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Velocity Loss as an Indicator of Neuromuscular

Fatigue during Resistance Training
Article in Medicine and science in sports and exercise February 2011
DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e318213f880 Source: PubMed

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Velocity Loss as an Indicator of Neuromuscular

Fatigue during Resistance Training
NCHEZ-MEDINA and JUAN JOSE GONZA
LEZ-BADILLO
LUIS SA
Faculty of Sport, Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, SPAIN

ABSTRACT
NCHEZ-MEDINA, L., and J. J. GONZA
LEZ-BADILLO. Velocity Loss as an Indicator of Neuromuscular Fatigue during Resistance
SA
Training. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 43, No. 9, pp. 17251734, 2011. Purpose: This study aimed to analyze the acute mechanical and
metabolic response to resistance exercise protocols (REP) differing in the number of repetitions (R) performed in each set (S) with respect to the
maximum predicted number (P). Methods: Over 21 exercise sessions separated by 4872 h, 18 strength-trained males (10 in bench press (BP)
and 8 in squat (SQ)) performed 1) a progressive test for one-repetition maximum (1RM) and loadvelocity profile determination, 2) tests of
maximal number of repetitions to failure (12RM, 10RM, 8RM, 6RM, and 4RM), and 3) 15 REP (S  R[P]: 3  6[12], 3  8[12], 3  10[12],
3  12[12], 3  6[10], 3  8[10], 3  10[10], 3  4[8], 3  6[8], 3  8[8], 3  3[6], 3  4[6], 3  6[6], 3  2[4], 3  4[4]), with 5-min
interset rests. Kinematic data were registered by a linear velocity transducer. Blood lactate and ammonia were measured before and after exercise.
Results: Mean repetition velocity loss after three sets, loss of velocity pre-post exercise against the 1-mIsj1 load, and countermovement
jump height loss (SQ group) were significant for all REP and were highly correlated to each other (r = 0.910.97). Velocity loss was
significantly greater for BP compared with SQ and strongly correlated to peak postexercise lactate (r = 0.930.97) for both SQ and
BP. Unlike lactate, ammonia showed a curvilinear response to loss of velocity, only increasing above resting levels when R was at
least two repetitions higher than 50% of P. Conclusions: Velocity loss and metabolic stress clearly differs when manipulating the
number of repetitions actually performed in each training set. The high correlations found between mechanical (velocity and countermovement jump height losses) and metabolic (lactate, ammonia) measures of fatigue support the validity of using velocity loss to
objectively quantify neuromuscular fatigue during resistance training. Key Words: MUSCLE STRENGTH, WEIGHT TRAINING,
BLOOD LACTATE, AMMONIA, BENCH PRESS, FULL SQUAT

Address for correspondence: Luis Sanchez-Medina, Ph.D., Facultad del

Deporte, Pablo de Olavide University, Ctra. de Utrera km 1, 41013 Seville,
Spain; E-mail: [email protected].
Submitted for publication December 2010.
Accepted for publication February 2011.
0195-9131/11/4309-1725/0
MEDICINE & SCIENCE IN SPORTS & EXERCISE
Copyright 2011 by the American College of Sports Medicine
DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e318213f880

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Copyright 2011 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.

APPLIED SCIENCES

performing all repetitions (12[12]). Lack of attention to this

issue is likely due to an assumption that RT should always
be performed to muscular failure. However, increasing evidence seems to suggest that reaching repetition failure may
not necessarily improve the magnitude of strength gains
(10,14,20,21). Furthermore, in the case of not exercising to
failure, the optimal number of repetitions to perform under
different loading conditions to achieve certain training goals
has not been established.
Muscle fatigue is recognized as a complex, task-dependent
and multifactorial phenomenon whose etiology is controversial and still a matter of much debate (12,13,29). Despite
the many definitions of fatigue that have been proposed
(2,4,12,13), a common element to most of them is the observation of an exercise-induced transient decline in muscle
forcegenerating capacity. This decrease in force production
is accompanied by an increase in the level of effort required
to perform the exercise until eventually, if continued, task
failure occurs (13,39). However, fatigue limits not only a
fibers capacity for maximal force generation but also the
maximum velocity of shortening decreases and a slowing of
relaxation occurs (2). Consequently, power output will be
affected. In fact, an increased curvature of the forcevelocity
relationship is a major factor in the loss of muscle power (22).
Therefore, all definitions of fatigue necessitate a decline in
force, velocity, or power (39).

nowledge of the mechanical and physiological

aspects underlying resistance training (RT) is essential to improve our understanding of the stimuli
that affect adaptation (8). Configuration of the exercise
stimulus in RT has been traditionally associated with a
combination of the so-called acute resistance exercise variables (exercise type and order, loading, number of repetitions and sets, rest duration, and movement velocity)
(25,35). Although most of these variables have received
considerable research attention, a question that remains ignored in the literature is the possibility of manipulating
the number of repetitions actually performed in each set
with respect to the maximum number that can be completed.
It seems reasonable that the degree or level of effort is
substantially different when performing, e.g., 8 of 12 possible repetitions with a given load (8[12]) compared with

