WORKSHEET 3

Aim
To determine the rate of drying.
Theory
The rotary dryer is a type of industrial dryer employed to reduce or minimize the liquid moisture
content of the material it is handling by bringing it into direct contact with a heated gas. The dryer
is made up of a large, rotating cylindrical tube, mounted on rollers. The dryer slopes slightly so that
the discharge end is lower than the material feed end in order to convey the material through the
dryer under gravity. Material to be dried enters the dryer, and as the dryer rotates, the material is
lifted up by a series of internal fins lining the inner wall of the dryer. When the material gets high
enough to roll back off the fins, it falls back down to the bottom of the dryer, passing through the
hot gas stream as it falls. When the gas stream is preheated by some means the dryer is known as
an indirect-heated type, used when product contamination is a concern. Drying of material is
mostly final operation in manufacturing process carried out immediately to packaging. Drying is
carried out to reduce transportation cost, to remove moisture which may lead to corrosion, & to
make material handling.
Procedure
1. Set the preheating temperature for air with help of digital temperature controller.
2. Run down blower & note wet- & dry- bulb temperatures.
3. Switch on heater & wait till set point temperature is achieved.
4. Fill feed hopper with wet solid.
5. Start motor of dryer.
6. Allow feed to flow through dryer by operating screw conveyor slowly.
7. At steady state record manometer reading.
Assumptions
1. No heat loss from dryer.
2. Heat is applied to the material only from air.

Observations & Calculations

Orifice diameter, d0 = 26 mm
Pipe diameter, dp = 52 mm
Density of air, air = 1.21 kg/m3
Density of manometer liquid, m = 1000 kg/m3

Dry bulb temperature = . oC

Wet bulb temperature = oC
Head measured from the manometer:

Air flow rate measured through orifice meter:

Mass flow rate of wet air:

Mass flow rate of dry air:

Rate of drying:

Result
The rate of drying calculated from the experiment is .. kg/s for dry air
mass flow rate of . kg/s.

WORKSHEET 4

Aim
To study the fundamentals of cooling tower.

Theory
Cooling tower is a heat removal device used to transfer process waste heat to the
atmosphere. It may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and
cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or in the case of closed
circuit dry cooling towers rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the drybulb air temperature. The tower should be located in an open space where the
movement of air can be free. Common applications include cooling the circulating
water used in oil refineries, chemical plants, power stations and building cooling. The
towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid structures that
can be up to 200 metres tall and 100 metres in diameter, or rectangular structures
that can be over 40 metres tall and 80 metres long.

Procedure

1. Fill the water tank up to half of its capacity.

2. Switch on the main board, check voltage. It should not be less than 190 V.
3. Switch on the heater.
4. After heating water in the tank, start the pump & circulate the water at full
flow, Wc to equalize the temperature. To raise the water temperature further,
geyser may be switched on.

5. Start the blower and ensure that its suction valve is open.
6. Adjust the water flow rate at any desired value & note the inlet temperature of
water, Twi.

7. Note down the temperature of air coming in for both wet-bulb, T ab & dry-bulb
temperatures.

8. Run the machine at least for 30 minutes & take the reading of outlet water
temperature, Two.

Observations & Calculations

Twi = .. C

= .C

Two = .. C
Tab = .. C
Wc = . ltr/hr
Time, t = . mins

Approach:
= .C

Range:

Efficiency:

= . %

Cooling capacity:
= . kCal/h

Evaporation Loss:

= .

Water make up:

Drift loss, Wd = 0.1 0.2 % of inlet water rate = ..

= .

= .
= .

Liquid Gas ratio:

= .

Result
The effectiveness is % for the range .C.

WORKSHEET 5
Aim
Evaluation of mass transfer coefficient of gas in a wetted wall using air-water system.

Theory
In the wetted-wall column, a film of water cascades along the inner surface of a tube
and the gas flows counter currently up. The area for mass transfer is known if ripple or
wave formation is avoided and neglected. The water vapor partial pressure in the
flowing gas increases due to evaporation from water film that defines the humidity
which, in turn, is determined conveniently via wet-bulb and dry-bulb measurements.
Since the liquid is pure, the concentration gradient for diffusion exists entirely within
the gas phase, the mass transfer coefficient Kg may be calculated. The equation given
by Sherwood and Gillard which describes all the data for both liquid and gas flow is
;
where

and subscript
Evaporation of volatile liquid in the column results in cooling of the liquid and
consequent simultaneous heat transfer between liquid and gas.

