From Gay to Gei: The Onnagata and the Creation of Kabuki's Female Characters

Author(s): Samuel L. Leiter

Source: Comparative Drama, Vol. 33, No. 4 (Winter 1999-2000), pp. 495-514
Published by: Comparative Drama
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41154044
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FromGayto Gei: TheOnnagata

andtheCreationofKabuki's
FemaleCharacters
SamuelL. Leiter
From 1629 to 1877, womenwereofficiallyforbidden
to act
in Japan'skabukitheater,which- undertheleadershipof a former shrinepriestessnamedOkuni- theyhad foundedin 1603.
From1629 on,male actors,theonnagata,playedwomen'sroles.
The reasons forthe banningof actresseshave been frequently
recountedelsewhereand neednotbe reexamined-here
in detail.
At the time,Japaneseurbanculturewas largelyunderthe
influenceof Confucianethics and Buddhistreligiouspractice,
bothbeingantifemale
systems.Whereas,despiteendemicmisogancient
and
medieval
yny,
Japanhad manywomenof accomplishment,such women were exceedinglyrare during the
Tokugawa period (also called the Edo period, 1603-1868).
Womenof thetimemay have been moresociallyand commercially active than is commonlysupposed,1but it is clear that
Tokugawa women were, by and large, second-classcitizens.
People were to behave in this world accordingto theirgiven
thebakufu,
place in it.Whenthedictatorial
military
government,
determined
thatkabuki's womenhad oversteppedtheirbounds,
itbannedthemfromthestage.
In 1652, it did the same to the youthsin the homosexual
boys' kabuki,whichreplacedthewomen,and who were eliminatedformuchthe same reasons.Kabuki would have died had
notincreasingly
believableinsteadofmerelypretty
femalecharactersbegunto appearin thematuremale kabukithatemergedin
the 1650s and tookits firstimportant
artisticstepsin thefollowfromgay
ing decade. At thispoint,kabukiwitnesseda transition
theaterto gei theater,
gei beingJapaneseforart,includingacting
art.Only actorspast theiradolescencecould performand they
were forcedby law to reducetheirphysicalattractiveness,
princoifedforelocksthatboys
cipallyby shavingoffthebeautifully
worebeforecelebrating
theiraccessionto adultstatus.
495

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496

Drama
Comparative

The English theater,by introducing

actresses,opened the
doorto an emphasison the commodification
of women.On the
otherhand,since kabuki9
s maturemales were requiredto radically tone down theirglamour,one mighthave fearedthatthe
presumablydesexedkabukiwas notlong forthisworld.But kato its advanbukinotonlymanagedto turnthenew restrictions
it
also
was
to
that
sex
remained
a fundamenable
tage,
guarantee
tal component.Moreover,it servedto commoditymen as sex
objects, regardlessof which gendertheyportrayed.Eros remained primary,and the actors,while continuallystrivingto
of the womentheydepicted,were alachieve lifelikeportraits
ways alert to maintainingthe proper level of "sex appeal"
[iroke].
to the late nineteenthcentury,
From the mid-seventeenth
and actors successfullycreateda rich panoplyof
playwrights
two basic
femaleroles and types.Sue-EllenCase has identified
the
of
dramatic
in
Western
depictions women, positive,
images
and even hewhichshows "womenas independent,
intelligent,
as
the
identified
and
the
Bitch,the
roic,"
"commonly
misogynist,
has its
Kabuki
the
and
the
Witch,
Virgin/Goddess."2
Vamp,
share of bitches,witches,and vamps- its virginsare positive,
- buttheyare in theminority
and mostkanotnegativefigures
buki women actuallyoccupy the firstcategory.Althoughshe
overlookskabuki,Case correctlynotesthatwomenin all-male
theatersundeniablyoffera genderdepictiondenyingrealwomen
in favorof a fictionalconstructfavoringpatriarrepresentation
of herperspectivewill be apchal values. The appropriateness
the
parentduring followingsurveyof kabuki's women(manyof
themfirstcreatedforbunrakupuppetplays, lateradaptedfor
that,despitetheobviouspersiskabuki)?I will also demonstrate
fairto and
kabukiwas surprisingly
tenceof patriarchal
attitudes,
respectfulof women,quite possibly because the actorsplaytheircreationwere men whose artisticstatuswas
ing/inspiring
with which they capturedthe
dependenton the authenticity
essence of anothergenderfor an audience in which
truthful
men.4Finally,I will describethe
womengenerallyoutnumbered
device of this
as
of
exploitation cross-dressing a dramaturgical
all-maletheater.
I
Womenof the TokugawaPeriod. The actual womenof the
which
patriarchy,
Tokugawaperiodwerethevictimsof a mighty

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SamuelL Leiter

497

relegatedthemto a positionof relativepowerlessness.Fromthe

early eighteenthcentury,nearly every properlybroughtup
woman was inculcated with the popularized teachings of
moraltractsthatstressedwoman'slowlyplace,
Confucian-based
most notable of these "women's bibles" being The Greater
Learning for Women [Onna Daigaku] by Kaibara Ekken
(1631-1714).5 At the turnof the twentiethcentury,Lafcadio
of Japaneseculture,penned
Hearn,famedforhis interpretations
thispictureof Japanesewomenof the premodern
era; manyof
his imagesresemblethosein TheGreaterLearningfor Women:
The old-fashioned
educationof hersex was directedto thedevelopand to thesuppressing
of
mentof everyqualityessentiallyfeminine,
the opposite quality. Kindliness,docility,sympathy,tenderness,
- theseand otherattributes
were cultivatedintoincompadaintiness
rableblossoming.. . . Her success in lifewas made to dependon her
powerto win affectionby gentleness,obedience,kindliness.... A
onlyforothers,happyonlyin
beingworkingonlyforothers,thinking
- a beingincapableofunkindness,
incapamakingpleasureforothers
to herown inherited
ble of selfishness,incapableof actingcontrary
- and in spiteof thissoftnessand gentlenessready,at
sense of right
to
at thecall of
moment,
any
lay downherlife,to sacrificeeverything
duty;suchwas thecharacteroftheJapanesewoman.6