During typical resistance exercise in isoinertial conditions, and assuming every repetition is performed with
maximal voluntary effort, velocity unintentionally declines
as fatigue develops (18). However, few studies analyzing the
response to different RT schemes have described changes
in repetition velocity or power (1,18,19,26). It thus seems
necessary to conduct more research using models of fatigue
that analyze the reduction in mechanical variables such as
force, velocity, and power output over repeated dynamic
contractions in actual training or competition settings (7,39).
Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to quantify the extent of neuromuscular fatigue while performing
popular multijoint RT exercises for the upper (bench press)
and lower body (squat) by analyzing the acute mechanical
(velocity loss) and metabolic (blood lactate and ammonia)
response to 15 types of resistance exercise protocols (REP)
differing in the number of repetitions actually performed in
each set with regard to the maximum predicted number. We
hypothesized that both repetition velocity loss within a set
and loss of velocity before versus immediately after exercise
against a submaximal, individually determined, load would
be highly correlated to indicators of metabolic stress and
thus could be used to quantify the actual level of effort incurred during typical RT sessions.

METHODS

APPLIED SCIENCES

Subjects
Eighteen men (age = 25.6 T 3.4 yr, body mass = 75.9 T
9.1 kg, height = 176.6 T 7.5 cm, body fat = 12.2% T 3.7%)
volunteered to take part in this study. Subjects were either
professional firefighters or firefighter candidates with an RT
experience ranging from 3 yr to beyond 5 yr. They were
divided into two groups depending on the exercise to be
performed: bench press (BP, n = 10) or full squat (SQ,
n = 8). Initial one-repetition maximum (1RM) strength was
95.0 T 14.9 kg for the BP and 97.1 T 23.0 kg for the SQ
group. In the 3 months preceding this study, subjects had been
training two to three sessions per week and were capable of
performing their respective exercise with proper technique.
No physical limitations, health problems, or musculoskeletal
injuries that could affect testing were found after a medical
examination. None of the subjects were taking drugs, medications, or dietary supplements known to influence physical
performance. The study was approved by the Research Ethics
Committee of Pablo de Olavide University, and written informed consent was obtained from all subjects.
Study Design
During a period of approximately 8 wk, 21 exercise sessions were conducted in the following order: 1) an initial test
with increasing loads for the individual determination of
1RM strength and full loadvelocity relationship, 2) five
tests of maximal number of repetitions to failure (XRM:

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Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine

12RM, 10RM, 8RM, 6RM, 4RM), 3) 15 REP differing in

the number of repetitions (R) actually performed in each
set (S) with regard to the maximum predicted number of
repetitions (P) (S  R[P]: 3  6[12], 3  8[12], 3  10[12],
3  12[12], 3  6[10], 3  8[10], 3  10[10], 3  4[8], 3 
6[8], 3  8[8], 3  3[6], 3  4[6], 3  6[6], 3  2[4], 3 
4[4]). All these sessions were conducted on separate days,
with 48 h of recovery time except the initial 1RM test, the
XRM assessments, and the 3  12[12], 3  10[10], 3 
8[8], and 3  6[6] REP (i.e., the most demanding protocols)
after which 72 h of recovery was allowed. Sessions were
performed in the evenings, at the same time of day for each
participant and under similar environmental conditions
(20-C22-C and 55%65% humidity). During the present
study, subjects did not perform any other RT besides some
abdominal and lower-back strengthening exercises, and their
endurance conditioning only consisted of running (BP group)
or swimming (SQ group) twice per week (30 min at an intensity corresponding to 70%80% of HR reserve).
Testing Procedures
Initial session and 1RM determination. An introductory session was used for body composition assessment,
medical examination, and familiarization with testing
protocols. Subjects arrived to the laboratory in the morning
in a well-rested condition and fasted state. After being
medically screened and their body composition determined,
they carried out some practice sets with light and medium
loads in their respective exercise (BP or SQ), while researches emphasized proper technique. On the evening of
the following day, individual loadvelocity relationships
and 1RM strength were determined using a progressive
loading test. A detailed description of the BP testing protocol has been recently provided elsewhere (31). The BP was
performed imposing a momentary pause (1.5 s) at the chest
between the eccentric and concentric actions to minimize
the contribution of the rebound effect and allow for more
reproducible, consistent measurements. In the SQ group,
subjects started from the upright position with the knees and
hips fully extended, stance approximately shoulder-width
apart and the barbell resting across the back at the level
of the acromion. Each subject descended in a continuous
motion until the top of the thighs got below the horizontal
(ground) plane, the posterior thighs and shanks making
contact with each other, then immediately reversed motion
and ascended back to the upright position. Auditory feedback based on eccentric distance traveled was provided to
help each subject reach his previously determined squat
depth. Unlike the eccentric phase that was performed at a
normal, controlled speed, subjects were required to always
execute the concentric phase of either BP or SQ in an explosive manner, at maximal intended velocity. Warm-up
consisted of 5 min of stationary cycling at a self-selected
easy pace, 5 min of static stretches and joint mobilization
exercises, followed by two sets of eight and six repetitions

