/2016 12:56
language and with cultural expectations. The fact that the children may not be able
to interact fluently in SAE, especially in the first few years of school, is hardly
surprising given that it is neither their L1, nor the language of the community.
However, the current approach to teacher training means that many of these
children carry this disadvantage throughout their school years because few of
them will be lucky enough to encounter a teacher qualified in the teaching and
learning of English as a Second or Foreign Language.
Conclusion
This chapter has explored how the invisibility of Indigenous students language
repertoires, and their language learning needs, pervades the schooling system in
remote Australia. As we have shown, this plays out in several directions, from
teacher training, to interpretation of standardised testing results. Against this
backdrop, classroom interactions reflect and compound this state of affairs.
In laying out the ways in which language invisibility plays out, we hope to have
clarified the multiple paths forward. Teachers allocated to remote community
schools need pre-service training in ESL/EFL methodologies and experience in
implementing these skills in a context where the curriculum focus will still largely
be on content. Part of this training must include an understanding of the range of
language ecologies and, in particular, the nature of Australias various contact
languages so that children speaking these are not misidentified as native SAE
speakers. In-service training should likewise be targeted at helping teachers
manage the complex task of integrating explicit language instruction across the
curriculum. Bilingual schooling models remain international best practice when it
comes to the education of children who speak a first language that is different from
the language of wider schooling. Bilingual models build on existing language and
literacy competencies of children, whereas, as we have seen, monolingual models
tend to ignore them. For this reason, the development and improvement of such
models is consistently the conclusion of reviews into both Indigenous education
and languages in Australia (e.g. Australian Parliament, 2012).
Outside of the classroom, the broader policy environment needs to explicitly frame
language and languages as central to any curriculum or pedagogical approach it is
supporting. In particular, NAPLAN results need to be interpreted as indicative of
progress in a second language only, and this will only be made possible if the
LBOTE category is re-worked to be specifically an ESL/EFL category.
Australias urban classrooms are increasingly linguistically rich environments
through the immigration of families with complex language repertoires, which may
or may not include English. The situation described in this chapter is therefore not
necessarily isolated to Indigenous communities. This also means that bringing
language and languages into central focus within the classroom and education
system has the potential to benefit a large number of students (for example, foreign
language background students now constitute 25 per cent of the Victorian
schooling population (DEECD, 2012)). Teachers too, whether of migrant students,
Indigenous students or any other student, want to be able to provide students with
the best possible instruction. This will allow them to help their students build on the
Making the ESL classroom visible: Indigenous Australian childrens early education |
131
11/01/2016 12:56
knowledge they already have, and consequently equip them to fully participate in
their futures in Australia and beyond.
References
Angelo, D (2012) Sad Stories. A preliminary study of NAPLAN practice texts
analysing students second language linguistic resources and the effects of these
on their written narratives, in Ponsonnet, M, Dao, L and Bowler, M (eds) Proceedings
of the 42nd Australian Linguistic Society Conference 2011. Canberra: Australian
Linguistic Society, 27-57.
Angelo, D (2013a) Identification and assessment contexts of Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander learners of Standard Australian English: Challenges for the language
testing community. Papers in Language Testing and Assessment, 2(2): 67-102.
Angelo, D (2013b) NAPLAN implementation: implications for classroom learning and
teaching with recommendations for improvement. TESOL in Context, 23 (1 and 2):
53-73.
Angelo, D and Carter N (2015) Schooling within shifting langscapes: Educational
responses in complex language contact ecologies, in Yiakoumetti, A (ed)
Multilingualism and Language in Education: Sociolinguistic and Pedagogical
Perspectives from Commonwealth Countries. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 114-192.
Angelo, D and McIntosh, S (2014) Anomalous data about Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander language ecologies in Queensland, in Stracke, E (ed) Intersections:
Applied linguistics as a meeting place. Newcastle on Tyne: Cambridge Scholars
Publishing, 270-293.
Australian Government (2001) Measuring Remoteness: Accessibility/Remoteness
Index of Australia (ARIA) Revised Edition. Occasional Papers: New Series No. 14.
Canberra, Australia: Department of Health.
Australian Parliament. House of Representatives. Standing Committee on Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander Affairs (2012) Our land our languages: language learning
in Indigenous communities. Canberra: Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia.
http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/House_of_
Representatives_Committees?url=/atsia/languages/report/index.htm
Bavin, EL and Shopen, T (1991) Warlpiri in the 80s: an overview of research into
language variation and child language, in Romaine, S (ed) Language in Australia.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 104-117.
Capell, A (1963) Discussion on languages, in Stanner, WEH and Sheils, H (eds)
Australian Aboriginal Studies. A Symposium of Papers presented at the 1961
Research Conference. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 166-168.
Ciborowski, T (1976) Cultural and cognitive discontinuities of school and home:
Remedialism revisited, in Kearney, GE and McElwain, DW (eds) Aboriginal cognition:
Retrospect and prospect. New Jersey: Humanities Press.
132
11/01/2016 12:56
Making the ESL classroom visible: Indigenous Australian childrens early education |
133
11/01/2016 12:56
134
11/01/2016 12:56
Making the ESL classroom visible: Indigenous Australian childrens early education |
135
11/01/2016 12:56
Siegel, J (2006) Keeping creoles and dialects out of the classroom: is it justified?,
in Nero, S (ed) Dialects, Englishes, Creoles, and Education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum, 39-67.
Simpson, J and Wigglesworth, G (2012) Ecology, Equity and Ethics in Education in
Aboriginal Australia. Keynote presentation at the Australian Council of TESOL
Associations, Cairns, Australia, 2-5 July.
Simpson, J, McConvell, P and Caffery, J (2009) Gaps in Australias Indigenous
Language Policy: Dismantling bilingual education in the Northern Territory (AIATSIS
Discussion Paper no. 24). Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press.
Simpson, J, McConvell, P and Caffery, J (2011) Maintaining languages, maintaining
identities: what bilingual education offers, in Baker, B, Mushin, I, Harvey, M and
Gardener, R (eds) Indigenous language and social identity: papers in honour of
Michael Walsh, 408-428.
Thomas, W and Collier, V (2002) A national study of school effectiveness for
language minority students in long-term academic achievement. Final Report.
Washington DC: Centre for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence.
Wigglesworth, G and Billington, R (2013) Teaching creole-speaking children: Issues,
concerns and resolutions for the classroom. Australian Review of Applied
Linguistics, 36(3): 234-249.
Wigglesworth, G, Simpson, J and Loakes, D (2011) NAPLAN language assessment
for Indigenous children in remote communities: Issues and problems. Australian
Journal of Linguistics, 34(3): 320-343.
Wilkins, D (1989) Mparntwe Arrernte (Aranda): studies in the structure and semantics
of grammar. [unpublished PhD thesis], Australian National University, Canberra.
Yallop, C (1977) Alyawarra: An Aboriginal language of Central Australia. Canberra:
Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
136
11/01/2016 12:56
1.7
Eastern Asia
English as a foreign language
(EFL) and English medium
instruction (EMI) for three- to
seven-year-old children in East
Asian contexts
Yanling Zhou and Mei Lee Ng, The Hong Kong Institute of
Education, Hong Kong
Increased globalisation has promoted the English language as one of the most
widely used around the world. Being able to speak English as a second language is
therefore becoming an important aspect of social status. Learning English is
accordingly an important issue for parents to consider when planning their
childrens education in East Asian societies such as China, Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region (HKSAR), Taiwan, Korea and Japan. The educational systems
in these countries are also renowned for their academically oriented practice and
results. For example, Shanghai, HKSAR, Taipei, Korea and Japan were all in the top
five per cent for literacy and mathematics in the world-ranking Programme of
International Student Assessment (PISA) study (OECD, 2010; 2013). Parents in these
societies have come to believe in the idea that their children need to have the best
start in life and they aim to offer learning opportunities to their children as young
as the age of pre-school or even earlier (Scheider and Lee, 1990). As a result,
English learning is being introduced to children in these societies at younger and
younger ages, despite the fact that English does not have daily significance in the
lives of the majority of people in these contexts.
Despite the rapid growth in the numbers of children starting to learn English
through pre-school or primary school at young ages, there is a lack of sufficient
provision for quality assurance (see, for example, Baldauf et al., 2011; Cameron,
2003; Ng, 2013; Nunan, 2003) and a dearth of solid research evidence for either its
immediate or long-term effectiveness. English is a foreign language (FL) for the
majority of people in East Asia, hence the majority of very young (aged three to six)
and young (aged six and above) children are therefore learning English as a foreign
language (EFL). At the same time, a number of young children are learning English
through a form of immersion education where English is the Medium of Instruction
137
11/01/2016 12:56
(EMI). In this chapter, we examine how EFL and EMI education works in these East
Asian societies and identify the challenges of different modes of English learning in
these contexts. While the focus of this volume is on childrens English pre-school
educational experiences and learning (aged up to seven years old), there is
relatively little research on EFL and EMI in East Asia. Consequently, our discussion
also extrapolates from existing research findings targeted on primary school
English learners, with relevant discussions of kindergarten children where
appropriate. We emphasise that the crucial factors lie within the teaching
pedagogies and curricula appropriate to these childrens social, cultural and
linguistic backgrounds. We start by providing background information about the
policy and curriculum of EFL education in China, Korea, Japan, HKSAR and Taiwan,
before identifying several key issues for EFL in these contexts. We then shift focus
to analyse some key aspects of EMI education in these contexts. By discussing
both EFL and EMI, we hope to present a comprehensive picture of English language
education in early childhood settings (including kindergarten and primary school
English learning) in East Asian societies. We also draw attention to a few key issues
that deserve the attention of policy makers and language teaching professionals.
138
11/01/2016 12:56
appropriate to introduce a foreign language at this time the implication being that
introducing a FL/L2 at this time will not impede development of the L1. However,
while HKSAR is the only society where English is (officially) learned from the age of
three, unofficially, in the rest of these East Asian cultures, parents and
kindergartens are also pushing for English to be learned from increasingly younger
ages (see, for example, Chen, 2011; Jeong, 2004; Zhou, 2004). Even in HKSAR the
proliferation of English in pre-school settings (to be discussed below) is based on a
general concern in media discourse about declining language standards (Li and
Lee, 2004). In HKSAR, as with other countries in East Asia, parental pressure has
been an enormous force in driving the development of pre-primary educational
contexts in which children are educated in English. In HKSAR, this pressure has
stemmed from the governments streaming policy where secondary schools were
required to offer Chinese-medium instruction unless the school could meet the
government requirements regarding teachers English standards (Lai and Byram,
2003). The reasons for this pressure are characterised in the quote from Li and Lee
(2004) below:
Chinese parents whose children are allocated to Chinese-medium schools are
concerned about their children not getting enough exposure to English. Many
students, upon being allocated to a Chinese-medium school against their will,
felt depressed about being seen as second best. As for school principals
and teachers, their main worry is the schools inability to attract academically
competent students, which in turn has implications for the schools public image
and overall teaching performance. (Li and Lee, 2004: 757)
This parental pressure in HKSAR has trickled down to pre-primary levels where,
despite contrary policy recommendations, early partial immersion programmes
have been on the rise (in other countries in East Asia as well). This is a potential
concern because comparatively little is known about how very young learners
learn EFL in these contexts and the quality of provision for very young learners can
vary greatly. Hence it is not yet clear from a research point of view whether the
consequences of starting at such a young age are entirely advantageous.
Central issues of EFL education in East Asian societies
Despite a comparative lack of research, there has nonetheless been some
investigation of primary school EFL education and how it has been implemented.
However, the effects across East Asian regions have not always been wholly
positive (see, for example, Cameron, 2003; Copland et al., 2013; Hu and McKay,
2012; Kaplan et al., 2011; Spolsky et al., 2012) despite the growing popularity of
English learning in this region (Chang, 2011; Sung and Zhang, 2013). For example,
Kaplan et al., (2011) outline 12 issues that in their view highlight the problems of
implementing primary EFL in these contexts:
1.
2.
3.
Native English speakers cannot fill the proficiency and availability gap
4.
139
11/01/2016 12:56
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10. Primary school children may not be prepared for early language instruction
11. Instruction may not actually meet community and/or national objectives
12. Childrens local or first language may be at risk of attrition.
The teacher factor in primary school settings
Among these 12 problems, those relating to teachers and pedagogy are regarded
as the most central issues in this region (see, for example, Cameron, 2003;
Copland, et al., 2013; Hu and McKay, 2012; Kaplan, et al., 2011; Spolsky and Moon,
2012). English teachers of young learners are reported to generally lack training,
specialist knowledge and resources (see, for example, Butler, 2004; Chen and Tsai,
2012; Copland et al., 2013; Jeong, 2004; Machida and Walsh, 2014; Wang and Gao,
2008; Leung et al., 2013). For example, Butler (2004) surveyed primary school
English teachers in Korea, Japan and Taiwan on their current and desired English
oral language proficiency levels, showing that across all three cultures over 80 per
cent of teachers believed that their current levels did not meet the minimum levels
for teaching primary school English effectively. This indicates not only that these
teachers perceived themselves as having limited English proficiency, but also
reflects their lack of confidence and training in teaching EFL. Low levels of
language proficiency among local primary English teachers, especially in a
productive language domain, have an impact not only on their confidence, but also
on their pedagogical skills, the content of their teaching, and student motivation.
This viewpoint is further illustrated by Wang (2008) in an investigation of issues
relating to teaching and teacher education in primary school English in Taiwan.
Wang shows that only 27 per cent of the primary school English teachers in her
study reported having a qualification in teaching English and 25 per cent held
neither an English nor a general primary school teaching qualification. All the
teachers interviewed in the study were dissatisfied with the in-service training they
had received, as the trainer was regarded as having low competence in teaching
English to young learners. Indeed, as Hu (2007) also points out, one of the major
challenges for primary English teaching in China is a teacher shortage and
insufficient training. Given these difficulties at the primary level, it would not be
surprising to find similar difficulties at the pre-primary level as well, though more
research is needed in early years settings.
There are no clear policy guidelines for English proficiency levels in EFL teaching at
primary or pre-primary school level across East Asian cultures. Even in HKSAR,
which is a wealthy city with an historical background of English-language
education, there is a general lack of appropriately trained primary and pre-primary
English teachers (Nunan, 2003). For example, in HKSAR, kindergartens usually
provide three-year programmes (K1-K3) mostly half-day (i.e. 9am12 noon)
sessions, but also offer some whole-day services as well as after-school childcare.
140
11/01/2016 12:56
141
11/01/2016 12:56
process of meaning making that allows students to use the target language freely
in activities with a clear communicative goal. Such activities are typically evaluated
in terms of communication outcomes (Deng, 2011; Willis, 1996). The problems of
implementing task-based teaching approaches was raised in Deng (2011) who
observed four primary school English teachers in Grade 2 (age seven) to Grade 5
(age 11) in their implementation of task-based teaching in China and suggests that
not only do contextual factors such as local examinations and restricted time for
teaching influence the effectiveness of task-based teaching, but, more importantly,
teachers understanding, beliefs and perceptions have a powerful influence on
their practice. She observes that teachers with inadequate understanding of, and
negative beliefs about, task-based teaching tended to apply more teacher-centred
approaches and often encountered discipline issues. However, teachers with
adequate understanding and positive beliefs about task-based teaching sought to
apply this approach in their pedagogy. A lack of knowledge of task-based teaching
affected teachers in designing effective activities.
Butler (2005) compared primary school English teachers from Korea, Japan and
Taiwan through their discussions over English classroom video clips from the
different cultures. Their discussions revealed that their lack of understanding of
communicative and task-based teaching approaches contributed to challenges in
teaching EFL in primary schools across all three cultures. A similar phenomenon
has also been identified in HKSAR, where teachers who lacked understanding of the
task-based approach also held negative beliefs about it such as expecting it to
involve additional preparation time, constrained textbook use, and so on (Carless,
2003). Similarly, Littlewood (2007) raises five concerns expressed by English
teachers about task-based approaches: classroom management, avoidance of
using English by students, minimal demands on language competence,
incompatibility with public assessment demands, and conflict with educational
values and traditions. These concerns touch upon various issues including
individual differences in students language ability; individual differences between
teachers in terms of attitude, time and class management abilities; the curriculum;
and the educational system as a whole. In Bronfenbrenners ecological theory
(1979), these factors within the microsystems as well as other cultural factors and
external systems will all significantly affect childrens English learning. In a case
study, Carless (1998) demonstrates that a high standard of English proficiency, a
positive attitude towards innovation and teaching, and a desire for improvement
both personally and professionally are all associated with the successful
implementation of task-based approaches. Some adaptive teachers may be more
receptive to changes in teaching approaches, but it may be a significant challenge
for many teachers to adopt such an approach, especially if they themselves did not
learn English in such a way and are working within the same educational system
they had experienced themselves as students. As some teachers put it, they may
simply feel safer using methods with which they are familiar to help children learn,
even if these are not the most effective.
142
11/01/2016 12:56
2.
3.
Willingness to let minor points of tension subside for the sake of maintaining
harmonious relationships.
4.
5.
6.
Jeon (2010) suggests that in Korea, non-native teachers English proficiency also
has a significant impact on co-teaching practice for young English learners,
although in general both parties benefit from the experience. Oga-Baldwin and
Nakata (2013) identify positive results from the JET programme, with local and
native speaker English teachers serving as different role models in the classroom
and positively contributing to students EFL acquisition. They suggest that while
native speakers can serve as a linguistic model, the local (non-native) English
teacher can be seen as modelling the language learning process; he or she can
demonstrate good language learning behaviours in the classroom, and will better
understand the difficulties experienced by young Japanese learners. However,
Machida and Walsh (2014) show that while positive changes in attitude and
pedagogy were identified among Japanese local English teachers involved in team
teaching, the majority of non-native English teachers voiced anxiety about
speaking and instructing in English. They were also concerned that poorly trained
native English speakers were being recruited, as they felt that these teachers could
not cope with large classes in a foreign country. Similar views are expressed by Luo
(2014) looking at the Taiwan Native English-Speaking Teacher (NEST) programme.
Taiwanese local teachers involved in NEST reported improved English proficiency
as well as better content knowledge of English teaching. However, the native
English teachers recruited to the programme lacked teaching qualifications and
commitment to the job, so neither the local teachers nor the students reported
positive perceptions of the programme.
Typically, unqualified teachers are likely to lack the pedagogical context knowledge
143
11/01/2016 12:56
required for teaching English to young learners (Chen and Cheng, 2010). Even
qualified teachers may find it a challenge to manage large classrooms (Chen and
Cheng, 2010; Garton, 2014; Machida and Walsh, 2014) and groups of children with
mixed abilities (Garton, 2014). Ng (2014) observed a problematic co-teaching
practice in a HKSAR kindergarten. She attributes the failure of the partnership to the
fact that the native English-speaking teacher had no professional qualifications and
had not been trained to teach EFL to kindergarten children. The evidence suggests
there is an urgent need to recruit qualified English teachers as well as providing
in-service training for both native and non-native-speaking teachers in early
childhood educational settings. In practice, unfortunately, due to the lack of qualified
native English-speaking teachers, unqualified native English teachers are often
employed in ESL jobs (Carless, 2006) especially at primary and pre-primary levels.
Lack of qualifications and in-service training for both native and local non-native
English-speaking teachers is an unresolved issue in primary English education in this
region (Garton, 2014).
EFL in kindergartens
Despite some of the challenges in introducing EFL in kindergartens in East Asia over
the last few decades, and the relative lack of research in this area, a growing number
of studies have demonstrated the potential in very young children learning a FL. One
such example is Kuhl et al (2003) who demonstrated that children even as young as a
few months old can learn aspects of a FL. They ran a 12-session Mandarin teaching
laboratory with native Mandarin speakers working with American monolingual
children aged nine months, and found that the learning group outperformed the
control group on a Mandarin speech perception task. Their second experiment also
demonstrates that such a learning effect only occurred when the infants had social
interactions with the native Mandarin teachers, but not in the condition of Mandarin
exposure, only via audiovisual or audio recordings. Their study demonstrates the
human capacity to learn another language at an early age and also stresses the
importance of social interaction in very young childrens FL acquisition.
Although limited in their extent, studies looking at various aspects of EFL in young
children do suggest that while very young children are capable of learning a FL, this
does not necessarily imply the earlier the better (Marinova-Todd, et al 2000).
Successful learning depends on the environment provided, teaching quality,
sustainable learning motivation, and so on (see also Murphy, 2014). The Hong Kong
Pre-school Guide (2006) explicitly states that English is learned through experience
and play. However, Ng (2013) shows that kindergarten English learning is bounded by
textbooks or pre-specified materials, and both native and local English teachers have
insufficient training about how children at kindergarten learn language. Despite the
guidance for learning through play, it is common to pair vocabulary and phonics
learning with homework such as copying English words and sentences, as these are
obviously measurable standards that parents and teachers can follow. In addition, a
20- or 30-minute class is usually dominated by the teacher talking and instructing.
Lau and Rao (2013) also show that HKSAR kindergarten teachers, when teaching
vocabulary, focus primarily on recognition and memorisation rather than
understanding and use of vocabulary. Thus there appears to be a mismatch
144
11/01/2016 12:56
between guidance (stating young EFL learners should learn through play) and the
reality, where teachers are adopting very specific and discrete exercises that in
some respects limit the opportunities young children have to be exposed to and
use their emerging knowledge of English.
Given the ecology of EFL in these contexts, with limited exposure to and use of the
target language, most kindergarten children who learn EFL will have a maximum of
one 2030-minute daily exposure to it in a policy-supported context such as
HKSAR (Lau and Rao, 2013). It is therefore important for parents, teachers and
policy makers to manage their expectations of very young childrens progress in
EFL in East Asian contexts, which tend to place a strong emphasis on academic
skills. In one of the only East Asian cultures to introduce English officially at
kindergarten level, the Guide to the Pre-primary Curriculum in HKSAR suggests that
English is a second language learned in context and that most of the principles of
teaching the mother tongue are applicable to both the mother tongue and the
second language (Curriculum Development Council, 2006: 30). While suggestions
and recommendations are provided for pre-primary EFL education, they can be
confusing for teachers and parents in terms of expectations about their childrens
development, given the childrens first and second language develop at different
rates. For example, children are expected to read and write already before they
can even hold a simple conversation in English. Or in other cases, parents expect
their children to speak English well despite only having 30 minutes a day or a week
for learning English.
To sum up, the situation in EFL learning for young and very young learners in East
Asian contexts is complex, and in many respects far from ideal. Several key issues
deserve attention from parents, teachers and policy makers when making
decisions about childrens EFL learning, particularly in the context of early years
settings. Research has consistently demonstrated that very young children have
the ability to learn EFL, which can have positive long-term benefits, and this is
equally true in East Asia. However, teacher education and in-service training for
both local and native English-speaking teachers (Jeon and Lee, 2006) is one of the
key factors having a direct impact on childrens FL learning, given that the teacher
may be the only resource for exposure to, and use of, English. Quality teacher
training addresses the issues of applying appropriate teaching approaches and
methods in EFL learning for young children in East Asia. The widespread practice of
collaboration between local (non-native) and native English-speaking teachers in
teaching is another aspect of teacher education that deserves much more
attention in East Asia. These factors should be addressed at the policy level as well
as in curriculum design. Furthermore, since many pre-primary settings in East Asia
are either run by private institutions or fall outside the remit of educational
regulation, there is wide variability in terms of which curriculum is followed, and
whether and to what extent the teachers have either appropriate qualifications
and/or appropriate levels of English language proficiency. Finally, very young
childrens language acquisition and general developmental characteristics should
be taken into consideration when designing EFL curricula in East Asia to facilitate
the establishment of age- and language-appropriate learning goals for them.
145
11/01/2016 12:56
146
11/01/2016 12:56
In state schools, before 1997 when Hong Kong became a special administrative
region of China, many schools adopted an EMI policy since English was (and
remains) a high-status language. However, in 1997 (after the handover to China),
many schools adopted a compulsory mother-tongue (Cantonese) policy as part of
the language-in-education reform. Cantonese was the medium of instruction up
until senior forms of secondary school, unless schools applied for and received
specific exemption to remain EMI (Lai and Byram, 2003). Primary schools could
remain EMI if they were able to identify that the children were academically capable
and that teachers had the necessary experience and expertise (which relates to
the issues of appropriate levels of English proficiency as described in the EFL
section above). EMI education for young learners in Hong Kong is largely
characterised as an elite model since they are more prevalent at independent (i.e.
fee-paying) primary schools and tend to be reserved for only the most
academically able pupils. Some researchers have suggested that EMI practices for
very young learners are inappropriate because young children are still developing
their first language (Poon, 2010), though, as indicated above, there is a significant
lack of research investigating this issue. What we do know is that research
throughout the world has continually demonstrated that immersion programmes
can be highly effective educational programmes in promoting both first and
second language proficiency and literacy (e.g. Genesee, 2004), hence there is no
reason to assume immersion programmes in state schools in HKSAR would be
detrimental in any way to young language learners, assuming that the balance of L1
and L2 support was appropriate. This balance, however, may not be being struck in
EMI programmes in HKSAR.
147
11/01/2016 12:56
In mainland China, EMI is also being experimentally implemented (see, for example,
Cheng et al., 2010; Knell et al., 2007). Qiang and Kang (2011: 14) comment that the
impulses of English immersion in China originated from political imperatives, the
need of economic growth, the demand of information technology and internal
dissatisfaction with English language education. Such education has traditionally
emphasised rote memorisation and grammar drills. These experimental
implementations of immersion adopt two models: firstly, the Canadian model
(Lambert, 1992) and, secondly, a partial immersion programme with almost half the
school day spent using each of Chinese and English. English is normally the
medium of instruction for language-related subjects as well as music, art,
mathematics and science. Most English immersion programmes start at
kindergarten and onward (that is, early immersion). A range of published studies
report positive effects of a partial bilingual programme (Cheng, 2012; Cheng et al.,
2010; Knell et al., 2007). Children in immersion programmes perform significantly
better than children in non-immersion programmes on English language skills
including oral language and literacy. In addition, they do not fall behind on Chinese
and mathematics (Cheng et al., 2010; Knell et al., 2007); in other words, there is no
cost to their Chinese development or their academic skills in mathematics, but
real benefits to their English language skills. The teachers in this context had a
positive attitude towards EMI (Kong et al., 2011). Primary school English teachers in
this study received various forms of in-service training provided by the specific
projects. This training included not just professional qualification training, but also
frequent short courses, inter-school lesson observations and discussions. They
demonstrated strong commitment to EMI despite a comparative lack of teaching
resources. This study reinforces the importance of supporting teachers in EMI
programmes, since when they are well supported, higher academic and linguistic
outcomes for young learners are attained.
While there are clear positive effects of adopting EMI programmes for young
learners in East Asian contexts, concerns and doubts have also been raised. Hu
(2009) questions the socio-economic consequences of EMI in general in China. So
far, EMI has taken place on a small scale in primary schools. Hu fears that largerscale promotion of ChineseEnglish bilingual education may entail tremendous
public spending on teacher training, employment, facilities and learning materials.
On a practical level, teacher development is seen as a critical issue for Chinas
immersion programme (Song and Cheng, 2011). English classes of the immersion
programmes reported in these studies were all conducted by local English
teachers who were not close to being native speakers (see, for example, Cheng et
al., 2010; Knell et al., 2007). The majority were female teachers aged under 30 who
did not have extensive educational backgrounds but nonetheless adopted a
communicative, interactive and learner-centred teaching approach (Song and
Cheng, 2011). They reported that they taught English in a way that would help
students derive meaning from the context, but when they taught subjects, they
adopted an inquiry-based approach in which English was regarded as a cognitive
tool. The greatest challenge for these teachers was that as the students developed,
they struggled for subject and linguistic knowledge as well as teaching
competence. Therefore, Song and Cheng (2011) advocate a more comprehensive,
148
11/01/2016 12:56
149
11/01/2016 12:56
Conclusion
There is a clear demand for EFL and/or EMI to start at an earlier and earlier age in
the East Asian context as a whole. Although there is evidence that very young
children, even babies, have the ability to acquire a FL, it is not guaranteed that
learning English from very early on will produce good results. As articulated in
Murphy (2014), the quality of English outcomes depends largely on the quality of
teaching and teachers, and the quality of the programme. To the extent that
teachers have adequate training and proficiency in English, that the curriculum is
well designed and supported, and that the resources are appropriate, children in
East Asia can make good progress in learning English in early years settings.
Despite the efforts and investment of governments across different cultures in the
East Asian region, the effect of EFL is not yet fully understood at primary or
pre-primary levels due to the very significant lack of research examining these
issues, as well as the lack of attention directed to early years settings by respective
governments. Indeed, governments in East Asian countries tend to have adopted a
more relaxed approach to provision offered in English (either EFL or EMI) in early
years settings. From the brief (and selective) review provided in this chapter, it is
clear that the main issues surrounding English language learning in early childhood
settings concern the training and qualifications of teachers, their English language
proficiency and the particular curricula and methodologies being followed.