The ideal formen- emulatedto some extenteven among

- was bushid,the way of the samurai,while for
commoners
womenit was teijid,theway of thevirtuouswoman.Similarly,
theideal of femininity
was summedup in theexpressionYamato
nadeshiko[gentlewomanof Japan].In a societywheresuch an
ideal of femininity
was worshipped,
one wouldexpectto see this
in kabuki.
imagereflected
to Westernexamples of all-male theater,
Case, referring
in
words
that
could
as easilyapplyto Japan:"Thispractice
says,
reveals the fictionality
of the patriarchy's
of the
representation
Classical
and
theatrical
conventions
can
now
be
gender.
plays
regardedas allies in theprojectof suppressingreal womenand
Kabuki
replacingthemwithmasks of patriarchalproduction."7
womenoftenexemplifysuch masks,yettherangeof characters
is quitewide and it is worthlookingat some of themto see how
theydifferfromor correspondto it. Thereare manymeek and
submissivewomenin kabuki,but thereare also manythatopconsiderableindependpose theirsocial bonds and demonstrate
ence of action and thought.One of the theater'sfunctionshas
always been to act as a subversiveoutletforpeople's repressed

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Drama
Comparative

498

desires,and the manywomen who attendedkabukimustcertheirown

who transcended
tainlyhave wantedto see characters
when feminineindelives and actions.Nevertheless,
restricted
pendenceis expressedit is almostinvariablyin the formof a
crucialsacrificemadeon behalfofa man.
II
The Courtesanas Icon. If anykabukicharactermaybe said
to typifythe ideal womanit is certainlynot Hearn's compliant
housewife,noris itthevirginalyoungmissnotyetsubjectedto a
husband'sdominance.Insteadit is thecourtesan(keisei,among
otherterms),fabled in song, story,art,dance, and theater.In
organized
fact,Japan'sprostitutes
belongedto a hierarchically
professionwithmultipleranksand levelsrangingfromwalk-ons
to superstars.And mostof thesefigurein kabuki,althoughthe
mostrespectedones are thosewho dominatedthepleasurequarters,whichappearas dramaticlocales in one playaftertheother.
In a sense,we mightconcludethattherereallyneverwas a
total ban on actresses because the top-rankingcourtesans
steppedin to fillthe gap. These women,whose rise to national
createda fantasyof femifameparalleledkabuki's development,
worldof
withinthe prototheatrical
nine appeal and desirability
the quarters.Theretheyattainedskillsin music,poetry,thetea
dance, conversation,and the
ceremony,flower arrangement,
publicwithan imageof
like, and providedthe actress-deprived
in
found
notto be
womancertainly
anyone'sactualhome.Many
"women[of good backwere
Mark
writes
Oshima,
courtesans,
licensed
the
who
entered
pleasurequarterin orderto
grounds]
raise moneyfortheirlord or family."8They remindus of the
France who, Lesley
demimondainesof mid-nineteenth-century
and
Ferrisdeclares,"werecultivatedby aristocratic
backgrounds
educationbut impoverished
by the loss of theirfathersand acceptablesuitorsin themanywars of theEmpire."9Frenchcourand
theirwealthyclients"intellectual
tesans,adds Ferris,offered
and
sexual
the
liaison,"10
amusements
cultural
expected
beyond
so didJapan's.
woodblock
Throughthemedia of kabuki,popularliterature,
their
ranked
even
and
described
that
and
guidebooks
prints,
courtesanswere famouseverybeauty and accomplishments,
where,knowneven by thosewho neverset footin thequarters.
In reality,theywere indentured
slaves, butthe social construction of themwas of superblyaccomplishedwomenwho were

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SamuelL Leiter

499

sexually available only to those withbottomlesspocketsand,

eventhen,onlyafterbeingwooed in an elaboratesystemof artificial courtship.They were on display,however,forall social
classes, richand poor,fortheyparadeddaily,dressedand made
up to the nines,while occasionallyalteringtheirwalk by draggingtheinsideedges of theirfoot-high
clogs in a sweepingfigure eight[hachimonji].The necessityof slightlyopeningthealmostalways-pressed
had powertogether
legs forthismovement
fuleroticovertones.The imagestheyprojectedwerereplicated
in kabukiby theonnagata,who expressedthecourtesans'famed
sense of pride,spirit,and- ironicallyforsellers of sex- their
faithfulness
to a particularlover.Since manyof theseso-called
kabuki"emblemsof feminity"11
were based on actual women,
even theiractual names being used, theirrenownclearlymade
themthemovieorrockstarsoftheirday.
Kabuki women are constantlybeing sold or sellingthemselves into whoredomfor self-sacrificing
reasons,Omatsu in
Mirrorof the Two-SidedPaper Kimono[KamikoJitateRyornen
this so thather husbandcan
Kagami] (1768) even attempting
redeemhis prostitute
sweetheart
fromthequarters.Manykabuki
heroeshave eithera prostitute
mistressor one whose love they
to
notorious
in real lifefortheirinsincerity,
hope gain.Although
kabukiprostitutes
are typicallydignified,pure of heart,deeply
to thedeathon behalfof themantheylove.
sincere,and faithful
The renowned courtesan Yatsuhashi in A Sword Named
Kagotsurube[Kagotsurube](1888) is so devotedto herjealous
lover thatwhen anotherman promisesto buy her contractshe
refusesher freedom,publiclyinsultingthe man,for
reluctantly
whichhe eventuallyslaysher.An exceptionto theselflesscourtesan is the selfish Miyokichi in Crepe Salesman Shinsuke
of
[ChijimiyaShinsuke](1860), whose creationis representative
themid-nineteenth-century
declinein courtesanstandards.
Confucianists
frownedon romanticlove outsideof marriage
butromanticlove is pervasivein kabuki,althoughit constantly
leads to one catastropheor another.Courtesanscould notafford
to fall fora client,and theycould be ransomedby anyonewith
the price,but theywere human,afterall, and the conflictbetweenlove fora manwho cannotaffordto buyouttheircontract
and the attempts
to stiflesomeonewho can formsthe actionof
manydramas.When all else fails,such womenoftenchoose to
commitsuicidewiththeirloverin thehope of achievinghappiness in theotherworld.This was an act of defiancethatsignaled
possible relief to so many stifledcopycat lovers that such