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VELOCITY-BASED RESISTANCE TRAINING

the help of the spotters). Furthermore, the participants from

the SQ group performed five maximal countermovement
jumps (CMJ), separated by 20-s rests, right after executing
the three preexercise repetitions with the V1 mIsj1 load and
again after the final three postexercise repetitions with that
load. On each occasion, CMJ height was registered, the
highest and lowest values were discarded, and the resulting
average was kept for analysis. Strong verbal encouragement
and velocity feedback in every repetition was provided
throughout all sessions to motivate participants to give a
maximal effort.
Mechanical Measurements of Fatigue
Three different methods were used to quantify the extent
of fatigue induced by each REP. The first method analyzed
the decline in repetition velocity during the three consecutive exercise sets. It was calculated as the percent loss in
MPV from the fastest (usually first) to the slowest (last)
repetition of each set and averaged over the three sets. The
second method examined the percent change in MPV pre
post exercise attained with the V1 mIsj1 load. The average
MPV of the three repetitions before exercise was compared
with the average MPV of the three repetitions after exercise, i.e., 100 (average MPVpost j average MPVpre)/average
MPVpre. Figure 1 shows an example of these velocity losses
for a representative subject and protocol. The third method
(only applied to the SQ group) involved the calculation of
percent change in CMJ height prepost exercise.
Blood Lactate and Ammonia Analyses
Capillary whole blood samples were drawn from the fingertip before exercise and immediately after each REP.
Postexercise samples for the analysis of lactate (5 KL) were
taken at 1, 3, and 5 min, whereas samples for ammonia
(20 KL) were obtained at 1, 4, and 7 min during recovery to
determine peak concentration. The Lactate Pro LT-1710
(Arkray, Kyoto, Japan) portable lactate analyzer was used

FIGURE 1Example of quantification of percent velocity losses after a

3  12[12] REP for a representative subject in the BP exercise. Both
MPV loss over three sets (j65.7%) and MPV prepost exercise against
the V1 mIsj1 load (j30.8%) were calculated.

Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercised

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1727

APPLIED SCIENCES

(3-min rest) with loads of 20 and 30 kg, respectively. Initial

load was set at 20 kg for all subjects and was gradually
increased in 10-kg increments until the attained mean propulsive velocity (MPV) was G0.5 mIsj1 in the BP or
G0.8 mIsj1 in the SQ group. Thereafter, load was individually adjusted with smaller increments (5 down to 1 kg) so
that 1RM could be precisely determined. The heaviest load
that each subject could properly lift while completing full
range of motion was considered to be his 1RM. Trained
spotters were present when high loads were lifted to ensure
safety. Three attempts were executed for light (G50% RM),
two for medium (50%80% RM), and only one for the
heaviest (980% RM) loads. Interset rests ranged from 3
(light) to 6 min (heavy loads). Only the best repetition at
each load, according to the criteria of fastest MPV (31), was
considered for subsequent analysis.
Maximum repetition number assessment. For the
XRM load assessments, subjects warmed up by performing
four to five sets of five down to two repetitions (3-min rests),
progressively increasing weight up to the load corresponding to 70% (12RM), 75% (10RM), 80% (8RM),
85% (6RM), or 90% (4RM) of their previously determined 1RM. This was carefully controlled for each participant from his individual loadvelocity profile because it has
been recently shown that mean velocity can be used to precisely estimate loading intensity (15). After a 5-min rest,
subjects completed one set to failure, whereas kinematic
data from every repetition were registered.
Acute REP. The 15 types of REP were performed always using three sets and 5-min interset recoveries. Two
measures were taken to ensure that the maximum predicted
number of repetitions for each session was as accurate as
possible. First, previous XRM assessments were used as a
reference to individually determine absolute load for each
REP. Second, because of the considerable number of exercise sessions undertaken in this study, strength levels
were expected to change. Consequently, before starting each
REP, adjustments in the proposed load (kg) were made
when needed so that the velocity of the first repetition
matched that expected from each subjects relative load
velocity relationship. In each session, subjects warmed up
by performing three sets of six down to three repetitions
(2-min rests) with increasing loads up to the individual load
that elicited a 1.00-mIsj1 (1.04 T 0.01 for SQ and 1.03 T
0.01 for BP) MPV (V1 mIsj1). This value was chosen because it is a sufficiently high velocity, which is attained
against medium loads (45% RM in BP and 60% RM in
SQ), and it allows a good expression of the effect of loading
on velocity, besides being a relatively easy-to-move and
well-tolerated load. The V1 mIsj1 load (kg) was thus taken
as a preexercise reference measure against which to compare the velocity loss experienced after the three exercise
sets. Subjects executed three maximal-effort consecutive
repetitions against the V1 mIsj1 load right before starting the
first set and again immediately after completing the last
repetition of the third set (load was changed in 1015 s with

