HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE

LECTURE 2
Mesopotamian

Abhishek K. Venkitaraman

Assistant Professor

Early Human Migration out of Africa

Earliest Homo Sapien

fossils have been
found in Ethiopia

Africa

West Asia

Europe

East & South

Asia

North
America
Australia

South
America

natural determinants
topography (location)
climate
natural resources, building materials and technology

man-made determinants
trade
political power
religion
defense
mobility

EARLY CIVILIZATIONS

Location of Ancient Mesopotamian Civilization

Location of Ancient Mesopotamian Civilization

This civilization rose in the valleys
between the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers (source in Turkey).
Mostly dry desert climate, except in
the region between 2 rivers
The rivers flood every year and leave
behind a thick bed of silt
It is termed as the Fertile Crescent
dense network of cities and villages,
grain- bearing valleys

Shifting of the Coastline

Alluvial soil plain between 2 rivers
Mesopotamia In Greek mesos = middle, potamos = rivers
Northern part is known as Akkad and south as Sumer
South west Arabian desert, South east Persian gulf,
North Zagros mountains
Natural defense boundaries were absent
Arid landscape in which farming was impossible without
irrigation
A network of canals, irrigation channels and levees was
developed
Rivers caused floods seasonally April and May
Since 4000 BCE, the coastline has shifted outwards by 100
miles in the southern plain of Iraq

ANCIENT
MESOPOTAMIA
Oldest known civilization
Cradle of Human
Civilization
Ziggurat
Hanging gardens

FIRST SUMERIANS

Sumerians first arrived in region around 5000 BC

Typical Paleolithic people motivated by search for game
Settled in region and took up farming
Built dams, dikes, and short canals to use water from the
Euphrates
Grew barley and dates and raised sheep and goats

SUMERIAN AGRICULTURE
Each was crisscrossed by irrigation system of
major canals and minor channels
Designed to bring water from Euphrates to
farmland

Farmland divided into square and rectangleshaped plots

Farmers worked land with plows, seed-drills, and
stone hoes and received yield of 40:1

Other areas set aside as gardens and fruit

orchards
Carts pulled by donkeys and boats on the canals
took produce to the urban center itself

SOCIAL CLASSES
Establishment of a social hierarchy where some people
had more power, wealth, and privileges than others

Equality originally prevailed in Sumerian city-states

But divisions soon appeared
First group to claim special privileges and status were priests
Gave up working and began to live off work of others
Temples given huge tracts of land which priests rented in
small parcels to farmers
The King
The Governors

The Aristocracy
The Peasantry

SLAVERY
Originated with practice of men selling
themselves and/or their families to pay off
debts
Supplemented by using prisoners of war as
slaves

Demand for slaves increased as

civilization progressed
Advance of civilization did not bring same
benefits to everyone
Some benefited a great deal
Others saw a deterioration in their situation

Civilization brought important benefits but

it also introduced inequality, exploitation,
taxes, and slavery

The Beginnings of Writing

Farmers needed to keep records.
The Sumerians were very good farmers. They raised animals such
as goats and cows. Because they needed to keep records of their
livestock, food, and other things, officials began using tokens.
Tokens were used for trade.
Clay tokens came in different shapes and sizes. These
represented different objects. The number of tokens began to be
pressed on the outside of the clay balls. Many experts believe
that this is how writing on clay tablets began.
A system of writing develops.
The earliest form of writing dates back to 3300 B.C. People
back then would draw "word-pictures" on clay tablets using a
pointed instrument called a stylus. These "word-pictures" then
developed into wedge-shaped signs. This type of script was
called cuneiform (from the Latin word cuneus which means wedge).

Who used cuneiform?

Not everyone learned to read and write. The ones that were
picked by the gods were called scribes. Boys that were chosen
to become scribes (professional writers) began to study at the
age of 8. They finished when they were 20 years old.

Geography
This civilization rose in the
valleys between the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers.
Some say this Fertile Crescent was the
real Garden of Eden.