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500

Drama
Comparative

plays- powerfulsigns of theater'ssubversivepower for the

- eventually
werebanned.
emotionally
oppressed
An invariablepatternis forthe courtesanto save her lover
fromsome imminent
dangerofwhichhe is usuallyunaware.Her
onlyrecourseis to denyhim,whichshe mustdo publiclyin a
letteror speech of denunciation[aisozukashi],even thoughit
breaksher heart;the woman disguisesher truefeelingsin the
of thepresumedgreatergood and- like ArmandDuval
interests
- the man remainsinnobeing rejectedby MargueriteGautier
cent of her motives.Such scenes are extremelycommon,althoughalwaysprovidedwitha newtwist,and an ail-toofrequent
resultis thatthe lover,completelymisreadingthe woman's inkillsherin revenge.The exampleof Yatsuhashiin The
tentions,
SwordNamedKagotsurube,mentionedearlier,is a variationof
withthereal loverbeingthecause forthewould-be
thispattern,
lover'srejection.
could also show a defianceand backbone
Kabukiprostitutes
most
drama's
of
women,perhapsthebest
strong-willed
worthy
the
dazzling Agemakiin Sukeroku:Flower of
example being
Edo [SukerokuYukariEdo no Zakura] (1713). This powerful
figureadamantlyrefusesherservicesto herlover's wealthybut
evil samurairival,and castigateshimin a scathingly
bitingputdown. Unlike Yatsuhashi, Agemaki trulydoes despise this
suitor,and she is notkilledforherdefiance.
Accordingto Yoshizawa AyameI (1673-1729), thegreatest
earlyonnagata,the courtesanwas the basis forall female-role
acting."The reasonforthis,"he said, "is that,since he is basically a man,he possesses,by his nature,a facultyof strongacbearin mindthesoftnessofthekeisei
tion,and he mustcarefully
In otherwords,thekeiseiis the anand herfemininecharm."12
tithesisof masculinity,
beingsoftinsteadof hard,gentleinstead
of rough,delicateinsteadof strong.At thetime,kabukihad not
womenas townsmen'swives and
yetdevelopedsuch important
respectabledaughters(althoughtheywere beginningto appear
in thepuppettheater),butmanyof thesewould beforelong require similarlyfemininequalities,althoughexpressedin differentpatterns.But thekeisei clearlywas thebasis on whichsuch
later formsof theatricalwomanhoodwere established.The
keisei,afterall, was thenthemostvisiblewomanavailable for
regularobservation,mostothersbeing carefullysecludedfrom
thepublicgaze.
As thisoccurred,actorshad to findways to remainsexually
yetnotto confusethequalitiesof one role typewith
interesting

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SamuelL. Leiter

501

another.Even a virginhad to have sex appeal,so different

types
As the onnagataNakamura
of charismahad to be constructed.
UtaemonV (1865-1940) wrote:
The distinction
betweena womanwho has a loverand one who doesacts witha sense of emn't is a bit difficult:
the virginconsistently
barrassment
as herfundamental
quality.She keepsherhead bentand
eyes lowered,and she musthave a full emotionalcomplementof
sexuality.For example,whenthemanshe loves is nearher,muchas
she seems as thoughshe would flyto him,itwouldbe disgracefulto
diappear so, yether feelingsmustbe completelyand unflaggingly
rectedtowardhim. Her actinguses her sleeves in insinuating
ways
In thecase of thekeisei,thisis
buteverything
is done in moderation.
so
she
must
seem
embarrassed.
Instead,she acts withthe
business,
sensethatshe takespridein hermanner.13

betweenkeisei
The sleeves are anothersourceof difference
and otherwomen.Manipulationof thehangingsleeves- whose
lengthvaries accordingto the charactertype- can suggestan
extraordinary
range of feelings,and theyare of particularuse
when wipingaway one's tears.The keisei,however,normally
fromher
dabs herswitha wad of paperalways seen protruding
breastfold; it can also serve a varietyof otherimportant
purposes, such as forfanningoneselfor repairingthe thongon a
sandal.
are thegeisha,entertainers
Closely alignedto theprostitute
who came on thescenein themid-eighteenth
butdidnot
century,
sell sex, at least notovertly.One interesting
difference
between
and
from
the
derives
hold
their
geisha
prostitutes
way they
An
skirts,althoughtoday's actorsoftenignorethe distinction.
old name forthe femalegeisha (thereweremale geisha,too) is
hidarizuma[leftskirt],whichderivesfromthe traditionof her
holdingup herkimonoskirtwithherlefthand,whiletheprostitutedoes so withherright(providingthetermmigizuma).Critic
Tobe Ginsakureportsthatthe skirtsopen widerwiththe right
grip,therebybeing more revealing,as suits a sexual professional,while themodestleftgrippermitsa moregracefulmanner of movement.15
differsomeAlthoughtheircircumstances
whatfromthoseof theprostitutes,
geishaare embroiledin similar love problemsand,because they,too,wereindentured,
often
facecomparablesituations.