With the growing popularity of English learning for very young children (three to
six, or even younger) in this region, the possible educational, socio-economic and
cultural consequences (Hu and McKay, 2012) need to be adequately recognised
and addressed by policy makers. Furthermore, there must be a concern over
whether there are sufficient resources to provide children with quality EFL or EMI
programmes. As suggested by Marinova-Todd, et al (2000: 2829):
investment in elementary foreign language instruction may well be worth it, but
only if the teachers are themselves native or native-like speakers and well trained
in the needs of young learners; if the early learning opportunities are built upon
with consistent, well-planned, ongoing instruction in the higher grades, and if the
learners are given some opportunities for authentic communicative experiences
in the target language. Decisions to introduce foreign language instruction in
elementary grades should be weighed against the costs to other components of
the school curriculum.
Although these comments from Marinova-Todd et al. (2000) were made in the
context of primary school foreign language teaching, these concerns equally
extend to English learning at kindergarten and early years levels. Similarly, EFL
education in kindergartens should also take into consideration the ecology and
context of young childrens holistic development. Kindergarten children are at a
stage of developing into a whole social person. While the foreign language
programme can be treated as merely an additional subject to their kindergarten
life, the policy maker and curriculum designer should nonetheless take a holistic
approach, considering teacher factors, parental factors, as well as the child factor
when integrating English into the early years curriculum.
150
11/01/2016 12:56
Pedagogical concern for English language learning among young and very young
learners deserves the attention of parents, teachers and policy makers. As the
example of Chinese immersion learning shows, when a learner-centred and
task-based approach is applied appropriately, it can have a significant and
beneficial effect on learning and academic performance (Song and Cheng, 2011).
However, these methods may not always be appropriately implemented by the
majority of teachers in these East Asian nations due to a lack of training and
development. Investment in systematic and sustainable teacher training and
resources is required to underpin high-quality English education in both EFL and
EMI programmes for young learners in East Asia.
References
Applegate, AJ and Applegate, MD (2004) The Peter effect: Reading habits and
attitudes of preservice teachers. Reading Teacher, 57(6), 554-563. Retrieved from
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=trueanddb=aphandAN=12420583a
ndsite=ehost-live
Baldauf, RB, Kaplan, RB, Kamwangamalu, N and Bryant, P (2011) Success or failure
of primary second/foreign language programmes in Asia: What do the data tell us?
Current Issues in Language Planning, 12, 309-323. doi:10.1080/14664208.2011.6097
15
Binks-Cantrell, E, Washburn, EK, Joshi, RM, and Hougen, M (2012) Peter effect in the
preparation of reading teachers. Scientific Studies of Reading, 16(6), 526-536. doi:10
.1080/10888438.2011.601434
Bronfenbrenner, U (1979) Ecology of human development: Experiments by nature
and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Butler, YG (2004) What level of English proficiency do elementary school teachers
need to attain to teach EFL? Case studies from Korea, Taiwan and Japan. TESOL
Quarterly, 38(2), 245-278. doi:10.2307/3588380
Butler, YG (2007) How are non-native English-speaking teachers perceived by
young learners? TESOL Quarterly, 41(4), 731-755. doi:10.1002/j.1545-7249.2007.
tb00101.x
Cameron, L. (2003). Challenges for ELT from the expansion in teaching children. ELT
Journal, 57(April), 105-112. Retrieved from http://eltj.oxfordjournals.org/
content/57/2/105.short
Carless, DR (1998) A case study of curriculum implementation in Hong Kong.
System, 26(3), 353-368. doi:10.1016/S0346-251X(98)00023-2
Carless, DR (2003) Factors in the implementation of task-based teaching in primary
schools. System, 31(4), 485-500. doi:10.1016/j.system.2003.03.002
Carless, DR (2006) Good practices in team teaching in Japan, South Korea and
Hong Kong. System, 34(3), 341-351. doi:10.1016/j.system.2006.02.001
151
11/01/2016 12:56
Chang, B (2011) The roles of English language education in Asian context. PanPacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 15(1), 191-206.
Chen, A (2011) Parents perspectives on the effects of the primary EFL education
policy in Taiwan. Current Issues in Language Planning, 12(2), 205-224. doi:10.1080/1
4664208.2011.606783
Chen, CW and Cheng, Y (2010) A case study on foreign English teachers challenges
in Taiwanese elementary schools. System, 38(1), 41-49. doi:10.1016/j.
system.2009.12.004
Chen, S, and Tsai, Y (2012) Research on English teaching and learning: Taiwan
(2004-2009). Language Teaching, 45(02), 180-201. doi:10.1017/
S0261444811000577
Cheng, L, Li, M, Kirby, JR, Qiang, H and Wade-Woolley, L (2010) English language
immersion and students academic achievement in English, Chinese and
mathematics. Evaluation and Research in Education, 1-19.
Cheng, L (2012) English immersion schools in China: Evidence from students and
teachers. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 33(4), 379-391. doi:1
0.1080/01434632.2012.661436
Choi, T-H (2014) The impact of the Teaching English through English policy on
teachers and teaching in South Korea. Current Issues in Language Planning. 1-20. do
i:10.1080/14664208.2015.970727
Copland, F and Garton, S (2014) Key themes and future directions in teaching
English to young learners: introduction to the Special Issue.ELT Journal,68(3),
223-230.
Copland, F, Garton, S, and Burns, A (2013) Challenges in teaching English to young
learners: Global perspectives and local realities. TESOL Quarterly, 48(4), 738-762.
Curriculum Development Council (2006) Guide to the Pre-Primary Curriculum.
http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/edu-system/preprimary-kindergarten/
overview/pre-primaryguide-net_en_928.pdf
Dearden, J (2015) English as a medium of instruction - A growing phenomenon.
London: The British Council.
Deng, C (2011) Communicativeness of activities in EFL primary school classrooms in
Nanhai Guangdong, China: Teachers interpretations of task-based language
teaching. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong. Retrieved from http://hdl.
handle.net/10722/146131
Dixon, LQ (2005) Bilingual education policy in Singapore: An analysis of its sociohistorical roots and current academic outcomes. International Journal of Bilingual
Education and Bilingualism, 8(1), 25-47. doi:10.1080/jBEB.v8.i1.pg25
152
11/01/2016 12:56
153
11/01/2016 12:56
Kaplan, RB, Baldauf, RB, Jr, and Kamwangamalu, N (2011) Why educational language
plans sometimes fail. Current Issues in Language Planning, 12(2). doi:10.1080/
14664208.2011.591716.
Knell, E, Haiyan, Q, Miao, P, Yanping, C, Siegel, LS, Lin, Z, and Wei, Z (2007) Early
English immersion and literacy in Xian, China. The Modern Language Journal, 91(3),
395-417. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2007.00586.x
Kong, S, Hoare, P and Chi, Y (2011) Immersion education in China: Teachers
perspectives. Frontiers of Education in China, 6(1), 68-91. doi:10.1007/s11516-0110122-6
Kuhl, PK, Tsao, FM and Liu, HM (2003) Foreign-language experience in infancy:
Effects of short-term exposure and social interaction on phonetic learning.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
100(15), 9096-9101.
Lai, PS and Byram, M (2003) The politics of bilingualism: A reproduction analysis of
the policy of mother-tongue education in Hong Kong after 1997. Compare: A Journal
of Comparative and International Education, 33, 315-334.
Lambert, WE (1992) Challenging established views on social issues: The power and
limitations of research. American Psychologist, 47(4), 533.
Lau, C and Rao, N (2013) English vocabulary instruction in six early childhood
classrooms in Hong Kong. Early Child Development and Care, 183(10), 1363-1380.
doi:10.1080/03004430.2013.788815
Leung, C-SS, Lim, SEA and Li, YL (2013) Implementation of the Hong Kong language
policy in pre-school settings. Early Child Development and Care, 183(10), 1381-1396.
doi:10.1080/03004430.2013.788816
Li, DCS and Lee, S (2004) Bilingualism in East Asia, in Bhatia, TK and Ritchie, WC
(eds) The Handbook of Bilingualism. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Lim SWA and Li, YL (2005) Hong Kong pre-school provisions for early English
language experiences: A case for redesigning pedagogy. First International
Conference on Educational Research on Redesigning Pedagogy: Research, Policy,
Practice. Singapore.
Littlewood, W (2007) Communicative and task-based language teaching in East
Asian classrooms. Language Teaching, 40 (June), 243. doi:10.1017/
S0261444807004363.
Luo, W-H (2014) An inquiry into the NEST programme in relation to English teaching
and learning in Taiwanese primary schools. English Language Teaching, 7(1),
149-158. doi:10.5539/elt.v7n1p149
Machida, T and Walsh, DJ (2014) Implementing EFL policy reform in elementary
schools in Japan: A case study. Current Issues in Language Planning, 1-17. doi:10.10
80/14664208.2015.970728
154
11/01/2016 12:56
155
11/01/2016 12:56
156
11/01/2016 12:56
157
11/01/2016 12:56
158
11/01/2016 12:56
SECTION DIVIDER
2
Case studies in
immersion / English
Medium Instruction
contexts
159
11/01/2016 12:56
160
11/01/2016 12:56
2.1
Supporting the home language of
EAL children with developmental
disorders
Johanne Paradis, University of Alberta, Canada
Children learning English as an additional language (EAL) from immigrant families
typically speak a minority language at home, and learn the majority language,
English, mainly through childcare centres, pre-schools or schools. This chapter is
concerned with what early childhood educators, school teachers, special
educators and clinicians often believe to be the best language choices for EAL
children, especially those with developmental disorders. These professionals
design interventions and give parental advice based on these beliefs that are,
however well intentioned, not always in the best interests of the child or the family
long term. For example, parents of EAL children are often advised to use English at
home with their children instead of the home language because it is believed that
EAL children would benefit from greater exposure to English to enable them to
catch up more quickly to their English native-speaker peers and, in so doing,
strengthen their educational experiences. This advice to parents is given even
more frequently for EAL children who have been diagnosed with developmental
disorders that impact language, such as specific/primary language impairment
(SLI), Down Syndrome (DS) or autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (Kay-Raining Bird et
al., 2012; Jegatheesan, 2011; Kremer-Sadlik, 2005; Yu, 2013). Parents of EAL
children with development disorders are given this advice because it is commonly
believed that such children might be incapable of bilingual learning, and since the
design of interventions is taking place in English, matching the home language with
the language of intervention would cause less confusion and enhance the childs
rate of language development and outcomes overall. This chapter brings forward
evidence from Canadian and American research indicating that, contrary to these
commonly held beliefs, supporting the home language and continued bilingual
development of EAL children with developmental disorders is the more effective
practice and is in the best interests of the child and family. In so doing, the aim is to
help professionals working with young EALs with developmental disorders to
reflect upon and possibly re-shape their assumptions about these childrens
language development, their teaching and clinical practices, and the advice they
give parents about language use at home.
161
11/01/2016 12:56
162
11/01/2016 12:56
and adolescents can create communication barriers between parents and children
(Wong Fillmore, 1991, 2000). In a study with 620 adolescents from East Asian,
Filipino and Latino backgrounds, Tseng and Fuligni (2000) found that when youth
and parents communicated more in the native language, there was greater
cohesion within the family, more discussions of present and future concerns,
greater closeness with mothers and fewer conflicts with fathers. Thus, continued
bilingual development for all EAL children might be necessary for ease of
communication between parent and child in the long term. Maintaining continued
development of the home language in the case of EAL children with severe
developmental disorders is vitally important because their parents and extended
families are likely to be long-term caregivers and close companions.
In a nutshell, the current evidence suggests that there is slimmer support for the
cognitive and academic advantages of bilingualism for EALs with developmental
disorders than for EALs with typical development. But, crucially, there is no
evidence that bilingualism causes disadvantages in these areas. Moreover, there is
compelling evidence for the advantages of continued bilingualism for childrens
social-emotional development. What do these findings imply for educational and
clinical practice? One implication is that special educators and clinicians could
include a focus on helping EALs with developmental disorders to learn how to make
use of cross-language associations as part of their intervention techniques. A
second implication is that educators and clinicians should be aware of how
bilingualism for EALs with developmental disorders will benefit the child and
familys wellbeing long-term. This awareness should trickle down into education/
clinical planning and, importantly, advice given to parents. It is particularly crucial
to think about long-term outcomes for the whole child, and not just putative
short-term gains in the childs English language abilities.
163
11/01/2016 12:56
compared comprehensive language and communication measures in three-and-ahalf-year-old monolingual and bilingual children just diagnosed with ASD and found
that the bilingual children were not delayed with respect to their monolingual
peers. ChineseEnglish-speaking children with ASD, aged three-and-a-half to six
years old, who had undergone English-language intervention, also showed English
abilities parallel to same-aged monolingual peers with ASD and, moreover, their
English and Chinese vocabularies were roughly equivalent, demonstrating that they
were balanced bilinguals (Petersen et al., 2011). This research stands as evidence
against the popular belief that learning two languages would be too burdensome
for children with developmental disorders. This evidence, therefore, should shape
how educators and clinicians working with these children design intervention and
individualised education programming for these children; such programming can
and should include support for continued bilingual development.
164
11/01/2016 12:56
165
11/01/2016 12:56
166
11/01/2016 12:56
References
Bialystok, E (2001) Bilingualism in development. Language, literacy and cognition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Blom, E and Paradis, J (2014) Sources of individual differences in the acquisition of
tense inflection by English second language learners with and without specific
language impairment. Applied Psycholinguistics: 1-24. DOI: 10.1017/
S014271641300057X.
Ebert, KD, Kohnert, K, Pham, G, Rentmeester Disher, J and Payesteh, B (2014) Three
treatments of bilingual children with primary language impairment: Examining
cross-linguistic and cross-domain effects. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing
Research 57: 172-186.
Geva, E and Wang, M (2001) The development of basic reading skills in children: A
cross-language perspective. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 182 -204.
Gutirrez-Clellen, V, Simon-Cereijido, G and Wagner, C (2008) Bilingual children with
language impairment: A comparison with monolinguals and second language
learners. Applied Psycholinguistics 29: 3-20.
Hambly, C and Fombonne, E (2012) The impact of bilingual environments on
language development in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of
Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42: 1342-1352.
Hammer, CS, Komaroff, E, Rodriguez, B, Lopez, L, Scarpino, S and Goldstein, BG
(2012) Predicting SpanishEnglish bilingual childrens language abilities. Journal of
Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 55: 1251-1264.
167
11/01/2016 12:56
Hammer, CS, Davison, MD, Lawrence, FR and Miccio, AW (2009) The effect of
maternal language on bilingual childrens vocabulary and emergent literacy
development during Head Start and kindergarten. Scientific Studies of Reading 13:
99-121.
Jegatheesan, B (2011) Multilingual development in children with autism:
Perspectives of South Asian Muslim immigrant parents on raising a child with
communicative disorder in multilingual contexts. Bilingual Research Journal 34/2:
185-200.
Kay-Raining Bird, E, Cleave, P, Trudeau, N, Thodardottir, E, Sutton, A and Thorpe, A
(2005) The language abilities of bilingual children with Down Syndrome. American
Journal of Speech-Language Pathology 14: 187-199.
Kay-Raining Bird, E, Lamond, E and Holden, J (2012) Research Report: Survey of
bilingualism in autism spectrum disorders. International Journal of Language and
Communication Disorders, 47/1: 52-64.
Kremer-Sadlik, T (2005) To be or not to be bilingual: Autistic children from
multilingual families, in Cohen, J, McAlister, KT, Rolstad, K and MacSwan J (eds)
Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism. Somerville, MA:
Cascadilla Press, 1225-1234.
Ohashi, JK, Mirenda, P, Marinova-Todd, S, Hambly, C, Fombonne, E, Szatmari, P,
Bryson, S, Roberts, W, Smith, I, Vaillancourt, T, Volden, J, Waddell, C, Zwaigenbaum,
L, Georgiades, S, Duku, E, and Thompson, A (2012) Comparing early language
development in monolingual- and bilingual-exposed children with autism spectrum
disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 6: 890-897.
Paradis, J (2010) Keynote Article: The interface between bilingual development and
specific language impairment. Applied Psycholinguistics 31: 3-28.
Paradis, J (2011) Individual differences in child English second language
acquisition: Comparing child-internal and child-external factors. Linguistic
Approaches to Bilingualism. 1/3: 213-237.
Paradis, J and Kirova, A (2014) English second language learners in pre-school:
Profile effects in their English abilities and the role of home language environment.
International Journal of Behavioral Development 38/4: 342-349.
Paradis, J, Crago, M, Genesee, F and Rice, M (2003) Bilingual children with specific
language impairment: How do they compare with their monolingual peers? Journal
of Speech, Language and Hearing Research 46: 1-15.
Peets, KF and Bialystok, E (2010) An Integrated approach to the study of SLI and
bilingualism [Peer Commentary on Keynote Article The interface between bilingual
development and specific language impairment]. Applied Psycholinguistics 31/2:
314-319.
168
11/01/2016 12:56
169
11/01/2016 12:56
170
11/01/2016 12:56
2.2
A setting-based oral language
intervention for nursery-aged
children with English as an
additional language
Silke Fricke and Gill Millard, University of Sheffield, England
Introduction
Oral language (OL) provides a critical foundation for childrens readiness to learn
and successful school participation (Law et al., 2013; Roulstone et al., 2011), and
children entering school with poor OL are at risk of educational and social
underachievement (Clegg et al., 2005; Muter et al., 2004). There is an increasing
emphasis on the importance of OL in literacy instruction (Rose, 2006, 2009; Tickell,
2011) while concern has grown about the number of children entering school with
poor OL (Bercow, 2008). Early interventions are high on government agendas
(Allen, 2011) as high quality provision and rich and engaging language
environments (Castro et al., 2011) are needed to address these skills before
difficulties become established and start to impact on learning. However, many
intervention programmes are published and available to schools without sufficient
evidence of their effectiveness. In light of this, recent reviews (e.g. Allen, 2011)
highlight the need for more rigorous research to provide evidence of beneficial
effects of intervention approaches implemented in schools over and above gains
expected from routine classroom provision. This information is essential to enable
schools to make wise decisions about the investment of time and resources in their
aim to boost OL skills and provide children with important foundations for literacy
development and educational attainment.
A growing number of children entering UK primary schools are identified as
speaking English as an Additional Language (EAL), which is the most widely used
term in the UK to refer to children for whom English is not the dominant language at
home and who are therefore learning English in addition to their home language(s).
Statistics suggest around 18.1 per cent of the primary school population nationally
speak EAL, and as much as 98.8 per cent in some schools (DfE, 2013). A large
proportion of this population enter school with lower language skills than their
monolingual peers, facing the dual challenge of learning English and accessing the
curriculum. As they progress through school the gap with their monolingual peers
often widens (Castro et al., 2011) and they tend to underperform in national
assessments in primary school (DfE, 2010). In the UK context, particular difficulties
Oral language intervention for nursery-aged children with English as an additional language |
171
11/01/2016 12:56
11/01/2016 12:56
repetition (GAPS, Gardner et al., 2006) significantly more than storybook reading or
no intervention. However, despite direct and indirect work on narrative in Talking
Time, no significant advantage was found in narrative skills in the intervention
group. As before, study limitations such as unequal group sizes and potential
setting effects limit the generalisability of the findings.
Thus, although there is some emerging evidence for setting-based interventions
having a positive impact on language, in particular vocabulary skills, in children
with EAL, questions remain regarding the effectiveness and feasibility of such
interventions (Law et al., 2012; Snowling and Hulme, 2011). More research into early
OL interventions focusing on and beyond vocabulary for children with EAL is
clearly needed.
Method
We conducted a randomised controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate the effectiveness of
the intervention. Ethical permission was granted by the Ethics Review Panel of the
Department of Human Communication Sciences, University of Sheffield. A project
timeline is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Timeline of nursery intervention project
Oral language intervention for nursery-aged children with English as an additional language |
173
11/01/2016 12:56
Participants
Twelve EY settings (nine nursery schools; three children centres) with a relatively
high proportion of children with EAL from South Yorkshire were involved in the
project. At the beginning of the study we screened all children with EAL in these
nurseries (N=299 with 49 different languages spoken at home) excluding children
who had not yet acquired any English language skills. From this initial sample, we
identified eight children per nursery (N=96 with 25 different languages spoken at
home; Mage =3;7) with the lowest vocabulary and grammar skills to take part in the
project. These children (50 boys; 46 girls) were given additional language and early
literacy tests (pre-test) before being randomly allocated to either an intervention
group (n=4/nursery) or a waiting control group (n=4/nursery). Children were
reassessed immediately following the intervention (post-test; Mage =4;3) at which
point seven children were no longer present due to moving settings or countries
(intervention n=2; waiting control n=5).
Assessments
The assessments tapped skills directly targeted by the intervention and
standardised measures of speech, language and early literacy measures in English.
Here, we focus only on language measures. Given the variety of languages spoken
by the participants, and the time and resource constraints for the project, it was
not possible to include assessments in childrens home languages.
Screening (t0)
To identify children with EAL who showed the weakest English vocabulary and
grammar skills in comparison to their peers, children with EAL in participating
settings were assessed on two sub-tests of the Child Evaluation of Language
Fundamentals-Pre-school UK (CELF-Pre; Semel et al., 2006) and four sub-tests of the
New Reynell Developmental Language Scales (NRDLS; Edwards et al., 2011): NRDLS
Production Object Naming; NRDLS Comprehension Selecting Objects/A1,
Relating Two Items/B1, and Verbs/C1; CELF-Pre Expressive Vocabulary and
Sentence Structure.
174
11/01/2016 12:56
Pre-test (t1)
Children identified to take part in the project were assessed on the following
standardised language measures: NRDLS Production Relating 2 Objects/B1,
Relating 2 Objects-Prepositions/B2, Verbs/C1, and Sentence Building/D1; NRDLS
Comprehension Relating 2 Objects-Prepositions/B2 and Sentence Building/D1;
and the Renfrew Action Picture Test (APT; Renfrew, 2003).
A three-picture-story retelling task to assess childrens narrative production was
developed. Verbatim transcriptions allowed the analysis of a variety of narrative
skills using CHAT/CLAN (MacWhinney, 2012) such as mean length of utterance in
morphemes (MLUm) and number of words used (Narrative Words). A random
selection of the 42 words taught in the intervention was assessed using Expressive
Picture Naming and Receptive Picture Selection.
All children were re-assessed on all screening and pre-test measures presented
here immediately following the intervention (post-test; t2).
Intervention programme
The intervention group received a 15-week OL intervention in nursery (3x20mins
group sessions/week) aimed at improving childrens vocabulary, narrative skills,
active listening and confidence in independent speaking. The intervention was
delivered by a Teaching Assistant (TA)/Early Years Practitioner (EYP) selected by
each nursery who received one day of training prior to the intervention covering
the theoretical foundations of the intervention and delivery of the programme. To
ensure treatment fidelity and provide support for the TAs/EYPs, they were provided
with a comprehensive intervention manual and accompanying resources, attended
regular group tutorials and completed records of delivered sessions. Furthermore,
the research team observed each TA/EYP delivering an intervention session and
provided immediate feedback and advice.
The content of the intervention programme was based on findings from earlier
research (Bowyer-Crane et al., 2008; Clarke et al., 2010; Fricke et al., 2013) and
adapted to reflect needs of children with EAL (e.g. Paradis et al., 2011). It was also
designed a) with reference to Statutory Frameworks for the Early Years Foundation
Stage (EYFS) and Primary Years (e.g. DCSF, 2008; DfES, 2006), b) literature specific
to effective interventions for children with EAL (e.g. August and Shanahan, 2006;
Baker, 2006; Castro et al., 2011; Lesaux, 2006; Stow and Dodd, 2003), and c) in
consultation with EYPs, speech and language therapists and local authorities.
Oral language intervention for nursery-aged children with English as an additional language |
175
11/01/2016 12:56
Purpose
Time (min)
Introduction
Greet and settle children into session, revise the days of the
week and the listening rules
Listening Game
Vocabulary
Narrative
Plenary
Results
The 15-week intervention consisted of 45 intervention sessions, of which the TAs/
EYPs delivered on average 34.82 (Range: 30-45) sessions. The number of sessions
each child attended also varied considerably (M=27.50; Range: 2-41).
Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations for the language measures for
the two groups at t0, t1 and t2. They did not differ significantly on any measure
before the intervention, as expected given random allocation. To assess the impact
of the intervention on childrens language skills, group differences at t2 were
analysed using regression models in STATA 12 (StataCorp, 2011), controlling for the
covariates performance at t0/t1 (baseline), age and gender; and using robust
standard errors to allow for the non-independence of observations from children
nested within the 12 settings.
176
11/01/2016 12:56
Table 2: Means (SD and range) on all measures at screening (t0), pre-intervention
(t1), and post-intervention (t2) for intervention and waiting control groups
Measures (max. score)
Test
Point
Intervention
Waiting Control
SD
Range
SD
Range
t1
3.43
3.06
0-11
3.91
2.89
0-9
t2
6.76
3.68
0-14
5.79
3.25
0-11
t1
4.49
2.15
0-9
4.83
2.51
0-10
t2
7.97
2.02
3-10
6.33
2.48
1-10
t0
2.17
3.10
0-13
2.71
3.94
0-15
t2
5.50
5.67
0-20
6.13
5.46
0-18
t0
2.67
3.39
0-12
2.28
2.88
0-9
t2
6.81
4.72
0-14
5.95
3.98
0-15
t1
7.03
5.87
0-22.5
8.42
7.18
0-27.5
t2
10.77
7.35
0-26.5
11.68
6.06
0-24.5
t1
4.00
4.57
0-17
4.99
5.17
0-18
t2
7.64
6.26
0-26.5
8.78
6.07
0-24
t1
3.25
1.65
0-7.9
3.47
2.48
0-9.5
t2
4.69
2.99
1-16.7
4.27
2.24
0-8.3
t1
14.63
12.95
0-63
11.53
9.55
0-33
t2
21.50
16.84
0-66
20.11
13.95
0-63
t0
3.60
3.28
0-10
3.27
3.51
0-10
t2
7.00
3.47
0-10
6.88
3.32
0-10
t1
1.06
1.46
0-5
1.11
1.62
0-5
t2
2.30
1.82
0-5
2.26
1.87
0-5
t1
.29
.85
0-4
.21
.41
0-1
t2
.61
1.04
0-4
.57
.83
0-3
t1
1.74
1.61
0-5
1.70
1.73
0-5
t2
2.83
1.67
0-5
2.83
1.69
0-5
t1
.28
.77
0-4
.47
1.14
0-5
t2
.79
1.42
0-5
.90
1.31
0-5
t0/t1
6.94
6.72
0-24
6.54
6.99
0-24
t2
13.22
7.19
0-27
13.24
7.29
0-25
Narrative MLUm
Narrative Words
NRDLS Production
NRDLS Naming Objects (A; 10)
Oral language intervention for nursery-aged children with English as an additional language |
177
11/01/2016 12:56
NRDLS Comprehension
t0
3.02
1.94
0-5
2.65
1.95
0-5
t2
4.61
.91
1-5
4.31
1.24
1-5
t0
1.15
1.53
0-5
1.19
1.61
0-5
t2
3.50
1.59
0-5
3.38
1.79
0-5
t1
1.21
1.46
0-5
.92
.92
0-3
t2
2.22
1.71
0-5
1.98
1.47
0-5
t0
2.07
1.73
0-5
1.58
1.61
0-5
t2
3.81
1.47
0-5
3.70
1.60
0-5
t1
2.34
1.87
0-5
2.74
1.80
0-5
t2
3.40
1.75
0-5
3.33
1.63
0-5
NRDLS Comprehension
t0/t1
9.65
7.12
0-25
8.79
6.64
0-21
Composite (25)
t2
16.91
6.43
2-25
16.29
6.65
1-25
178
11/01/2016 12:56
d=0.15
p=.836
5.5
4.5
d=0.49
p=.024
2.5
d=0.85
p<.001
d=0.03
p=.847
1.5
d=0.06
p=.732
d=0.02 d=0.15
p=.902 p=.671
d=0.07
p=.615
d=0.03
p=.452
d=0.30
p=.358
0.5
-5.5
-6.5
Narrative Words
Narrative MLUm
APT Grammar
APT Information
-4.5
-3.5
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
Taught vocabulary: Expressive
3.5
-7.5
Discussion
This RCT evaluated the effectiveness of a 15-week intervention programme
designed to support the active listening, vocabulary and narrative skills of children
with EAL in nursery settings. Immediately following the intervention, the
programme showed significant beneficial effects for the intervention group over
the waiting control group on taught vocabulary measures, suggesting that the
intervention led to gains in vocabulary knowledge. However, such significant
effects of the intervention were not found for standardised language assessments
or narrative skills.