for lactate measurements. Ammonia was measured using

PocketChem BA PA-4130 (Menarini Diagnostics, Florence,
Italy). Both devices were calibrated before each exercise
session according to the manufacturers specifications. Reliability was calculated by assessing twice 15 different
samples over the physiological range (1.317.0 mmolILj1
for lactate and 35150 KmolILj1 for ammonia). The coefficient of variation (CV) ranged from 2.6% to 4.1% for lactate
and from 3.0% to 5.2% for ammonia.
Measurement Equipment and Data Acquisition
Height was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm during a
maximal inhalation using a wall-mounted stadiometer (Seca
202; Seca Ltd., Hamburg, Germany). Body weight was determined, and fat percentage was estimated using an eightcontact electrode segmental body composition analyzer
(Tanita BC-418; Tanita Corp., Tokyo, Japan). Jump height
was measured using an infrared timing system (Optojump;
Microgate, Bolzano, Italy). A Smith machine (Multipower
Fitness Line, Peroga, Spain) that ensures a smooth vertical
displacement of the bar along a fixed pathway was used
for all sessions. A dynamic measurement system (T-Force
System; Ergotech, Murcia, Spain) automatically calculated
the relevant kinematic parameters of every repetition, provided auditory velocity and displacement feedback, and
stored data on disk for analysis. This system consists of a
linear velocity transducer interfaced to a personal computer
using a 14-bit resolution analog-to-digital data acquisition
board and custom software. Instantaneous velocity was sampled at a frequency of 1000 Hz and subsequently smoothed
with a fourth-order low-pass Butterworth filter with a cutoff
frequency of 10 Hz. A digital filter with no phase shift was
then applied to the data. Validity and reliability were established by comparing the displacement measurements obtained
by this device with a high-precision digital height gauge

(Mitutoyo HDS-H60C; Mitutoyo, Corp., Kawasaki, Japan)

previously calibrated by the Spanish National Institute of
Aerospace Technology. After performing the comparisons
with 18 different T-Force units, the mean relative error
in the velocity measurements was found to be G0.25%,
whereas displacement was accurate to T0.5 mm. In addition, when simultaneously performing 30 repetitions with two
devices (range = 0.32.3 mIsj1 mean velocity), an intraclass
correlation coefficient (ICC) of 1.00 (95% confidence interval = 1.001.00) and CV of 0.57% were obtained for
MPV, whereas an ICC of 1.00 (95% confidence interval =
0.991.00) and CV of 1.75% were found for peak velocity.
The velocities reported in the present study correspond to the
mean velocity of the propulsive phase for each repetition.
Mean propulsive values are preferable to mean concentric
values because they avoid underestimating an individuals
true neuromuscular potential when lifting light and medium
loads, as well as being more stable and reliable than peak
values (31). The propulsive phase was defined as that
portion of the concentric phase during which barbell acceleration (a) is greater than acceleration due to gravity
(i.e., a 9 j9.81 mIsj2).
Statistical Analysis
Correlations are reported using Pearson productmoment
correlation coefficients (r). Relationships between mechanical losses and ammonia concentration were studied by
fitting second-order polynomials to data. An independentsamples t-test was used to examine differences between
exercises, whereas a related-samples t-test was used to analyze velocity and CMJ height prepost changes as well as to
compare preexercise and postexercise lactate and ammonia
levels. Data are presented as mean T SD. Significance was
accepted at P e 0.05. Analyses were performed using SPSS
software version 15.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL).

TABLE 1. Mechanical and metabolic measurements of fatigue after each REP.

Loss of MPV over
Three Sets (%)

APPLIED SCIENCES

REP
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

















SQ
12[12]
10[12]
8[12]
6[12]
10[10]
8[10]
6[10]
8[8]
6[8]
4[8]
6[6]
4[6]
3[6]
4[4]
2[4]

46.5
37.1
32.3
20.2
45.7
32.3
22.0
39.8
29.4
21.2
41.9
28.1
19.6
32.0
16.6

T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T

Loss of MPV with V1 mIsj1

Load (%)

BP
3.8
7.7
7.6
4.3
7.0
5.5
8.0
4.0
9.4
8.6
4.9
6.1
7.1
5.1
4.5

***63.3
***51.1
36.5
*24.2
***58.4
***46.1
*29.8
***56.9
*39.0
24.8
***56.8
*33.8
23.7
***49.8
18.9

SQ
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T

4.0
5.5
4.3
2.3
4.5
4.2
4.5
3.7
4.5
2.9
5.7
3.6
3.0
6.6
4.4

21.3
14.6
10.6
9.7
21.0
15.2
11.0
18.2
10.5
9.2
14.7
10.3
8.0
9.5
6.1

T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T

BP
9.1
5.5
1.9
2.1
8.9
4.3
4.1
5.0
1.2
1.7
5.4
3.0
2.6
1.9
1.8

**32.8
**24.9
**15.3
8.1
*30.5
17.7
13.6
*26.8
*13.9
9.6
**24.7
9.2
7.2
***18.8
5.2

Loss of CMJ Height (%)

SQ

T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T

8.5
6.9
3.6
1.4
8.3
3.9
2.6
7.9
3.2
1.5
6.6
2.8
1.4
3.8
1.2

19.3
16.6
11.4
9.6
17.0
13.6
10.3
15.8
11.3
6.0
13.2
9.9
6.4
10.6
5.7

T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T

Lactate (mmolILj1)
SQ

4.4
3.9
1.9
1.4
3.6
1.9
2.1
4.0
2.2
2.0
2.6
2.7
2.2
3.4
1.3

12.5
10.6
8.0
4.9
11.7
8.6
6.3
10.4
7.1
4.5
10.0
5.2
3.5
6.9
3.0

T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T

Ammonia (KmolILj1)

