PT-1993-Skeletal Muscle Mechanics - Implications For Rehabilitation-OTIMO
PT-1993-Skeletal Muscle Mechanics - Implications For Rehabilitation-OTIMO
PT-1993-Skeletal Muscle Mechanics - Implications For Rehabilitation-OTIMO
for Rehabilitation
Skeletal muscles are the pn'mury organ system responsible for force generation
and motlement. As such, an improved understanding of normal movement can
be obtained by understanding skeletal muscle mechanical propm'es. In this review, we present the basic mechanical properties of skeletal muscle in a way that
relates to their normalfunction. First, isometricforce production is discussed
followed by a presentation of isotonicforce production. Then, skeletal muscle
architectural properties are presented as a strategy for muscles to specialize in
either force production or excursion. Finally, we discm the relationship between
muscles and joints and the signiJicanceof this relationship for undemanding
strength. Based on this presentation, the therapist will have an improved understanding of normal movement and may have imghts into developing rehabilitation protocols that can improvefunction. [LieberRL,Bodine-Fowler SC. Skeletal
muscle mechanics: implicationsfor rehabilitation. Phys Thm 1993;73:844456]
Rlchard L Lleber
Sue C Bodlne-Fowler
Length-Tenslon Relatlonshlp:
lsometrlc Muscle Contraction
The original biological experiments
performed by Blixl demonstrated that
844 / 25
Length = Lo-40%
Length =
Length = Lo-20%
Sarcomere LengthmTenslon
Relatlonshlp
Length = Lo -10%
Length = Lo
Length = Lo+lO%
Length = Lo +20%
Length = Lo +so%
Length = Lo +40%
Figure 1. Experimental determination of the length-tension curve. Each trace represents a schematic isometric tetanic contraction at a particular length. Lo=optimal
length; AT=active tension; PT=passive tension, shown as the distance between the
dashed line and beginning of curve (only sfgnificant at lengths above Lo). These values
are combined to produce their relationship described in Figure 2.
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
M~osln
Actln
myoRbrlla
Length-Tenslon Curve
At a sarcomere length of 2.0 km, the
A
Velocity = 40% Vmax
Muscle Length # I
Force = 2590 Po
Muscle Force # I
= 6% Vmax
Muscle Force #2
!7
Force = 150% Po
Force-Veloclty Relatlonshlp:
lsotonlc Muscle Contractlon
Force = 75% Po
Muscle Length #3
Muscle Force #3
1s
200-
Isometric
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
no150 -
g 100-
LL
-a
53
5
0
-100 -75
1
-50
-25
25
50
75
100
Experimental elucidation of the forcevelocity relationship was first presented by Hille and Katz? but the
current description of the force-
Velocity
(% Po)'
(% Vm=)b
100
0.0
95
1.o
90
2.2
75
6.3
50
16.6
Concentrlc Contractlons-Muscle
Actlvely Shortenlng
contraction velocity
Eccentrlc Contractlons-Muscle
Actlvely Lengthenlng
ADP
pi
;:E
ATP
.---,
,.-,
,--
'ACTIN
-.
.-
.-
Flgure 5. Relationship between biochemical reactions and mechanical force produced during the cross-bridgecycle (+actin represents association of actin and myosin
filaments; -actin represents dissociation of actin from myosin). ATP=adenosine triphosphate; M=rnyosin; ADP=adenosine diphosphate; P,=inorganic phosphate; A=actin.
(Reprinted with permission fmm Lieber.I8)
Physical Therapy/Volume 73, Number 12December 1993
SOL (6800)
am-
'r
E
hG
VL
3.000-
&!
2800:
2,000-
VI
VM
TP
0,
.E
!l
SM
1800-
1,000
m-
BF
RF
PL
TA
POP
AL
EDL
F ~ F H L ~ ~
o
20
.
40
60
OR (277,177)
SAR (455,170)
PEC
EHL
PLT
ST
AB
80
~
120
100
~
140
~
180
160
lncreasing Excursion
B
cO
PT
400-
i:
-f
FCU
EDC
E C R 6 ~ ~ ~
200'
.E
0,
300:
Pa
FCR
FPL
FDs (L)
FDP (S)
FDP (1)
FDS (R)
100
EPL
EDC(R)
Pa ED0
FDP (L)
(Rim(I)
ECRL
BR (121)
EDC (L)
CIP
FDS (s)
ED2 (S)
07
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Figure 6. Architectural properties of the (A) lower limb and (B) upper limb, plotted
in t e r n of physiological cross-sectional area (which is proportional to maximum muscle force) and muscle fiber length (which is proportional to muscle excursion).