The significant intervention effects for taught vocabulary are encouraging, as the
target vocabulary was selected with reference to EYFS and Primary School
curricula and, therefore, represent vocabulary the children need as foundations for
future schooling. Furthermore, the finding also provides evidence that rich and
robust vocabulary instruction providing multiple encounters and practice with the
target words in a variety of contexts (Beck et al., 2013) can be used successfully
with children with EAL.
Oral language intervention for nursery-aged children with English as an additional language |
179
11/01/2016 12:56
180
11/01/2016 12:56
Conclusion
Designing and implementing interventions that are successful in boosting the OL
skills of young children, and are feasible and viable in real-life educational settings,
is a challenging task. Nonetheless it is a crucial one, when teachers are under
pressure to support their pupils to make substantial progress in OL skills before
they begin to have a wider impact on learning. Having conducted an RCT, we have
provided robust evidence that vocabulary skills can be promoted as early as
pre-school in children with EAL. The study also contributes further evidence that
setting-based OL interventions can be successfully delivered by trained and
supported TAs/EYPs who are likely to use their enhanced skills to benefit all
children in their settings (Collins, 2010; Dockrell et al., 2010). The study is therefore
an important step towards developing evidence-based and effective interventions
for children with EAL that can be applied successfully in pre-school settings. More
longitudinal research with larger samples, however, is clearly needed to investigate
what intervention approaches are most effective in improving OL skills and to shed
light on the various factors influencing their outcomes. Such research findings
must then be disseminated to practitioners and teachers who are advised to keep
Oral language intervention for nursery-aged children with English as an additional language |
181
11/01/2016 12:56
Acknowledgements
The research was funded by an Early Career Researcher/EPSRC Knowledge
Transfer Grant from the University of Sheffield. We thank many colleagues for their
valuable contributions to this work and the TAs/EYPs, nurseries, children and
parents for their participation.
References
Allen, G (2011) Early Intervention: The Next Steps An Independent Report to Her
Majestys Government. London: DfE.
Allen, MM, Ukrainetz, TA and Carswell, AL (2012) The Narrative Language
Performance of Three Types of At-Risk First-Grade Readers. Language, Speech and
Hearing Services in Schools 43/2: 205-221A.
August, D and Shanahan, T (2006) Developing literacy in second-language learners:
Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth.
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Baker, CR (2006) Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Ontario:
Multilingual Matters.
Beck, I and McKeown, MG (2007) Increasing young low-income childrens oral
vocabulary repertoires through rich and focused instruction. The Elementary
School Journal 107/3: 251-271.
Beck, IL, McKeown, MG and Kucan, L (2013) Bringing words to life: Robust
vocabulary instruction. NY: Guilford Press.
Bercow, J (2008) The Bercow Report: A Review of Services for Children and Young
People (019) with Speech, Language and Communication Needs. Nottingham: DCSF.
Bowyer-Crane, C, Snowling, MJ, Duff, FJ, Fieldsend, E, Carroll, JM, Miles, J and
Hulme, C (2008) Improving early language and literacy skills: differential effects of
an oral language versus a phonology with reading intervention. Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry 49/4: 422-432.
Burgoyne, K, Duff, FJ, Clarke, PJ, Buckley, S, Snowling, MJ and Hulme, C (2012)
Efficacy of a reading and language intervention for children with Down syndrome: a
randomised controlled trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 53/10:
1044-1053.
Burgoyne, K, Kelly, JM, Whiteley, HE and Spooner, A (2009) The comprehension
skills of children learning English as an additional language. British Journal of
Educational Psychology 79/4: 735-747.
182
11/01/2016 12:56
Oral language intervention for nursery-aged children with English as an additional language |
183
11/01/2016 12:56
Duff, FJ, Hulme, C, Grainger, K, Hardwick, SJ, Miles, JNV and Snowling, MJ (2014)
Reading and language intervention for children at risk of dyslexia: a randomised
controlled trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry Online First.
Edwards, S, Letts, C and Sinka, I (2011) New Reynell Developmental Language Scales
(NRDLS; 4 ed). London: GL Assessment.
Elleman, AM, Lindo, EJ, Morphy, P and Compton, D L (2009) The Impact of
Vocabulary Instruction on Passage-Level Comprehension of School-Age Children: A
Meta-Analysis. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness 2/1: 1-44.
Elliot, C, Smith, P and McCulloch, K (1996) The British Ability Scales II (BAS II).
Windsor: NFER-NELSON Publishing Company.
Ennemoser, M, Kuhl, J and Pepouna, S (2013) Evaluation des Dialogischen Lesens
zur Sprachfrderung bei Kindern mit Migrationshintergrund. Zeitschrift fr
Pdagogische Psychologie 27/4: 229-239.
Farver, JAM, Lonigan, CJ and Eppe, S (2009) Effective Early Literacy Skill
Development for Young Spanish-Speaking English Language Learners: An
Experimental Study of Two Methods. Child Development 80/3: 703-719.
Fricke, S, Bowyer-Crane, C, Haley, AJ, Hulme, C and Snowling, MJ (2013) Efficacy of
language intervention in the early years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
54/3: 280-290.
Gardner, H, Froud, K, McClelland, A and van der Lely, HK (2006) Development of the
Grammar and Phonology Screening (GAPS) test to assess key markers of specific
language and literacy difficulties in young children. International Journal of
Language and Communication Disorders 41/5: 513-540.
Justice, LM, Mashburn, AJ, Hamre, BK, and Pianta, RC (2008) Quality of language
and literacy instruction in pre-school classrooms serving at-risk pupils. Early
Childhood Research Quarterly 23/1: 51-68.
Kohnert, K and Medina, A (2009) Bilingual Children and Communication Disorders: A
30-Year Research Retrospective. Seminars in Speech and Language 30/4: 219,233.
Law, J, Lee, W, Roulstone, S, Wren, Y, Zeng, B and Lindsay, G (2012) What works:
Interventions for children and young people with speech, language and
communication needs. London: DfE.
Law, J, Todd, L, Clark, J, Mroz, M and Carr, J (2013) Early Language Delays in the UK.
London: Save the Children.
Lesaux, NK (2006) Building consensus: Future directions for research on English
language learners at risk for learning difficulties. Teachers College Record 108/11:
2406-2438.
184
11/01/2016 12:56
Lesaux, NK, Kieffer, MJ, Faller, SE and Kelley, JG (2010) The effectiveness and ease
of implementation of an academic vocabulary intervention for linguistically diverse
students in urban middle schools. Reading Research Quarterly 45/2: 196-228.
Locke, A (1985) Living Language. Windsor: NFER-Nelson.
Locke, A (2006) One Step at a Time. London: Network Continuum Education.
Lugo-Neris, MJ, Jackson, CW and Goldstein, H (2010) Facilitating Vocabulary
Acquisition of Young English Language Learners. Language Speech and Hearing
Services in Schools 41/3: 314-327.
MacWhinney, B (2012) The CHILDES Project: Tools for Analysing Talk. Electronic
Edition. Part 1: The CHAT Transcription Format. Part 2: The CLAN Programmes.
Available online at http://childes.psy.cmu.edu/
Muter, V, Hulme, C, Snowling, MJ, and Stevenson, J (2004) Phonemes, rimes,
vocabulary, and grammatical skills as foundations of early reading development:
Evidence from a longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology 40/5: 665-681.
Nelson, JR, Vadasy, PF and Sanders, EA (2011) Efficacy of a Tier 2 Supplemental
Root Word Vocabulary and Decoding Intervention With Kindergarten SpanishSpeaking English Learners. Journal of Literacy Research 43/2: 184-211.
Pollard-Durodola, S, Gonzalez, J, Simmons, D, Kwok, O, Taylor, A, Davis, M, Kim, M,
Simmons, L (2011) The Effects of an Intensive Shared Book-Reading Intervention for
Pre-school Children at Risk for Vocabulary Delay. Exceptional Children 77/2:
161-183.
Proctor, CP, Dalton, B, Uccelli, P, Biancarosa, G, Mo, E, Snow, C and Neugebauer, S
(2011) Improving comprehension online: effects of deep vocabulary instruction
with bilingual and monolingual fifth graders. Reading and Writing 24/5: 517-544.
Renfrew, C (2003) Action Picture Test. Milton Keynes: Speechmark Publishing Ltd.
Riley, J, Burrell, A and McCallum, B (2004) Developing the spoken language skills of
reception class children in two multicultural, inner-city primary schools. British
Educational Research Journal 30/5: 657-672.
Roberts, TA (2008) Home storybook reading in primary or second language with
pre-school children: Evidence of equal effectiveness for second-language
vocabulary acquisition. Reading Research Quarterly 43/2: 103-130.
Rose, J (2006) Independent review of the teaching of early reading: Final Report.
Nottingham: DfES.
Rose, J (2009) Independent Review of the Primary Curriculum: Final Report.
Nottingham: DfES.
Oral language intervention for nursery-aged children with English as an additional language |
185
11/01/2016 12:56
Roulstone, S, Law, J, Rush, R, Clegg, J and Peters, T (2011) Investigating the role of
language in childrens early educational outcomes (Project Report). Bristol: DfE.
Ruston, HP, and Schwanenflugel, PJ (2010) Effects of a Conversation Intervention on
the Expressive Vocabulary Development of Pre-kindergarten Children. Language,
Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools 41/3: 303-313.
Segers, E, Verhoeven, L, Boot, I, Berkers, I and Vermeer, A (2001) Effectiviteit van
een software programma ter bevordering van de woordenschat van allochtone
kleuters. Pedagogische Studin 78/5: 287-297.
Semel, E, Wiig, E and Secord, W (2006) Child Evaluation of Language FundamentalsPre-school UK (2nd ed). Oxford: Pearson Assessment.
Silverman, RD (2007) Vocabulary development of English-language and Englishonly learners in kindergarten. Elementary School Journal 107/4: 365-383.
Snowling, MJ and Hulme, C (2011) Evidence-based interventions for reading and
language difficulties: Creating a virtuous circle. British Journal of Educational
Psychology 81/1: 1-23.
Stow, C and Dodd, B (2003) Providing an equitable service to bilingual children in
the UK: a review. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders
38/4: 351-377.
Tickell, DC (2011) The Early Years: Foundations for life, health and learning An
Independent Report on the Early Years Foundation Stage to Her Majestys
Government Dame Clare Tickell. London: DfE.
Vadasy, PF and Sanders, EA (2010) Efficacy of supplemental phonics-based
instruction for low-skilled kindergarteners in the context of language minority
status and classroom phonics instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology
102/4: 786-803.
Wilson, SJ, Dickinson, DK and Rowe, DW (2013) Impact of an Early Reading First
programme on the language and literacy achievement of children from diverse
language backgrounds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 28/3: 578-592.
186
11/01/2016 12:56
2.3
Language of instruction and the
development of biliteracy skills
in children: a case study of a
pre-school in the Maldives
Naashia Mohamed, Maldives National University, Maldives
Language in education
It has been argued that the most important policy decisions in language in
education are those related to the choice of languages as the medium of
instruction (MOI) in schools (Tollefson and Tsui, 2004). Despite the key role of the
mother tongue in a childs education, one major impact of globalisation is
symbolised by the increasing trend to use English, the global lingua franca, as the
MOI in education systems across the world (Hamid, Nguyen and Baldauf, 2013). This
has been the case not only in the English-dominant parts of the world, but also in
the Outer and Expanding Circle contexts (Doiz, Lasagabaster and Sierra, 2012).
While some have claimed that English as an MOI policies are an extension of
imperialism and explicitly seek to exclude other languages, and with them the
children who speak them (Arnold, Bartlett, Gowani, and Merali, 2006), others have
taken a more liberal view that it is an unavoidable by-product of globalisation.
In terms of the impact of immersion models in education, research evidence has
favoured mother tongue-based education. Some studies (e.g. Benson, 2004) have
shown that when the MOI is a language other than the childs mother tongue, it
causes pedagogical and linguistic problems. Others (e.g. Salili and Tsui, 2005)
indicate that it can be a motivational barrier for students. Kosonen (2005) has
argued that a mother tongue-based education system will have higher enrolments
and corresponding success rates. This may be because when children are
encouraged to use their mother tongue in the education context, they have better
thinking skills (Bialystok, 2001; Cummins, 2000) and higher levels of understanding
(King and Mackey, 2007).
Despite the growing body of research that has shown that childrens first language
(L1) is the optimal language for literacy and learning throughout the early years and
primary schooling (UNESCO, 2008), some studies (e.g. Turnbull, Hart and Lapkin,
2003) do point to the positive impact of foreign language immersion on not just the
academic achievement of students but also their language development in both
their L1 and other languages used in education.
187
11/01/2016 12:56
Early literacy
The importance of the early years, particularly the pre-school period, in developing
the foundations for future literacy has been emphasised in the research from the
field of emergent literacy (Morrow and Tracey, 2007). Studies have shown that
establishing the groundwork of literacy skills in the early years not only facilitates
and accelerates childrens acquisition of formal reading skills at school (Dickinson
and Neuman, 2006), but that successful attainment of those skills is a predictor of
childrens future success at school. Where children receive pre-school education in
an immersion or dual language context, it seems imperative that the pre-school
pedagogy focuses on developing childrens biliteracy skills so as to give them the
best chance of success in language acquisition in both the L1 as well as other
languages involved.
Whatever the role that students L1 and L2 take in the school setting, for optimal
language acquisition, Baker (2008) recommends that there be a balance in the use
of language in the classroom. This includes balancing the relative amounts of use
of the two (or more) languages on walls, in announcements, in non-curriculum
activities such as school assemblies, and in the language of the playground, as well
as the language of the classroom. Similarly, Baker (2008) advocates balance in the
use of language by educators as well as in the allocation of languages in the
curriculum. He argues that if one language is allocated fewer literacy-based areas
(such as sports, craft and design) and the other language is allocated subject areas
such as science and mathematics, it may send signals to the children that the
majority language has more functional and prestigious value and will be associated
with modernity and progression.
188
11/01/2016 12:56
history of the Maldives shows that although schooling was provided initially in
Arabic and/or Dhivehi, with the introduction of schools that offered English medium
of instruction (EMI) in the early 1960s, all other forms of education were relegated
to a second class status. EMI spread from secondary to primary schools and finally
to pre-schools, with the result that since the early 2000s, there have been no
schools that offer formal education in the L1. Despite recent attempts to encourage
the use of Dhivehi as the MOI in pre-schools, this has not been popular either
among educators or parents.
It is also noteworthy that, as the Maldives is a Muslim country, and Arabic is the
language of the Quran, all Maldivian children learn to read and write the Arabic
script from a young age. The focus of such learning is not on comprehension or
communication; but simply to enable individuals to read the holy text of Islam. The
pre-school curriculum introduces children to three languages: Dhivehi, the mother
tongue; English, the language of instruction; and Arabic, the language of the Quran.
Although Arabic is not taught as a language per se, children do have to learn three
completely different scripts and sound systems.
The school reported here was situated in the capital island of Mal, and is one of
the longest serving pre-schools in the country. It was selected for the study
through simple random sampling. Catering to children between the ages of
two-and-a-half and six, the school had an enrolment of around 800 students at the
time of data collection. Classes were held in three sessions, with the oldest children
attending school in the first session, the second age group attending school in the
second session and the youngest group attending school in the afternoon session.
Each session lasted two to three hours, with the first session starting at 7am and
the last session ending at 5.30pm. As physical space was very limited, children
spent most of their session time in the confines of a classroom. Class sizes were
between 28 and 33 students. Each class had a teacher and an assistant teacher.
During each school session, when children arrived in class they usually marked
attendance by placing their name card on the designated wall space and sat down
for sharing time. The teacher began each day by identifying the day of the week,
the date and by talking about the weather. She would then read the class a story
related to the theme of the week, and/or sing songs together with the children.
Next, she would explain the different activities set up at the different stations in the
classroom and allocate the children to each station. Every class usually had a
literacy station, an art station, a play area and a reading corner. For the large part
of the school session, children would rotate among the different stations and the
teacher would ensure that all children had completed all allocated work for the day.
Each class would have about half an hour of music, computer skills or outdoor play
every day. There was also a short break for snacks and drinks, followed by clean up
before going home.
Following an ethnolinguistic case study model, data was collected over a period of
six months, beginning during the first month of the academic year, so as to be able
to record the linguistic and literacy progress achieved by children over a period of
time. The data included 25 hours of video recordings of classrooms, field notes
189
11/01/2016 12:56
from school visits, interviews with two teachers and the head teacher as well as
photographic evidence of student work. The recorded and transcribed data
underwent a process of coding and categorising, to arrive at qualitative themes.
The four dominant themes that arose from the analysis are detailed below.
Visible language
Upon first entry to the school, the first thing visitors would notice were the large
banners around the school compound heralding the pride and importance of the
mother tongue. These banners, written in the Dhivehi script, included statements
such as I can express everything I want in Dhivehi and We are proud to have our
own unique language. Inside the classrooms, however, the picture was a little
different. All the classroom walls were decorated beautifully. At the entrance to
each classroom, the attendance area showed the names of the students present
that day. In the majority of the classrooms, these names were only written in
English. One part of each classroom was dedicated to exhibiting student work, with
cellophane pockets for each student. In all classrooms, students names on these
were written only in English. In each classroom, there were wall displays of the daily
routine, the days of the week, the months of the year, the three alphabets children
learned (Dhivehi, English and Arabic), a number chart and a section headed Things
we are learning this week. This section contained information on the key learning
areas of the curriculum: Islam, Dhivehi, English, Mathematics and Environmental
Studies. Of these, information about the weekly learning for the first two areas was
displayed in Dhivehi and was observed to change very infrequently. In fact, on
many occasions, there was nothing displayed for Dhivehi. For English, Mathematics
and Environmental Studies, however, all the weekly learning displays were in
English and changed each week.
190
11/01/2016 12:56
191
11/01/2016 12:56
192
11/01/2016 12:56
frequency with which they took place was much less and the childrens progress
was recognisably slower.
Conclusion
This chapter has reported on the development of childrens pre-literacy skills in one
pre-school in the Maldives, highlighting the imbalance between the childrens L1
and L2. While this study was largely descriptive and, further, more robust evidence
would be ideal, this imbalance was nonetheless evident in the time and resources
allocated to the languages in the curriculum as well as the use of language in the
classroom. As a result, it was seen to have been transferred into the childrens
literacy achievements in the two languages. Despite the prescribed and declared
policy regarding use of the childs L1 at pre-school, failure to implement it and bring
the childrens L1 to prominence in the classroom resulted in children achieving
literacy skills in English but failing to match that in their own mother tongue.
Contrary to the displays in the school compound, the proclaimed pride in the
mother tongue was sadly absent in both the classroom environment and in
practice. Similarly, teachers claims that it was easier to resort to English
vocabulary indicated their beliefs that it was easier and more prestigious to
express themselves in what was essentially their L2.
It is possible to conclude that this disparity between the two languages will affect
individual childrens linguistic futures as well as the status and use of these
languages in the community as a whole. Without adequate development of a childs
L1, their L2 and their learning of other subjects at school might be negatively
affected. Additionally, if a childs pre-school years place such heavy emphasis on
the L2 and reduce the L1 to a status of lesser prominence, questions arise as to
how such children will regard their mother tongue later in life and opt to use it in
regular communication. It is also possible to predict that this trend in code mixing
is likely to result in a major language shift in the community when this generation of
pre-schoolers grow older.
References
Arnold, C, Bartlett, K, Gowani, S, and Merali, R (2006)Is everybody ready?
Readiness, transition and continuity: Reflections and moving forward.Background
paper for EFA Global Monitoring Report 2007.
Baker, C (2008) Postlude. AILA Review, 21(1),104 110. DOI: 10.1075/aila.21.08bak
Benson, (2004) The importance of mother tongue-based schooling for educational
quality. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005, The
Quality Imperative, UNESCO, Paris.
Bialystok, E (2001)Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy, and
cognition.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cummins, J (2000)Language, power and pedagogy. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual
Matters.
193
11/01/2016 12:56
194
11/01/2016 12:56
2.4
Do Hong Kong pre-school
teachers of English engage in
learning and teaching activities
conducive to young childrens
vocabulary development?
Richard Wong Kwok Shing, Hong Kong Institute of Education,
Hong Kong
Introduction
Despite the emergence of major economic powers in Asia such as China, Japan and
South Korea, English remains the international language of commerce, education,
science and technology (Wong, 2009), and its importance is unlikely to diminish in
the decades to come. According to Crystal (2008), the number of non-native
speakers of English in the world far exceeds the number of native speakers in the
ratio of 3:1. Because of this perceived status of English as a global language, it is
not atypical for children in East Asian cultures to receive early exposure to the
English language through their early years education because of their parents
belief that an earlier exposure will lead to a greater proficiency. In the case of Hong
Kong, where pre-school education is completely private and there is no statutory
pre-school syllabus, it is uncertain whether young children are learning English in a
way that can be regarded as effective. Quality education can be defined in
numerous ways, such as whether teachers have made use of specific learning
strategies that support childrens learning (such as scaffolding) or whether the
strategies used are known to foster specific aspects of child development.
This chapter will explore this quality issue by examining how Hong Kong pre-school
teachers of English support young children to learn English. Hong Kong was chosen
as the site for this study for a number of reasons. First, it has a unique history. The
city was a British colony for over 150 years until 1997, when sovereignty was
resumed by the Peoples Republic of China. Historically, the city was seen as the
gateway between East and West, and new ideas from the West (e.g. the
constructivist approach to learning) were more likely to be experimented with in
Hong Kong schools than in schools in China.
Hong Kong pre-school teachers of English engage in learning and teaching activities |
195
11/01/2016 12:56
Second, curriculum planning and assessment is largely driven by market forces. All
pre-schools in Hong Kong are privately run and their curricula are only loosely
bound by the Guide to Pre-primary Curriculum issued by the Hong Kong Education
Bureau (2006). As parents have high expectations of their childrens language
proficiency in English (e.g. a recent survey conducted by Wong (2014) found that
49.5 per cent of Hong Kong parents would not mind if their pre-school-aged
children had acquired English rather than Cantonese as their first language!), all
pre-schools in Hong Kong are currently bilingual, supplementing lessons
conducted in Cantonese with lessons that use English as the medium of instruction.
Since the majority of Hong Kong parents do not use English as the home language
(Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department, 2011), Hong Kong childrens primary
exposure to English largely resides in the school environment, thus the way in
which the schools approach this issue is likely to be significant.
Third, there is a mismatch between the demand for native-speaking English
teachers and the number of such teachers who hold an appropriate qualification
residing in Hong Kong. To survive in a very competitive pre-school market, schools
might have no choice but to hire native English speakers who do not possess
relevant teaching qualifications or teaching experience in order to lower their
operation costs.
Fourth, instruction time in English is generally limited in schools using mainly
Cantonese as the medium of instruction (English exposure time probably averages
25 minutes per day, five days a week) (See Wong et al., 2013).
All these conditions have made Hong Kong a prime site for study: does what
teachers of English do in their classroom conform to the best practices as
recommended by academics, despite the privatised nature of early years
education, loose guidelines from the government and unrealistic expectations from
parents? There are three specific questions to be explored:
1.
2.
What types of shared reading strategies do teachers use when they use a
picture book in their classrooms?
3.
Are teachers modes of teaching (e.g. relative time spent in various activities,
shared reading strategies) related to their academic qualifications, childrens
proficiencies in English and the time available for the teaching of English?
196
11/01/2016 12:56
of reading comprehension in the school years (Baumann, 2005; Beck et al., 1982;
Cunningham and Stanovich, 1998; Scarborough, 1998; Snow et al., 2007). Activities
involving storybooks (such as story-telling and read-aloud) and story-related
discussions are known to be effective strategies for improving childrens
vocabulary knowledge (Graves et al., 2013; Roberts and Neal, 2004; Wasik and
Bond, 2001). In addition, vocabulary is crucial for triggering childrens development
in phonological awareness (PA) (see Goswami, 2001; Nagy, 2005), which refers to
the ability to attend to and manipulate sound units smaller than a word (McBrideChang et al., 2005). Research shows that PA is a pre-requisite to phonics instruction
and children with PA deficits are likely to develop reading difficulties in the school
years (Ehri et al., 2001). Intervention programmes with a focus on PA can effectively
reduce childrens risk of developing reading difficulties in the future (Byrne et al.,
1992; Nancollis et al., 2005; Siegel, 2009).
With respect to Question 2, reading research has revealed that shared reading and
read-aloud are effective strategies for promoting young childrens oral and literacy
development (Bus et al., 1995; De Temple and Snow, 2003; Graves et al., 2013;
Lonigan and Whitehurst, 1998). In shared reading, an adult interacts with young
children with the use of a picture book. Every now and then the adult will pause and
ask the children to think about the meaning of a word, what is special about the
story, and how the story might be relevant to their lives (Adams, 1990; Graves et al.,
2013). However, when it comes to the components within shared reading that are
predictive of childrens language and literacy development, researchers have
found that it is not the reading itself that triggers childrens vocabulary
development (see Snow et al., 2007, for a review). Rather it is the ensuing
discussion that is critical: the discussion directs childrens attention to words,
encouraging them to reflect on the usage of words (Beck and McKeown, 2006;
Snow et al., 2007). The implication for teaching is that, apart from talking about
pictures and texts from a picture book, it is essential for teachers to make use of
strategies such as encouraging the children to predict the plot of a story and
discuss the ending in order to engage learners in a deeper level of language
processing.
Finally, with regards to Question 3, teachers observed behaviours in (1) and (2)
may be a result of a multiplicity of factors, including the age levels and perceived
abilities of the children, time available for the teaching of English and their own
qualifications. Examining the effects of each of these factors will help us decide
what influences teachers decisions in the classrooms.
Hong Kong pre-school teachers of English engage in learning and teaching activities |
197
11/01/2016 12:56
Methods
Participants
One-hundred-and-eighty-one teachers of English from 148 pre-schools (circa 15
per cent of the total number of pre-schools in Hong Kong) participated in the
survey. The schools were evenly distributed across the different parts of the city in
approximate proportion to the population size of each region (Hong Kong: 19.3 per
cent; Kowloon: 21 per cent; New Territories: 55.1 per cent; Outlying islands: 4.5 per
cent). All respondents were participants in professional development workshops
delivered by the author. Table 1 shows their demographics: the vast majority of the
respondents were female, and 78.1 per cent had attained the minimum entry
qualifications (i.e. a diploma in ECE/BEd in ECE/PGDE in ECE) for pre-school
teachers in Hong Kong. The proportion of male teachers in our survey was slightly
larger than the reported figure of 1.2 per cent for the whole of Hong Kong (Ho and
Lam, 2014). Almost half of the teachers had less than three years of teaching
experience in a pre-school, and around 70 per cent of them were born in Hong
Kong, schooled in Hong Kong and speak Cantonese as their first language.
Table 1: Demographics of the survey respondents (n = 181)
Particulars
Gender
Female
175 (97.2)
Male
5 (2.8)
Academic Qualifications
Diploma in ECE
68 (39.1)
BEd in ECE
47 (27)
PGDE
21 (12.1)
Masters degree
13 (7.5)
TESOL or others
49 (27.1)
83 (62.4)
Years of experience
Less than 3 years
87 (48.1)
21 (11.6)
31 (17.1)
Above 10 years
42 (23.2)
Place of Birth
198
Hong Kong
131 (73.6)
Non-Hong Kong
47 (26.4)
11/01/2016 12:56
Particulars
Place of Schooling
Hong Kong
122 (70.5)
Non-Hong Kong
51 (29.5)
First Language
English
15 (8.5)
Cantonese
134 (75.7)
Others
28 (15.8)
34 (19)
Non-English
145 (81)
Survey tool
A purpose-designed questionnaire consisted of three sections seeking information
on the participants demographic details (e.g. their academic qualifications, years
of teaching experience), their learners characteristics (e.g. the age level and
English proficiencies of the learners) and the characteristics of their teaching
practice (e.g. the relative frequency of various types of learning and teaching
activities, how often they use particular shared reading techniques). The questions
in the teaching practice section came from several sources: existing
questionnaires (e.g. Pressley et al., 1996), surveys that target home literacy
practice (e.g. Roberts at al, 2005) and recommendations made by literacy experts
(e.g. Graves et al., 2013; Lonigan and Whitehurst, 1998; Snow et al., 2007). The draft
questionnaire was first reviewed by a panel of three experts in the field of early
literacy development, and then piloted on five teachers of English. The items were
subsequently revised and clarified. The questionnaire was readministered to the
same teachers two weeks after the first administration. Only one teacher changed
her responses to the questionnaire because she had taken over another class
whose teacher was on maternity leave.
Statistical analyses
All analyses were conducted using SPSS version 19.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago IL, 2011).