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Drama
Comparative

502
III

TakingMattersinto TheirOwn Hands. Like Antigoneand

violetsbut
manykabukiwomenare notshrinking
Clytemnestra,
chooseto takeactionwiththeirownhandswhenthelifeor wellbeingof theirhusbandor loveris at stake,whena familymembermustbe avenged,whena politicalobjectivemustbe gained,
or whenthewomanhas been cruellywronged.Not onlysamurai
women but commonersalso could demonstrate
single-minded
when tragedythreatdedication,bravery,and resourcefulness
ened. Frequently,
theymakeenormoussacrificesto raisemoney
cause. Or theirdevotion
foran endangeredloveror an important
drivesthemto what Edo-period(1603-1868) Japaneseconsidacts of subversion,
eredultra-heroic
perhapsthemostfabledbeOshichi,of Oshichiand theFire
by Greengrocer
ing performed
Tower [Yagura Oshichi] (1773). She is so desperateto be reunitedwith her lover Kichisaburthatshe commitsa capital
crimeby bangingthe firetowerdrumwhenthereis no firein
order to rouse the neighborhood and hopefully bring
Kichisaburback to her.Such thingswere not likelyto happen
to the averagewomanin thisoppressivesociety,of course,but
how
she could see themenactedon the stage and understand
even she, were the circumstances
similar,mightrise to heroic
heights.
IV
Womenin Dance. In the onnagata's early years,roles of
such power went to male-role actors while dance was the
onnagata's specialty.The earlydances oftenreflectedfolkbeliefs in woman's fearsome sexual powers. Thus many
dances- servingalmost as exorcisticchannelsthroughwhich
dangerousfemaleenergycould be dispelled concernedthereof
lease of the centraldemonsin the form madness.A typical
means of expressingthis was throughlion dances inspiredby
earliersources,such as the no play StoneBridge [Shakkyo],in
whichthe gentlelion of the firsthalf,played as a younggirl,
in all itscrazedfrenzy.Othersallowedthe
goes mad and returns
dancerto play an actualmaidenwho is overcomebyjealousy,as
in the innumerabledances exemplifiedby The Maiden at the
Dj Temple [MusumeDjji] (1753). The onnagata's dance
monopolywas not successfullychallengeduntilthe late eighteenthcentury.But even the lateronnagatadances (as well as

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503

SamuelL. Leiter

dramas) oftenfeaturedthe onnagata as the anthropomorphic

of unknowableforces,such as the spiritsof plants
embodiment
and animals.
of femalesin dance are
us of theimportance
Also reminding
the manynumberssharedwith a male, such as traveldances
in which thereis a passage of lamentationcalled
[michiyuki],
kudoki,usuallyexpressingthewoman's love forherman. During thesesections,sungby theonstagemusicians,theman generallysits quietlywhile the womanexpressesher deepestfeelKudokiare also foundin dramas,and are
ingschoreographically.
the emotionalhighlightsforfemales,wheretheymay chastise
someone,say farewellto a beloved,wail overa dead child,and
to the usuallysedate
so on. These passages are veryimportant
onnagatabecause he can allow his emotionsto ripin a musically
balancedsequencerepletewithweepingand expressivegestures.
V
Jealous Women.Jealousyis the mostcommonof a kabuki
seen thatthereis
traits.It is so frequently
woman's unattractive
even a termfor the acting in such plays, "jealous business"
on a
One jealousy dramathatshouldsendfeminists
[shittogoto].
rampageis The Chamberlainand the China Mansion [Banch
Sarayashiki],a 1916 adaptationof a once popularTokugawa
period play, in which a jealous woman decides to test her
fiance'slove by smashingone of his prizedheirloomplates.He
is willingto forgiveherwhenhe thinksitan accidentbutdrowns
herin a well whenhe discoversthatshe doubtedhis fidelity.
She
is so happyto learnthathe is faithful
thatshe willinglytakesthe
plunge.Jealousycan also affectwomenregardingtheirrelative
statusin a daimy's innercourt.One ofthegreatestdramaswith
a mainly female-rolecast, Mirror Mountain [Kagamiyama]
(1782, among several versions), is about just that. And in
Karukaya Dshin and the Souvenir of Tsukushi[Karukaya
Dshin Tsukushino Iezuto](1735), jealousy is horrifically
manifestedwhentwo womenfall asleep whileplayinga boardgame
andtheirhairturnsintosnakesthatbiteat one another.
VI
Female PurityInspires Female Strength.Jealous or not,
princess or not, most young women epitomizethe purityof
youthful
beautyand innocence.Unmarried
youngwomenmaybe