BP
1.9
1.2
1.4
0.3
2.2
1.3
1.6
2.1
2.1
0.8
1.7
0.9
0.6
1.7
0.6

***8.2
***6.7
**5.7
4.2
***7.8
***6.0
**4.6
**7.5
**4.8
*3.4
***6.9
*4.0
3.1
**4.9
2.6

T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T

SQ
1.3
1.0
1.4
0.9
1.2
0.6
0.8
1.4
1.0
0.9
1.1
0.9
0.7
1.0
0.7

125
62
49
46
97
62
48
78
52
42
65
56
47
61
41

BP
T 34
T 14
T 16
T 14
T 19
T 20
T 10
T 28
T 22
T 11
T 23
T 21
T 16
T 28
T 12

111 T 20
71 T 11
49 T 18
45 T 12
89 T 16
64 T 17
47 T 13
79 T 20
54 T 19
49 T 19
68 T 14
52 T 17
51 T 21
53 T 16
48 T 14

Data are mean T SD. Losses are reported as positive values.

BP, bench press (n = 10); SQ, squat (n = 8).
Significant differences between SQ and BP exercises: * P e 0.05, ** P e 0.01, *** P e 0.001.
Significant differences between preexercise and postexercise ammonia: P e 0.05, P e 0.01, P e 0.001.
Postexercise lactate significantly different (P e 0.001) from preexercise for all REP and both exercises except 3  2[4] in BP (P e 0.01).
Loss of MPV over three sets, loss of MPV with V1 mIsj1 load, and loss of CMJ height were significant (P e 0.001) for all REP and both exercises.

1728

Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine

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RESULTS

VELOCITY-BASED RESISTANCE TRAINING

FIGURE 2Relationships between relative loss of MPV over three sets

and loss of MPV prepost exercise against the V1 mIsj1 load in SQ (A)
and BP (B) exercises. Each data point corresponds to one of the 15
different REP analyzed. Different symbol colors are used to differentiate between the maximum predicted number of repetitions (P ) for
each REP: black (P = 4), brown (P = 6), green (P = 8), blue (P = 10), and
red (P = 12).

over three sets of 30% (SQ) or 35% (BP), blood ammonia levels started to increase steadily above resting values (Fig. 4B). When considering the loss of MPV prepost
with the V1 mIsj1 load, the magnitudes of velocity loss
from which ammonia increased above resting values were
15% (SQ) and 20% (BP) (Fig. 4D). Percent loss of CMJ
height prepost exercise was highly correlated with lactate
(r = 0.97, P G 0.001; Fig. 3C). Ammonia showed a curvilinear response to loss of CMJ height so that from 12%
loss of CMJ height, ammonia increased steadily above
resting levels (Fig. 3D).

DISCUSSION
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to
analyze the acute response to manipulating the number of
repetitions actually performed in each training set with regard to the maximum number of repetitions that can be
completed. Although some research has compared the effect
of failure versus nonfailure training approaches on strength
gains (9,10,14,20,21,38), the mechanical and metabolic

Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercised

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1729

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Velocity and CMJ height losses. Both percent loss

of MPV over three sets and loss of MPV prepost exercise
with the V1 mIsj1 load, gradually increased as the number
of performed repetitions in each set approached the maximum predicted number of repetitions for each type of REP
(Table 1). Velocity losses were significantly greater for BP
compared with SQ for most types of REP. This difference in
the magnitude of loss of velocity between exercises increased as the number of performed repetitions approached
the maximum (Table 1). MPV losses, both over three sets
and prepost with V1 mIsj1 load, were statistically significant (P e 0.001) for all REP and both exercises. The decrease in CMJ height prepost exercise was greater as the
number of performed repetitions approached the maximum
for each REP. Postexercise CMJ height was significantly
different (P e 0.001) from preexercise after all REP.
Relationships between mechanical measurements
of fatigue. A very high correlation was found between relative loss of MPV over three sets and loss of MPV prepost
exercise with the V1 mIsj1 load for both SQ (r = 0.91; Fig. 2A)
and BP (r = 0.97; Fig. 2B) exercises. For the SQ group, similarly high correlations were found between percent loss of
CMJ height prepost exercise and (a) MPV loss over three
sets (r = 0.92, P e 0.001; Fig. 3A) and (b) loss of MPV pre
post with the V1 mIsj1 load (r = 0.93, P e 0.001; Fig. 3B).
Blood lactate and ammonia response. Peak postexercise lactate concentration linearly increased as the
number of performed repetitions in each set approached the
maximum predicted number of repetitions, both in SQ and
in BP (Table 1). For any REP, lactate levels were always
higher after the SQ compared with the BP exercise, these
differences being significant for most of the protocols analyzed (Table 1). Postexercise ammonia levels were significantly higher than preexercise resting values for the 3 
12[12], 3  10[12], 3  10[10], 3  8[10], 3  8[8], and
3  6[6] REP in BP; and 3  12[12], 3  10[12], 3 
10[10], and 3  8[8] REP in SQ (Table 1). Peak postexercise
ammonia concentration did not increase above basal resting
values (e50 KmolILj1) when the number of performed repetitions in each set was half the maximum predicted number.
No statistically significant differences in postexercise ammonia were found between SQ and BP for any REP.
Relationships between mechanical and metabolic measures of fatigue. A nearly perfect correlation
between MPV loss over three sets and postexercise peak
lactate was found for both SQ (r = 0.97, P G 0.001) and BP
(r = 0.95, P G 0.001) exercises (Fig. 4A). Very high correlations were also found between loss of MPV prepost
exercise with the V1 mIsj1 load and lactate for SQ (r = 0.93,
P G 0.001) and BP (r = 0.97, P G 0.001) (Fig. 4C). Unlike
lactate, which linearly increased with greater velocity loss
(Figs. 4A, C), the response of ammonia to loss of velocity followed a curvilinear relationship and better fitted a
quadratic regression (Figs. 4B, D). Thus, from a MPV loss