Hong Kong pre-school teachers of English engage in learning and teaching activities |
199
11/01/2016 12:56
Results
Initially, we looked for extreme values in the dataset. We noticed that in the variable
instruction time for English, there were a number of impossible values: the time
indicated exceeded the maximum amount of time possible in a school day. Six
values (3.31 per cent) were thus removed from the analysis.
Since teachers strategies may be affected by the amount of instruction time
available for each class in the school, we were, first of all, interested in how often
the teachers see their children per week. Among those who responded (106 out of
181), the total amount of instruction time ranged from 15 minutes to 20 hours (i.e.
four hours per day in a whole-day school) per week, with a median of 100 minutes
per week (or 20 minutes per day) and a standard deviation of 5.69 hours. The data
suggests that childrens exposure time to English varies greatly across the schools
in the current sample.
Next, we were interested in what teachers of English reported that they had done in
their classrooms in order to engage their children to learn English. In particular,
how often did the teachers engage in various types of language and literacy
activities? Did they make use of strategies that afford a deeper level of language
processing during their shared reading? The results (Table 2) showed that on a
scale of 1 to 4 (1: never; 2: seldom; 3: some lessons; 4: every lesson), oral
conversations, read-aloud and nursery rhyme singing are among the most typical
English learning activities. On the other hand, the teaching of literacy-related skills
(phonological awareness = 2.6; phonics = 2.97) and writing-related skills (letter and
word writing) were somewhat less frequent. An unexpected finding was that
teachers seldom use non-fiction books in their lessons, probably reflecting the fact
that these books are rarely used in shared reading compared to typical storybooks.
For extension activities, teachers were more likely to use show-and-tell rather than
pair work.
Table 2: Frequency of different types of activities in the English lessons
200
Strategies
Mean*
SD
Oral conversations
3.14
.88
Story-telling
2.89
.73
Read-aloud
3.19
.76
Non-fiction
1.97
.80
2.84
.81
Nursery rhymes
3.28
.70
2.6
.88
Phonics
2.97
.79
Write letters
2.65
.97
Write words
2.56
1.04
11/01/2016 12:56
3.02
.83
2.56
.87
With respect to the use of shared reading strategies (Table 3), the results showed
that on a five-point scale, teachers were more likely to spend time on the pictures
and words in a picture book than on tasks that demand a deeper level of language
processing, such as predicting the story content, discussing the story ending or
conducting role play. The overall patterns suggest that the learners were more
likely to be engaged in receptive learning than in the expressive use of language in
their English lessons.
Table 3: The use of various shared reading techniques
Techniques
Mean*
SD
4.03
1.04
Point to words
4.16
.96
Predict content
3.62
1.09
Discuss ending
3.26
1.21
Role play
3.07
1.18
activities [scale: 1 to 4]
[scale: 1 to 5]
Diploma in ECE
2.72 (.64)
3.44 (.87)
BEd in ECE
2.56 (.55)
3.52 (.91)
PGDE
2.99 (.44)
3.8 (.82)
Masters
3.28 (.42)
3.96 (.75)
Minimal English
2.51 (.59)
3.25 (.77)
Single words
2.67 (.62)
3.45 (.86)
Phrases
2.84 (.52)
3.67 (.72)
Sentences
2.94 (.57)
3.89 (.97)
Stories
3.35 (.46)
4.07 (.80)
Qualifications
Hong Kong pre-school teachers of English engage in learning and teaching activities |
201
11/01/2016 12:56
Our next step of investigation was to examine whether teachers choice of activities
and their use of specific shared reading strategies were sensitive to factors such as
the amount of teaching time available, age and English proficiencies of the
learners, and the teachers academic qualifications. Since we were primarily
interested in whether teachers engaged in vocabulary-building activities and made
use of shared reading strategies, we first created a composite variable called
vocabulary-building activities by averaging the following variables: oral
conversation, storytelling, read-aloud, use of non-fiction and teaching rare words.
Likewise, we recoded the variables of talk about pictures, point to words, predict
the plot, discuss the ending and role play into a single variable called shared
reading strategies.
To examine the effect of teaching time on teachers behaviour, we recoded the
variable of instruction time into a new variable with two categories: teachers
whose instruction time was 125 minutes per week or less vs. those whose
instruction time was above 125 minutes per week. 125 minutes was used as the
cut-off because it has been reported in previous literature that pre-schools in
Hong Kong typically offer 2025 minutes of daily English lessons (Wong et al.,
2013). The results revealed that amount of exposure time was neither related
to teachers vocabulary-building activities (F(1,95) < 1) nor to their use of
shared reading strategies (F(1,94) = < 1).
With respect to the effects of academic qualifications, our results showed that
teachers with different academic qualifications differed significantly in their use of
vocabulary-building strategies (F(3,134) = 5.595, p < .001). Generally speaking, the
higher the academic qualification attained, the more likely the teacher concerned
will engage in vocabulary-building activities. A Tukey post-hoc test revealed that
teachers with a masters degree did not differ from their peers who hold a PGDE in
ECE (p > .05); however, they spent significantly more time in vocabulary-building
activities than those holding a diploma in ECE (2.56 .55, p < .05) or a BEd in ECE
(2.72 .64, p < .01). In terms of the relationship between the use of shared-reading
strategies and academic qualifications, there was no difference between the
groups (F(3,134) = 1.599, p > .05).
Next, we examined the effects of learners English proficiencies on teachers
behaviour. The results showed that in the area of vocabulary building, teachers
were sensitive to the English proficiencies of the learners (F(4,154) = 5.75, p < .001).
A Tukey post-hoc test revealed that teachers used fewer vocabulary-building
strategies when working with learners with minimal English than with those who
were able to speak sentences (p = .05) or tell stories (p < .001). With respect to the
use of shared reading strategies, the observed patterns were similar: there was a
statistically significant difference between groups (F(4,154) = 3.53, p = .01).
Teachers used fewer shared reading strategies with learners whose English was
minimal than with learners who could speak sentences (p = .04) or tell stories
(p = .04).
Finally, we investigated the effects of childrens age levels on teachers behaviour.
No statistically significant effects on teachers vocabulary-building activities
202
11/01/2016 12:56
(F(4,156) = 1.446, p > .05) or on their use of shared reading strategies (F(4,156) =
2.04, p > .05) were found.
Discussion
We began our study with the concerns of whether pre-school teachers of English in
Hong Kong were focusing on activities conducive to childrens vocabulary
development and whether they were making use of recommended shared reading
strategies, given the fact that Hong Kong pre-schools are all privately run and that
they are only loosely controlled by the government. The overall news is positive:
based on self-reporting, teachers stated that they spent relatively more time on
oral conversations, storytelling and read-aloud than on letter- or word-writing
activities. Their choice of activities was generally consistent with the guidelines
issued by the Hong Kong Education Bureau (2006), which stated that the informal
learning of English through stories and songs was preferable to the formal teaching
of skills and writing.
Nevertheless, the survey identified a number of areas in which teachers could
make improvements: first, phonological awareness (PA) activities were less
frequent than phonics teaching. Since the success of phonics instruction
depends on whether learners have adequate levels of vocabulary knowledge and
phonological awareness, it is imperative that teachers of English should check
whether their learners can segment the first sound and last sound in a word before
they proceed to phonics instruction. Teachers current emphasis on phonics rather
than on PA might explain why Hong Kong pre-schoolers performed poorly in
phonological awareness measures in developmental studies (Huang and Hanley,
1995; McBride-Chang et al., 2005). Second, with respect to shared reading
strategies, it appears that teachers do recognise that young children derive
meaning from a picture book through reference to both pictures and texts.
However, to further enhance young childrens vocabulary development, it is
important for teachers to plan more activities which afford multiple exposures
to the target words (e.g. role play) and challenge the children to think about the
meaning of words and how these words are relevant to their lives through
predictions and discussions in shared reading activities. Third, the infrequent
use of non-fiction implies that the children had somewhat restricted exposure
to vocabularies that may be unique to particular text types (e.g. scientific
vocabularies in non-fiction).
With respect to the effects of instruction time, teachers qualifications, age levels
and the English proficiencies of learners on teachers behaviour, our results
showed that more teaching time does not translate into more frequent vocabularybuilding activities or a greater use of shared reading strategies. However, teachers
academic qualifications do matter. Teachers with postgraduate qualifications (i.e.
those who possess a PGDE in ECE and those with a masters degree) were more
likely to engage in these vocabulary-building activities than their peers who
possess a degree or a sub-degree level of qualification. On a positive note, the
teachers choice of activities and their use of shared reading strategies were more
sensitive to childrens English proficiency level than to their chronological age,
Hong Kong pre-school teachers of English engage in learning and teaching activities |
203
11/01/2016 12:56
suggesting that the teachers did take into account the developmental needs
of individual children rather than simply basing their teaching on the age of
the children.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Hong Kong Research Grant Council #845113
and the conference grant #ECE/CG14014 provided by the Hong Kong Institute of
Education, both awarded to Richard Wong Kwok Shing. I thank all participating
teachers and schools.
References
Adams, MJ (1990) Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
Baumann, JF (2005) Vocabulary-comprehension relationships, in Maloch, B,
Hoffman, JV, Schallert, DL, Fairbanks, CM and Worthy, J (eds) Fifty-fourth yearbook
of the National Reading Conference. Oak Creek, WI: National Reading Conference,
117-131.
Beck, IL, Perfetti, CA and McKeown, MG (1982) The effects of long-term vocabulary
instruction on lexical access and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 74, 506-521.
Beck, IL and McKeown, MG (2006) Improving comprehension with questioning the
author: A fresh and expanded view of a powerful approach. New York: Scholastic.
Bus, AG, van IJzendoorn, MH and Pellegrini, AD (1995) Joint book reading makes for
success in learning to read: A meta-analysis on intergenerational transmission of
literacy. Review of Educational Research, 65, 1-21.
204
11/01/2016 12:56
Hong Kong pre-school teachers of English engage in learning and teaching activities |
205
11/01/2016 12:56
206
11/01/2016 12:56
2.5
A case study of early childhood
education and the pre-school
curriculum in Singapore
Lynn Ang, Institute of Education (IOE), University College London
Introduction: Early childhood education in Singapore
This chapter presents a case study of early childhood education delivered in a
pre-school setting in Singapore for children aged three to six years who are
bilingual speakers of English and Mandarin. It presents the findings of an
ethnographic study, undertaken through the methodology of sustained narrative
observations. With reference to examples of practice, the discussion explores how
early years education is delivered through the pre-school curriculum to support
childrens learning, and the work of the pre-school teachers who play an integral
role in constructing the curriculum. The case study discusses the approach and
philosophy to early childhood education and the curriculum as espoused by the
setting, and critically examines some of the issues and debates that arise from the
settings practices, more specifically in relation to the childrens experiences as
both native and non-native speakers of English.
Singapore is a Commonwealth nation in South East Asia with a population of
approximately 5.4 million. The country is multicultural with three main ethnic
groups Chinese, Malay and Indian, with Chinese as the largest community. With a
high Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita, low unemployment rate at less than
two per cent, and a literacy rate at more than 96 per cent, the country is
recognised globally as a well developed and affluent nation (Singapore Department
of Statistics, 2014). Education in Singapore is highly valued, accounting for more
than 20 per cent of government expenditure, equivalent to approximately 3.1 per
cent of the countrys GDP (Ministry of Education 2013a).
A cornerstone of Singapores education system is its compulsory bilingual policy,
introduced in 1966, which stipulates English as a first language alongside a mother
tongue Mandarin, Malay or Tamil as a second taught language (Gopinathan,
1996; Cheah and Lim, 1996). The majority of pre-schools offer a bilingual education
in English and Mandarin, while a few are bilingual in English and either Malay or
Tamil. Pakir (1998) makes an early observation: [n]o other country in the world has
the ambitious aim of making its entire population bi-literate in English and one other
official language. Inevitably, the national bilingual policy has led to raising
expectations among parents and teachers for children to learn two languages at an
A case study of early childhood education and the pre-school curriculum in Singapore |
207
11/01/2016 12:56
early age, in order to achieve a level of competency before they begin formal
education (Cheah and Lim, 1996; Lee, 2012). Indeed, bilingual literary is widely
regarded as a necessary pre-requisite for childrens long-term academic
attainment in a highly competitive education system. The government has
consistently pushed for a results-driven education environment and maintaining a
strong international standing in academic attainment globally, for instance, through
the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) scores (Ministry of
Education, 2013b). This drive towards excellence in education has implications for
the way early childhood education (ECE) in Singapore is shaped, where young
childrens learning and development, even at pre-school age, are perceived as
fundamental to lifelong learning and the future development of society (Ministry of
Education, Opening address, 2012a).
Against this wider educational landscape, improving the pre-school sector has
become a national priority in Singapore, especially in the context of international
research and advocacy, with governments around the world recognising the
crucial need to ensure quality pre-school services (OECD, 2006; UNESCO, 2012).
Pre-schools in Singapore generally fall under two categories: kindergartens and
childcare centres. Kindergartens are largely perceived as educational settings that
support the academic development of young children, while childcare centres
assume a broader function of full or partial day care for children aged two months
and above. The compulsory school age for children is seven years, with preschools catering for children aged seven years and below. Kindergartens generally
provide a three-year educational-based provision for children aged four to six
years consisting of nursery, kindergarten one and kindergarten two. Childcare
centres offer a provision of full-time care from 7am to 7pm with a number of
centres providing infant and toddler care for children aged two to eighteen months
(Ang, 2012).
In recent years, the Singapore government has put in place cumulative measures
to regulate the pre-school sector to raise the quality and accessibility of services.
In 2011, the national accreditation framework, the Singapore Pre-school
Accreditation Framework, was introduced by the Ministry of Education (MOE) for
pre-school providers as a quality assurance self-evaluation tool to evaluate areas of
provision such as leadership, curriculum and administration. In 2012, a new
development framework, the Early Years Development Framework (EYDF) was
introduced by the Ministry of Community Development, Youth and Sports (MCYS),
now known as the Ministry of Social and Family Development (MSF), to provide a
programme of care for children from two months to three years of age (MCYS,
2011), and a new statutory board, the Early Childhood and Development Agency
(ECDA), was established in April 2013 to oversee all issues pertaining to early years
services.
Early Childhood Education (ECE) is therefore an important part of Singapores
public policy. National statistics estimate that more than 99 per cent of primary
one-going children at six years of age attend at least one year of pre-school in
either a childcare centre or a kindergarten (MCYS, 2012; MOE Press Release,
2012a, 1). This increase in participation rate is paralleled by a significant expansion
208
11/01/2016 12:56
The study
This short case study narrative is derived from a larger ethnographic study of
pre-schools in Singapore undertaken through a qualitative methodology of
sustained narrative observations and semi-structured interviews. The fieldwork
was conducted over two years, for a period of three to eight weeks each time as a
close working relationship was established between the researcher and the
pre-schools. The ethnographic study explores the everyday life of the pre-schools,
their characteristics and the way ECE is delivered. It offers an insight into the
integrated curriculum of the pre-school and its ECE provision in English and
Mandarin. The ethnographer, Michael Agar, defines ethnographic research as
essentially collaborative as people in the community help co-author the study. He
contends: [y]ou need those people not just, or even mainly, to answer questions
but to teach you, to work with you, to help you figure out whats going on in their
world. Its always been that way (Agar, 1996). This ethnographic approach
recognises precisely this that the participants are paramount to the research as
knowers and creators of their own knowledge and experience.
The discussion that follows presents an excerpt from research conducted on a
particular model of ECE and bilingual education, drawn from field notes, interview
transcripts and observations of the daily routines of a pre-school in Singapore. In
reviewing the literature around bilingual education, there is extant research that
shows the diverse pedagogical and curricular approaches to language acquisition
and the implications on childrens learning and development (De Jong, 2006;
DePalma, 2010; Drury, 2007; Lee, Hill-Bonnet and Gillispie, 2008; Howard,
Sugarman and Christian, 2003). A model of bilingual education delivered in two
distinct languages through childrens participation in an integrated curriculum has
given rise to an expansion of language programmes sometimes referred to as a
two-way immersion approach (Baker, 2006; DePalma, 2010; Drury, 2007; Howard,
A case study of early childhood education and the pre-school curriculum in Singapore |
209
11/01/2016 12:56
Sugarman and Christian, 2003). Howard et al (2003) argue that while such a model
of bilingual education provides learners with the opportunity to develop their oral
and written language competence in their first and second language acquisition,
the long-term outcomes for childrens development are difficult to ascertain given
the inherent differences among learners and the variables that affect learning.
Indeed, it is widely recognised that the process of language acquisition is a
complex issue with ongoing debates around how best children acquire language
and the appropriate curricular and pedagogical approach. The phrase bilingual
education in itself, generally describing an educational programme which involves
the teaching and learning of two languages in a shared educational context, can
also hold different connotations across cultures and countries (Brisk, 2006; Drury,
2007; Howard et al 2003; Lee et al 2008). The question of what it means to be a
bilingual is influenced by childrens cultural and socio-economic backgrounds and
diverse linguistic abilities. It is also shaped as much by the nature of the learning
experience as the social and cultural context of the educational environment; all of
which play a major role in influencing childrens learning and development.
26
210
The name of the setting has been changed for ethical reasons.
11/01/2016 12:56
7:00
8:00
Breakfast
9:00
9:209:50
Creative Development
9:5010:15
11:1511.30
Snack Time
11:3012:30
12:301:00
1:001:30
1:302:30
Circle Time
2:303:00
3:003:15
Snack Time
3:154:00
Chinese language
4:005:00
5:005:25
Physical Education
5:256:00
Free Play
The timetable seems somewhat structured, but in reality the day is rather seamless
as the activities overlap and run into each other. Most of the children arrive at 8am,
in time for breakfast, following which the school day formally begins. The teachers
would usually begin the day with circle time, led by either the Chinese or English
teacher, or sometimes both. This is followed by an English or Mandarin language
session revolving around the theme for the week.
The afternoon schedule seems somewhat less structured, as the children move
around different activities depending on their interests. At 12.30pm the children
have lunch, after which some parents would arrive to pick up the half-day children
while the full-time children return to their classroom for a nap or rest from 1.30pm
until 2.30pm. After their rest, the children are engaged in play or creative activities,
reading stories, or art and craft, followed by an afternoon snack. This is followed by
free play at 5.25pm until 6pm when parents begin to arrive to collect their children
for home.
A case study of early childhood education and the pre-school curriculum in Singapore |
211
11/01/2016 12:56
212
11/01/2016 12:56
A case study of early childhood education and the pre-school curriculum in Singapore |
213
11/01/2016 12:56
214
11/01/2016 12:56
References
Agar, M (1996) The Professional Stranger. USA: Academic Press.
Ang, L (2012) Vital Voices for Vital Years. A Study of Leaders Perspectives on
Improving the Early Childhood Sector in Singapore. Lien Foundation: Singapore.
Baker, C (2006) Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (4th ed).
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Brisk, M (2006) Bilingual Education: from Compensatory to Quality Schooling (2nd ed).
London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Cheah, YM and Lim, SE (1996) Literacy and biliteracy issues in Singapore, in Lai,
EFK, (ed) Reading Research Symposium 1996: Asian perspectives on biliteracy
research: facts, issues and action (Hong Kong, Hong Kong Reading Association),
2340.
De Jong, E (2006) Integrated Bilingual Education: An Alternative Approach. Bilingual
Research Journal: The Journal of the National Association for Bilingual Education, 30,
(1), 23-44.
DePalma, R (2010) Language Use in the Two-Way Classroom, Lessons from a
Spanish- English Bilingual Kindergarten. New York: Multilingual Matters.
Drury, R (2007) Young Bilingual Learners at Home and School: Researching
multilingual voices. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books.
Gopinathan, S (1996) Globalisation, the State and Education Policy in Singapore.
Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 16:1 pp74-87.
Howard, ER, Sugarman, J and Christian, D (2003) Trends in two-way immersion
education: A review of the research. Report 63. Baltimore, MD: Center for Research
on the Education of Students Placed At Risk.
Khoo, KC (2010) The Shaping of Childcare and Pre-school Education in Singapore:
From Separatism to Collaboration. International Journal of Child Care and Education
Policy 4, no.1: 23-34.
Lee, CL (2012) Saving Chinese-language education in Singapore. Current Issues in
Language Planning, 13/4: 285304.
Lee, JS, Hill-Bonnet, L and Gillispie, J (2008) Learning in Two Languages:
Interactional Spaces for Becoming Bilingual Speakers. International Journal of
Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 11 (1), 75-84.
Ministry of Community Development, Youth and Sports (MCYS) (2011) Early Years
Development Framework, Singapore: MCYS https://www.ecda.gov.sg/
PressReleases/Pages/Early-Years-Development-Framework-(EYDF).aspx
A case study of early childhood education and the pre-school curriculum in Singapore |
215
11/01/2016 12:56
216
11/01/2016 12:56
2.6
Nursery rhymes for cognitive
development: from listening
comprehension to maths skills
Kalyani Samantray, Utkal University, Odisha, India
Introduction
Nursery rhymes are regularly used for young learners (YL) of English due to several
obvious advantages such as exposure to natural language, usage and rhythm, and
for practice in producing natural English. However, while rhymes are regularly used
in YL English classes, teaching remains restricted to listening, rote memorisation
and reproduction, and less on making it meaningful (Brown, 2001; Morley, 2001;
Arnold, 2005). However, many rhymes can be used for other aspects of the
cognitive development of YLs (Davanellos, 1999; Linse, 2006), including listening
comprehension skills and maths knowledge, the focus of this chapter.
For YLs, both listening (Shin, 2011; Vandergrift, 2002) to nursery rhymes for
comprehension and learning basic mathematical operations are complex cognitive
achievements. Rhymes can be used to develop the two in tandem. However, in
formal teaching contexts, as in India, rhymes are used largely for the rote purposes
mentioned earlier (Mackay, 2013), and without any explicit methodology. For
example, repetition for memorisation has been observed as the primary purpose of
using rhymes with YLs in an Indian case study by Piller and Skillings (2005).
In the case study reported in this chapter, we attempted to make rhymes more
functional for young learners of English by using them for two objectives:
development of listening comprehension, and development of mathematical
processes and concepts that arise out of listening comprehension.
Listening comprehension is not a conscious procedure in the routine of teaching
nursery rhymes to YLs (Kenney, 2005; Lee, 2012). Furthermore, syllabus planners
and teachers (in India) tend not to associate maths skills with nursery rhymes
despite the fact that many rhymes are replete with maths connections that can
serve as a natural motivator for YLs to develop maths skills and concepts. These
two specific advantages of nursery rhymes were exploited in this exploratory and
descriptive case study to evaluate how rhymes might be used for such a
meaningful extension. The study reports the use of rhymes with YLs of English for
developing listening comprehension skills in English at the same time as inculcating
age-appropriate mathematical skills and concepts.
Nursery rhymes for cognitive development: from listening comprehension to maths skills |
217
11/01/2016 12:56
The context
The study was carried out with ten six-year-old YLs of English whose mother tongue
was Odia, and who attend a school where English is the medium of instruction from
the second year of school. The study was carried out for three hours a week for six
months (resulting in a total of 72 hours). This six-month period was divided into
three blocks of two months each, to gradually introduce the maths concepts.
Teaching listening comprehension in English helps to develop young learners
cognitive, academic and social abilities. A listening focus was used since listening
forms the basis of most classroom activities (Florit, Roch, and Levorato, 2011; Florit,
Roch, Alto and Levorato, 2009) in which learners cannot perform correctly unless
they have heard and understood the relevant instructions/information. The
purposes of teaching numbers and basic mathematical concepts to YLs are to help
develop the concepts of number, operations, patterns and other mathematical
operations that form the foundation of higher-level maths, and lay the foundation
for learning later abstract maths subjects they will eventually encounter. Given the
importance of early development of these listening and maths skills, too narrow a
scope is allowed in the Indian school system to develop these for functional
purposes. With an understanding of the gaps, the case study addressed two
important issues: i) considered use of listening comprehension of English nursery
rhymes, and ii) developing mathematical skills through nursery rhymes.
Materials
It was planned to promote the use of nursery rhymes in developing listening
comprehension and to extend listening comprehension to a variety of maths
connections, such as numbers, patterns, shapes and sequences available in the
rhymes to function as natural motivators for teaching maths skills and concepts.
Several rhymes also explore maths-related concept words that YLs of English need
to learn, such as words of shape, size, sequence (e.g. any, many, none, a few, plenty,
after, before, and so on). Learning beyond numbers and operations contributes to
YLs basic maths foundation, which later helps in maths abstractions. For example,
early instruction in shapes lays the groundwork for future learning in geometry.
Rhymes and related activities were used in this case study to help YLs understand
maths concepts, and practise the basic functions. Table 1 presents the rhymes
used in the study and the listening and maths activities generated from each
rhyme:
218
11/01/2016 12:56
Table 1: Rhymes and the listening and maths activities for each
Rhymes
Activities
Listening
Numbers
Addition and
Shapes
Sequences
Maths
to story
and
subtraction
and
and patterns
concepts
frames
counting
geometry
One, two,
buckle my
shoe
Baa, baa,
black
sheep
One and
one are
two
One for me
and one
for you
Rub-a-dubdub, Three
men in a
tub
Good
morning,
Mrs Hen
Five little
snowmen
Ten little
sparrows
cheeping
at the door
Old Mother
Hubbard
The Queen
of Hearts
Sing a
song of six
pence
Extra rhymes related to mathematical operations and notions were used for
practice activities and consolidation of the skills (see Appendix).
Nursery rhymes for cognitive development: from listening comprehension to maths skills |
219
11/01/2016 12:56
Listening to and responding to rhymes and story frameworks generated from the
rhymes.
The listening activities continued for the entire duration of the study. The
procedure is presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Procedure adopted in case study
Listening
Characters and
Events and
Numbers,
Maths
comprehension
their actions
sequences
concepts,
vocabulary
shapes and
operations
Miming/pointing
at pictures
Miming actions
of characters
________
Miming numbers
and shapes
using fingers and
hand gestures,
and pointing at
pictures
Miming words
like big/small,
many/none,
empty/full/
more/less using
gestures, and
pointing at
pictures
Answering/
discussing key
questions
What happened
to ___?
Count up to
5/10/20.
What is X doing/
asking?
What happened
after that?
What comes
after/before
5/8?
Which one/
group is bigger/
smaller?
Where is X
going?
What shape is a
pie/coin/window
?
How many
chickens does
Mrs. Hen have?
220
Reciting with
action
Sequencing
events using
pictures
Using objects
and pictures
to work out
numbers, shapes
and maths
operations
Discussing
maths
vocabulary using
objects and
pictures
11/01/2016 12:56
SeptOct
NovDec
JanFeb
Adding up to 10 in
various combinations,
e.g. 1+1 is 2; 2+2, 4;
5+5, 10 through
rhymes, fingers,
drawings, and
using objects and
geometric figures
Adding up to 20 in
various combinations
using the activities as
for numbers 110
Identifying numbers in
groups of objects as
used in rhymes
Identifying which
group has more/less
concepts and
operations
Recognising and
counting numbers
Adding and
subtracting
Identifying numbers
in small quantities:
grouping and
comparing
Drawing pictures
that represent two
groups of objects; for
example: 5 fish and 10
fish/ 10 snowmen and
no snowmen
Nursery rhymes for cognitive development: from listening comprehension to maths skills |
221
11/01/2016 12:56
Mathematical
SeptOct
NovDec
JanFeb
Identifying if numbers
(1-10) are in sequence
Identifying if numbers
(120) are in
sequence
concepts and
operations
Identifying and
creating sequences
Sequencing random
numbers between
110
Recognising shapes,
sizes and patterns
Describing what
has been done
while identifying/
patterning/
sequencing/
classifying
Sequencing random
numbers between
120
Identifying triangles
and rectangles
Distinguishing the
shapes, particularly,
squares and
rectangles
Teacher models
maths talk and elicits
responses using
patterns:
Teacher models
maths talk and elicits
responses using
patterns:
Eliciting responses
from YLs
Classifying objects by
1, 2 or 3 attribute/s:
shape, size and
number
Activities to identify
collections of
the same and
different objects
and in different
arrangements
in various
representations
Activities to use
and practise maths
vocabulary:
a. quantifiers: none,
any, some, many, a
few
b. comparatives: big/
small, long/short/
more/less
c. terms for
sequencing:
before/after/
between
d. terms for shapes
and patterns: circle/
square
Since there was no formal assessment in this exploratory study, whether the
children were able to complete the task acted as an informal check that the YLs
had indeed listened to and interacted with the rhymes together with the associate
story frames, and were able to complete the maths tasks that followed.