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Drama
Comparative

or townswomen.Fromthe latter
noblewomen,countrywomen,
two groupscome thoseknownas "daughters"[musume],while
fromthe formercome the upper-classgirlscalled "princesses"
[hime].These maidens,comingas theydo fromthe mostproare extremely
tectedenvironments,
delicate,gentle,modest,and
Withtheirentireexistencerestingon an unsulliedbut
retiring.
tragiclove, they shamelesslyelicit audience sympathy.Such
women are kabukis quietest,using theirsleeves and skirtsto
communicateembarrassment,
happiness,sorrow,laughter,and
the like, and so holdingtheirvoluminoussleeves thatone can
barelydiscerntheirhandswithinthem.
Kabuki criticscall the threemostchallengingof such roles
the"threeprincesses"[sanhime],
just as theysimilarlydesignate
the"threewiferoles" [sannyb]and "thethreeold lady roles"
[sanbb], although,forsome reason,perhapsthe sheerabundance of the field,thereare no "threecourtesans."One of the
reasons forthese selectionsis that,despitetheirreticenceand
ofmind
theyexpressconsiderableindependence
physicalfrailty,
and action.In some cases theirdesiresare so strongthatsupernaturalforcesappear to aid them.PrincessToki in Record of
Three Generationsat Kamakura [KamakuraSandaiki] (1781)
to spendone night
breaksconventionby beggingherbetrothed
withherbeforehe goes offto battleand,despiteherhavingbeen
to prepare
raisedwithabsolutelyno domesticskills,determines
dinnerno matterwhatthecost.PrincessYuki in The GoldenPavilion [Kinkakuji](1757) is so set on rescuingher lover that,
whenboundwithropesto a cherrytree,she becomescapable of
willingthecherryblossomsat herfeetto turnintoratswho chew
her free. The sexually naive Princess Yaegaki in Japan's
Paragons of Filial Virtue [Honch Nijshik]
Twenty-four
to reach her endangeredlover so greatlythat
wishes
(1766)
to help her cross a frozenlake. To convey
foxes
appear
magic
the abnormalpower of these lattertwo climactictransformathemin puppet
tions,kabukihas bothYaegaki and Yuki perform
black-robed
with
theaterfashion [ningyburi],
manipulators
seemingto controltheirmovements.CriticTsuda Rui tells us
that,fortheoppressedwomenoftheday,whohad littlefreedom
of thoughtor action,such heroineswere theiralteregos, their
dreamscome true.15
release,a liberTheyactedas a momentary
to fightforthe
convention
of
in
their
force,
overturning
ating
oftheirlove andtheirstruggleforfreedom.
perfection
Commonergirls are similarlydevoted to theirmen, of
Oshichi.Ofune,
course,as we saw withthestoryof Greengrocer

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505

SamuelL Leiter

a rural girl in The Ferry at Yaguchi [Yaguchi no Watashi]

herbody forherlover's on an enemysword
(1770), substitutes
aids himby climbinga towerto
and, mortallywounded,further
bang a drumand raise a siege. In fact,a considerablenumberof
theirbodies forthose
playshave womenwho willinglysubstitute
of theirloved ones. In The Memorial Service at the Bridge
wifedeceives
[Hashi KuyBonji no Mongaku](1883), a faithful
an enemysamuraiintothinkinghe is killingher sleepinghusbandbutshe putsherselfin herspouse's place.
VII
Womenand theAestheticofCruelty.Because ofthedelicacy
of theaveragekabukiwoman,anythreatto herphysicalor menactorsand
tal well-beingshouldbringshudders,a consideration
hersafetyin melowritersexploitedby findingwaysto threaten
These "Perilsof Pauline'Mikescenes
dramaticscenes of torture.
forma crucialpartin kabuki's so-called "aestheticof cruelty"
[zankokuno bi], a highlyaestheticized,even fantasticalworld
wherethe inherentsadism is mutedby artistictechniques.In
thewomanis tiedup and punishedin thefreez"snow tortures,"
cold.
She
just as in
invariably
escapes at the last moment,
ing
manyWesternmelodramas.In the mostaestheticized"torture"
scene, the courtesanAkoya,in theplay ofthatname (1732), is
testedas to whethershe is lyingwhen she deniesknowingthe
whereaboutsof her fugitivelover.The testrequiresherto play
- a sort of artisticpolythree differentmusical instruments
her
determine
while
by herplayingifshe is
interrogators
graph
how
these
scenesclearlyplay
No
matter
conventionalized,
lying.
to male fantasiesofdomination
and aggression.
Anotherway to wringaudiencetearsis to have a beautiful
womango blind fromgrief,forcingherto earnher livingas a
beggar,or be horribly
disfigured
by poison or a physicalattack.
The onnagatacreateda numberof vividmakeupconventions
to
depict scarredor mutilatedfeatures,none moreawfulthanthe
grotesqueeffectofpurpledskinand droopingeye wornby Oiwa
afterherhusbandpoisonsherin The GhostStoriesofYotsuyaon
theTkaid[TkaidYotsuyaKaidan] (1825). In a heartrending
moment,thisonce proudbeautycombsherlongblack haironly
foritto come outin bloodyclumps.Butbecause nothingis more
noble thana self-sacrificing
woman,what could be more dramaticthanto have such a woman,renownedforherbeauty,deliberatelymar her own appearance?This happens in Summer

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506

Drama
Comparative

Festival [Natsu Matsuri] (1745), when the marriedOtatsu,to

prove thatshe can be trustedalone withthe handsomeyoung
Isonoj,places a red-hotironagainsthercheek,brandingherself
witha presumably
scar."Do you stillfindme alluring?"
frightful
she inquires.
Anotherformof self-mutilation,
theseveringofa finger,
was
meantas a signof devotion,and is stillpracticedby theyakuza,
Japan'sMafia.One kabukiexampleis in Scarface Otomi[Kirare
Otomi](1864) when Otomi pledges her love, while the other
mainexamplestemsfroma different
typeof devotion.In Plum
Blossom Yoshibei[Urneno Yoshibei](1796), Koume,realizing
thatthebitten-off
pinkyin themouthof a corpseis herbrother's,
and thatherhusbandmusthave killedhim,assumesresponsibilityforthe crimeby slicingoffherown digitand thencommittingsuicide.
VIII
attitudesare at their
Sex and theKabuki Woman.Patriarchal
mostrampantamongwomenwho have been raped.Thereare a
numberof situationswheretherapeactuallycomesas a pleasant
surpriseto the previouslyinhibitedvictim,as it reveals to her
In TheScarletPrincess
pleasuresofwhichshehas been ignorant.
of Edo [Sakura-himeAzuma Bunsho] (1817), forexample,the
high-classtitlecharacterhas been rapedin thedarkby Gonsuke
and is unableto forgettheexperience.She evengetsa tattoolike
theone she glimpsedon his arm,so whenGonsukeinadvertently
appearsbeforehershe recognizeshis tattoo,jumpsintobed with
him,throwsaway her glossy lifestyle,and willinglydescends
in orderto be withhim.Suchnineteenth-century
intodegradation
reflect
a
generalsocial decadence among the effectsof
plays
whichare characterslike Sakura,who- despitetheirfulfillment
- deliberately
flauntacceptedsocial stanof male rape fantasies
lives based on theirown perdardsand carveout individualistic
sonal needs. Such rolesalso give theactoran enormousrangeof
uncouth
possibilitiesas he goes fromultrarefinedto increasingly
and
speech,actions, appearance.
are in thebusinessof sellingsex, some
Althoughprostitutes
of kabuki's mostsensuallyaggressivewomenare notprostitutes
thananyat all. Sakura's bedroomscenewithGonsukeis franker
thingthatcould have been viewed in the West at thetimeand,
thatit is playedby twomen,stillevokesa frissonof
considering
daringtoday. In the classic Yoshitsuneand the 1,000 Cherry