APPLIED SCIENCES

FIGURE 3Relationships between relative loss of CMJ height prepost exercise and loss of MPV over three sets (A), loss of MPV prepost exercise
against the V1 mIsj1 load (B), lactate (C), and ammonia (D) for the SQ exercise group. Each data point corresponds to one of the 15 different REP
analyzed.

responses to different repetition schemes in which a set is

ended before reaching muscular failure had not been previously analyzed. In the present study, a detailed examination
of 15 different types of REP was conducted under controlled conditions to assess whether loss of repetition velocity could be used as an objective indicator of the extent
of neuromuscular fatigue induced by typical RT sessions.
Our results indicate that, by monitoring repetition velocity
during training, it is possible to reasonably estimate the
metabolic stress and neuromuscular fatigue induced by resistance exercise. A unique finding of this study is that
ammonia, unlike lactate, shows a curvilinear response to
loss of repetition velocity during RT. Some REP, especially
those consisting of eight or more repetitions per set leading
to failure (3  12[12], 3  10[10], and 3  8[8]), caused
ammonia to significantly rise above resting values, which
could indicate an accelerated purine nucleotide degradation,
thereby suggesting that such protocols may require longer
recovery times.
Most of the literature examining neuromuscular fatigue
has traditionally used isolated muscle preparations, both
in vitro and in situ, as well as electrically stimulated muscle
fibers. Isometric or isokinetic contractions made before
and immediately after the fatiguing task, as well as during
the activity, have been commonly used to quantify fatigue
(27,29). Although such laboratory experiments are certainly
necessary to identify the physiological mechanisms under-

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Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine

lying the onset of muscle fatigue, they bear little resemblance to the majority of muscle actions performed in actual
sports training and competition settings. Hence, there is a
need to use fatigue protocols and outcome measures closer
to isoinertial in vivo training movements (7,27). Because
fatigue is postulated to be a continuous rather than a failurepoint phenomenon (7), the gradual decrease in repetition
velocity that takes place during repeated dynamic contractions can be interpreted as evidence of impaired neuromuscular function and its measurement could provide a
relatively simple yet objective means of quantifying the extent of fatigue.
The present study confirms that the magnitude of velocity loss experienced during RT gradually increases as the
number of performed repetitions in a set approaches the
maximum predicted number. This was an expected result
because it is known that velocity naturally slows down
during a training set as fatigue develops (11,18,26). However, to the authors knowledge, the actual values of velocity
loss (Table 1) after a wide range of REP performed within
the most typical RT intensity range (70%90% 1RM) had
not been previously described. A finding worth noting is that
greater MPV losses were experienced for BP compared with
SQ for all protocols analyzed (Table 1). This is in agreement
with previous results from Izquierdo et al. (18) who compared the pattern of repetition velocity decline when performing sets to failure with loads corresponding to 60%,

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FIGURE 4Relationships between relative loss of MPV over three sets and peak postexercise: lactate (A) and ammonia (B); and between MPV pre
post exercise against the V1 mIsj1 load and lactate (C) and ammonia (D) for the BP and SQ exercises. Each data point corresponds to one of the 15
different REP analyzed.

VELOCITY-BASED RESISTANCE TRAINING

exercise decline in movement velocity experienced against

a given submaximal load (in this case, the V1 mIsj1 load)
can be considered as a good expression of neuromuscular
fatigue. Indeed, in addition to force reduction, other aspects
of neuromuscular performance that are affected by fatigue
are muscle-shortening velocity (decreases) and relaxation
time (increases) (2). Because of fatigue, the load that was
lifted at 1.00 mIsj1 in a rested, preexercise state, will be
moved at a considerably slower velocity after the REP. The
subject will undoubtedly perceive a greater effort when
moving the same absolute load in the fatigued state, a situation that corresponds well with the definition of Enoka and
Stuart (13). Besides being a relatively easy-to-move and
well-tolerated load for most RT exercises, the V1 mIsj1 load
is quick to determine as part of the warm-up and facilitates
the calculation of percentage losses.
Similar to loss of MPV over three sets, the magnitude of
loss of MPV prepost with the V1 mIsj1 load gradually increased as the number of performed repetitions in each set
approached the maximum predicted number for each type of
REP (Table 1). Relative loss of velocity with the V1 mIsj1
load was of lesser magnitude than MPV loss over three sets
and higher for BP compared with SQ, especially as the
number of performed repetitions increased toward maximum (Table 1). The same pattern of decline was observed
when analyzing loss of CMJ height prepost exercise for