Comprehension was checked through Total Physical Response (TPR), miming,
comprehension questions and discussion. The next level of discussion and
222
11/01/2016 12:56
Sequencing
The children started with counting up to five, since the number corresponds to the
fingers and toes in a hand or a foot. This counting skill was boosted by using
everyday objects such as a bowl of apples or toys. The children developed their
counting in small increments. Activities and objects were used for addition and
subtraction. They kept adding one more elephant/child to the group as they recited
and counted One elephant went out to play . A similar procedure introduced
subtraction with the rhyme: Five little monkeys jumping on the bed, One fell off and
bumped his head ... The forward and backward counting in these rhymes helped
establish the early operations of addition and subtraction. The operations
extended through adding or subtracting apples from a bowl and then counting the
enhanced or the reduced number (ONeill et al, 2004; Monroe, 2010).
Next, the children learned to apply sequence, one number at a time, to items being
counted, and developed the awareness of addition and the final number of items in
a set. Knowing how many items were in a set depended, first, on the ability to
count, and then knowing that the last number counted was the quantity of the set
(Aunio and Niemivirta, 2010; Muldoon et al, 2010). To assess the childs ability to do
this, we asked them to identify the next number or a number that occurs after
another in a natural counting sequence. In counting backwards, children were
asked to identify numbers that come before a given number.
Children learnt to identify the shapes of objects as each object was displayed
matching with the ones in the rhymes (see the Appendix). They named
mathematical terms for the shapes as they listened to and responded to rhymes
and stories. The next task was to recognise and identify shapes in their
surrounding environment; for example, the shape of a table, a classroom window or
door, a whole pizza and a section of a pizza. Comparison with similar objects they
Nursery rhymes for cognitive development: from listening comprehension to maths skills |
223
11/01/2016 12:56
were familiar with (e.g. a circle is like a pizza or a square is like my sandwich)
reinforced the concept of the basic shapes: circle, triangle, square and rectangle.
To assess the childrens knowledge of shapes, we asked them to identify different
shapes, create shapes in crafts, and use shape names in answering rhyme-related
questions. They described the shapes, and compared the similarities and the
differences using features such as a triangle has three sides and a circle goes
round and has no sides. They repeated the rhymes and matched shapes using
objects for each description. Then, they took turns to describe a shape of their
choice as the class displayed the matching shape, and named each shape.
When learning about sequence and pattern, the learners engaged with these
fundamental mathematical ideas. They:
Learnt and used the language of order and sequence: after, next,
between, before
In order to gauge how much the children had learned they were asked to create the
sequence of events based on the rhymes/story frames using pictures that depicted
the significant events. They classified objects by what matched with what, and by
sorting objects into big and small, more and less, same and different (Kirova and
Bhargava, 2002).
Table 4 presents the assessment rubric and observations on learner achievements
in task completion and verbalisation of the concepts and the processes. Task
completion has been categorised under behavioural knowledge, and verbalisation
under tacit knowledge.
224
11/01/2016 12:56
Expected response
Observations on
achievements
Answering text-based
questions on characters,
events, actions using
expressions from the text
Demonstrated behavioural
knowledge of details:
Tr: Where were the birds?
YLs: On the wall
Demonstrated partial tacit
knowledge of details, e.g.
they answered questions
without miming or imitating
teacher action; failed initially in
answering how questions
Demonstrated behavioural
knowledge of the operations
Using maths-related
vocabulary
Nursery rhymes for cognitive development: from listening comprehension to maths skills |
225
11/01/2016 12:56
Discussion
Rhymes with maths elements bring together the two important early skills of
listening comprehension and maths competency for YLs of English. In this case
study, listening skills and early numeracy development were facilitated by using
rhymes for text comprehension, counting, elementary mathematical operations,
and sequences and patterns present in the rhymes. Activities were planned that
were close to the experiences of the YLs, in which they used and described:
Listening comprehension focused on the overall theme and the important details of
the rhymes (e.g. characters, actions, events and sequences). Numbers and maths
concepts and operations were focused on in subsequent sessions, to facilitate
composite development of listening and maths competencies. As this was largely a
descriptive and exploratory study, no formal assessment of learner achievements
was utilised; however, task completion and verbalisation of maths processes and
concepts were employed to record learning accomplishments (Table 4). Task
completion demonstrated both behavioural and tacit knowledge of concepts and
their application, while verbalisation confirmed the tacit knowledge of operations
and concepts. The YLs were asked to do maths tasks and to describe how they
recognised quantity, shapes of objects, sequenced or grouped objects and shapes,
and used numbers for mathematical operations. Thus, task completion and
description determined the nature and level of learning accomplished.
The childrens ability to listen to rhymes and storylines for overall text
comprehension and for details (Table 2) was their highest achievement, except for
answering how questions early in the comprehension stage. This could be due to
the non-factual nature of the how questions that required an advanced
understanding of the text. They were able to answer this type of question in the
second and the third blocks of this study (e.g. in months three through to six of the
study, see Table 3), showing development in this regard. As expected, the
development of tacit knowledge in maths concepts and operations was somewhat
slow, although progress in tacit understanding was evident overall from the initial
to the final stages of the study. The learners attempted to describe the processes
and the concepts in the initial stage, even though they were not always accurate.
Accuracy in verbalising concepts and operations appeared in the second and the
third two-month block periods. The highest levels of achievement consistently
remained with listening for overall text comprehension, and the lowest was for
addition and subtraction (Table 4). The lowest achievements can be ascribed to the
fact that the learners were being initiated into logical and deductive numeracy
activities for the first time in English. They could complete matching and grouping
tasks satisfactorily in listening and doing activities and, later, could do similar
activities by carrying out teacher instruction. Initially, they had problems with
226
11/01/2016 12:56
shape and size names, which were gradually overcome with practice, and they
could identify, name and categorise similar shapes. Not surprisingly, they used
maths-related vocabulary (e.g. before, after, next, same, different, smaller, bigger)
early on the basis of their occurrence in the rhymes and the stories.
Conclusion
This case study was designed and conducted to investigate the use of rhymes for
purposeful language and the learning of maths by YLs of English. Since this was the
earliest opportunity for these YLs to build up their listening comprehension and
maths activities in English, attempts were made not to pressurise them in any
manner but to develop these early skills in a stress-free and fun context. The full
extent of what the children were able to achieve, therefore, could not be succinctly
recorded owing to these facts. However, the first major accomplishment of this
study was to introduce and execute appropriate listening comprehension activities
to develop the YLs English listening skills, which is not currently being carried out
systematically in the Indian context. The other major achievement was allocating a
broader scope than normally associated with teaching rhymes to YLs, by
deliberately associating text comprehension skills with maths skills available in the
rhymes. Listening thus engaged the thematic as well as the numerical aspects
present in the rhymes. It was observed that activities related to numbers and
operations seemed to help the children develop an awareness of early number
knowledge, and helped them to move from listening comprehension to number
skills and basic mathematical operations.
The study findings are consistent with our initial belief that rhymes can be
profitably used to enhance various English listening comprehension skills in YLs
and, at the same time, develop their behavioural and conceptual knowledge of
maths operations. Further research, both quantitative and qualitative, needs to be
conducted to further the investigation on the co-developmental and potentially
reciprocal aspects of listening and early numeracy skills. For now, however, the
findings of this study are suggestive that developing listening comprehension skills
in English in YLs can have more benefits than just the learning of English, and might
also potentially help young children develop basic mathematical skills.
Nursery rhymes for cognitive development: from listening comprehension to maths skills |
227
11/01/2016 12:56
References
Anderson, NJ (2005) L2 strategy research, in Hinkel, E (ed) Handbook of Research
in Second Language Teaching and Learning (pp. 757-772). NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum
Associates.
Arnold, W (2005) Listening for young learners. Teaching English. Retrieved 10 Feb
2012 from www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/listening-young-learners.
Aunio, P and Niemivirta, M (2010) Predicting childrens mathematical performance
in grade one by early numeracy. Learning and Individual Differences, 20; 427-435.
Brown, D (2001)Teaching by principles:An interactive approach to language
pedagogy. New York: Longman.
Davanellos, A (1999) Songs. English Teaching Professional, 13, 13-15. 1999.
Florit, E, Roch, M and Levorato, C (2011) Listening Text Comprehension of Explicit
and Implicit Information in Pre-schoolers: The Role of Verbal and Inferential
Skills.Discourse Processes,48 (02), 119-138.
Florit, E, Roch, M, Alto, G and Levorato, C (2009) Listening comprehension in
pre-schoolers: The role of memory.British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 27,
(4), 935-951.
Kenney, S (2005) Nursery rhymes: Foundations for learning. General Music Today,
19 (1), 28-31.
Kirova, A and Bhargava, A (2002) Learning to Guide Pre-school Childrens
Mathematical Understanding: A Teachers Professional Growth. Early Childhood
Research and Practice, 4:1.
Lee, SJ (2012) Philosophy in mathematics education (Ch 2), in Lee, JK (ed) An
Introduction to Mathematics Education for College Students, (pp 21-45), Seoul,
Korea: Kyo-Woo.
Linse, C (2006) Using favorite songs and poems with young learners. English
Teaching Forum, 44(2), 38-42.
Mackay, R (2013) Teaching Rhymes and Poems to Young Learners. Retrieved
October, 2014 from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l3LWGFguPjE
Monroe, F (2010) Nursery rhymes, songs and early language development. Interior
Health Authority. KBYU Eleven. Doa 1.08.2014 http://webcache.googleusercontent.
com/search?q=cache:c-aPVJAdWjMJ:www.kbyutv.org/kidsandfamily/readytolearn/
file.axd%3Ffile%3D2011%252F3%252F2%2BRhymers%2Bare%2BReaders.
pdf+&cd=2&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=in
Morley, J (2001) Aural comprehension instruction: Principles and practices, in
Celce-Murcia, M (ed)Teaching English as a second or foreign language. Boston:
Heinle and Heinle.
228
11/01/2016 12:56
Muldoon, K, Lewis, C and Freeman, NH (2010) Putting Counting to Work: Preschoolers Understanding of Cardinal Extension. International Journal of Educational
Research, 39, 695-718.
ONeill, DK, Pearce, MJ and Pick, J (2004) Pre-school childrens narratives and
performance on the Peabody Individualized Achievement Test Revised: Evidence
of a relation between early narrative and later mathematical ability.First Language,
24, 149-183.
Piller, B and Skillings, MJ (2005) English Language Teaching Strategies Used by
Primary Teachers in One New Delhi, India School. TESL-EJ, December 2005, 9(3).
Retrieved October 2014 from www.tesl-ej.org/ej35/cf.pdf
Shin, JK (2011) Teaching Listening. Retrieved 10 Feb, 2012 from
http://blackboard.umbc.edu
Vandergrift, L (2002) Developing metacognition in L2 listening comprehension.
The Canadian Modern Language Review, 58, (pp 555-575).
Appendix
Extra rhymes are used from the following sources:
Brown, Ron. What Number Comes First? Retrieved from www.songsforteaching.
com/math/kindergarten-firstgrade/whatnumbercomesfirst.php (March 2012)
Brown, Ron. Sorting (colour, shape, size). Retrieved from www.songsforteaching.
com/math/kindergarten-firstgrade/sorting.php (March 2012)
CanTeach. Retrieved from: www.canteach.ca/elementary/songspoems82.html
(March 2012)
Nursery rhymes for cognitive development: from listening comprehension to maths skills |
229
11/01/2016 12:56
230
11/01/2016 12:56
SECTION DIVIDER
3
Case studies
in EFL contexts
Just singing, role playing and reading: a case study in education for bilingualism |
231
11/01/2016 12:56
232
11/01/2016 12:56
3.1
Just singing, role playing and
reading: a case study in
education for bilingualism
Claudia Luca Ordez, Universidad Nacional de Colombia,
Bogot, Colombia
Introduction
The school experience is one of the main contexts supporting the development of
language after four or five years of age (e.g. Barriga-Villanueva, 2002; 2003). This is
because school creates for the child the need to communicate with new people, in
new situations, about new topics and within new discourse types. Furthermore,
children begin reading and writing, one of the most important sources of linguistic
expansion. But even though in Colombia socio-linguistic contexts are mostly
monolingual in Spanish, with just a few areas of the country bilingual Spanish plus
an indigenous or creole language, formal Colombian public education has been
quite unsuccessful in supporting Spanish language development. According to the
last published results of the state standardised language test taken at Grade 5 by a
sample of 102,000 primary students throughout the country, 43 per cent of the
fifth graders were at the minimum level of performance in reading and writing and
21 per cent at the insufficient level. Only 26 per cent showed a satisfactory level of
performance (Instituto Colombiano para la Evaluacin de la Educacin, ICFES,
2009).
Given the fact that educational provision is not adequately developing L1, learning
a foreign language from a very young age is probably not desirable in Colombia; it
has no immediate relevance for learners and it takes precious instruction time from
Spanish (Ordez, 2004; 2005; 2008). Nevertheless, early bilingualism in English is
imposed in Colombia both by policy and common belief.
Bilingualism in English has been state policy since 2006 (Ministerio de Educacin
de Colombia, 2006). To achieve it, public and private schools are trying to
implement the only practices known in Colombia to be effective for producing
bilinguals: those of traditionally bilingual, semi-immersion elite schools. They
include teaching the foreign language and using it as a medium of instruction from
pre-school (five years of age) and using the foreign language during at least half of
school time. Many monolingual public and private schools are, then, in the process
of becoming bilingual in English.
Just singing, role playing and reading: a case study in education for bilingualism |
233
11/01/2016 12:56
234
11/01/2016 12:56
meaningful for students improve their motivation for learning English? And did it
improve their level of English proficiency? We, then, complemented the intervention
with a research study to answer these two questions. Here I only report on a
specific case study of the youngest learners in the school.
The study
As a result of the intervention, both the Spanish and the English teachers were
learning how to do things quite differently from the very traditional, formal way in
which they used to conduct language activities; I, then, collected only qualitative
data of what was happening in both language classes, in order to find evidence for
the efficacy of the curriculum (Ordez, 2011; Guevara and Ordez, 2012;
Ordez, 2012). The data for this case study comes from in-depth, semi-structured
teacher interviews and class videos taken on four separate occasions during an
academic year. They come from the Spanish class of a Kindergarten 1 group of 25
five-year-olds and the English classes of two Kindergarten 2 groups of 25 six to
seven-year-olds each, and their three teachers. In what follows I compose related
vignettes from parts of teacher interviews and parts of our class observations,
which characterise the children learning both languages in authentic oral activities.
Vignette 1: Bilingual use and motivation
The Kinder 1 Spanish teacher acknowledges the benefits of working collaboratively
with the English teacher: I never worked with the English teachers before but now
I really understand the importance of working with them, because the children
learn English on the basis of their first language Now we do meet we have
improved in teamwork We identify the language [to teach]; we plan each activity
together This has made it easier for the children to understand many more things
in English. She saw her students change their attitudes toward their language
classes: The children [now] have the opportunity to learn what they want to,
because were working with their interests, not strictly with what we have determined
we will teach.
The Kinder 2 English teachers saw the same big changes in their students attitude
towards their class and in their learning. One of them stated that the children are
very motivated going to the English class is something fun, something they like .
And because they like it I am pushing them to speak in English and theyre doing it
and so they like it even more!
And she continued: Finishing this second [school] period, my children are speaking
more than all my previous students at the end of the year Today we had a festival
at another school all pre-school children; and all presented songs and other things.
My children spoke and their pronunciation, their fluency, everything was incredibly
better for me this shows that what were doing has really had good results.
[Before ], says the other English teacher, there used to be a lot of desk work
Everything was focused on listening. You told the children something and they
understood, but they couldnt express anything Maybe in the third or fourth year
[they uttered] very simple things. But now I realise that children can interact in a
situation in English and handle it, obviously in appropriate terms for their age. Yes,
Just singing, role playing and reading: a case study in education for bilingualism |
235
11/01/2016 12:56
says the first teacher, it has been a vast change from last year to the present
because [before] there were many worksheets and no fun.
As in the Spanish class, now in English students are the ones who do the class
themselves; they are the ones who speak, propose and demand. This motivates them;
they participate totally in the activities, and most of the things they propose are
carried out, because we are looking for what they like.
Motivation in both language classes and the development of oral skills in English
were, then, results that teachers could see from early on in the implementation of the
new teaching programme. These results were attributed to the fact that the Spanish
and English classes were connected and that the children were engaged in
communication activities that they participated in choosing from their own interests.
Vignette 2: Role play and the use of Spanish
But what was it that students did in Spanish and English? Both in Kinder 1 Spanish
and Kinder 2 English the children worked on the topic of peoples professions, for
example. The Spanish teacher describes how we have talked about the people
who work at the school in Whats my school like? We use topics they want to know
about. Here is a Spanish class on professions: I gave them the opportunity to
choose what they wanted to be when they grew up but not a [common] profession,
because we had already done that I gave them the example of magicians So who
are dancers? singers?... guitarists?... scientists? The children dressed up and
presented their songs, their magic tricks, their scientific experiments
After this, professions also became wonderful sources of language production in
role play in Kinder 2 English. We have worked with professions [all the time]. [The
children] play with them The first time [we did it,] we talked about their parents
professions [in Spanish and then in English] They brought clothing to represent
them ... Teachers and children worked, for example on being doctors: they
already knew what their experiences at the doctors had been, [so they asked us how
to say] The doctor gives me injections; sometimes I only go for a check up... They
learned all the vocabulary, [talked in Spanish and then English and role played] how
to tend to the patient; how to diagnose him; something simple, at their level and the
kids enjoyed it a lot, explained one of the English teachers.
Watching the children in their English class, we described the activity as follows:
The students are playing doctors They play different roles: doctors, receptionists,
nurses, and patients. They are divided into groups and use toys to simulate the
situation of somebody going to the doctor. They say things like How can I help you?
I need a doctor! Whats your name? Whats your telephone number Whats your
profession? My baby is ill! Let me see his/her stomach, eyes, etc.
Playing chefs was another role play. An international chef came to the school, so
the kids were super motivated She cooked and showed a video of her TV show [in
Spanish], so we decided to take advantage of that said one of the English
teachers. We saw cooking shows, brought recipe books, talked about cooking ware,
food recipes and steps very simple ones like cutting, putting things in the oven
236
11/01/2016 12:56
The class was described like this in our observations: The students are presenting
recipes Theyre in groups of three One first presents their group and the recipe
theyre going to prepare Another student presents the ingredients and kitchenware
to be used, and the last student prepares the recipe each student dressed
according to their role, and they took to class the ingredients and materials And
then we saw the children:
St1: This is a good way to start the morning. Now is the opportunity for a wonderful
chef to cook something for us
St2: Good morning, my name is XXX. I am six years old. My recipe is Mickey Mouse
eggs. The ingredients are ketchup, salt, and four eggs. The materials are a plate, a
knife, and a spoon. Now, the chef.
St3: Good morning, my name is XXX. I am six years old. [For] Mickey Mouse eggs
step number one, put the eggs in water; step number two, cut the eggs in small
pieces; step number three, decorate the Mickey Mouse eggs with the ketchup; step
number four, eat the Mickey Mouse eggs and enjoy them
Role play was a great way to the childrens hearts. Allowing them to work on it in
Spanish first helped a lot in really using what they wanted to do, and then changing
to English.
Vignette 3: Book reading as a surprise
Oddly, the Spanish teacher had never worked much with books, but the connected
curriculum asked her to do so, in order for books to be later introduced to the
children in English. She discovered a mine of interest in the children: Im amazed! ...
The children are hungry for reading this year! They have asked for stories all the time
When we were reading about dinosaurs, all the books were gone [from the library]
in a week; they asked for them both in Spanish and English. They read the pictures,
and they do it as if they are really reading. They are fascinated by books, and when
we use computers, they say Oh, yeah, I already know that; I looked it up [in a book] at
home. They are motivated to continue looking for information in other sources, not
only at school but also in books, on the TV and asking their parents The motivation
is the best and they have increased their vocabulary. Our observations
showed classes such as the following one: In this class the teacher reads a story
and, as she reads, she asks the students to repeat the information in it. Sometimes
she lets the students suggest whats going to happen according to the illustrations
in the book.
In English the same pleasure in reading was apparent: they always ask for story
time and I always do it when they ask. At the beginning I didnt consider it a class
activity but break time, but now we work story time in class too. In a class
observation the teacher was reading a big book and working with the meaning of
new words in the story by connecting the pictures, words in the book, and actions by
the children:
Just singing, role playing and reading: a case study in education for bilingualism |
237
11/01/2016 12:56
T: Today we are going to have storytelling time, OK? Storytelling! Dont you
remember the books we are reading?
Sts: Ah, yes!
T: (Showing the book Quick as a Cricket, by Audrey Wood) Quick is fast, fast. Its a
cricket; do you know what a cricket is?
Sts: Yes. Un saltamontes? [A cricket in Spanish]
T: Yes! Its fast, fast [mimics]. Fast is the same as quick, everybody. Quick, quick,
quick. Fast, fast, fast [the teacher mimics and the students imitate].
T: OK This is a boy. What do you see here? The boy is saying: I am as fast as a
cricket This is a cricket. Everybody fast, fast, fast or quick; its the same [the
teacher mimics and the students imitate].
T: [Reading] I am as slow as a snail. Slow, slow, slow like a snail [mimics]
Surprisingly, work with books was not a common class activity at this school.
Classes were more formal and focused on learning specific material. Book reading
was discovered by teachers and students as an authentic language activity, and it
became the source of much learning both in Spanish and English.
Vignette 4: Songs and language games as sources of language
The Spanish teacher used a lot more music and childrens games than before and
was enthusiastic about the results: [They love] all riddles, playground songs, games,
songs They learn the songs, identify the main characters, describe them. In a
Spanish class based on a song the students are singing childrens songs [they have
learned], identifying them from pictures the teacher draws on the board. They sing,
and then she asks information about the song, writing words from the song on the
board to teach reading and writing.
And in English, the children love singing At the beginning they took a longer
time learning a song, and now I plan a song for 90 minutes, and before the first 30
minutes they already know it. We choose songs for which they already have a lot of
previous knowledge, so its easier for them [to learn them] and they acquire a lot
more vocabulary. In our class observations, songs the children already knew were
often the beginning warm-up activities and new songs were great sources of new
language: The students are singing songs while they mimic what they are singing.
One of the songs contains slow and fast. The children move their hands according
to the song.
Singing songs and playing language games such as riddles and tongue twisters are
very authentic language activities for children. Before the intervention was put into
practice, they were never real learning material in Spanish or English, but they
quickly became so. The children enjoyed them immensely and learned a lot in both
languages from them.
238
11/01/2016 12:56
Conclusion
The vignettes presented in this chapter reveal the activities the teachers designed,
the way they connected Spanish and English, and the learning and motivation both
the teachers and us, the researchers, observed in the young students. Changes
were impressive for the teachers, as they expressed, for example, in relation to oral
production, which was practically non-existent at these levels before. The changes
came mostly from the fact that Spanish, prohibited in English classes before, was
now being used freely for introducing language. Furthermore, the bilingual
curriculum ensured that Spanish was given the importance it deserves; and, as the
same strategies for making language activities authentic were used in both
languages, the childrens attitudes toward all their language classes improved and
their learning was stimulated.
Also, the childrens interests were taken into account when both Spanish and
English teachers worked collaboratively in planning their classes and how to
connect them. The children were even able to participate in deciding what role play
they wanted to engage in and what they wanted to say, choosing the books they
wanted to read and the songs they wanted to sing. The power of the first language
and the empowerment of the students were key to the success depicted in these
vignettes. They demonstrate that children can learn whatever they are interested
and can participate in, even when they are learning a language which is not very
relevant for them and is one they cannot really use outside of school. Maybe the
future will show them that it may be good to be bilingual.
References
Barriga-Villanueva, R (2002) Estudios sobre habla infantil en los aos escolares:
Un solecito calientote. Mexico: El Colegio de Mexico.
Barriga-Villanueva, R (2003) Construyendo realidades: El lenguaje infantil de los
aos escolares, in Matute, E and Leal, F (eds) Introduccin al Estudio del Espaol
desde una perspectiva multidisciplinaria. Guadalajara: Universidad de Guadalajara.
De Meja, AM, Ordez, CL and Fonseca, L (2006) Estudio investigativo sobre el
estado actual de la educacin bilinge (ingls-espaol) en Colombia. Available
online at: www.colombiaaprende.edu.co/html/productos/1685/articles-266111_
archivo_1.pdf
Guevara, DC and Ordez, CL (2012) Teaching English to very young learners
through authentic communicative performances. Colombian Applied Linguistics
Journal 14(2): 9-27.
Instituto Colombiano para la Evaluacin de la Educacin ICFES. Saber 5 y 9 2009
Resultados Nacionales Resumen Ejecutivo. Available online at: https://portal.icfes.
s3.amazonaws.com/datos/Informe%20nacional%20de%20resultados%20de%20
SABER%205o%20y%209o%202009%20Resumen%20Ejecutivo.pdf
Marinova-Todd, S, Marshall, B and Snow, C (2000) Three misconceptions about age
and second language learning. TESOL Quarterly 1: 9-34.
Just singing, role playing and reading: a case study in education for bilingualism |
239
11/01/2016 12:56
240
11/01/2016 12:56
3.2
Pre-school childrens production
of sibilant phonemes in English:
developing phonemic awareness
through multi-sensory teaching
Alberto Navarro Martinez, Yvette Coyle and Julio Roca de Larios,
University of Murcia, Spain
Introduction
English has been part of the pre-school curriculum in Spain since 2004 when it was
first introduced in schools to children at the age of five. Since then, the collective
interest in early language learning by parents and educational authorities has led
to English being extended to three- and four-year-old children, and it is now taught
in state and private schools throughout the country. Current recommendations in
the statutory pre-school curriculum suggest that teachers should promote positive
attitudes to language learning and develop childrens oral skills. Although no
explicit reference is made to the teaching of phonics, in recent years multi-sensory
methods such as Jolly Phonics (Lloyd and Wernham, 1994), which combine
auditory, visual and kinaesthetic modalities, have become increasingly popular in
young learner classrooms.
Yet despite the abundance of literature relating to childrens phonemic awareness
in their first language (L1), understood as their ability to segment and blend
phonemes into words, with success in learning to read (Hulme et al, 2012;
McGeown and Medford, 2014), very little is known to date about the potential
advantages of phonics teaching with pre-school learners of English as a second
language (L2). The case study we present in this chapter attempts to address this
gap by exploring the effects of explicit instruction on Spanish childrens
pronunciation of sibilant phonemes in English. By doing so, we hope to provide
some tentative support for the teaching of simple phonics in the pre-school
classroom.
Traditionally, it is assumed that children are better at learning languages than older
L2 learners. The alleged advantage of younger learners for acquiring native-like
accents in an L2 was originally attributed to the existence of a Critical Period for
language learning at around the age of six, after which it was considered
impossible for older language learners to fully master the L2 phonological system
(Lenneberg, 1967). However, the findings of more recent studies carried out in
241
11/01/2016 12:56
formal (rather than naturalistic) learning contexts with adults (Bongaerts et al,
1997), as well as with children and adolescents (Fullana, 2006; Garca-Lecumberri
and Gallardo, 2003), have provided some evidence that older learners often
outperform their younger counterparts in the perception and production of L2
vowels and consonants. These results are sustained by alternative theories of
phonological development such as the Speech Learning Model (Flege, 1995) or the
Native Language Magnet (Kuhl, 1993), which share the premise that phonological
learning ability is strongly influenced by the learners L1. In this sense, the phonetic
categories of the L1, which are thought to be fully formed between the ages of five
and seven (Flege, op cit), act as magnets that attract the different or non-existent
categories of the L2 so that, initially at least, learners may have difficulty in
perceiving L2 phonemes. In this sense, raising childrens phonemic awareness
through explicit phonics teaching is held to be important in helping them to
overcome this initial deafness to new or dissimilar L2 sounds (Gayoso et al, 1999).
This rationale underlies the study we describe below.
The study
The aim of this small piece of research was to analyse the pronunciation of sibilant
phonemes by two groups of young learners in a school in south east Spain. We
were interested in testing the childrens ability to produce the sounds /s/, /z/, //, /
t/ and /d/ from the English phonemic system, since these are often a source of
difficulty for learners whose mother tongue is Spanish. Specifically, we wanted to
find out whether teaching English sibilant phonemes to children using a multisensory methodology could influence both their acquisition of these sounds and
their motivation during the teaching sessions. In particular, we were curious as to
the role of actions in helping the children learn, since these are a key feature of
phonics teaching methods such as Jolly Phonics (Lloyd and Wernham, op cit) or
Letterland (Carlisle and Wendon, 1995).
It is generally assumed that the combination of actions and sounds can help
children develop multi-sensory clues for recognising and reproducing phonemes.