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507

SamuelL Leiter

Trees [YoshitsuneSembonZakura] (1747), the shopgirlOsato,

the supposedclerkYasuke,
believingthatshe will be marrying
behavior
boldlyinviteshimto sleep withher.And theflirtatious
toward her lover of the virginprincess Yaegaki in Japan's
Paragons always elicits laughterbecause of the
Twenty-Four
withheressentialinnocontrasts
wayherunabashedforwardness
cence.
IX
Mothersand Wives:Society's Role Models. Far moresedate
thanthewomenwe have touchedon are thewives,bothsamurai
thelatter.Theirprincipalpurpose
butprincipally
and commoner,
- of theirhusis to supportthe desires- no matterhow selfish
men squandertheir
bands. These oftenshallow and unworthy
moneyat the brothels,butthe wives- as The GreaterLearning
- show no jealousy and in everyway are
for Womeninstructed
thesequietlyinWhena crisisthreatens,
modelsof domesticity.
at thecost of
avert
even
to
in
their
do
all
women
it,
power
trepid
his
behalf.
on
or
their
spouse dying
divorcing
Such characterswere modeled on the townswomenof the
day. Theyepitomizevirtuousbehavior,so eventhesuggestionof
adultery carries shock value. Chikamatsu Monzaemon
(1653-1725) wrotethreeadulteryplays thatwere lateradapted
fromthepuppetsforkabuki,butin each case thewomanis a pasand heressentialvirtueremainsinsive victimof circumstances
fora marriedwomanof thetime
tact.It was extremelydifficult
to engage willfullyin adulterybecause her life was so circumscribedand because chastitywas so highlyrevered.One of the
few important
plays writtendirectlyforkabukiand centeredon
is
the
The Kagatobi Fire Briadultery
late-nineteenth-century
gade [Kagatobi](1886), in whicha proudfireman'swifeis unto clear herof
fairlysuspectedof infidelity,
leadingto attempts
the charge.Because of its late date it is possible thatWestern
models,such as Othello,influencedthisplay. In general,kabuki
wives exemplifyfidelity,while theirhusbandsoftenepitomize
thedoublestandard.
The objectof a woman's sexual passioncan also be illicitin
otherways, and incestplays a role in severalworks,although
usually unintendedand discoveredonly afterthe act has been
discovered.Here the writer'sobjectiveis to uncoverthe unexpected workingsof karma. The Phdre-likeheroine of The
Gapp Crossroads [Gapp ga Tsuji] (1773), however,deliber-

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508

Drama
Comparative

atelypursuesherstepson,and onlywhenherbehaviorcauses her

deathdoes she reveal whatreallyhave been noble motives.No
soonerdoes a womanseemtrulylewdthantheconvention
of "in
andthealtruistic
truth
comesout.
reality"'jitsuwa] intrudes
Samuraiwives are bestrepresented
by thewomenof theinner court known as katahazushi,a termwhich reflectsthe
of theirhairstyle.Amongkatahazushiheroines
offcenteredness
are some of the mostdignifiedand tragicof characters.One of
thegreatestis Masaoka in Troublesin theshAshikagaHousehold [MeibokuSendai Hagi] (1777, and laterversions),a governess who,to protectthechildof herlord,mustsit impassivelyas
herown child is brutallyslain beforeherveryeyes. Only when
she is alone can she eruptwithpent-upgrief.Such roles challengetheactor'semotionalcapacitiesand his abilityto makethe
believableto a contemporary
audiextremeshis charactersuffers
ence.
Mothersin particularstraina Japaneseaudience's heartbetweenso many
strings.One mightarguethattherelationships
a pervasive
heroes
and
courtesans
reflects
nurturing
weakling
mothers
in emobut
with
actual
male
fixation, plays
Japanese
include
those
are
common.
These
situations
tionallywrenching
to thedeathof a
wherea mothermusteitherreactunflinchingly
or to hersearchfora kidchild,to herpartingfromone forever,
thefirsttwoofthese
nappedchild.Like so manyothersituations,
complicationsstemfromconflictsbetweena character'sobligationsand dutiesunderthe Confuciancodes and herpersonalinclinations.Whensocial duty[giri]winsoutoverhumanfeelings
[ninj],the audience reaches for its hankies. Still, as scholar
mothersare tragically
KintTamao has noticed,thepreeminent
from
dramatic
circumstances
openly expressing
preventedby
humanrelationtheirmaternalfeelings,makingthisfundamental
he thinks,the
In
such
a
ethics.16
of
social
a
victim
world,
ship
killing by Sadaka of her own daughterin Imose Mountain
[Imoseyama](1771) so thatthedead girlcanjoin herloverin the
is the ultimateexpressionof maternallove. Kabuki
afterworld,
also has a Medea-like motherin Kagekiyo Victorious[Shusse
Kagekiyo](1685): Akoya,Kagekiyo's jealous mistress,murders
herorejects
theirtwo sons beforehis eyes whentherecalcitrant
and saystheboysareno longerhis.
herpleas forforgiveness