Procedure

1. Water is fed to the column at a rate at which complete wetting with a minimum
of ripples formation is visible.

2. The blower is started and minimum flow of air is maintained and measured with
the help of manometer fitted on the set up.

3. After about 5 minutes, when steady state condition reaches, the humidity of air
at inlet and outlet are determined by the readings of the wet and dry bulb
thermometers and by the use of a psychometric chart.

4. Measure the water inlet and outlet temperatures. Vapor pressure of water at
different water temperatures is calculated.

Observations

where
Ho, i enthalpy of air at outlet & inlet temperatures
Po, i partial pressures of water vapors in outlet & inlet gas stream
v volumetric flow rate of air
KG mass transfer coefficient of air
D column diameter
V velocity of air

, viscosity & density of air

A cross sectional area of the column
P total pressure of the system
NA moles of water vapor evaporated
M molecular weights

Results
The value for the mass transfer coefficient from the experiment .. and
from the theory is

WORKSHEET 6
Aim
To study about Height Equivalent to Theoretical Plate & Height of a Transfer Unit.
Theory
Height of a Transfer Unit (HTU): is a dimensionless parameter used to calculate countercurrent
sorption tower operations; it is proportional to the apparent resident time of the fluid. It is a
measure of the separation effectiveness of the particular packing for a particular separation process.
The overall HTU is incorporates the overall mass transfer coefficient. The values of HTU can be
estimated from empirical correlations or pilot plant tests.
The number of transfer units (NTU) required is a measure of the difficulty of the separation. A
single transfer unit gives the change of composition of one of the phases equal to the average
driving force producing the change. The NTU is similar to the number of theoretical trays required
for trayed column. Hence, a larger number of transfer units will be required for high purity product.
Packing height:
The calculation of packing height can be based on either the gas-phase or the liquid-phase. Using
either gas-phase or liquid-phase formula should yield the same required packing height.
For the gas-phase: height of packing,

z = NOG x HOG

KY the overall gas-phase mass transfer coefficient.

a is the packing parameter that characterize the wetting characteristics of the packing material
(area/volume).
G gas phase flow rate
y1* mole fraction of solute in vapor that is in equilibrium with the liquid of mole fraction x1.
y2* mole fraction of solute in vapor that is in equilibrium with the liquid of mole fraction x2.
(y1 - y1*) is the concentration difference driving force for mass transfer in the gas phase at point 1
(bottom of column)
(y2 - y2*) is the concentration difference driving force for mass transfer in the gas phase at point 2
(top of column)

Height Equivalent to Theoretical Plate (HETP): A theoretical plate in many separation processes is
a hypothetical zone or stage in which two phases, the liquid and vapor phases, establish
equilibrium with each other. Such stages are referred as ideal tray or a theoretical tray. The
performance of many separation processes depends on having a series of equilibrium stages and is
enhanced by providing more such stages. In other words, having more theoretical plates increases
the efficacy of the separation process be it either a distillation, absorption, chromatographic,
adsorption or similar process.
The concept of theoretical trays is used in the design of many different types of separation.
Any physical device that provides good contact between the vapor and liquid phases present in
industrial distillation columns or laboratory-scale glassware distillation columns constitutes a
"plate" or "tray". Since an actual, physical plate is rarely a 100% efficient equilibrium stage, the
number of actual plates is more than the required theoretical plates. So we have to use the concept
of HETP.

where,
Na the number of actual, physical plates or trays
Nt the number of theoretical plates or trays
E the plate or tray efficiency

There is a very important distinction between the theoretical plate terminology used in discussing
conventional distillation trays and the theoretical plate terminology used in the discussions below
of packed bed distillation or absorption or in chromatography or other applications. The theoretical
plate in conventional distillation trays has no "height". It is simply a hypothetical equilibrium stage.
However, the theoretical plate in packed beds, chromatography and other applications is defined as
having a height.
Distillation and absorption separation processes using packed beds for vapor and liquid contacting
have an equivalent concept referred to as the plate height or the height equivalent to a theoretical
plate (HETP).
HETP arises from the same concept of equilibrium stages as does the theoretical plate and is
numerically equal to the packed bed length divided by the number of theoretical plates in the
column.

where,
Nt the number of theoretical plates
H the total bed height
HETP the height equivalent to a theoretical plate.