The layout of cities:

There is not enough at the lower levels of explored mounds to give us a total image of the
Mesopotamian city before the Early Dynastic Period. By then a dozen or so cities containing from
10,000 to 50,000 people prospered, both in lower Mesopotamia or Sumer and further north in
Babylonia.

SUMERIAN
CITY-STATES
City-states gradually emerged over next 1000
years
Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Nippur, Kish, Umma, etc.
Larger than Neolithic settlements and displayed
evidence of economic specialization and strong
political organization

Included the urban center plus surrounding

countryside
Each was also an independent political unit

Lagash
In the city-state (or state), kin and tribal loyalties are, by definition, subordinated and replaced
by political ties.

Why did these cities develop?

Due to the fertile soil in Mesopotamia, farming was very successful.

In fact, people were able to grow a surplus of food.
This meant that some people could stop farming and begin doing
other things
As cities began to develop, people began to worry about others who
might come and invade their city.
They wanted to protect themselves from enemies, so people in
Mesopotamia built walls around their cities
Inventions Writing
Wagon wheel
Potters wheel
Number system, demarcation of time

Religious Beliefs - Ziggurats

Through daily rituals, attention to the deities, proper funeral practices and simple civic duty, the people of
Mesopotamia felt they helped maintain balance in the world and kept the forces of chaos and destruction at bay

The Mesopotamian thinking - instruction for the layout and design of temple precincts
came directly from the gods in the form of a mysterious dream
Position of king was enhanced and supported by religion
Each god had control of certain things and each city was ruled by a different god
The belief that gods lived on the distant mountaintops gave rise to Ziggurats

The word ziggurat comes from the Assyrian for raised up or high. Ziggurats were built in
the centre of the city

Connection between heaven and earth

Stepped pyramid Temple complex

Historical and Analytical account of cities in

Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia means land between rivers.
Four broad segments of chronology

Protoliterate Period, from ca.3500 to 3000 B.C.

Early Dynastic Period, from 3000 to 2350 B.C.
Sumerian Period, from 2350 to 1600 B.C.
Assyrian Period, from 1350 to 612 B.C.

1-Protoliterate Period:

Uruk: a substantial ceremonial hub by 3500 B.C.

During this time , the towns, which had

probably evolved from agricultural
villages, acquired their battlements of ring
walls; and the temple and the ziggurat
began to gain architectural definition.
Political authority resided in an assembly
of male citizens that selected short-term
war leaders.

2-Early Dynastic Period:

When the role of these leaders was retained in times of peace as well, kingship, first
elective and then hereditary, became established. With it raised the monumental palace,
an administrative center which employed a large retinue of bureaucrats and entertainers &
occupied itself with raising and supplying an army and maintaining the defensive system of
the city.

3-Sumerian Period:

Ziggurat of Ur Nammu

This period saw the rise of empire,

the collective rule of several citystates through the might of a
sovereign king. The first part of the
period is dominated by the Third
Dynasty of Ur whose prodigious
building activity includes the
Ziggurate of Ur-Nammu, the high
point of that building type.

4-Assyrian Period:
The northern region of the two rivers now flourishes at the expense of lower Mesopotamia.
The Assyrian by their imposing state reliefs and their palaces, like the one at Khorsabad.

Timeline in Mesopotamia 3500-2000

B.C. (5500-4000 B.P.)
3500 B.C. Cities growing across Mesopotamia

3200 B.C. Pictographic record keeping

3000 B.C. Signs used to write Sumerian
2800 B.C. Legendary rulers like Gilgamesh

2600 B.C. Royal Tombs of Ur

2400 B.C. Signs become cuneiform
2300 B.C. Sumerian cities united by King Sargon
of Agade (Akkad)

Cities 3000-2300 B.C.

Timeline
2200 B.C. Agade Empire expands and declines
2100 B.C. Ur becomes the capital of a new empire
2000 B.C. Ur destroyed by Elamites & Amorites

Agade Empire 2250 B.C.