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SamuelL Leiter

509
X

Female VersionsofMale Roles. Perhapsthemostdistinctive

sign thatkabukiis a theaterof men playingwomenis the phenomenonof plays originallywrittenformale-roleactorsbeing
s talents.This is not the
revisedto accommodatethe onnagata*
same as an actressplayingHamletas a man; it is Hamletconthis
transformations
ceived of as a woman,withall theattendant
In
Saint
Narukami
in
other
characters.
the
[Narukami]
requires
(1742), the beautifulPrincessTaema visitsthe priestNarukami
at his mountainlair in orderto seduce him,therebyenablingher
to end a droughtby releasingan imprisoneddragongod. In Female Narukami[Onna Narukami](1696), Narukamiis a nunsemasduced by a handsomeyounglord.The mostexaggeratedly
culineherois Gongorin Justa Minute, yet
intoa strangehybridwhenplayedby
evenhe was transmogrified
an onnagatain Female Justa Minute![Onna Shibaraku](1745?/
1746?). When the charactermakes her exit on the hana-michi
runway,she beginsto do so in theboundingmale stylebutthen,
realizingthatshe is, afterall, a woman,becomes embarrassed
andrunsoffin typicalfemalefashion.
It is a standardpartof all onnagatarolesin whichthecharacter somehowdisplaysqualitiesassociatedwithmasculinityfor
catchherselfup shortand revertto morefemiherto constantly
whenshe realnine behavior.The expressionof embarrassment
izes how farshe has wanderedfromtheactionsexpectedof her
character'sgenderis almostalways good fora laugh.The audience's knowledgethatit is actuallya manplayingtherole only
thehumor.Whenthesemomentsoccur,theentirefabintensifies
and theartificiric of constructed
genderbehavioris illuminated
of
the
s
art
shines
forth.
The
most
obviousexamality
onnagata'
in
are
the
of
roles
called
female
warriors
[onna
ples
grouping
bud],in whichthesamuraiheroinedisplaysamazonianpropensities.Osono in Keya Village[Keya Mura] (1786) has a scene in
whichshe is disguisedas a Zen priest,fightsoffa band of robbers, and battleswith an enemywhile holdinga child in her
arms. However,she sharplydropsher mannishnessto demonstrateladylikebashfulnesswhenshe discoversthatheropponent
is her never-before-seen
betrothed.Anothersuperwomanis
Hangakuin The WadaDispute [Wada Kassen] (1736) whohas to
smashdowna gate. The eighteenth-century
actorArashiKoroku
II (dates unknown),criticizedfor lacking femininity
in his
roughhousescene, only gained approval afterfirstholdinga

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Drama
Comparative

5 10

handkerchief
againstthe gate to softenthe effect,and thisbecamethestandardbusiness.
XI
Hell Hath No FuryLike a Kabuki WomanScorned.As we
have seen, kabukiwomen are mainlysincere,self-sacrificing,
demureeven when robust,gracious,and so on. We have also
notedthatwomencan startout all thesethingsand thendescend
into the mire of decadence and disgust,but with it all, such
womenrarelydisplayovertevil. One of thechiefways in which
womenwho have beentrampledon becomeempoweredis to turn
into vengefulspiritsaftertheyhave died. The entireworld of
husbandsand loversmusttakecoverwhenone
selfish,unfaithful
ofthesewomencomesback fromtheotherworldto seekrevenge
on thosewhohave wrongedher.
In more earthlyrevengedramas,women are mainlybrave
spouses,although
pillarsof supportfortheirretribution-seeking
theymay have to commitsuicide to help bringthe actionto a
successfulconclusion,as in Go Board RecordoftheGreatPeace
[Goban Taiheiki](1706). But plays in whichthelivingavengers
are womendo exist,mostnotablyThe Tale ofShiroishiand the
Taihei Chronicles[Go Taiheiki](1780), based on an actual 1723
vendettaaccomplishedby a pairof teenagesisters,heredepicted
fortypicalkabukicontrastas a countrybumpkinand hercitified
courtesansibling.
To return,
though,to thedepictionof womenwho exude viciousness:therelativelyfewwho existare generallyconfinedto
courtwomenwho live sethreetypes.One is themean-spirited
cluded frommostmen and fillout theirtimewithintriguesand
backbiting.Such murderouscreaturesare consideredtoo treacherousforpureonnagatato play and are almostalwayscast with
male-roleactorsto underlinetheiruglierqualities.In a sense,
thisrepresentscrossgendercastingwithina one-gendertheater.
and
Otherdistastefulwomen include heartlessmothers-in-law
of
conas
those
as
well
in
who
plays
stepmothers, appear history
temporarylife. In The Double Suicide of Two Sashes [Shinju
kicks her
FutatsuHaraobi] (1722) a notablybrutalstepmother
no
has
house.
She
of
the
out
redeeming
daughter-in-law
pregnant
features,but the abusive Otaki in The Kama Depths [Kama ga
Fuchi] (1737) revealsas she dies thatherbullyingbehaviorwas
intendedto driveherstepsonaway in orderto protecthimfrom
potential disgrace. There are also some terrificallyhateful