This idea is theoretically grounded in the understanding that gestures (actions) and
speech are two components of a single integrated system that work together to
support and enhance the comprehension and production of language (Kelly et al,
2010). It is also believed that words learnt simultaneously with meaningful gestures
are imprinted more deeply in memory (Kelly et al, 2009) and that this may be due to
neural connections in the brain which link the areas responsible for language and
gesture (Nishitani et al, 2005). With younger learners, empirical evidence in
support of the positive effects of gestures on learning has been found for the
comprehension of mathematical concepts by Spanish learners of English (Church
et al, 2004) and for EFL vocabulary acquisition by five-year-old French-speaking
children (Tellier, 2008). Whether these results might also extend to the
pronunciation of specific English sounds was an area we hoped to shed light on.
242
11/01/2016 12:56
Participants
A total of 32 children (20 boys and 12 girls) aged between four and five years from
two intact classes in an infant school in a small rural town participated in the study.
One class was assigned randomly as the experimental group (EG) and the other as
the control group (CG), with 16 children in each. In the control group, there were
children of diverse nationalities and linguistic backgrounds including Algerian,
Ecuadorian, Lithuanian, Russian and Malian. In the experimental group, there was
one child from Morocco. The rest of the pupils in both groups were Spanish native
speakers. The children were in their second year of learning English at school, and
so had only very basic, mostly receptive, knowledge of the language. English was
taught in twice-weekly half-hour sessions. In their classes, the children generally
carried out routines in English: practising the date and the weather every day,
learning and reviewing key vocabulary with flashcards and action games, as well as
using worksheets for colouring, matching and drawing activities. Emphasis was
placed on the development of oral skills and positive attitudes towards language
learning.
Teaching methodology
The study followed a pre-test, post-test experimental design with an instructional
intervention carried out over a period of three weeks. Fifteen words were selected
as language input (see Table 1) for a number of reasons. Firstly, the chosen words
were new for the learners and could be easily represented by a visual image;
secondly, the sibilant phonemes were mostly located in initial position, thus
increasing their saliency; and finally, since the words were either monosyllabic or
bisyllabic, longer words that could have been more difficult for the children to
remember were avoided.
Table 1: Temporal distribution of the study
Week
Session
Sibilant
Words taught
Pre-test
1
/s/ /z/
// /t/ /d/
3 and 4
5 and 6
Post-test
243
11/01/2016 12:56
The childrens English teacher, who was also one of the researchers, carried out the
teaching sessions in both groups. A total of six 30-minute sessions, two per week,
were carried out in each class (see Table 1) preceded and followed by productive
pronunciation tests.
The methodology followed in both classes was oral and participative. In each
session, the teacher introduced the corresponding sounds by showing pictures of
the words containing the target phoneme. The children were then encouraged to
practise each phoneme through a variety of whole-class and individual repetition
drills and vocabulary recognition games, so that they could learn to discriminate
each sound, notice differences between them and try to produce the sound
accurately. The teachers ongoing feedback was crucial in drawing the childrens
attention to the correct pronunciation of each phoneme. The principal difference
between the groups was the use of actions in the experimental group by both the
teacher and the children when producing the sibilant sounds (see Table 2). In the
experimental class, the children were encouraged to learn each gesture and to use
it when attempting to reproduce the corresponding phoneme. The control group
children engaged in the same games and activities but were taught the sounds
without actions.
Table 2: Sibilant phonemes and their associated actions
Sound
/s/
/z/
//
Placing your index finger on your lips as when asking for silence
/t/
/d/
11/01/2016 12:56
team. Given the small number of participants and non-normal distribution of the
data, we computed the test scores using non-parametric statistics. A Mann Whitney
test was run to check for differences between the groups and a Wilcoxon signedrank checked for within-group differences.
In addition, the teaching sessions were video-recorded and written notes taken by
the researcher were collected to allow us to analyse the degree of attention and
motivation shown by each of the young learners in both classrooms. Two of the six
sessions, the initial and final sessions in each group, were observed and coded by
the researchers and any disagreements resolved by discussion. This was
necessary as several parameters were observed simultaneously for each child. A
scale scored from 0 to 5 was applied to the following categories: Looked at the
teacher; Listened attentively; Imitated sounds; Imitated facial movements; and
Participated in games. It was assumed that by observing the extent to which the
children engaged in the classroom activities, we could determine their degree of
interest and motivation towards the phonics classes. This procedure is similar to
Huangs (2011) study of young Taiwanese EFL learners motivation towards contentbased instruction, in which observable behaviours such as paying attention to the
teacher or actively taking part in classroom tasks were taken as indicators of the
childrens motivation. In our study, each learner was rated individually and the sum
of their individual scores tallied to give an average for all five criteria. This enabled
us to establish comparisons between groups. Once again, a Mann Whitney test was
performed on the data to check for significant differences between groups.
Results
As shown in Table 3, both groups of children were found to have improved their
performance of sibilant phonemes after instruction. The mean score for the
experimental group in the pre-test was descriptively slightly higher than that of the
control group (1.13 and 0.75) and descriptively slightly lower in the post-test (5.56
and 5.94). These differences were not statistically significant.
Table 3: Mean scores for the production of sibilants before and after teaching
Pre-test
Post-test
Gain
Scores
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Experimental
Group
1.13
1.360
5.56
3.224
4.43
1.864
Control Group
0.75
1.065
5.94
2.909
5.19
1.844
In spite of this lack of differences across groups, a closer look at the results
indicated that, within each group, the learners were found to have significantly
improved their production of the target phonemes (see Figure 1). A comparison of
the mean ranks of the childrens pronunciation scores immediately before and after
instruction revealed significant differences both within the experimental group
(Z=3.42; p <.001) and within the control group (Z=3.41; p <.001). Prior to the
teaching sessions, the young learners in both groups produced on average
245
11/01/2016 12:56
between one to five sounds correctly (out of 15), although the most frequent
scores were 0 and one. After the six teaching sessions at Time 2 (T2), all the
children (with one exception from each group) were found to pronounce correctly
an average of five sibilants. The phonemes most easily produced by the children
were /s/ and /t/, especially when they were in word-initial position. Both of these
phonemes have corresponding L1 sounds in Spanish. On the contrary, those
sounds which have no corresponding phoneme in the L1, that is /z /, /d / and //,
were the most difficult for the children to master regardless of their position within
the word.
A breakdown of the scores for individual learners revealed that three of the control
group children (pupils 21, 26 and 30) had obtained excellent results in the posttest, producing from ten to 14 sounds correctly, while only one child from the
experimental group (pupil 12) had managed to achieve a similarly high score
(n=14). These individual results in the CG are likely to have contributed to this
groups improved post-test score. In this respect, it is worth pointing out that two of
the three high performers from the CG were immigrant children of Russian and
Lithuanian origin for whom Spanish was a second and English a third language. This
suggests that social and contextual factors may be an important influence on
childrens phonemic awareness, since it is possible that exposure to several
languages from an early age may have enhanced the degree of receptiveness
shown by these learners towards the sounds of new languages.
Taken together, these results suggest that specific instruction and repeated
practice with the target sounds enabled the children in both groups to improve
their performance of some of the sibilant phonemes over time. However, the results
also raise some doubts regarding the influence of actions in helping to improve
pronunciation, since the children who were specifically taught to perform an action
when recalling and producing the phonemes in practice did no better than the
control group children. This indicates a positive effect for pronunciation instruction
but not for the use of actions.
Figure 1 : Change in pronunciation of sibilant phonemes over time
246
11/01/2016 12:56
Regarding the childrens behaviour while on task, the analysis of the classroom
observation data in both groups gave us some indication of the degree of attention
and motivation shown by the learners during the pronunciation teaching sessions
(see Figure 2). Although there were differences between individual learners within
each group, as a whole, the experimental group children were found to have
scored higher on all five criteria than the children in the control group, particularly
on looking at and listening to the teacher, actively repeating sounds and
participating in the pronunciation games. A Mann Whitney test (z=2.33; p=.01)
indicated that the overall scores obtained by the EG (M=3.58; SD=.09) were
significantly better than those of the CG (M=2.87; SD=.68).
Figure 2 : Childrens motivational behaviour during pronunciation instruction
Discussion
The accurate identification and pronunciation of specific sounds is an essential
component of phonemic awareness. When children are able to segment a word into
its onset and rime, as in chi-cken, or discriminate the first sound in the word, as in /
t/, they are not only enhancing their listening skills, but also improving their ability
to understand the sound-letter correspondences that are essential for reading and
writing in the second language (Nicholson and Ng, 2004). The sounds of the L2,
however, are not immediately transparent and children will always be more
interested in the meaning of words rather than in their component parts
(Durgunoglu et al, 1993). For this reason, directing learners attention to
pronunciation in the context of communicative activities would seem to be both
theoretically and methodologically justified.
Although our study is only a small-scale exploratory piece of research, the results
do provide tentative support for the idea that young learners can improve their
pronunciation of English sibilant phonemes after only limited exposure to L2 input.
247
11/01/2016 12:56
After three weeks, almost half of the children in both groups could pronounce
correctly between one and five words (50 per cent in EG and 38 per cent in CG)
while the remaining half were able to produce between six and nine of the words
(44 per cent in EG and 44 per cent in the CG). A further four children, one from the
EG (six per cent) and three from the CG (18 per cent) accurately produced between
ten and 14 of the 15 sibilant sounds. Only one child from each class failed to make
any improvement after instruction.
The childrens varying ability to produce sibilant sounds coincides with the findings
of earlier research with adult learners, which has highlighted the constraints of the
phonological system of the learners L1 on the acquisition of the L2 sound system
(Suter, 1975; Avery and Ehrlich, 1992). For Suter (op cit), problems can arise when
particular sounds are language specific. Thus, if learners do not possess specific
phonemes in their own repertoire, they are likely to encounter increased difficulty
in the production of those sounds in their second language. In a study carried out
with young L1 Spanish speakers of English, You, Alwan, Kazemzade and Narayan
(2005) found that their five-to-seven-year-old participants tended to mispronounce
the L2 sibilants /d/ and /z/, neither of which have an L1 equivalent. Similar errors
were identified in our research for the phonemes /z/, /d/ and //. The children
tended to produce /s/ instead of /z/ as in sebra; /s/ instead of // as in sip, and /t/
instead of /d/ as in taket. Curiously, these errors were detected to a lesser extent
in the children whose mother tongue was Malian, Russian, Arabic and Lithuanian. In
comparison to the Spanish learners, the immigrant childrens first language
background, and their additional experience as language learners, may have
heightened their awareness of English sibilant sounds.
The increased presence of children of nationalities other than Spanish in the CG
(eight) in comparison with the EG (one) is a factor that was not taken into
consideration on initiating the study. Given the school setting and the exploratory
nature of the research, we decided to maintain the childrens intact class groups. In
hindsight, while this might have contributed to the ecological validity of the study, it
has also highlighted the need for further research, which can explicitly account for
the potential impact of linguistic diversity and previous language learning
experience on childrens pronunciation of specific L2 sounds.
Contrary to our initial expectations, the use of actions by the teacher and the EG
children was not a determining factor for their successful production of the target
phonemes. Rather, the repeated and varied oral practice of the sounds in the
context of ludic activities and games, together with the teachers input and
feedback, were confirmed as relevant instructional techniques. This finding would
appear to contradict theory and research that has advocated the usefulness of
gestural support for language learning. A number of explanations can be
suggested. Firstly, it is possible that the children were simply cognitively unable to
establish successful associations between the various sources of multi-sensory
input (visual, auditory and kinaesthetic) they were exposed to. Secondly, the
mismatch between the actions (e.g. move your hands and fingers to fly like a bee)
and the imagery (zero, zebra, sneeze) may have confused the children and reduced
the positive impact of the non-verbal support on their encoding of the L2 sounds.
248
11/01/2016 12:56
This finding is in line with research carried out by Kelly et al. (op cit) who found that
the use of gestures helped English-speaking adults to learn Japanese words only
when they conveyed meaningful information. Incongruent or meaningless hand
movements were found to be less effective in facilitating word retention than the
learners repetition of the target words. Thirdly, the fun element involved in actively
performing actions could actually have been a distraction from the language itself.
In a study on lexical acquisition in young EFL learners, Coyle and Gmez Gracia
(2014) found that copying the teachers actions and onomatopoeias while singing a
song seemed to divert the childrens attention away from the target vocabulary
rather than encouraging them to focus on it.
It would appear, then, that the effective use of kinaesthetic activities in increasing
phonemic sensitivity in younger learners is not as straightforward as it may seem.
From the results of the current study, it is evident that if actions are to act as a
support for childrens perception of specific L2 phonemes, they need to be
unambiguously and explicitly linked to the sounds and letters they represent. This
sound-letter connection is the defining feature of synthetic phonics methods such
as Jolly Phonics, which were originally conceived to teach literacy to child native
speakers of English. The multi-sensory element of synthetic phonics methods
might, therefore, be more profitably employed for initiating young foreign language
learners into sound and letter discrimination simultaneously, rather than focusing
exclusively on pronunciation.
Regarding the childrens attention and attitude during the phonics sessions,
performing actions may be important in increasing childrens motivation while on
task, since the EG children displayed appropriate classroom behaviours such as
listening to and looking at the teacher and actively participated in pronunciation
games to a greater extent than the CG children. It would appear, then, that children
whose attention is maintained with visual, auditory and kinaesthetic stimuli may
become more emotionally engaged with learning. As a result, teachers might take
full advantage of multi-sensory lessons to promote enthusiasm for language
learning and cater for children with different learning styles and intelligences
(Gardner, 1983). The promotion of positive attitudes towards phonics may, in the
long term, lead to encouraging results. This is another area for future research to
investigate.
Conclusion
The present case study examined the production of five sibilant phonemes by
young learners of English and provides some evidence that pronunciation teaching
can be useful for pre-school learners. At present, phonic teaching is not included
as part of the pre-school curriculum in Spain, yet young learners have limited
contact time with English per week, little or no access to English outside the
classroom and use their mother tongue with their families. We suggest, therefore,
that phonemic training should become an integral part of English teaching
programmes from the early stages of foreign language learning. This evidently
raises a number of further issues for policy makers and educational authorities to
consider, including the need for linguistically competent teachers, and the
249
11/01/2016 12:56
References
Avery, P and Ehrlich, S (1992) Teaching American English Pronunciation. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Bongaerts, T, Van Summeren, C, Planken, B and Schils, E (1997) Age and ultimate
attainment in the pronunciation of a foreign language. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 19/4: 447-465.
Carlisle, R and Wendon, L (1995) Letterland ABC. Letterland Direct.
Church RB, Ayman-Nolley, S and Mahootian, S (2004) The effects of gestural
instruction on bilingual children. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism 7/4: 303319.
Coyle, Y and Gmez Gracia, R (2014) Using songs to enhance L2 vocabulary
acquisition in pre-school children. ELT Journal 68/3: 276-285.
Durgunoglu, AY, Nagy, W and Hancin-Bhatt, BJ (1993) Cross-language transfer of
phonological awareness. Journal of Educational Psychology 85/3: 453-465.
Flege, JE (1995) Second language speech learning: Theory, findings, and
problems, in Strange, W (ed) Speech perception and linguistic experience: Issues in
cross-language research. Timonium MD: York Press, 229-273.
Fullana, N (2006) The development of English (FL) perception and production skills:
Starting age and exposure effects, in Muoz, C (ed) Age and the rate of foreign
language learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 41-64.
Garca-Lecumberri, ML and Gallardo, F (2003) English FL sounds in school learners
of different ages, in Garca Mayo, MP and Garca-Lecumberri, ML (eds) Age and the
acquisition of English as a foreign language. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 115-135.
Gardner, H (1983) Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. NY: Basics.
Gayoso, E, Blanco, M and Carrillo, M (1999) Primary school learning of EFL through
phono-metaphonological training. Paper presented at the International Conference
on Phonetics Teaching and Learning. University College London.
Huang, KM (2011) Motivating lessons: A classroom-oriented investigation of the
effects of content-based instruction on EFL learners motivated behaviours and
classroom verbal interaction. System 39/2: 186-201.
Hulme, C, Bowyer-Crane, C, Carroll, JM, Duff, FJ and Snowling, MJ (2012) The causal
role of phoneme awareness and letter-sound knowledge in learning to read
combining intervention studies with mediation analyses. Psychological Science
23/6: 572-577.
250
11/01/2016 12:56
Kelly, SD, McDevitt, T and Esch, M (2009) Brief training with co-speech gesture
lends a hand to word learning in a foreign language. Language and Cognitive
Processes 24/2: 313-334.
Kelly, SD, zyrek, A and Maris, E (2010) Two Sides of the Same Coin: Speech
and Gesture Mutually Interact to Enhance Comprehension. Psychological Science
21/2: 260-267.
Kuhl, PK (1993) Early linguistic experience and phonetic perception: Implications
for theories of developmental speech perception. Journal of Phonetics 21: 125-139.
Lenneberg, E (1967) Biological Foundations of Language. New York: Wiley.
Lloyd, S and Wernham, S (1994) The Phonics Handbook. Essex: UK Jolly
Learning Ltd.
McGeown, SP and Medford, E (2014) Using method of instruction to predict the
skills supporting initial reading development: Insight from a synthetic phonics
approach. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 27: 591-608.
Nicholson, TW and Ng GL (2004) The case for teaching phonemic awareness and
simple phonics to pre-schoolers, in Joshi RM and Aaron PG (eds) Handbook of
orthography and literacy. Mahwah. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Nishitani, N, Schrmann, M, Amunts, K and Hari, R (2005) Brocas region: from
action to language. Physiology 20/1: 60-69.
Suter, RW (1975) Predictors of Pronunciation Accuracy in Second Language
Learning. Language Learning 26/2: 233-253.
Tellier, M (2008) The effect of gestures on second language memorisation by young
children. Gesture 8/2: 219-235.
You, H, Alwan, A, Kazemzade, A and Narayan, S (2005) Pronunciation variations of
Spanish-accented English spoken by young children. Proceedings of Interspeech:
749-752.
251
11/01/2016 12:56
252
11/01/2016 12:56
3.3
Facilitating the learning of
English through collaborative
practice
Sandie Mouro, Independent Scholar, Portugal,
Penelope Robinson, University of Leeds, UK
This chapter describes collaborative practice in a school in central Portugal where
school policy enables all children from age four to participate in English lessons. It
begins with a brief overview of pre-primary education in Portugal, and then
outlines the benefits of collaborative practices. It describes the school, the children
and their teachers, and details an approach to facilitating the learning of English
through play activities. Discussion highlights the roles of the two collaborating
teachers and the importance of integrating English learning areas (ELAs), enabling
child-initiated play and a positive homeschool link.
Introduction
Pre-primary education in Portugal is considered to be an important foundation for
successful schooling and the first step in the process of lifelong learning. Provision
is made for children between the ages of three years and the school starting age of
five or six years, but as attendance is not compulsory there is no official curriculum
to support teaching in this sector. There are, however, government-produced
guidelines providing principles for pre-primary educators (Ministrio da Educao,
1997). These guidelines are influenced by socio-constructive approaches and
favour active, child-led learning. As a result, a typical pre-primary classroom in
Portugal is open plan and divided into different learning areas or activity centres,
which aim to provide opportunities for children to benefit from teacher-initiated
group work as well as have access to child-initiated potentially instructive play
activities (Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2002: 43). Effective educators create
opportunities for children to learn by doing, in the belief that, by interacting with
their environment, children develop as autonomous and responsible learners
(Ministrio da Educao, 1997; Oliveira-Formosinho, 2013).
There is no official early language learning strategy for pre-primary education in
Portugal. According to a European Union publication (European Union, 2011, July)
that summarised country contexts, the majority of state-run schools in Portugal do
not provide language-learning opportunities, though some may offer extracurricular language-learning activities. Private schools are said to offer either
additional or optional foreign language lessons at an extra cost to parents. English
253
11/01/2016 12:56
is noted to be the most popular foreign language taught and teachers are recruited
from outside the school to give the lessons. To note, no nationwide survey has
been carried out to confirm this information. There is no information in the
European documentation related to frequency of lessons, but anecdotal evidence
points to lessons taking place once or twice a week for short periods of time (e.g.
30 to 45 minutes).
The information above indicates that foreign language learning in Portugal is often
disassociated from other learning processes and is planned with a view to
developing discrete language skills without consideration of how languages might
contribute more widely to other aspects of classroom learning and development of
the whole child. This practice does not seem to recognise the importance of
providing a balance between teacher-initiated activities and child-initiated play,
which is recommended practice in pre-primary education (European Commission,
October 2014).
Collaborative practices
When the foreign language is given by a teacher who is a language specialist, and
timetabled as an extra-curricular lesson at the end of the day, once the pre-primary
educator has finished her schedule and is likely to be absent, it is doubtful that any
connection is made between the childrens learning contexts that of their daily
classroom learning and the foreign language. Frhlich-Ward (1979) describes the
attitude of a pre-primary educator affecting the success or failure of an early years
language-learning project; however, the issue of collaboration between specialist
and generalist teachers is a contentious subject in practice and in the main ignored
in the research literature (Martin-Beltran and Peercy, 2014). Nonetheless, it is
recognised that when teachers do have shared goals and both want to ensure
quality teaching and learning, it has a positive effect on learning outcomes (Fullan,
2007). Sawyer and Rimm-Kaufman (2007: 213) describe collaboration as promoting
an ethic of caring, and in the world of small children this seems particularly
appropriate. Collaboration is essential in creating appropriate teaching/learning
conditions for both learners and their teachers, yet in Portugal the way in which
early language learning projects tend to be organised does not facilitate this kind
of practice.
The study
The information shared in this chapter is part of a year-long study27, the main
objective of which was to research: What conditions or features in English learning
areas are most effective at stimulating target language use?. The practice reported
is a snapshot of one classroom in the study. The focus is on the collaborative
actions of two teachers, a pre-primary educator and an English teacher, committed
to developing a language-learning methodology that reflects sound pre-primary
practice and where the importance of English teaching and learning is recognised
27
254
British Council ELT Research Partnership Scheme project entitled English learning areas (ELAs) in pre-primary
classrooms: an investigation of their effectiveness led by the University of Leeds and involving investigators in
Portugal and South Korea.
11/01/2016 12:56
and supported by all stakeholders the school director, the teaching and support
staff, and the parents.
Data was collected from September 2013 to June 2014 and information for
this chapter is taken from observation field notes, informal interviews and
documentation analysis. For a complete description of the study see Robinson
et al (2015).
The pre-primary institution in central Portugal
Centro Social Paroquial dos Pousos28 (hereafter Centro) is a private institution,
subsidised by both the Portuguese Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Work
and Social Services (Private Institutions of Social Solidarity)29 where parents pay an
income-adjusted fee for their child to attend. The majority of children come from
low to low-middle socio-economic backgrounds.
Children at the Centro are grouped according to their ages and are the
responsibility of a qualified pre-primary educator, an educadora, and an auxiliary
helper. Since 2001, all children in their last two years at the institution have learned
English for one hour a week at the initiative of the school director. An English
teacher is hired to give these English classes, which are divided into two 30-minute
sessions and scheduled during the morning when the educadora is in the
classroom with the children.
English at the Centro
The aims of the English programme are stated as being:
To cater for the whole child their physical, social, emotional, psychological
and cognitive development
The English teacher and the educadoras plan together, ensuring that English is
integrated into the short- and long-term planning of the childrens learning
programme. This involves the two teachers meeting at strategic times of the year
to plan and reflect upon the learning programmes they are preparing for the
children. These meetings, along with the ad-hoc conversations they have when
they work together in the classrooms, ensure a consistent and coherent approach.
This chapter continues with a more detailed description of practice in one class in
the Centro, Sala II. It first describes the children and their teachers and then
explains and discusses collaborative approaches that prompt learning through play
28
29
We have been given permission by the institution and the two teachers to use real names in this report.
Around one-third of all pre-primary establishments in Portugal are Private Institutions of Social Solidarity (European
Union, 2011: 104).
255
11/01/2016 12:56
in English, focusing on the first four months of the childrens language learning
experience. The practice described is considered typical practice in this institution,
though not necessarily representative of language learning practices in preprimary institutions in Portugal.
The classroom
The classroom is approximately 75 m2, and characteristically open plan, with a
circle time carpet area, groups of tables and chairs and clearly set up learning
areas. At the beginning of September these learning areas included a house area
for dramatic play; a book area for quiet reading; a game area for board games and
puzzles; a construction and garage area for building blocks, LEGO and toy
transports; and a modelling table for clay and Plasticine. By the end of September
an area devoted to English (an English learning area) had also been set up.
The children
The group of children comprised 11 girls and 12 boys, aged between four and five
years old. All children spoke Portuguese at home with the exception of two, one
who spoke Ukrainian and the other Russian. One child had learning difficulties and
was being supported by a speech therapist. They were typical of any group of four
year olds: curious and keen to learn.
The teachers: Angela and Ana
Angela is a qualified pre-primary educator30, who took the First Certificate of
English when she was at university. She has been a teacher at the Centro since
2006 and has been responsible for the children since many of them began in the
crche in 2010. This was the first time Angela and the children in her care had
experienced English lessons together.
Ana has a degree in French and English, specialising in language teaching for ten to
16 year olds. She has been an English and French teacher since 2001 and is typical
of many English teachers in Portugal who have been working in primary education
since English was introduced as a curricular enrichment activity in September 2005.
She began working as a pre-primary English teacher in the Centro in October 2008.
Collaborative practices in action
English is scheduled as part of the childrens curricular activities from the
beginning of October to the end of June. However, preparation for English begins in
September when the school opens for the new academic year. During their first
meeting together in September 2013, Ana and Angela discussed how the following
months would proceed and how they could collaborate. They talked through Anas
approach to teaching English using play activities and outlined a plan to
incorporate into English the topics and activities Angela was preparing for that
term. A major focus of this initial discussion was the setting up of an English
learning area (ELA), which would become one of the many areas Angela planned
to set up with the children in their classroom.
30
256
A qualified pre-primary educator has a four-year university degree, which includes a teaching placement/
practicum.
11/01/2016 12:56
Sandie Mouro
During the last week of September children brought in their discoveries and shared
them with Angela and their classmates. Angela described these discussions as
being rich and animated. They also looked at a large globe, found Portugal and the
other countries they had investigated, and placed miniature flags on each country.
Children were quickly able to identify the countries and where they were in relation
to Portugal.
Figure 1: ELA with globe and shelf with objects brought in by the children
257
11/01/2016 12:56
Some children brought in words and expressions they already knew or had learned
in English, as well as objects and trinkets they had at home which came from
English-speaking countries. Posters and objects are placed around a small shelf
that Angela had prepared for the ELA (See Figure 1). These activities took place in
Portuguese, and laid the foundations for future learning in and through English.
Angela had successfully motivated her children and their parents, as well as setting
up the class ELA. But, most importantly, she had set the scene for Ana. When Ana
arrived on October 1, the children were both positive and enthusiastic. English was
real and exciting and they knew lots about it. Ana was thus able to build on the
foundation of knowledge, created through Angelas initiatives, to talk about colours
and shapes in English, as well as develop the concept of nationality.
Formal instruction in English with Ana
Part of Anas practice is to use a puppet called Hoola as her language assistant and
the childrens confidant. During the first lesson, Ana used some flags to encourage
the children to share their recent discoveries and to guess where Hoola came from.
In so doing she introduced simple greetings and skillfully rephrased their
Portuguese chatter into English, saying things like, Yes, its a flag from Australia.
Ana carefully modelled, Im from Portugal, but Hoola is from Britain, and
encouraged the children to stand up and wave their hands around, and proudly
say, Im from Portugal, (all children were born in Portugal, so this was appropriate).
As the lessons progressed, Ana set up routines to help children become confident
at using greetings, saying their names, talking about the weather, responding to
different instructions and answering the questions Where are you from? and
Where is Hoola from?. These routines are pleasurable for children and provide
a supportive, comfortable environment for learning to take place. Children also
know what to expect when English starts, which avoids individual concerns and
over-excitement.
As a means of illustrating meaning and strengthening of the link between the
spoken form of the word and its meaning, it is common practice with small children
to show a flashcard, say the word and perform an action associated with the
meaning of the word. This procedure provides three forms of input to help the
learning of new vocabulary. When demonstrating how to say things in English, Ana
used flashcards and gestures adapted from American Sign Language (ASL). Thus,
as Ana introduced any new language (e.g. Im fine thank you), she demonstrated
the ASL gesture and asked, Can you do it? Can you say it? When she first did this,
she explained briefly in Portuguese that the gesture was part of a language for
deaf people.
As Ana set up the routine activities with Hoola, she also focused on the topic
language Angela had asked her to work with. She used the Portuguese and British
flags to contextualise the colours (later in the term all the flags were used to look at
shapes). Children were asked to identify colours (and later shapes) and Ana and
Hoola rephrased their expressions into English, supported by the ASL gesture and
258
11/01/2016 12:56
flashcards. Yes, its green. Look, green is like this. Green, green, green. Can you do
it? Can you say it? The children compared the flags; identified which had the same
colours, which didnt, and which colours did not appear. In this way children were
not only exposed to and encouraged to use the new English words, but they were
also comparing, contrasting and looking for the odd one out these are
appropriate mathematical concepts for children of this age group according to the
Portuguese Metas de Aprendizagem (Ministrio da Educao, nd).