Empire united by King Sargon of Agade (Akkad)

Kingdoms 1800 B.C.

1800 B.C. Hammurabi unites much of Mesopotamia

1500 B.C.

1500 B.C. Mitannian Empire controls north Mesopotamia

Kassites control south Mesopotamia

1200 B.C.

1300 B.C. Assyrians conquer much of Mesopotamia

1100 B.C. Aramaean and Chaldaean tribes become important

650 B.C.

1000 B.C. Assyrians begin reconquest of Mesopotamia

Babylon rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar II

550 B.C.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire

500 B.C.

Mesopotamia becomes part of the Achaemenid Persian empire

A Sumerian City
Sumerian city streets were
so narrow that you could
hardly get a cart through
them.
On hot nights, people slept
outdoors on the top of their
houses flat roof.

Sumerian houses faced

away from crowded
streets. Instead, they faced
onto courtyards where
families ate and children
played.

Narrow Streets

Courtyard Area

CITY CHARACTERISTICS

Each city surrounded by walls

Permanent garrisons of soldiers stationed
in towers and at each gate

Wide boulevards crossed city, lined by

houses of the wealthy
Rest of city made up of narrow, twisting
alleys surrounded by small, flat-roofed huts
Homes of farmers, and small craftsmen

Ancient town of Jericho

9000 BCE - Neolithic Agricultural Community

Ancient Mesopotamian Houses (3500 BCE)

Basic building material Mud and Timber

Mud was mixed with reeds and laid in horizontal courses to make wall
Houses had rectilinear rooms Each side measuring 1.5 to 2m.
Interior wall surfaces were decorated with gypsum plaster
Rock Gypsum was found in northern Iraq and Syria Used locally and also exported as a trade commodity

Social System Akkadian Period

Complex social system Existence of Social classes

Kings and Priests were on top
Earlier village- based civic loyalty to local chieftains
Akkadians came to dominate Mesopotamia- King Sargon brought the
concept of Kingship loyalty to a ruler
New idea of an administrative center
Vast Palace, offices, libraries, storage places
2150 BCE Akkadian dynasty was overthrown; Sumerian kingdom
established
The realm of Kings of Ur was established

Social System Sumerian Period

3 social classes Nobility, Free Citizens and Slaves

Women enjoyed nearly equal rights own land, own business &
trade
Kings were stewards of God
Priests-

Managers

of

citys

economy

and

infrastructure,

interpretation of omens for all activities

A pantheon of Gods Patron deities, smaller ones
Life after death was portrayed as sad Burial architecture was rare
Wrote myths (Epic of Gilgamesh 2100 BCE)
Expanded trade with other cities
City states which developed - Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Nippur, Kish, Umma
Construction was done by slaves conquered from other lands

Around 3000 B.C.E

City of Warka

Ci ty of Wa rka (a nci ent U ruk )

The city of Uruk (present day Warka in Iraq) was a large city with a
possible population of 50 thousand
Dependent on a single economy of agriculture
Wheel was used and a system of weights was developed
Dedicated to God Anu The God of sky
Surrounded by walls on all sides 6 miles length and 50ft. high in
places

At the centre of the city was a pyramid built of mud bricks with a
platform on top for the temple of the City God
There are 17 layers of temples at Warka constant elaboration
Earlies temples were simple boxes with an altar at the back and an
oven at the front
Evolved an became larger older temples were filled to create a
mound on which new temples were built

C i t y o f W a r k a T h e W h i t e Te m p l e
The temple of God Anu White Temple
It rested on top of a broad terrace on top of a tall
artificial mountain rising 13m above the plain
Access was by a stairway on the North Eastern face
It was a flight of narrow steps leading to the shrine
The shrine (18 m long) had an offering table and a
hearth for fire