WORKSHEET 7
Aim
To get familiarized with the flooding characteristics of a packed column.
Theory
Packed towers are vertical columns filled with a suitable packing and normally
operate counter currently. Liquid enters the top of the column and is
distributed over the column packing via nozzles or distributor plates. Liquid
flows downward while contacting with the vapor phase coming up from the

bottom. Internal packing provides a large surface area for two-phase contact
and facilitates transfer of mass between phases.
For the pressure drop of a single-phase fluid flowing through a packed bed of
solids, the Ergun equation is used. The following equation applies only to the
dry air runs:

where:
P = pressure drop across column, lbf/ft2
Z = packed bed height, ft
g = air viscosity, lbm/ft h
= fractional void volume, dimensionless
gc = Newtons law proportionality factor = 32.174 ft-lbm/lbf-s2
ap = square feet of packing surface in a cubic foot of packed volume
g

= fluid (air) density, lbm/ft3

G = Superficial air mass velocity, lbm/ft2.h

dp = effective particle diameter, ft

Packing Characteristics

Packing materials must have the following characteristics:

large wetted surface area per unit volume of packed space (this allows a large interfacial
area to exist)

large void volume (needed for low pressure drops)

good wetting characteristics

corrosion resistance

low bulk density

low cost.

No one type of packing will possess all these characteristics; therefore, compromises normally are
made.
The tower packing method is also an important consideration for effective phase
contact. Channeling often occurs in a packed tower. This phenomenon takes place when the fluid
moving down the column moves towards the region of greatest void space; this occurs at the region
near the wall where the packing is not tightly packed. Thus, liquid redistributors are used to
redirect the fluid flow towards the column center.
Column diameter and pressure drop
In determining the column diameter, the limiting (maximum) gas velocity is used. This is because
the higher the gas velocity, the greater the resistance that will be encountered by the down-flowing
liquid and the higher the pressure drop across the packing.
Too high a gas velocity will lead to a condition known as flooding whereby the liquid filled the
entire column and the operation became difficult to carry out. High pressure will crush and damage
the packing in the column. To examine the relationship between the gas pressure drop and gas
velocity, refer to the Figure below.

The horizontal axis is the logarithmic value of the gas velocity G, and the vertical axis is the
logarithmic value of pressure drop per height of packing pressure drop in a packed bed is the result
of fluid friction that is created by the flow of gas and liquid around the individual solid packing
materials.
Note: Each packing has its own characteristics pressure drop chart as reported by the manufacturer
- for example, see the Figure above.
Analysis of Gas Pressure Drop in Packing
With a dry packing (i.e. no liquid flow, L = 0), pressure drop increases as gas velocity increases
according to the linear relationship.

With liquid flowing in the column, the packing now become wetted (irrigated). Part of void volume
in the packing now filled with liquid, thereby reducing the cross-sectional area available for gas
flow. At the same gas velocity, the pressure drop is higher for wetted packing compared to dry
packing.
For a constant liquid flow at low to moderate gas velocity G; the pressure drop characteristics is
similar to that of dry packing, i.e. section b-c of the plot is still straight on log-log plot. Up to this
point, there is an orderly trickling of the liquid down the packing. There is no observable liquid
being trapped among the packing (no liquid hold-up).
As the gas velocity is increased further, the pressure drop increased. Some liquid started to be
retained in the packing and there is a change in slope of the line as pressure drop increases more
rapidly with G at point c is known as the loading point, as liquid starts to accumulate (load) in the
packing.
From point c to d to e, there is a sharp increase in pressure drop at higher G: there is a greater
amount of liquid hold-up, a gradual filling of the packing voids with liquid (starting at the bottom
of the column), and the column is slowly "drowned" in the liquid.
At point e, there is another sharp change in the slope. At this point the entire column is filled liquid
and the gas now has to bubble through the liquid in the packing voids. The gas pressure drop is
now very high. Point e is known as the flooding point. The gas velocity at this point is known as
the flooding velocity (limiting velocity).
Points to note:
- at constant liquid rate, gas pressure drop increases with gas velocity.
- at constant gas velocity, the gas pressure drop is higher at larger liquid rate.
- each liquid rate has its own loading and flooding points.
- at higher liquid rate, the loading and flooding points occur at lower gas pressure drop.
Operation of a gas absorption column is not practical above the loading point. For optimum design,
the recommended gas velocity is 1/2 of the flooding velocity. Alternatively, some design can be

based on a specified pressure drop condition, usually well below the pressure drop at which
flooding would occur.