Over the following weeks, together with Ana and Hoola, the children sang songs,
listened to stories and engaged in play-like activities, often with flashcards. These
activities not only support the learning of the new language, but also give the
children real reasons for using language in context. The activities were typical to
EFL methodologies; however, Ana used a small battery of activities consistently,
ensuring that children became familiar with the focus language as well as with the
structure of the activity and its organisational language (see Mouro, 2014). These
activities also support the development of cognitive skills, such as attention,
memory, logic and reasoning, and audio and visual processing. As such, Ana
provided what Vygotsky (1978) has referred to as formal instruction during these
30-minute English sessions with the children instruction that is teacher led or
schooled (Gallimore and Tharp, 1990).
Informal instruction in the ELA
All the resources that Ana used during those moments of formal instruction were
left with the children in their ELA. She left Hoola, as a constant reminder that they
can speak English; she also left the country flags and flashcards, story cards,
picturebooks and boxes with games inside (e.g. bingos and beetle games). Children
also continued to bring in objects they associated with English a bilingual picture
dictionary, for example.
The ELA is a space that is resourced to deliberately stimulate memories of the
teacher-led activities with Ana and to aid recall of the language associated with
these activities. The actions and the target language become available to be used
creatively during imaginative free play. As such, the ELA supports Anas lessons, in
the sense that it extends her formal instruction, providing opportunities for
children to engage in child-initiated play in English, affording moments of informal
instruction as children play together with no overt adult supervision. They learn
from and with each other while playing, by exploring the materials and re-living
situations for themselves. Thus, in this way an ELA helps to integrate English in a
much more age-appropriate way, for it makes English available to the children to
play in, with and through when they want to, during free play times. It also gives it
an importance equal to other daily learning activities.
259
11/01/2016 12:56
260
11/01/2016 12:56
Outcomes
The most important outcome of this collaborative practice using play activities was
that children were motivated towards their English learning experience. This was
evidenced in a number of ways:
1.
The childrens eagerness to play in the ELA this was the greatest
observable evidence: Angela noted that the ELA was the most popular
learning area and was the first choice during free play for 18 of the 23
children in the group.
2.
3.
The childrens keenness to talk about English with Angela Angela noted that
children came to expect the reflection moments at circle time, were
enthusiastic about demonstrating what they had remembered and helped
each other if they couldnt remember (or recall) the language.
4.
The ease with which the children used English in context when Ana was not
present Angela noted that many children were spontaneously inserting
English words and expressions into Portuguese sentences, particularly the
colour, shape and weather words. They also asked her regularly how to say
words they had forgotten, often showing her instead the gesture they had
remembered.
5.
The termly English reports that are sent home to parents included a section for
the educadora to complete. Angelas involvement in the childrens learning
experience meant she was in an excellent position to comment on the childrens
behaviour towards English and their interest in using it during the day. Her
comments were very positive, noting that the children played with the resources
in the ELA, used Hoola as a speaking and singing partner, imitated the games they
played with Ana and Hoola, and used both ASL gestures and English words and
expressions in context.
261
11/01/2016 12:56
Conclusion
English quickly became part of the childrens classroom lives, and was certainly not
restricted to the two 30-minute sessions that Ana gave every week. This is a direct
outcome of two teachers collaborating. Both are responsible for English but in
different ways. Ana was the formal English instructor, ensuring children were
exposed to English in a systematic way through game-like activities. She was
mediator between the language and the children. She was also responsible for
ensuring that resources were available for the classroom ELA. Angela, on the other
hand, was first and foremost a motivator, ensuring children saw English as part of
their everyday lives. But she was also responsible for organising the space and
planning time for English to be part of the classroom. Additionally, her role as
bridge between parents and English was essential in ensuring that everyone was
involved and understood what was happening.
Six educadoras have worked with an English teacher (not always Ana) since 2001 at
the Centro, and each has approached the experience in a different way, but always
with collaboration stemming from shared objectives and desired outcomes. Not all
educadoras have had qualifications in English; two have spoken no English at all.
Nevertheless, the attributes described in the cameo of Angelas classroom are
evident in them all. English has successfully been integrated into the childrens
pre-primary lives as a result of the teachers willingness to collaborate and create
opportunities for the children to engage in play-like activities in English.
The practice described here shows that an intervention that enables a pre-primary
educator to support the learning of another language by working with the English
teacher can have very positive results collaboration between teachers increases
and enriches the opportunities for children to learn and use the English language in
a manner which is appropriate to their stage of development.
References
European Commission (2014, October) Proposal for key principles of a Quality
Framework for Early Childhood Education and Care. Report of the Working Group
on Early Childhood Education and Care under the auspices of the European
Commission. Retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategicframework/archive/documents/ecec-quality-framework_en.pdf
European Union (2011, July) Country summaries based on contributions of the
members of the thematic working group on early language learning (ELL). Retrieved
from http://ec.europa.eu/languages/orphans/ellp-summaries_en.htm
Frhlich-Ward, L (1979) Environment and learning, in Freudenstein R (ed) Teaching
Foreign Languages to the Very Young, Oxford: Pergamon Institute of English.
Fullan, M (2007) The New Meaning of Educational Change (4th edn). New York:
Teachers College Press.
Gallimore, R and Tharp, R (1990) Teaching mind in society: teaching, schooling and
literate discourse, in Mol, LC (ed) Vygotsky and Education. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
262
11/01/2016 12:56
263
11/01/2016 12:56
264
11/01/2016 12:56
3.4
A short, in-service training
course for pre-school teachers
in France
Gail Ellis, British Council, France
Countries vary widely in their provision and extent of initial teacher training and
of continuing professional development for early childhood education teachers.
As an essential element of teaching quality, training has recently received a good
deal of attention. Nutbrown, in her 2012 review of early education and childcare
qualifications in the UK, recommends a raising of standards and a clear, rigorous
system of qualifications to equip practitioners with the knowledge, skills and
understanding they need to give young children high-quality experiences. The
proposal for key principles of a Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education
and Care (European Commission, 2014) also provides evidence that better qualified
staff are more likely to provide high-quality pedagogy. The ongoing professional
development of teachers in relation to evolving societal needs, policy and
curriculum changes is also essential in supporting them to manage change and
meet current demands, as well as a key element in guaranteeing childrens positive
outcomes. This is more effective when it is based on identified training needs
(European Commission, ibid).
This case study reports on a short in-service teacher training course for state
pre-school teachers in France to equip them with the skills and confidence to
introduce English into the pre-school curriculum. It also highlights the importance
of a whole-school approach (Dobson et al., 2010) through effective leadership and
management based on consultation and collaboration with teaching colleagues,
and ensuring that all children in a school have the same opportunities, regardless
of socio-economic or other circumstances.
265
11/01/2016 12:56
Training needs
The courses were attended by one, two or more teachers from each school in the
district, making a total of 25 teachers on each course, and some attended both
courses. Training needs were identified via a pre-course questionnaire, which
provided information on participants self-assessed level of English as per the
Common European Framework for Reference (CEFR) descriptors, initial and
in-service training in English language and methodology, classroom English
language and teaching needs, motivation and attitudes towards early language
learning (see Appendix 1).
Participants needs were wide ranging and there was great variation in terms of
self-assessed English competency, which ranged from A2C2, career stage,
previous training and experience of using English in the classroom with pre-school
children. However, all expressed positive attitudes towards the benefits of an early
introduction of English to children as reflected in the following comments:
It is motivating
It develops listening skills
Children discover another culture
It opens minds to a new culture
Studies show that the earlier foreign language learning begins, the better the
chance children have of acquiring it
266
11/01/2016 12:56
Participants were eager to improve their English and teaching techniques in order
to implement the project. Their positive attitudes and motivation were also
demonstrated by their enthusiasm and willingness to attend training at the end of a
working day and participate actively in training activities. In addition, the preschool inspector of the district and some headteachers also attended the course.
As one headteacher explained:
As head of school, it is important for me to understand how this teaching will take
place, even though I will not be teaching it myself.
This demonstrated commitment to the project, showed support for the teachers
and contributed towards a collaborative, whole-school approach.
Common priorities that emerged from the needs analysis were:
How to create a natural English-speaking environment in class by using childdirected speech (Aitchison, 1997; Dunn, 2013)
The main aim of the courses was to build on teachers existing expertise and
experience as pre-school teachers and to demonstrate how the approaches they
currently use could be transferred to integrating English into the curriculum.
267
11/01/2016 12:56
Challenges
Three main challenges emerged in order to meet the diverse needs of
the participants:
i.
ii.
iii. How to maximise time on these short courses and address the priority needs
of the participants.
Shifting teachers views from English as discrete lessons to an integrated, holistic
approach was considered to be the priority challenge due to the low level of
English of some of the teachers and their lack of confidence.
Course design
The starting point was to focus on teachers English language skills and build their
confidence so they could naturally and spontaneously interact with and respond to
children in English. The courses were broken down into five two-hour sessions and
each session was divided into two parts:
Part 1 Focus on teachers English language improvement.
Part 2 Focus on methodology.
Part 1 of each session developed participants ability to create the conditions for
using English effectively in the classroom in order to provide adequate exposure to
and engaging interaction in the language (Rixon, ibid). Teachers therefore
experienced and participated in activities that they could transfer to their own
classes, thereby incorporating a secondary focus on methodology and maximising
the limited time.
Part 2 of each session, methodology, was conducted in English in order to provide
further input and exposure to the language. However, each trainer spoke French
and was able to support participants understanding whenever necessary and the
French language versions of published materials were used (Slattery and Willis,
2004; Ellis and Brewster, 2007).
268
11/01/2016 12:56
269
11/01/2016 12:56
Arrival and welcome time where children make the transition from home to
school life involving the usual types of routines such as greetings, coming
together to plan the day, establishing the day of the week/date, weather, talking
about a special occasion such as a birthday, a festival, etc.
Morning activities time revolving around the curriculum and involving children in
a range of activities including whole class or smaller groups, workshops, games,
stories, painting, crafts, construction, literacy, numeracy.
Lunch time
Quiet/rest time
Review time
Home time.
The plan, do, review (Hohmann et al., 2008) learning cycle was presented as an
overarching, consistent routine in which to embed the daily routines. This allows for
flexibility of working and gives children a feeling of both empowerment and
security. It also enables them to develop a sense of timing, as activities happen at
regular intervals and in predictable ways. It ensures children get the most out of
each routine and allows a smooth transition from one routine to the next. This
organisational aspect of the classroom means that common phrases in English are
repeated and recycled regularly through interaction in familiar routines, thus
increasing exposure and so allowing children to acquire familiar expressions and
develop their confidence. It also provides similar security for the teachers who are
able to transfer the language rehearsed during the course into familiar classroom
situations and routines. The plan, do, review routine was also applied to each
training session in order to involve participants in a cycle of reflection,
experimentation and further reflection.
Content
Based on Goddard (1982), much of the content and classroom techniques
demonstrated such as storytelling, using songs and rhymes, physical activities,
craft activities, etc. were linked to the four seasons. The seasons in Europe are
distinctly different and build on childrens natural curiosity about the immediate
world around them and provide an annual structure that introduces children to
270
11/01/2016 12:56
language related to the different features of each season. This also allows for
regular recycling, consolidation and extension of language (e.g. summer, winter,
wet weather clothes, etc.). In this way, the four seasons act as a springboard for
developing language and communication around topic areas related to the
weather, clothes, temperatures, colours, shapes, the senses, trees and flowers,
growing things, water, food, zoo and farm animals, birds and insects, outings,
special occasions and cultural events, all of which link to the French pre-school
curriculum. This emphasises the holistic nature of childrens learning and
development (Whitebread, 2003) as distinct from learning separated out into
subjects and where language is seen as central to learning. Participants were
shown how these topics can be further reinforced by using carefully selected
picturebooks and a story-based methodology (Ellis and Brewster, 2007). See
Appendix 2 for a sample curriculum overview and suggested storybooks.
Maximising course time
Clearly, five, two-hour sessions is limited but nevertheless allows for valuable
opportunities to heighten teachers professional awareness and improve their
teaching skills. It also allows teachers to come together to share a common
experience, build their own learning community and provide each other with
mutual support. As mentioned above, this was also reinforced by the attendance of
the pre-school inspector and headteachers. This third challenge was addressed in
four ways:
i.
ii.
271
11/01/2016 12:56
Outcomes
Despite the short duration of the courses, varying profiles of the participants and
the challenges faced, end-of-course feedback was positive and the courses met
the diverse needs of the participants:
i.
Participants felt they had improved their English language skills for the
classroom and felt more confident, as reflected in the following comments:
ii.
There had been a shift in views that English should be delivered as discrete
English lessons once or twice a week to a more integrated and holistic
approach. Post-course school visits included attendance at one schools
Christmas celebrations where they had spent several weeks preparing
Christmas songs and breakfast entirely in English for all children in the
school, spanning the three to six age range and their parents. This event
demonstrated a whole-school approach incorporating songs, craft activities
and cooking embedded in familiar Christmas festivities with a cultural aspect.
In addition, participants said they were now aware of how they could transfer
their existing skills to the teaching of English:
I was able to transfer skills and techniques immediately to my
classroom
It is clear that the teachers required ongoing post-course support, but this was not
within our remit. It is hoped that the spirit of enquiry developed during the courses
enabled participants to become more autonomous and reflective practitioners and
equipped them with the knowledge and skills to pursue their own development.
The features of the courses that participants felt contributed to its success were:
272
11/01/2016 12:56
Acknowledgements
Co-trainers Julia Diallo, Nicky Francis and Nayr Ibrahim.
References
Aitchison, J (1997) The Language Web. Cambridge University Press.
Bennett, J (2013) Early childhood curriculum for children from low-income and
immigrant backgrounds. Paper presented at the second meeting of the
Transatlantic Forum on Inclusive Early Years held in New York, 10-12 July 2013.
Dobson, A, Murillo, M and Johnstone, R (2010) Bilingual Education Project Spain
Evaluation Report. British Council. https://www.britishcouncil.es/sites/default/files/
bilingual-education-project-spain-evaluation-report-en.pdf
Dunn, O (2013) Introducing English to Young Children: Spoken Language. Collins.
Economist Intelligence Unit (2012) Starting well Benchmarking early education
across the world. http://www.economistinsights.com/sites/default/files/legacy/
mgthink/downloads/Starting%20Well.pdf
Ellis, G and Brewster, J (2007) Enseigner par le storytelling thorie et pratique.
French edition. Pearson Longman. Tell it Again! The Storytelling Handbook for
Primary English Language Teachers. English edition. 2014. British Council.
www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/tell-it-again-storytelling-handbook-primaryenglish-language-teachers
European Commission (2014) Key principles of a Quality Framework. http://ec.
europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-framework/archive/documents/ecec-qualityframework_en.pdf
273
11/01/2016 12:56
Goddard, E. (1982) See the Daisies. Feel the Rain. Greater London Pre-school
Playgroups Association, Kingswood Press.
Halimi, S (2012) Apprendre les langues Apprendre le monde http://media.education.
gouv.fr/file/02_Fevrier/91/5/Apprendre-les-langues-Apprendre-le-monde_206915.pdf
Hohmann, M, Epstein, AS and Weikart, D (2008) Educating Young Children: Active
Learning Practices for Pre-school and Child Care Programmes. 3rd Edition. High/
Scope Educational Research Foundation.
Ministre de lEducation Nationale (2011) Dossier de rentre anne scolaire
20112012. http://media.education.gouv.fr/file/Rentree_scolaire/59/5/Rentreescolaire-2011_190595.pdf
Nutbrown, C (2012) Foundations for Quality. The independent review of early
education and childcare qualifications. Final Report. https://www.gov.uk/
government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/175463/NutbrownReview.pdf
Raveaud, M (2005) Inside French and English infant schools. Education 313:
International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education. Vol. 33/1.
Rixon, S (2013) British Council Survey of Policy and Practice in Primary English
Language Teaching Worldwide. British Council. www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/
british-council-survey-policy-practice-primary-english-language-teaching-worldwide
Slattery, M and Willis, J (2004) Langlais lcole. French edition. Oxford University
Press. English for Primary Teachers. English edition: 2001.
Van Kuyk, J (2006) Holistic or sequential approach to curriculum: What works best
for young children?, in van Kuyk, J (ed) The quality of early childhood education.
Arnhem: CITO.
Whitebread, D (2003) Teaching and Learning in the Early Years. 2nd Edition.
Routledge Falmer.
274
11/01/2016 12:56
Appendix 1
Translated from French
Dear Participant,
We are delighted you will be participating on our training course for early years
teachers this term. The aims of the course are:
To help you improve your spoken English and build your confidence in using English
effectively in the classroom
To broaden your range of English language teaching techniques and activities and
know how to link these to the pre-school curriculum in France.
The course consists of five two-hour sessions. We will dedicate the first hour of each
session to language improvement and the second hour to language teaching
techniques and activities.
The course will also help you discover ways of learning English that are best for you
and to develop your own strategies for continuing to learn after the course.
Before we begin the course, we would like to find out about you. We would be
grateful if you would please complete the form below.
With many thanks.
Course trainers
275
11/01/2016 12:56
Have you benefitted from any in-service English language training or teaching methodology
courses? If yes, please provide details
276
11/01/2016 12:56
Your motivation
What do you think are the benefits of introducing English to children in the early years?
How much time do you think you can realistically spend per week practising your English/
preparing lessons in English?
277
11/01/2016 12:56
Appendix 2
Sample curriculum overview with suggested storybooks
The Four Seasons
Autumn 1
Autumn 2
Autumn 3
Winter 1
September
October
November/
January
December
All about me
Where we live
Specials occasions
Family
Weather
Birthdays
Daily routines
Shapes
Christmas
Numbers
Autumn colours
Weather
Homes
Shapes
Music
People and
communities
Numbers 110
Dance
Sounds
Songs
Languages
Storybooks
Storybooks
Storybooks
Storybooks
Mr Wolfs Week
The Snowman
My green day
Little Cloud
Knuffle Bunny
A bit lost
Little blue and little
yellow
Winter 2
Spring 1
Spring 2
Summer 1
February/
April/May
June
July
Things I can do
Holiday time
Vegetables
Animals
Abilities
In the park
Fruit
At the zoo
Interests
At the river
Meat
At the farm
Pastimes
At the seaside
Fish
In the garden
Weather
Healthy eating
Spring/Easter
Similarities and
differences
Meals
Storybooks
Storybooks
Storybooks
Storybooks
Today is Monday
Elizabeth Hen
I can do it!
Having a picnic
Ketchup on your
cornflakes?
Rosies walk
March
Clothes we wear
Water safety
Peas!
The Tiny Seed
Titch
Monkey and Me
278
11/01/2016 12:56
3.5
Rhythmic patterns in stories
and word order production
(adjective + noun) in
four-year-old EFL learners
Sarah Hillyard, Florence Nightingale School,
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Introduction
This chapter reports on an Action Research project carried out in a kindergarten
classroom in a private school in the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina, in October
2011. The project involved 25 native Spanish speakers of four years of age, learning
English as a foreign language. These English lessons (with the language as the
focus of instruction) covered 40 minutes of a three-hour school day, with the rest of
the lessons in Spanish. Its aim was to explore whether rhythmic patterns in stories
enhance word order production. To narrow the scope, this investigation focused on
the oral production of adjective + noun word order, which, in this case, was the
opposite to its use in the childrens first language (e.g. blue horse would be
translated as caballo azul (horse blue) in Spanish, the modifier occurring after
the noun). This linguistic feature was considered of interest due to its complexity in
terms of language transfer occurrences, as the childrens mother tongue interfered
with their learning of such a feature in their acquisition of the English language.
279
11/01/2016 12:56
structure in which lexical elements can be replaced, as in the case of word order
(e.g. adjective + noun). When these rhythmic utterances are continually repeated in
the context of a line of events, children can spontaneously interact with the telling
of the story, using the language in oral production (Kolsawalla, 1999).
According to the Macmillan English Dictionary (2002) rhythm is not only a regular
pattern of sounds or movements or a regular pattern of syllables in poetry, but
also a pattern in an activity that makes it enjoyable to watch or easy to do. Many
well-known stories used to teach English involve regular rhythmic patterns (like the
ones chosen for this investigation), which children seem to naturally pick up
(Kolsawalla, 1999). Clark and Clark (in Kolsawalla, 1999) state that regular
articulatory patterns are easier to pronounce than irregular ones. Not only are
rhythmic patterns easier to pronounce, they also provide a predictable framework
that can enhance linguistic processing (Kolsawalla, 1999). Kolsawalla (ibid) states
that few systematic studies have been made to research this area. As such, this
research study follows on from Kolsawallas action research (ibid).
The context
The context for this research project was a private Catholic girls school in the city
of Buenos Aires, Argentina, composed mainly of upper-class families. The 25 female
students of four years of age in this kindergarten classroom spoke Spanish as their
mother tongue. The teacher was a native English speaker who was also fluent in
Spanish. These children had 40-minute English lessons four times a week. Most of
them began their English lessons at the same school at the age of three and their
exposure to the foreign language was limited, mainly to the school environment.
280
11/01/2016 12:56
The Grouchy Ladybug (by Eric Carle) told with no rhythmic patterns but showing
the pictures.
Brown Bear, Brown Bear (by Bill Martin Jr.) with rhythmic patterns and showing
the children the pictures in the book.
I Went Walking (by Sue Williams and Julie Rivas) with rhythmic patterns but
without showing the children the pictures by acting it out without a puppet
or any visuals.
The Very Busy Spider (by Eric Carle) with no rhythmic patterns and no pictures
shown by acting it out with a puppet.
These stories were chosen because they all include many examples of the
structure of adjective-noun word order, which in all cases focus on colour-animal
(e.g. red bird). Due to cross-linguistic transfer from Spanish (word order being the
opposite in these childrens mother tongue, e.g. pjaro rojo = bird red), this
structure had been interfering with the childrens acquisition of the linguistic
feature in English, becoming explicit in their oral production of the target structure.
Most of the animals and colours in all stories were familiar to the children, to
facilitate the production of the animal and colour, and to instead be able to focus
on word order. For instance, the rhythmic pattern from Brown Bear, Brown Bear is
colour+animal, what do you see? I see a colour+animal looking at me:
Brown bear, brown bear, what do you see?
I see a red bird looking at me.
Red bird, red bird what do you see?
I see a yellow duck looking at me.
After each story, the children were asked to help the teacher retell the story by
providing a novel adjective + noun word order utterance, e.g. yellow bee.
Field notes were kept to record general impressionistic views on the students
language learning and any interesting comments based on her observations (see
Appendix 3).
281
11/01/2016 12:56
Response
Student
Number
Type of
response
Response
Use of adj +
noun (Y/N)
Total responses:
Total spontaneous responses:
Responses with help or completions:
No use of adj+noun (N):
Use of adj+noun (Y):
Use of adj+noun with help (Y with help):
The research questions were: How many adjective-noun responses were produced
for each story? How many of these responses were spontaneous and how many
were produced with help or as completions of others utterances or the teachers
utterance? How many unsuccessful word order utterances were produced for
each story?
The data
The data was measured in percentages and the utterances fell into different
categories:
Spontaneous response: a student was able to produce the correct word order
alone, with no help or clue given by other students or the teacher.
With help: a student read the teachers lips (as the teacher realised the student
needed help to produce the utterance), the structure was provided after the
animal and colour was produced separately and the teacher intervened to help
with word order by providing the first letter of the structure (v), or the student
repeated after the teacher.
Completion: responses that came after another student had begun the answer
or the teacher had started to answer and the student completed the phrase.
Table 1 includes the total number of responses each story elicited and the
percentages of each kind of utterance (spontaneous, with help or completions,
and whether the response involved the use of adjective + noun or not).
282
11/01/2016 12:56
Total
Total
Responses
No use of
Use of
Use of
responses
spontaneous
with help or
adj+noun
adj+noun
adj+noun
responses
completions
(N)
(Y)
with help
(Y with
help)
1: The
Grouchy
Ladybug
12
75%
25%
33%
67%
0%
2: Brown
Bear,
Brown
Bear
75%
25%
37.5%
50%
12.5%
3: I Went
Walking
23
83%
17%
48%
43%
9%
4: The
Very Busy
Spider
100%
0%
43%
57%
0%
STORY
Susan Hillyard
Percentage
The data was analysed and a histogram was created to identify which story ranked
higher and lower in terms of number of correct word order utterances. Figure 1
shows the proportion of responses for each story with reference to whether the
response included the correct word order, incorrect word order or if the child
required help to produce the structure.
283
11/01/2016 12:56
Analysis
A higher number of correct responses were produced in the stories that did not
include rhythmic patterns. Therefore, this finding does not provide evidence to
support the idea that the presence of rhyme in the story prose would facilitate
correct adjective + noun word order.
Many other factors and conditions may have influenced the students ease or
difficulty in using correct adjective-noun word order:
284
11/01/2016 12:56
The pictures and colours in one book may have been more attractive than in
another.
The storytelling techniques used by the teacher may have influenced their
understanding and enjoyment of the stories.
The use of a puppet may have encouraged the children to answer more or less.
The way the children were involved in the stories when a response was required
interacting physically or visually may have influenced their answers.
The stories read with illustrations seemed to have been helpful because the
colours of the images may have aided production in a visual way.
Children seemed motivated by the appearance of a spider puppet spinning its web
in the last story, but again there were no visual images to aid the production of
colours.
During the planning stage, the teacher-researcher was concerned that, after the
first lesson, the students would have had exposure to the structure, and this factor
was expected to influence childrens production in subsequent stories, thus
possibly affecting the validity of the data. However, it is surprising that the data
does not necessarily reflect better results with subsequent exposure to the
structure. Reflecting on this, it may be possible to infer that there are many other
factors apart from exposure alone that influence learning, as argued in Murphy
(2014). Furthermore, it may be interesting to note that in all cases except one (the
third story, with rhythmic patterns and acted out), there were more successful word
order utterances without help than incorrect ones.
Discussion
Although this Action Research project did not furnish conclusive results in showing
whether rhythmic patterns in stories enhance acquisition of word order, it has
provided some examples of how very young EFL learners are able to produce word
order correctly, some alone and some with help, even if it is contrary to their use in
their mother tongue.
Each story provided the framework for a repeated structure (adjective + noun) that
allowed children to substitute words and share their own contributions to extend
the content of a story. Therefore, this project supports the notion that children are
able to grasp a given structure and use the framework provided in the story with
the purpose of substituting vocabulary (e.g. substitute black cat with brown
cat), personalising (e.g. providing their own contributions and suggestions) and
using language creatively (e.g. multicoloured cat).
Rhythmic patterns in stories and word order production |
285
11/01/2016 12:56
The teacher-researchers field notes showed that the children became engaged by
the telling of stories and were motivated to produce the language successfully to be
able to participate in the process of retelling. The repetitive phrases and the rhythm
involved in the telling of the stories invited the children to interact spontaneously,
producing the language in a safe context, due to the predictability of the expected
utterances, which in turn allowed them to learn the structure incidentally, in
Browns (1994: 66) terms, as opposed to through explicit instruction.
It must be considered that this small-scale investigation was limited to a reduced
number of students in one school only and in one particular context. This class of
25 female four-year-olds had been having problems acquiring the correct word
order structure in the foreign language. Therefore, the teacher carried out this
Action Research project with the aim of trying to find ways to aid her students in
learning this specific structure. As Kolsawalla (1999) claims, it may be interesting
to carry out other systematic studies to research this area, as there seems to be
a lack of research in this field.
This is of course only a very narrow analysis of descriptive data in a limited context
and no statistical analysis has been carried out so as to furnish more conclusive
results. However, the findings have been helpful for the practising teacher in her
specific context, as one of the aims of Action Research is, in Elliotts (1991) terms,
to be a professional development tool that provides practical judgment and
enables the teacher to reflect on her practice.
References
Brewster, J, Ellis, G and Girard, D (2002) The Primary English Teacher Guide
(New Edition). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Brown, HD (1994) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. London:
Prentice Hall.
Cameron, L (2001) Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Elliott, J (1991) Action Research for Educational Change. Buckingham: Open
University Press.
Kolsawalla, H (1999) Teaching Vocabulary through Rhythmic Refrains in
Stories, in Rixon, S (ed) Young Learners of English: some research perspectives.
Harlow: Longman.
Lightbown, P and Spada, N (2006) How Languages are Learned (3rd Edition).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Murphy, VA (2014) Second language learning in the early school years: Trends
and Contexts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Roth, G (1998) Teaching Very Young Children: Pre-school and Early Primary.
London: Richmond Publishing.
286
11/01/2016 12:56
Steps
Monday 17th
October, 2011
Story with
no rhythmic
patterns +
pictures
Teacher shows the cover of the book and reads the title. She asks children to
predict what might happen and why the ladybug is a grouchy ladybug.