C i t y o f W a r k a T h e W h i t e Te m p l e

A millennium later Around 2100 B.C.E

City of Ur

Features of City and Building Materials

Development of Urban Planning

Courtyard houses
Ziggurats
Mud plaster, adobe construction (Earth, Water, Straw/dung), glazed bricks, bitumen
Buildings were regularly destroyed, levelled and rebuilt on the same spot; level raised (Tel Arabic word for hillock)

Materials:
Earth plaster used to seal and finish exterior and interior spaces of common residences
Lime plaster used to seal and finish exterior and interior spaces of wealthy residences, places, and temples
A type of terrazzo used as flooring (Burnt lime + clay + natural colour pigment)
Terracotta panels used for decoration
Bitumen used to seal plumbing

City of Ur
SURROUNDING
FIELDS AND
VILLAGES

Ur, the capital city of ancient region of Sumer (now

south- eastern Iraq) stood on the Euphrates river near
the Persian gulf.

It was the commercial centre and port, from about

3500- 1850 BCE
Between 3000- 2000 BCE, Ur served as the capital of
the 3 major ruling families.

Third of these families, founded by King Ur-Nammu

(2100 BCE) controlled a large empire that extended from
Assyria in the north-west to the Elam in the south- east.

City of Ur

The city of Ur was oval in shape, with Euphrates

flowing along its side
Partly planned, partly organic
Harbours on north and west sides Temple
complex was between them and formed the focal
point in the city
The sacred complex had a rectilinear layout and
was in the north- west to catch the breeze
Surrounding walls to protect and impress
The city was surrounded by cultivated fields and
villages outside the walls
Gates to enter within the city walls were had huge
towers and decoration

Late Babylonian
Quarter

The first city

Cities began to emerge in Mesopotamia
(modern Iraq) around 4500 years ago. Ur,
the capital of ancient Sumeria, was the
worlds first city. It supported a complex

and sophisticated society.

Ur, the capital city of

Mesopotamia

Ur(Iraq):
The cities were closed by a wall and
surrounded by suburban villages and
hamlets.
The two monumental centers were
the Ziggurat complex with its own
defensive wall, overseen by a
powerful priesthood, and Palace of
the king.
Lesser temples were sprinkled here
and there within the rest of the urban
fabric, which was a promiscuous blend
of residential and commercial
architecture.
Small shops were at times
incorporated into the houses.
In the later Sumerian period at Ur, an
example of a bazaar was found.

Residential Quarters of Ur - Domestic Architecture

Hierarchy of Streets - Main wide boulevards ; narrow, twisting alleys
Streets varied from narrow lanes to 2-3 m wide
Streets were used as passageways and also to dump garbage

Houses were built of sun-baked mud bricks

Windows were rare
Accumulation of garbage led to an increase in the
elevation of the street door threshold had to be
raised
Roofs were made of mud layered on mats which
were placed on wooden rafters
The processional road leading to the sacred temple
precinct was the only planned passageway

Residential Quarters of Ur - Domestic Architecture

House quality depended upon the wealth of the occupant

Houses had rooms organized around small courtyards

Better houses baked brick foundation walls
The principal room was opposite to the entrance - used for meals and reception

Traffic along the twisted network of unpaved streets was mostly pedestrian. At Ur, one
sees on occasion a low flight of steps against a building from which riders could mount,
and the street corners were regularly rounded to facilitate passage.
Street width at the very most , would be 3 meters (9 feet) or so, and that only for the
few principal thoroughfares that led to the public buildings. These would be bordered with
the houses of the rich.
Poorer folk lived at the back ,along narrow lanes and alleys.
Once walled the land became precious, and the high value of private property kept
public space to a minimum. Ample squares or public gardens were very rare.
The houses were grouped into congested blocks, where partition walls were common.

Ur, residential area southeast of

the
royal mausolea in the twentieth
century B.C.;Plan

The houses were , for the most part, one-storey

structures of mud-brick, with several rooms
wrapped around a central court. There were
usually no outside windows, no attempt to
contribute to a street architecture.
The wealthier classes of Ur lived in ample
hoses of dozen or so rooms, arranged on two
storeys, and whitewashed inside and out.