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1731

APPLIED SCIENCES

65%, 70%, and 75% 1RM in the BP and half-squat exercises. The greater velocity loss in the BP could be because 1RM for this exercise is attained at a considerably
slower mean velocity (0.16 mIsj1) than that for the SQ
(0.35 mIsj1) (15,18). The lower 1RM mean velocity in
the BP could be related to the greater movement control
and smaller muscle groups involved in this exercise (more
localized fatigue) compared with the SQ (fatigue distributed
among a greater amount of muscle mass). The relative
position of the sticking region in these exercises may
also explain these velocity differences, as the squat allows
more time/distance for force production after such region. We
must finally consider that the BP was performed in a concentric-only (no rebound) action, whereas the SQ exercise is
influenced by the stretchshortening cycle that takes place
when transitioning from an eccentric to a concentric action.
In essence, all models of fatigue entail two components:
fatigue induction and fatigue quantification (27). In the
present study, fatigue was quantified using two different
methods: 1) percent decline in MPV over the three consecutive exercise sets and 2) percent change in MPV prepost
exercise attained with the V1 mIsj1 load, as well as percent
change in CMJ height prepost (SQ group only). Because
fatigue has been traditionally defined as a loss of forcegenerating capability with an eventual inability to sustain
exercise at the required or expected level (4,13), the post-

APPLIED SCIENCES

the SQ group, which seems to follow the same rationale.

Loss of CMJ height is equivalent to loss of vertical velocity
at take-off, so in essence we are quantifying fatigue by the
loss of muscle-shortening velocity. Several studies have used
measurements of vertical jump height prepost exercise to
quantify the extent of fatigue. Smilios (33) observed CMJ
height losses of 33% and 23% after exercise to failure in the
leg press with loads of 70% and 90% RM, respectively. These
reductions are greater than those obtained in the present
study (19% and 11%) in the equivalent REP of 12[12]
(70% RM) and 4[4] (90% RM). However, in Smilioss
study (33), participants were not required to perform each
repetition with maximal voluntary effort, and the number of
repetitions actually performed with each load was not reported, which makes it difficult to compare with our data.
Rodacki et al. (30) induced fatigue by requesting subjects
to extend and flex their knees to failure in a weight machine. The loads used corresponded to 50% (extensors) and
40% (flexors) of each subjects body mass. Mean losses in
CMJ height of 14% (extensors) and 6% (flexors) were found.
Data from Rodacki et al. (30) suggest that the incurred fatigue
and degree of effort was highly variable between participants
(1026 repetitions in extension; 1836 repetitions in
flexion) and thus precludes direct comparison with our data.
Gorostiaga et al. (16) examined CMJ height loss after typical
sprint training workouts in 400-m elite runners. They found
reductions of 5%19% in CMJ height prepost exercise, with
no clear relationship to sprint distance. Comparing our findings with those of these investigations is difficult because
the protocols used to induce fatigue, the samples, and even
the type of actions and movement velocities greatly differed
between studies. Nevertheless, it seems clear from this body
of research that loss of CMJ height can be used as an indicator of neuromuscular fatigue.
In the present study, very high and significant correlations (r = 0.910.97) were found between the three
different types of mechanical measures used to assess
neuromuscular fatigue (Figs. 2 and 3A, B). These relationships are an important finding for the quantification and
monitoring of training load during RT. The fact that there
exists such a close relationship between loss of MPV over
three sets and loss of MPV with the V1 mIsj1 load in two
exercises as different as SQ (Fig. 2A) and BP (Fig. 2B),
as well as between both variables and loss of CMJ height
in the SQ group (Figs. 3A, B), is a novel finding that
emphasizes the validity of using percent loss of repetition velocity within a set as an indicator of neuromuscular
fatigue. The relationships observed in Figure 2 also mean
that, for a given percent loss of velocity within a set, the
degree of fatigue incurred during RT is very similar irrespective of the number of repetitions the subject is able to
perform (shown in different colors in Fig. 2), at least in a
range from 4 (90% RM) to 12 (70% RM) repetitions.
The validity of using percent velocity loss to quantify
neuromuscular fatigue during RT is further supported by
the relationships observed between mechanical measures

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Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine

of fatigue and metabolic stress (acute lactate and ammonia

responses) (Figs. 3C, D and 4). Lactate increased linearly
as the number of performed repetitions approached the
maximum predicted for each type of REP (Table 1) and
showed extremely high correlations (r = 0.930.97) with
loss of MPV over three sets (Fig. 4A), loss of MPV prepost
exercise with the V1 mIsj1 load (Fig. 4C), and loss of CMJ
height (Fig. 3C). The highest peak lactate values (10.5
12.5 mmolILj1 in SQ and 7.58.0 mmolILj1 in BP) were
obtained when performing 812 repetitions per set. Lactate levels were significantly higher for SQ than BP after
most REP analyzed (Table 1), which can be attributed to
the greater muscle mass involved in the full squat. The REP
that resulted in the highest lactate response were 3  12[12],
3  10[12], 3  10[10], and 3  8[8], i.e., the type of
protocols commonly used to induce muscle hypertrophy,
which is in line with previous research (23,24,34). Interestingly, peak lactate values after the 3  6[12] BP protocol
(4.2 T 0.9 mmolILj1) were very similar to those found by
Abdessemed et al. (1) when performing 10  6[12] under
different interset recovery conditions. They found that
blood lactate did not significantly increase after the third
set when using 3-min (4.7 T 0.8 mmolILj1) or 5-min (3.6 T
0.7 mmolILj1) rests. However, the 1-min rest condition
resulted in a significantly greater lactate elevation in sets 4
to 10, concomitant with much greater reductions in mean
repetition power output.
A unique and interesting finding of the present study is
that ammonia response, unlike lactate, shows a curvilinear
relationship to loss of velocity (Figs. 4B, D) and seems independent of the exercise (BP or SQ). Peak postexercise
ammonia only increased above basal resting levels when the
number of performed repetitions in each set was at least two
higher than half the maximum predicted number (Table 1),
thus suggesting the existence of a certain level of effort
threshold to be exceeded for blood ammonia to respond.
This nonlinear response of ammonia is similar to that found
in some studies, which analyzed the physiological response
to incremental exercise (3,6,32), but to our knowledge, it
had not been previously documented for RT. An increase
in blood ammonia levels during short-term high-intensity
exercise is usually interpreted as indicative of an accelerated ammonia production by muscle resulting from the
deamination of AMP to IMP. A loss of purines has been
documented after high-intensity exercise sessions such as
repeated sprints (17,36). Because de novo synthesis of
nucleotides is a slow and energy-consuming process, muscle performance can remain significantly reduced up to
4872 h after exercise (17). According to the results of this
study, the REP that resulted in blood ammonia significantly
higher than resting levels were 3  12[12], 3  10[12], 3 
10[10], and 3  8[8] in SQ and 3  12[12], 3  10[12], 3 
10[10], 3  8[10], 3  8[8], and 3  6[6] in BP, with
considerably greater values for those leading to failure in
each set (Table 1). It seems plausible to suggest that these
types of protocols may cause an accelerated purine nucleotide

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degradation that would increase the amount of time needed

for recovery after training. The mean peak postexercise
ammonia concentrations in this study (125 KmolILj1 in SQ,
110 KmolILj1 in BP for the 3  12[12] REP) are similar to
those obtained by Izquierdo et al. (19) but lower than the
extremely high values (9200 KmolILj1) found after 3 
10RM or 3  5RM in multiple exercises with only 1-min
recovery (24).
Although some studies have reported the point within a
set where a significant reduction in velocity (18) or power
output (1,26) was observed, the optimal time to terminate
a set before reaching failure has never been clearly established. Although the present study does not come up with a
definitive answer to that question, it does, however, provide us with some valuable information that may indicate
when it could be appropriate to end a set. According to our
results (Table 1; Figs. 3 and 4), a maximum MPV loss of
30% for SQ and 35% for BP could be established to
prevent blood ammonia to significantly rise above resting
levels. These theoretical thresholds for velocity loss could be
used as a preliminary reference to undertake a longitudinal
study aimed to examine the effect of training with different repetition velocity losses (e.g., 15%, 30%, and 45%) on
neuromuscular performance (1RM strength, rate of force
development, maximal power production, etc.).
Monitoring repetition velocity during resistance exercise
seems important because both the neuromuscular demands
and the training effect itself largely depend on the velocity at
which loads are lifted. A velocity- or power-based approach
to RT is not entirely new, and authors such as Bosco (5) and
Tidow (37) already provided some initial guidelines for
putting it into practice. However, the role placed by movement velocity has not been sufficiently investigated (28).
The findings obtained in the present study strongly support
the use of velocity monitoring to control the degree of incurred fatigue. Because loads must be specific to ensure
an optimal training stimulus, setting a certain velocity loss
threshold during RT can serve to avoid performing unnecessary repetitions that may not be contributing to the desired
training effect. Furthermore, the immediate velocity feed-

back the athlete receives during each session may increase

the potential for adaptation. With this training approach,
instead of a certain amount of weight to be lifted, strength
and conditioning coaches should prescribe resistance exercise in terms of two variables: 1) first repetitions mean velocity, which is intrinsically related to loading intensity (15);
and 2) a maximum percent velocity loss to be allowed in
each set. When this percent loss limit is exceed the set must
be terminated. The limit of repetition velocity loss should be
set beforehand depending on the primary training goal being
pursued, the particular exercise to be performed, as well as
the training experience and performance level of the athlete.
More studies are warranted to further explore this velocitybased approach to RT.
In conclusion, the present data show that the relationship
between the number of repetitions actually performed in a
set and the maximum predicted number that can be completed is an important aspect to take into account when
prescribing resistance exercise because the velocity loss and
metabolic stress clearly differ when manipulating these
variables. The high correlations found between mechanical
(velocity and CMJ height losses) and metabolic (lactate,
ammonia) measures of fatigue support the validity of using
velocity loss to objectively quantify neuromuscular fatigue
during RT. The nonlinear response of blood ammonia to
loss of repetition velocity could perhaps be used as a reference to indicate the point within a set where the exercise
should be terminated when the main training objective is to
improve movement velocity or maximal power production.
Future experimental research should compare the effects of
training with different magnitudes of velocity loss on neuromuscular performance. The present study is expected to
contribute to the field of exercise science by allowing a more
rational characterization of the RT stimulus.

No funding was received for this work from any of the following
organizations or any other institution: the National Institutes of Health,
Wellcome Trust, or Howard Hughes Medical Institute.
The results of the present study do not constitute endorsement
by the American College of Sports Medicine.

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