Teacher tells The Grouchy Ladybug by Eric Carle, showing the pictures in the
book. She will adapt the story so as to simplify some of the long sentences
and to add colour+noun (e.g. brown gorilla/grey elephant). While reading,
some questions will be asked: comprehension questions and prediction
questions (What animal do you think shell meet next?).
Teacher asks some comprehension questions (perhaps in L1).
The children help the teacher to retell the story (see how much vocabulary
from the story they can produce and whether they can use the correct
adjective-noun order).
2
Tuesday 18th
October, 2011
Story with
rhythmic
patterns +
pictures
Wednesday 19th
October, 2011
Teacher shows the cover of the book and reads the title. She asks children to
predict what the story might be about and who will follow the boy.
Story with
rhythmic
patterns but no
pictures
Teacher acts out I Went Walking by Sue Williams and Julie Rivas (acting out
the different animals, making sounds, and walking around the room), without
showing the pictures, but making the rhythmic pattern salient.
The children create their own class story (see how much vocabulary from the
story they can produce + other vocabulary they choose and whether they can
use the correct adjective-noun order).
Teacher pre-teaches vocabulary: spider, spider web, busy, owl, fly with facial
expressions, sounds and pictures.
Thursday 20th
October, 2011
Teacher shows the cover of the book and reads the title. She asks children to
predict what the story might be about and why they think this is a busy spider.
Story with
no rhythmic
patterns and no
pictures
Teacher acts out The Very Busy Spider by Eric Carle (using a puppet of a
spider spinning its web and acting out the different animals and making
sounds), without showing the pictures. She will add colour+noun structure
(e.g. white sheep, pink pig).
The children create their own similar class story (see how much vocabulary
from the story they can produce + other vocabulary they choose and whether
they can use the correct adjective-noun order).
287
11/01/2016 12:56
identified student
Ss
T Ss
(1.0)
? : rising intonation
! : strong emphasis
ok. now.
falling intonation
m:, a::
yes
((unint)) : unintelligible
(T shows the picture)
(singing)
no- :
abrupt cut-off
/pngun/ : phonetic transcription
288
te traje el cd
11/01/2016 12:56
T:
S23:
Bee
S8:
bee
T:
what colour
S8:
yellow?
S24:
T:
S24:
T:
T:
Ss:
beetle
T:
What colour?
S3:
beetle blue
S24:
blue
S23:
blue beetle
T:
Ss:
green
S1:
grasshopper
S22:
T:
green grasshopper
Ss:
T:
excellent
S5:
a brown bird
T:
excellent. A lobster.
S14:
lobster green
S22:
a lobster green
T:
m::
S21:
289
11/01/2016 12:56
T:
S5: no un can- los cangrejos hacen asi [its not a crab crabs do this] (shows
what crabs do with their hands) son mas chiquitos y eso es una[theyre smaller and thats a-]
T:
S1:
green!
T:
S17:
green
S23: lob
T:
S24:
skunk
S5:
T:
S22:
Its a:
T:
S17?
S17:
Its a skunk
T:
S17:
a sku
S5:
a blue skunk
T: S5, yes! (high five) its a blue skunk. Its a blue skunk. S6 and S7 (asking to
pay attention)
S22:
T:
yes, S22.
S22: (4.0)
290
T:
S22:
snake
T:
what colour?
Ss:
green
S22:
11/01/2016 12:56
T:
snake. Its a green snake. Yes. (S24 has her hand up) S24?
S24:
its a brown?
S22:
T:
Ss:
cheetah
S5:
291
11/01/2016 12:56
Student
Number
Type of
Utterance
response
Use of adj +
noun (Y/N)
292
24
Repetition
after T
(a yellow and
black bee)
Spontaneous
beetle blue
22
Spontaneous
green grasshu
(grasshopper)
Spontaneous
a brown bird
14
Spontaneous
lobster green
Spontaneous
22
Spontaneous
green: (pause)
snake
22
Completion
of other S
response
its a brown
cheetah
Completion
of other S
response
its a brown
gorilla
10
22
Spontaneous
11
12
Spontaneous
its a blue
elephant
12
Spontaneous
Total responses: 12
11/01/2016 12:56
293
11/01/2016 12:56
294
| Epilogue
11/01/2016 12:56
SECTION DIVIDER
4
Epilogue
11/01/2016 12:56
296
| Epilogue
11/01/2016 12:56
4
Epilogue
Victoria A Murphy and Maria Evangelou, University of Oxford
The chapters in this volume highlight the diverse approaches and issues that
underpin English language education through early childhood education and care
(ECEC) settings. We would like to conclude with a few final thoughts on key issues
and possible ways to move forward.
| 297
Epilogue
11/01/2016 12:56
have support available to them for the development of their own English language
learning, and ideally there would be some agreed-upon consistent norms as to
minimum levels of proficiency required to teach English to young learners.
Evangelou, Sylva, Wild, Glenny and Kyriacou (2009) carried out a literature review
that identified the most current evidence which speaks to the process of
development for children from birth to age five. The main focus of this review was
to identify the best supportive context for childrens early learning and
development. While their review was not directed towards English language
education, many of their key findings relate directly to issues raised and discussed
in this volumes chapters. With respect to curriculum development, a key finding
relates to the importance of play in early years settings. Play can take many forms,
be imaginative or pretend, physical and/or exploratory, but all of these are
important in a childs development (Evangelou et al., 2009). Pretend play in
particular can support language development, and by extension English language
development in non-English speakers, because it involves interaction with adults,
siblings and peers. Furthermore, it promotes thinking beyond the here and now,
which is an important aspect of childrens cognitive development. Adults have a
key role in the development of childrens play activities in early years settings.
Adults can initiate games and help children become full partners, and eventually
leaders, in different types of games. The important role of the adult in guided play
activities underscores the importance of quality teacher education and training as
discussed above.
The role of narrative is also exceedingly important in the development of childrens
language and can be extended to developing English language skills. Narrative is
useful in building and maintaining communication, which in turn can have positive
influences on literacy development. Play and narrative together help children
experience linguistic interaction rather than just being exposed to language
(Evangelou et al., 2009). As we continue to develop English language curricula for
young children, we need to consider these features as key ingredients.
The resources available to teachers of young learners of English emerged as a
common theme throughout this volume. The role of facilities, equipment and
materials also emerged from Evangelou et al.s (2009) review. They particularly
note the importance of distinguishing between quality of the materials, and quality
of use of the materials something that can be enhanced through appropriate
teacher education. Children can benefit from using everyday materials if there is
facilitative, guided interaction on the part of an adult (parent or educator). Hence,
while we do want to see good quality materials and resources available to teachers
of young English language learners, just as important is what adults do with these
materials in helping support and encourage English language skills.
Additionally, Evangelou et al. (2009) note the importance of time something that
also emerged in this volume. The issue is to ensure that appropriate amounts of
time are allocated to different activities and, in particular, that adults should be led
by the childs interests, rather than relying on their own perceptions of how much
time is appropriate to spend on different types of linguistic tasks in class. So not
298
| Epilogue
11/01/2016 12:56
only do children need enough time in English (a particular concern in EFL contexts),
but they need appropriate amounts of time on different English language tasks
(particularly literacy-based ones) to help them make connections between the
activities they are engaged with and their own world.
| 299
Epilogue
11/01/2016 12:56
A final word
At the close of Genesees chapter, he discusses (within the minority language
learner context) how the current challenge is to reconceptualise strategies for
educating young ELLs. We feel that this is equally true in all the contexts
represented in this volume and we hope that, with continued scrutiny from all
stakeholders, we will be able to further develop our understanding of how to best
support multilingual development in young children throughout the world.
References
Cummins, J (1981) The role of the primary language development in promoting
educational success for language minority students, in Schooling and Language
Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework. Los Angeles, CA: California Department
of Education.
Evangelou, M, Sylva, K, Wild, M, Glenny, G and Kyriacou, M (2009) Early Years
Learning and Development Literature Review. Nottingham: DCSF Publications
[DCSF RR 176].
300
| Epilogue
11/01/2016 12:56
| 301
Epilogue
11/01/2016 12:56
302
| Contributors
11/01/2016 12:56
SECTION DIVIDER
5
Contributors
Contributors |
303
11/01/2016 12:56
304
| Contributors
11/01/2016 12:56
5
Contributors
Lynn Ang
Lynn Ang is Reader in Early Childhood at University College London (UCL), Institute
of Education. Her research expertise includes the early years curriculum, issues of
diversity, international early years policy, and early childhood care and education
across cultures, particularly in Southeast Asia and the Asia-Pacific region. She has
extensive methodological experience in evaluation, systematic reviews,
ethnography, and qualitative and participatory methods in research. Lynn is
particularly interested in the informal and formal contexts of childrens learning
and development, and the ways in which socially relevant research and advocacy
for children and families are translated into practice and policy. She has worked on
a number of research grants from major funding bodies including UNICEF, the
British Academy, The National College for School Leadership (NCL), and the
Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC). She is a Fellow of the Higher
Education Academy (FHEA) and Fellow of the ESRC Peer Review College. She
serves on the Editorial Board of the International Journal of Early Years Education
and is also a supervisor of Masters and Doctoral students.
Fortidas Bakuza
Fortidas Bakuza works as a Lecturer at the Aga Khan University Institute for
Educational Development, East Africa, where he teaches on the MA in areas of early
years education and is engaged in a range of different outreach professional
development courses for teachers, in particular in marginalised and hard to reach
communities. He has more than 20 years of experience as a teacher, trainer and
researcher working in early childhood development in areas of capacity building,
research and documentation for advocacy and programme management, and has
been the National Co-ordinator, Tanzania Early Childhood Development Network, a
national network of organisations working in Tanzania to improve the lives of young
children from birth to eight years. He has served in different associations and
bodies nationally and internationally that advocate for early childhood
development as a foundation to human development and is the ACEI (Association
for Childhood Education International) Country Liaison for Tanzania. He has a PhD
in Education Administration from the State University of New York, Buffalo, USA, in
the area of early childhood education leadership and policy and their influences on
ECE access, equity and quality, and he has also completed an MA, BA and several
postgraduate professional courses on Children, Youth and Development.
Contributors |
305
11/01/2016 12:56
Yvette Coyle
Yvette Coyle is an Associate Professor at the University of Murcia in Spain where
she teaches future primary and pre-school teachers of EFL. Her research interests
include vocabulary acquisition in young learners, classroom interaction processes
and written feedback processing in children. She has published two books on
teaching methodology, and several papers in journals such as System, ELT Journal,
Journal of Second Language Writing and Studies in Second Language Acquisition.
Anne-Marie de Meja
Anne-Marie de Meja works at the Centro de Investigacin y Formacin en
Educacin at Universidad de los Andes, Bogot, Colombia. She holds a PhD in
Linguistics in the area of bilingual education from Lancaster University, UK. Her
research interests include bilingual classroom interaction, the construction of
bilingual curricula and processes of empowerment, and bilingual teacher
development. She is the author of a number of books and articles in the area of
bilingualism and bilingual education, both in Spanish and English.
Her latest publications include Forging Multilingual Spaces (2008); Empowering
Teachers across Cultures (2011), jointly edited with Christine Hlot; Bilingismo en
el Contexto Colombiano and Iniciativas y perspectivas en el Siglo XXI (2011), edited
with Alexis Lpez and Beatriz Pea; and Exploraciones sobre el aprendizaje de
lenguas y contenidos en programas bilinges (2012), edited with Beatriz Pea,
Mara Cristina Arciniegas and Marta Luisa Montiel.
Sally Dixon
Sally Dixon is a PhD candidate at The Australian National University. Her research
interests centre on language contact and multilingualism, particularly in the
context of education. Outside of academia she has worked as a community linguist
in the remote Pilbara, Australia, a professional mentor with the Bridging the
Language Gap Project within Education Queensland, and developed multilingual
curricula and resources in an Indigenous Education NGO in the Philippines.
Gail Ellis
Gail Ellis is Adviser, Young Learners and Quality, for the British Council and is
based in Paris. Her publications include Learning to Learn English, The Primary
English Teachers Guide and Tell it Again! Her latest publication is Teaching children
how to learn, co-authored with Nayr Ibrahim, published by Delta Publishing. Her
main interests are childrens literature, young learner ELT management and
inclusive education.
306
| Contributors
11/01/2016 12:56
Maria Evangelou
Maria Evangelou is Associate Professor in the Department of Education, University
of Oxford. She is the Course Director for the MSc in Education, the Course Director
for the MSc in Child Development and Education, and the Convenor of the FELL
Research Group (Families Effective Learning and Literacy) at Oxford. She carries
out extensive research in the areas of early childhood interventions, language and
literacy development in the early years and methodological issues in research, and
the role of evidence-based practices in education. She has published widely in
leading educational journals.
Silke Fricke
Silke Fricke is a Speech and Language Therapist (SLT) and a Senior Lecturer in the
Department of Human Communication Sciences at the University of Sheffield. As an
SLT she specialised in children with speech, language and literacy difficulties, and
she holds an MSc and PhD in Human Communication Sciences. Before joining the
University of Sheffield as a lecturer she worked as a Post-Doctoral Researcher at
the Department of Psychology, University of York. Her principal research interests
lie in the field of speech, language, and literacy development and difficulties
(including assessments) in monolingual and multilingual children, as well as the
evaluation of intervention approaches.
Lauren Gawne
Lauren Gawne is an ELDP (Early Language Development Programme) Research
Fellow at SOAS, University of London. Lauren was a member of the Aboriginal Child
Language Acquisition Project (ACLA) in 2013. Laurens other areas of research
interest include Tibeto-Burman languages, language documentation methods and
gesture in discourse.
Fred Genesee
Fred Genesee is Professor Emeritus in the Psychology Department at McGill
University, Montreal. He has conducted extensive research on alternative forms of
bilingual/immersion education for language minority and language majority
students. His current research interests include language acquisition in pre-school
bilingual children, internationally adopted children, second language reading
acquisition, and the language and academic development of at-risk students in
bilingual programmes. He has published numerous articles in scientific journals,
professional books and magazines, and is the author of more than twelve books on
bilingualism. He is the recipient of the Canadian Psychology Association Gold Medal
Award, Paul Pimsler Award for Research in Foreign Language Education, Canadian
Psychological Associate Award for Distinguished Contributions to Community or
Public Service, California Association for Bilingual Education Award for Promoting
Bilingualism and the le prix Adrien-Pinard.
Contributors |
307
11/01/2016 12:56
Paul Gunashekar
Paul Gunashekar has been teaching English, training teachers of English and
developing ELT instructional materials for over 40 years. Educated in Bangalore
and London, he is a professor in the Department of Materials Development, Testing
and Development, and Dean of Publications at the English and Foreign Languages
University, Hyderabad, India. He has authored, co-authored and edited over 200
English teaching books including coursebooks, workbooks, supplementary and
literature readers, teachers books and reading cards for national and state
agencies. He has conducted over 1,000 teacher education workshops in India,
Nepal, Sri Lanka, UAE, Kuwait, Oman, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Tanzania. He
specialises in course design, teacher development and English for Specific
Purposes. He edits the EFLU research journal Languaging and is the Indian English
consultant to the Oxford English Dictionary and Oxford Advanced Learners
Dictionary.
Sarah Hillyard
Sarah Hillyard is a teacher of English and holds a Masters Degree in Teaching
English to Young Learners from the University of York, UK. She has taught English in
Kindergarten and is currently Kindergarten Co-ordinator at Florence Nightingale
School in Buenos Aires, Argentina. She has also taught at secondary level and has
been tutor of Childrens Literature at the National Teacher Training College in the
city of Buenos Aires. She spent two years travelling as an actress with The
Performers (TIE Theatre in Education). She now develops workshops and has
published articles focusing on teaching English to very young learners.
Gill Millard
Gill Millard is a speech and language therapist with over 10 years experience
working with children with speech, language and communication needs. Initially
within the NHS, she worked with clients in clinics, early years settings, mainstream
and special schools. Following this she spent time in a special needs centre in
Guiyang, China, before working at ICANs Dawn House School, a specialist school
for primary- and secondary-aged children with severe and complex speech,
language and communication needs. She subsequently brought her clinical
experience to the field of research by joining the University of Sheffield as a
Research Assistant on two oral language intervention projects.
308
| Contributors
11/01/2016 12:56
Naashia Mohamed
Naashia Mohamed holds a PhD in Language Learning and Teaching from the
University of Auckland. She has previously taught ESL to students of all levels and
has led curriculum reform projects in the Maldives. She is currently a Senior
Lecturer at the Maldives National University, teaching courses that relate to
language, linguistics and research methods. Her research interests include
language pedagogy, language policy and language teacher education.
Gemma Morales
Gemma Morales is a PhD student in the Linguistics and Applied Linguistics
Department at the University of Melbourne, Australia. Gemmas research interests
include language use by minority children and bilingual education. Her current
research investigates the development of home language literacy skills in
Indigenous children from remote Indigenous communities in the Northern Territory,
Australia. Her work involves the creation of iPad apps designed to assess and train
phonological awareness and letter knowledge in Indigenous Languages. Gemma is
also working as a research assistant on the Aboriginal Child Language Acquisition
Project (ACLA).
Sandie Mouro
Sandie Mouro is a freelance teacher educator, author and consultant specialising
in early years language education and an invited assistant professor at Universidade
Nova in Lisbon, Portugal. She is co-editor of Early Years Second Language Education:
International Perspectives on Theory and Practice (Routledge) and the open access
Childrens Literature in English Language Education journal [http://clelejournal.org/],
as well as author of a number of language learning courses and resource books.
Her main research interests focus on early years language learning, picturebooks
in language learning and classroom-based research.
Nipael Mrutu
Nipael Mrutu holds a Bachelor of Laws degree from Tumaini University, Iringa,
Tanzania. She has worked as a Legal Officer for the United Law Chambers and as a
Resident Magistrate in Dodoma, Tanzania. She has an MA in Anthropology
specialising in child health and wellbeing from the University of Amsterdam (fully
funded competitive scholarship) and is in the final stages of writing up her PhD
thesis (fully funded competitive scholarship, University of Amsterdam) on Orphan
Care and Support Transformations in the Context of HIV/AIDS in Tanzania. She has
co-ordinated a number of health-related research projects in various regions of
Tanzania, such as Arusha, Iringa, Kilimanjaro and Mwanza, most of which have
focused on childrens rights and wellbeing. She is currently a full-time Lecturer at
the Aga Khan University, Institute for Educational Development, East Africa, where
she has teaching responsibilities in areas of research and early years education.
Contributors |
309
11/01/2016 12:56
Victoria A Murphy
Victoria Murphy is Professor of Applied Linguistics in the Department of Education,
University of Oxford. She is the Course Co-ordinator for the MSc in Applied
Linguistics/Second Language Acquisition and carries out research in the area of
child L2/FL development, EAL childrens language and literacy development, and
early years EAL and FL learning. She is the Convenor of the Research in English as
an Additional Language (REAL) group at Oxford and has been published in a wide
range of applied linguistics journals. She is the author of Second Language Learning
in the Early School Years: Trends and Contexts, published by Oxford University Press
in 2014.
Mei Lee Ng
Mei Lee Ng is an Assistant Professor and Associate Head of the Department of Early
Childhood Education, Hong Kong Institute of Education. Dr Ng has completed her
PhD studies at the Faculty of Education, Hong Kong University with her research
topic on teaching English to kindergarteners in Hong Kong. She obtained her two
Masters degrees on Teaching English as A Second Language and Early Childhood
Education from the Institute of Education, London University. Combining her two
specialisms, Dr Ng develops her particular interest in researching pre-schoolers
second language teaching and learning. In addition, her research interests also
include early literacy and language development, parents education and
parental involvement.
Johanne Paradis
Johanne Paradis is a Professor in the Department of Linguistics at the University of
Alberta. Before completing her PhD at McGill University, Paradis worked as a
teacher of English as a second language. Paradis studies bilingual language
acquisition, second language acquisition and specific language impairment in
children. A primary focus of her research concerns children learning English as a
second language: how these children approach native-speaker competence, what
unique language development profiles they display, the factors explaining why
some individual children learn English faster than others, and what language
measures best differentiate English second language children with typical
development from those with impairment. Paradis research has been supported by
funding from the Alberta Heritage Foundation for Medical Research, the Social
Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the Canadian Language and
Literacy Research Network, and the Alberta Centre for Child, Family and
Community Research. Paradis is first author of the 2011 book Dual Language
Development and Disorders: A Handbook on Bilingualism and Second Language
Learning (2nd edition, Brookes Publishing). Paradis and colleagues have a website
of resources for assessment with children learning English as a second language,
the CHESL Centre (www.chesl.ualberta.ca).
310
| Contributors
11/01/2016 12:56
Alan Pence
Alan Pence is UNESCO Chair for Early Childhood Education, Care and Development,
and Professor, School of Child and Youth Care, University of Victoria. Dr Pence is
the founder of the Early Childhood Development Virtual University (ECDVU), an ECD
capacity-promoting programme active in Africa since 2001. The author of over 130
articles and chapters, two of his books that relate closely to this volume are Africas
Future Africas Challenge: Early Childhood Care and Development in Sub-Saharan
Africa (edited with Garcia and Evans, 2008) and Complexities, Capacities,
Communities: Changing Development Narratives in ECD (with Benner, 2015). He is
the recipient of the International Education Leadership Award from the Canadian
Bureau for International Education, the University of Victorias inaugural
Craigdarroch Research Award for societal benefit, and a finalist for the World
Innovation Summit for Education (WISE) Award.
Susan Poetsch
Susan Poetsch is a PhD candidate at the Australian National University. Her
research is on childrens language acquisition and use in home and school contexts
in a remote community in central Australia. She is also a lecturer in the Education
Faculty at the University of Sydney, where she teaches units of study on
morphology of Australian languages, language teaching methods and approaches,
and curriculum development, in a programme for Indigenous Australian teachers.
Pauline Rea-Dickins
Pauline Rea-Dickins has worked for the Aga Khan University in East Africa, where
she was Director, Institute for Educational Development, East Africa, and Principal,
Tanzania Institute of Education. She has also held appointments at the University of
Bristol, as Chair in Applied Linguistics in Education and Director of Research in the
Graduate School of Education, and the Universities of Warwick, Lancaster and Dar
es Salaam, Tanzania. She is currently affiliated with the Oxford University Centre for
Assessment Studies. Pauline is an internationally recognised researcher and
scholar in areas of language testing, classroom-based assessment, and language
programme evaluation. She has successfully supervised over 30 doctoral students,
several of whom have won international awards, and has an extensive record of
successful research grants, most notably from the Economic and Social Science
Council, the Department for International Development and the Department for
Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada. Pauline has worked extensively in
a variety of capacities throughout her career in Sub-Saharan Africa, which has
impacted on her profound belief that research should impact on the quality of
educational experiences, especially for those learning in less privileged contexts.
Contributors |
311
11/01/2016 12:56
Penelope Robinson
Penelope Robinson has worked in several countries as a schoolteacher, a teacher
trainer and a university lecturer. She joined the School of Education at Leeds
University in 2000 and specialised in language development and the teaching of
languages to young learners. Her primary research interest is in the processes
involved in the acquisition and learning of English as an additional and a foreign
language, and the development of effective teaching practices that enable learners
to understand and use English. She is also interested in the development of teacher
knowledge and expertise through practitioner research, especially in the young
learner classroom.
Kalyani Samantray
Kalyani Samantray has taught undergraduate and postgraduate courses in English
language and literature in different colleges, and in the PG Department of English,
Utkal University, Odisha, India, chairing the department for two years. She has an
MA in Applied Linguistics from the University of London and a PhD in Phonology.
Among her publications are ESL textbooks, textbooks on technical English and
academic writing, teacher education materials, online learning materials and
several research articles published by Oxford University Press, Cambridge
University Press, Orient Blackswan, the National Council for Educational Research
for Teachers, Government of India, IG National Open University, New Delhi, and
State Councils for Higher Education. She has conducted more than 300 ELT
workshops in India and abroad. She is an Article Editor for Sage One, Sage
Publication Inc, USA; a certified TKT Trainer, British Council; and a Teacher Educator
for Oxford University Press, University Grants Commission and NCERT, Government
of India. She has worked as a consultant for UNICEF in developing ESL Primary
Readers for tribal learners. Her current research interests are young learners and
language learning, critical discourse analysis, focus-on-form grammar and
intercultural communication.
312
| Contributors
11/01/2016 12:56
K Padmini Shankar
K Padmini Shankar is a professor in the Department of ESL Studies, School of
English Language Education, English and Foreign Languages University,
Hyderabad, India, where she teaches on the Postgraduate Diploma in the Teaching
of English (PGDTE), MA (TESL), and PhD (ELE) programmes at the university.
Professor Shankar has presented papers at many seminars and conferences in
India, and international conferences in Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, New Zealand,
Thailand, and the UK. She has published research papers in national and
international journals. She has edited coursebooks for grades 18, titled Exploring
English, published by Harper Collins, India. Her research interests include teaching
young learners, teacher education and teacher development, classroom-based
research and psychology for language learning.
Shelina Walli
Shelina Walli graduated with an MEd in Teacher Education from the Aga Khan
University, Institute for Educational Development, East Africa, where she now holds
the position of Lecturer. She is currently enrolled in a doctoral programme at the
University of Arizona, Department of Teaching Learning and Socio-cultural studies,
with a Major in Early Childhood Education. She has over 25 years of experience in
the field of early childhood care and education in varied capacities including
classroom teaching, management and teacher education. Her research interests
include integration of contextually relevant practices in early childhood
practitioner preparation and the use of ICT in continuous professional development
of place-bound early childhood practitioners. Shelina has been involved in several
research projects at the Aga Khan University in blended learning initiatives and has
been an online tutor on the Science of Early Childhood Development programme
from Red River College.
Gillian Wigglesworth
Gillian Wigglesworth is professor and Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Arts at the
University of Melbourne. She is a Chief Investigator and leader of the Melbourne
node of the ARC Centre of Excellence for the Dynamics of Language. She is also
Deputy Director of the Research Unit for Indigenous Language. She has an
extensive background in first and second language acquisition and bilingualism,
as well as language assessment. Her major research focus is on the multilingual
communities in which Indigenous children in remote areas of Australia grow up,
and how languages in these communities interact with English once children
attend school.
Contributors |
313
11/01/2016 12:56
314
| Contributors
11/01/2016 12:56
Acknowledgements
Victoria and Maria would like to thank all the contributors to the book for their
enthusiasm and perseverance in putting this volume together. They would also like
to thank Adrian Odell for his support and patience throughout the development of
this volume. He was most calm and accommodating as deadlines flew past like
leaves in the wind. Thanks also go to Charlotte Clancy for her help in the final
stages of editing.
Contributors |
315
11/01/2016 12:56
This publication offers the reader an up-to-date snapshot of current issues related
to English language learning and teaching in Early Childhood Education and Care
(ECEC) settings for speakers of languages other than English. The volume presents
global perspective discussions from leading contributors to the field, as well as
a range of specific case study chapters which present more focussed projects
that have been carried out within a range of international contexts. A variety of
different topics are covered, including the role of parents, teacher education
and qualifications, establishing good practice and the role of the first language
in teaching English to young learners. The volume therefore provides a summary
of current work and highlights key issues which need to be included in the
development of a framework for good practice.
Victoria Murphy, co-editor of this publication, is Professor of Applied Linguistics
in the Department of Education, University of Oxford. She is the Course Coordinator for the MSc in Applied Linguistics/Second Language Acquisition and
carries out research in the area of child second language and foreign language
development, English as an Additional Language (EAL) childrens language and
literacy development, and early years EAL and foreign language learning. She is
the Convenor of the Research in English as an Additional Language (REAL) group
at Oxford and has been published in a wide range of applied linguistics journals.
She is the author of Second Language Learning in the Early School Years.
Maria Evangelou, co-editor of this publication, is Associate Professor in the
Department of Education, University of Oxford. She is the Course Director for
the MSc in Education, the Pathway Leader for the MSc in Child Development and
Education, and the Convenor of the Families Effective Learning and Literacy (FELL)
Research Group at Oxford. She carries out extensive research in the areas of early
childhood interventions, language and literacy development in the early years; ways
that we can enhance parental engagement in childrens learning and the effects
of the Home Learning Environment. She has recently been involved in a number
of studies on early years professional development. She has published widely in
leading educational journals. Her methodological expertise covers longitudinal
studies, quasi-experimental designs, mixed methods and systematic reviews.
www.teachingenglish.org.uk
www.britishcouncil.org/learnenglish
www.britishcouncil.org/learnenglishteens
www.britishcouncil.org/learnenglishkids
www.britishcouncil.org
ISBN 978-0-86355-782-8
British Council 2016
The British Council is the United Kingdoms international organisation
for cultural relations and educational opportunities.