3.
2.

1.

7.

4
.

8.

6.

1. Courtyard
2. Entry Vestibule
3. Reception Room
(Liwan)
4. Private Chapel
5. Kitchen
6. Lavatory
7. Stair case
8. Drain
9.Shop

5.

1.
1.

1.

3.
1.

4.

9.

Ur, Residential quarter between the Ziggurat precinct and the West
Harbor , Plan

Architects designed
perfect house plan,
rectangles
divided
neatly into orthogonal
rooms
around
a
central living space.
But the reality of
living town played
havoc
with
the
conceptual order of
the architect. The
building lots were not
of uniform size. Each
house was compelled
to
fit
into
a
predetermined space.

Residential Quarters of Ur - Domestic Architecture

Courtyard Need for privacy, climate

If there were any windows facing the street, they were in the
upper storey
There was a step sown from the vestibule to the central court
The central court was brick paved and slopes toward a central
drain
The stairs and the lavatory were opposite to the guest room
across the courtyard
The first flight of this stair leading to the second floor is very high
to permit headroom in the lavatory

The family lived on the second level in a layout essentially

duplicating the ground floor

There were two ways

in which this temple
differed from others in
the city. It stood on a
tremendous platform
called the ziggurat,
and being free of the
pressures of density in
its ample precinct, its
form could afford to be
both regular and open.

Uruk

For thousands of years,

Nippur was the religious
center of Mesopotamia.
According to Sumerian
religion, it was at Nippur
where Enlil, the supreme god
of the Sumerian pantheon,
created mankind.
Although never a capital city,
Nippur had great political
importance because royal rule
over Mesopotamia was not
considered legitimate without
recognition in its temples.
Thus, Nippur was the focus of
pilgrimage and building
programs by dozens of kings
including Hammurabi of
Babylon and Ashurbanipal of
Assyria.

Ziggurat of Ur - Nammu

One of the most impressive structures of that time

It was located in a Temple Complex of Nanna (the Moon God)
Innovative structure For the first time the elements were united in a dramatic architectural design

Ziggurat of Ur - Nammu

Structure Highly axial; Axis did not continue into surroundings

Access to the court was diagonally from a gate at one of the corners

Ziggurat of Ur - Nammu
The Ziggurat was a free standing structure
Base 100m X 65m; Height 21m
3 terraces with the sacred shrine on the highest one
3 monumental staircases on the North-East side, converging
into a canopied vestibule at the top of the first platform
From there, a central stair continued to the second stage and
the third.
Main lines were built with slight curves to correct optical
illusion
Mud bricks reinforced with reeds

City of Ur Present day restorations

Sumer, 3200-2350 B.C.

Sargons Empire, 2350-2320B.C.

The Amorite invasions, 2100-1900 B.C.

The Dynasty of Ur, 2100-2000B.C.

Reign of Hammurapi of Babylon, 1792-1750 B.C.

Khorsabad:

KHORSABAD

The city was a royal Assyrian foundation, begun in 706 B.C., and abandoned, unfinished,
shortly afterward.
It covered 2.5 Sq.Km. (almost 1 Sq.mile).
There were two arched gates on each side of the square, guarded by stone demons in the
form of human-headed bulls.
On the North-West side one of the gates had been replaced by a bastion that served as a
platform for the royal place.
The Royal place:
The administrative court of honor is at the top of the plan, with the great Throne Room on
the left.
The entrance court is associated with a number of temples grouped along the west side.
They were all served by single ziggurat that was no other example of this Mesopotamian
building type.

4.
3.
2.

1. Citadel wall

2. Entrance court
3. Court of honor
4. Unexcavated

Khorsabad (the ancient Dur Sharrukin, Iraq),

Assyrian city founded by SargonII (721-705 B.C.), Plan

Temple

Entrance
Court

Khorsabad, citadel with royal palace

Court Of
Honor

Citadel Wall

Un-excavated

Khorsabad, citadel with royal palace