AB=adductor breuis;AL=adductor longus; AM=adductor magnus; BF=biceps femoris;
EDL =extensor digitorum longus; EHL =extensor hallucis longus; FDL =flexor digitorum
longus; GR=gracilis;FHL=fexor hallucis longus; MG=medial gastrocnemius;
PEC=pectineus; PB=peroneus breuis; PL=peroneus longus; PLT=plantaris;
POP=politeus; RF=rectusfemoris; SAR=sartorius; SM=semimembranosus;SOL=soleus;
ST=semitendinosus: TA=tibialis anterior; TP=tibialis Dosterior; VI=uastus intermedius;
VL=vastus lateralis;' VM=uastus medialis; BR= brachidradialis;bra extensor carpi ul-'
naris; ECRB=extensor carpi radialis breuis; ECRL=extensor carpi radialis longus; EDC
(I), EDC (L), EDC (R), and EDC (S)=extensor digitorum communis to the index, long,
ring, and small fingers, respectiuely; EDQ=extensor digiti quinti; EIP=extensor indicis
proprius; EPL=extensor pollicis longus; FCU=fexor carpi ulnaris; FCR=flexor carpi
radialis; FDP (I), FDP (L), FDP (R), and FDP (S)=flexor di''torum profundus to the
index, long, ring, and smallfingets, respectively;FDS (I), FDS (L), FDS (R), and FDS
(S)=flexor digirorum supe$cialis to the index, long, ring, and small fingers, respectiuely; FPL =flexor pollicis longus; PQ =pronutor quadratus; PS=palmaris longus;
PT=pronator teres (Datafrom Wickiewicz et alZ1and Lieber and colleag~es.25~26
Reprinted with pennision from Lieber.18)
30 / 849
A+M+ATP+
A + M + A D P + P i +Force
VELOCITY
FORCE
VELOCITY
FORCE
Figure 7. General design offunctional musclegroups within the lower limb. Left
to right: hamstrings, quadriceps femoris, dorszjlexors, and plantarflexors. Note that the
plantar-flexor and quadricepsfemoris muscles are designed primarily for high forces,
whereas the dorsflexor and hamstring muscles are designed primarily for high excursions FL =fiber length;ML =muscle length.
(3) A
+ .v + A
. M iM"rigorw
compla
The relationship between the LymnTaylor kinetic scheme and the mechanical cross-bridge cycle is not fully
known. Lyrnn and Taylor,'3 however,
proposed that their biochemical data
could be incorporated into a four-step
cross-bridge cycle that could be envis i ~ n e das
(Fig. 5):
1. The actin-myosin bridge very rap-
850 / 31
A
1
Tendon
Force-Generating Properties of
Muscles With Different
Archltectures
Flgure 8. Schematic drawing of two muscles with direrent architecture: (A) muscle
with short fibers and large cross-sectional area; (B) muscle with long fibers and small
cross-sectional area. FL =fiber length; ML= muscle length; CSA=muscle physiological
cross-sectional area. (Reprinted with permission from Lieber.I8)
muscle, all fibers will not be present
in a given anatomical plane.
t\
10
15
20
25
(6)
10
15
20
25
Torque Deflnltlon
We have discussed isolated muscle
properties, but in the musculoskeletal
system, muscles generate force and
transmit the force, via tendons, to the
bones. If muscles generate sufficient
force, bones rotate about joint axes.
We thus have a mechanical system
7=
852 / 33
Force (F)
1
,
Radius (r)-I
Torque (z)
Flgure 11. Schematic illustration of change in moment arm as a function of elbow joint angle rotation: (A) Elbow almost fully extended (8=20); (B) elbow flexed
(8=50). (Reprinted with permission from Lieber.I8)
34 / 853
,
I
I
j
I
I
Full Flexion
Full Extension
Full Flexion
Full Extension
cle insertion to the axis of joint rotation). This idea is illustrated in Figure
12, in which we have attached a simulated "muscle" using two different
moment arms. In Figure 12A, the
moment arm is much less than in
Figure 12B. This means that in Figure
12.4, the muscle will change length
much less for a given change in joint
angle compared with the same
change in joint angle in Figure 12B.
As a result, the active ROM for the
muscle-joint system shown in Figure
1% will be much greater than that
shown in Figure 12B in spite of the
fact that their muscular properties are
identical. In this example, increasing
the moment arm decreased the ROM
from 40 degrees (Fig. 1%) to only 25
degrees (Fig. 12B).
We should now qualify the previous
statement about muscle design and
architecture. Muscles that are, for
example, designed for speed because
of their very long fibers may not actually produce large velocities of contraction if they are placed in position
with a very large moment arm. The
increased moment arm causes a
greater joint moment, and the muscle
is actually best suited for torque production. Similarly, a muscle that appears to be designed for force production due to the large PCSA, if
placed in position with a very small
moment arm, may actually produce
high joint excursions o r angular velocities. Thus, muscle design may o r
may not be a reflection of its actual
use in the physiologic muscle-joint
torque-generating system. In general,
muscle fiber length and muscle moment arm are positively correlated.32
Thus, muscles with long fibers tend to
have long moment arms, but this is
not necessarily the case. Muscle architectural features may represent muscle adaptation to kinematic criteria.
Summary
Skeletal muscles represent a clear
example of a structure function relationship. Isometric contractile properties result from the relative overlap of
actin and myosin contractile filaments.
Isotonic force results from the timing
of the interaction between actin and
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Editor
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