Water covers over 67% of the world, and makes up 65% of humans,it makes up

5% of the worlds mass, the atmosphere is the only sphere that water appears in
all three states, snow, rain, water vapour. Over 99% of the water is found in the
hydrosphere.
Density = Mass / volume
D = m/v
The desnity of water changes as its temperature changes.
Waters density is given as 1.0 g ml, which means that 1 gram of water has a
volume of 1 milliltere.
Waters desnity decreases as it freezes as it expands.
If salt is dissolved in water to form salt water then, the salt is the solute and it is
soluble in water. The water is called the solvent and the salt water mixture is
calleda solution. Water solutions are called aqueous solutions.
Solutions are hhomogeounous ( same throughout)
Substances that do not dissolve are called insoluble, these often form
suspensions, as there are two layers forming
Water is sometimes titled the universal solvent, as so many things can dissolve
in it. Other things an be solvents they are called non aquesous solvents, such as
ethanol. Somethings can dissolve in ethanol but not in water.
Solutes do not have to be solids they cn also be liquads or gases, liquid inks can
dislolve and are soluble in water, or alcohol, or methylated spirits.
Some gases such as oxygen can dissolve to some extent in water, this dissolved
oxugen in water is what fish use to breathe.
Water is incredibly important in living things, it is used as a reactant in
photosynthesis.
Water is used as a solvent, all the chemical reactions of cells occur in solution. In
digestion foods are broken down into ions and molecules hich are solutes in the
solvent water.
Blood is 83% water, so it acts a means of tranpor for thing to move around the
body.
As a growth medium for example the amniotic sack is largely water
As a lubricant, the fluid in your joints are largerly water
Water also provides a habitat for many of the worlds animals, these habitats are
known as marine habitats or aquatic habitatas, animals oiving here find it much
easier to regulate ther temperature as the water does not heat uo and cool down
nearly as much as the land.
The theory behind this lies in the specific heat capacity. This is the heat needed
to raise a 1 kg of a substance by 1 kelvin degree. (1 kelvin = 1 celcius) Water
has a higher specific hat capacity than most other substances this means that

more enegyr is required to heat ti up, and therefore he temorature change is

The breakdown of rocks into smaller things is called whethering, the mains cause
or agent of whethering on earth is water. Weathering of rocks is important
because I produces soil.
Physucal wethering is the wearing away or cracking of rocks by water, causing
phsycial chages, Without changing the chemical composition of the rock.
Chemical weathering is the changing of the chemical composition of rock by
water. E.g. acid rain, where CO2 in the air ix with ater vapour to form carbonic
acid in rain.
The water cycle is the path water takes over its course on earth. Water is used
for domesic purpose e.g. cooking, toilets, washing machine, taps. And
agricultureal use e.g. spray crops, wash animals, clean stables, fih nurseries, and
liserure and recreational use eg. Fishing, ice skating, water polo, fountains.
This leads to a high demand for water and in time of draught this can be scarce.
Water runoff can pollute water ways.
Compared ot metals and ionic compounds water has a very low melting and
boiling point, this is to be expected as water is a covelen molecular compound.
However compared to other molecular componds the melting and boiling points
are remarkable, much mch hgher than other hydrides of a similar mass.
Suface tension refers to the forces acting on the surface of liquads and is
measure of the resistance of a liquid to increase its surface area.
Viscosity of a liquid is a measuer of its resistance to flow or to be poured.
The unsual propertis of water can be explained by its molecular level. Water has
strong covelent bonds iside the molecules (intramolecular) and weaker forces
between the molecules (Intermolecular)
The covelent bonding of water involves the sharing of electrons between the
oxygen and the hydrogen atoms, and each atom achieving stable elctron
configuration of a noble gas
The shape of a water molecule is bent ( v shaped) rather than a striagh line.
There are 4 pairs of electrons, which are slightly negatively charged so they repel
each other as much as possible, the two hydrogen atoms joi on to 2 or the pairs
of elctrons, this then makes it a bent shape, which is polarised.

Polar bonds are covelent bonds where the shared electrons are not shared
equally. In a molecule such as hydrogen each hatom shares the same amount of
electrons and they are shared equally, however when different toms coevelently
join the electron are not shared equally. For example, in the hydrogen chloride
molecule, the more electronegative chlorine atoms attract the electrons of the
bon more than the hydrogen atoms, this makes the chlorine side of the molecule
slightly more negative and the hydrogen sde slightly more positive. This is known
as a polar bond and the bond is said to for a dipole. A structure with two harged
side.
A molecule such as methane has 4 polar bond, however as the molecule is
complelty symmetrical on all sides then the polarity cancel out, and the molecule
is non polar.
The wate molecule is a po;ar molecule as the two O-H bonds are polar and are
not on opposite sides of the molecule. Therefore the polarity does not cancel out.
The forces between molecules are usualy called intermolecular forces, these
forces aremcuh weaker than covelent bonds.
Intermolecular forces fall into 2 catogries, disoersion forces and dipole dipole
forces. Disperfsion forces are the forces beween non olar molecules, e.g. oxygen
molecules. These forces aruse from a short lived change in electron distribution
in molecules hich cause temproray attractive forces between molecules. Dipole
dipole forces are the forces between polar molecules e.g. hydrogen choldirde
molecules. These forces arise from the permanent dipoles of molecules which
result in electrostatic attraction between the molecules.
Hyrdogen bonding is a specia form of dipole dipole intermolecular forces.
Hydrogen bonds are electrostatic attractions between the slightly positive
hydrogen atoms of one molecule and a highly eletrongative atom, such as
oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine. Of another molecule.
Hydrogen bonds aremuch weaker than typical covelent bonds however sronger
than typical dipole dipole bonding. They are perticulary prominent in water.
Water molecules are held together by dispersion forces, dipole dipole and alsto
trong hydrogen bonds.
Water epands when it frezzes so the same mass occupies a larger area, therefore
its density decreases. An thefreo ice floats on water.
In liquid water, molecules are held together by hydrogen bondsand fit relatively
closely together. , in ice the hydrogen bonds force the molecule further apart as
the form a 3d crystal lattice.
Suface tension is due to unbalanced downward force from toher molecules acing
on molecules at the surface.
The bonds between molecules 9 H Bonds) are strong, and thefreo increase water
surface tension.
Viscosity depends on the fores between molecules, the forces in water are quite
high ( H bonds) which makes it hard for anmals to move through water.

Solevnts are classified into polar solvents and non poalr solvents, polar solvents
dissolve polar solutes and non polar solvents dissolve non polar solutes.
When 2 solutions of soluble ionic compounds mux, two things may happen,
either they will just mix together to form a homegous solution or a preicitate
mmay froms. Precipitate is a new cokpoud that froms as a result of the miing of
the two solvents, this precipitate is insoluble. A ion that doesnt take part in a
reaction is called a spectator ion.
In general preiciptation occurs because enot all ionic compounds are soluble.
A solution in which no more solvents can be dissolved is known as a saturated
solution. Threrfore if more of the solvent is added, it will remain in the same
chimal and hsycial state.
The most ocnveintient way to measuer the oncentration of sa solution is the
molarity of the solution. Molarity = moles of solute / volume of solute in litres
To calculate molar mmass of an element, one just has to check on the periodic
table. E.g. oxygen molar mas = 16.00 to calculate the molar mass of molecules,
on ehas to add all the molar masses of the elements thha tmake up that
molecule.
To calculate the number of moles a molecule one much do this formula n = m/M
Which means number of moles = mass of ubstance / molar mass of substance
One can calculate the number of moles if one has the molarity and volume, and
alternatively one can calutace the volume too if they have the molarity and the
mole.s
Concentration can be xpressed as a percentage by volume, or by mass. Or grams
in a volume, part per million by volume or parts per million mby mass.
In a dilution more water is added to the solution, however the maount of moles
of solvent stays the same, therefore th concentration decreases this is
represented byt he formula.
Moalrity = nuber of moles of solute / volume of solution.
Therefreo the number of moles = the molarity X Volue fo solution.
Or
N=CXV
Where n equals number of moles, c equals molarity and v equals the volume of
solution
Before diluting N intial = C initial X Volme intials
After dilution N final = C final X V final
In dilution the number of moles do nto change.
Therefore
C initial X V initial = C final X V final

When substances dissolve heat may be released of absorbed.

Formulas
Specific heat capacity = change of heat / mass X change in Temprature
Molarity = Mass of Solute / Volume of Solution in litres
Number of Moles = Mass of substance / Molar Mass of Substance
Molar mass = the addition of all the molar masses of elemnts in the molecule
from the periodic table.
Denisty = Mass/volume
Number of moles = Moalrity X Volume of Solution
Intial molarity X intial volume of solution = final moalrity X final volume of
solution
Changein heat = mass X Specific heat of the water X change in temperature
Parts per million = how many parts in 1 kg of substance
To calculate concentration of something weight for weight, first divide the
percent by 100 then times by the mass of substance