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5 11

SamuelL Leiter

womenin plays of contemporary

lifewho do notfitanyparticular pattern,but whose realisticmeanness(like Manno's in The
he Dances [he Ondo], 1796),can stillrilean audience.
But pureonnagatarelishtheabilityto play kabuki's remainingbad women,theakuba or akujo [evil women],also knownas
who came on thescene
dokufu[poisonladies]. These characters,
took onnagataactingin a
at the turnof the nineteenth
century,
completelyunfamiliardirectionby theirdepictionof ruthless
in low-classbackgrounds,
somewomen,sometimesoriginating
timesfallenfromthe nobility,as withPrincessSakura. These
who lord it over theirmen are
toughwomenof the backstreets,
often obsessed with thoughtsof revenge on someone who
wrongedthem. They bear nicknameslike "CrescentMoon"
Osen, "Riverside" Oroku, "Fed Up" Omatsu,and "Scarface"
Otomi;speak the slangiestof dialects;and engagein blackmail,
theft,gambling,murder,and whoring.They can be calculating,
cruel,and defiant,yet,like mostkabukiwomen,beneathall the
bravadoand forbidden
theyreveala sharpstreakof senactivity,
as beingon behalfof the
behavior
that
their
timentality explains
man theylove. This was an absolutelynecessaryconcessionto
heroines
audiencetastes,whichrequiredsuch tradition-breaking
to have traditional
redeemingqualities.
Plays featuringthe akuba, especially those by Tsuruya
towarda
a growingtendency
NanbokuIV (1755-1829), reflected
theatricalizednaturalismfocusedon the lives of society's outa sharpmove fromidealcasts, and theirdepictionrepresented
ifconventionalized,
izationto gritty,
actualism;however,withan
set in and the akuba
abundanceof such roles, standardization
woman.
into
another
Nevertheless,
developed
yet
iconographie
she represents
a majorstepaway fromtheexcessivelyfeminized
woman of the past toward a potentlyindependentcharacter
of womenas the victimsof a
happyto demolishthe stereotype
And theywerenotsimplya theatrical
ficsuffocating
patriarchy.
tion,as therewerea numberof actualwomenwho closelyfitthe
description.
XII
Crossdressingand theKabuki Woman.As one mightexpect
in a formemployingall-malecasts- and in a culturethatLeupp
demonstrates
was increasingly
withandrogyny,17
enthralled
espewhengenderdistinctions
cially in thenineteenth
century,
began
to blur- kabukihas its share of characterswho crossdressfor

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512

Drama
Comparative

purposesboth of plot complicationsand to createa degreeof

sexual titillation.Such situationsare relativelyfew, however,
when comparedto the proportion
of themin Shakespeare.Kabukicrossdressing
is mainlya matterof mendressingas women
ratherthanthe reverse.Ultimately,
it is an excuse forallowing
theactorto displayhis versatility
at playingmale and femaleversions of the same role. Crossdressing,down to hairstylesand
makeup,however,did occur in actual Japaneselife, although
effective
outlawed,and appearsto have been a particularly
way
for nineteenth-century
con men to maneuverthemselvesinto
situations,whichtheycould turnto theiradvancompromising
in twopopularplays,The Three
tage. This device is represented
Kichisa [SanninKichisa] (1860) and BentenKoz (1862). In the
first,the thiefOj Kichiza masqueradesas the stage character
Oshichi,mentionedabove, in orderto facilitatehis
Greengrocer
in
the
second,Bentendressesas a samuraimaidenshopcrimes;
her
in orderto deceivea shopowneras partof
for
trousseau
ping
a robberyscheme.At theclimax,Benten'sruse is revealedand,
to the delightof audiencesever since,he disrobeson stageand
switchesfromdemureyoungmiss to arroganthoodlum,his female robes loosely drapedabouthis tattooedtorso,whilehe retainshis femalehairstyle.The visionof thisandrogynous
hybrid
remainsone of the most tellingimages of the mid-nineteenthwiththegrotesque.
fascination
century
Men requiredby otherplot complicationsthatrequirethem
to dress as women include Matsuwakamaru'sdisguise as the
courtesanHanako in Sta in Disguise [Shinobuno Sta] (1854),
in orderto searchfora familyheirloom;Sangobei's in Song of
Satsuma [SatsumaUta] (1704) as the courtlady Hayashi,a device to help himfindhis father'smurderer;
and, in The Courtesan and the Farce Performedat Mibu Temple [Keisei Mibu
Dainenbutsu] (1702), Miyake Hikoraku,who happens to be
a kygenfarceand overdressedas a womanwhile performing
hearsa dangerousplot,whichleads himto getin on theconspirto be his ownwife.
acy bypretending
Benten's crossdressingis part of a traditionof admittedly
is partof
homosexualmale characterswhose genderflexibility
theircharm.Lesbianism,however,was barelyhintedat,although
thereis a scene in a play called Kumagai and the Fanshop
who mustgo
[giyaKumagai] in whichthehandsomeAtsumori,
intohiding,dressesas a womanand takesrefugeat a fanmaker's
home.The fanmaker'sdaughter,
knowinghimto be a man,falls
in love withhim,but the love scene betweenthe two,withthe

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SamuelL Leiter

513

mandressedas a woman,definitely
conveysa touchof forbidden
desire.
Kabukialso has examplesof womenwho dressas men,most
in The Female Student[Onna Shosei] (1877), writinterestingly
and inspiredby a
ten duringthe earlyyearsof Westernization,
real incident.It tellsof a countrygirlbroughtup as a boy whose
hairis cut shortin thenew fashionand who,passingas a male,
to commita
goes to studyin Tokyo; is forcedby circumstances
to
blow
hercover.
with
a
lout
who
threatens
and
has
sex
crime;
discovers
Whenthemanagainstwhomhercrimewas committed
her sex, he blackmailsher intobeing his mistress.Amongthe
anotherwomanfallsforherin hermale guise
plotcomplications,
but triesto drownherselfon learningthe truth.Otherwomen
dressed as men include Miyokichi,who dresses in a male
dancer's festivalcostumein Crepe Seller Shinsuke,and, more
"Demon" Omatsuin NewlyPublishedSuperbandit
dramatically,
[ShinpanKoshi no Shiranami](1780). Omatsu is a wife who
banteachesfencingas a frontforheractivitiesas a crossdressed
ditleader;afterbeingcaptured,she is slainby herhusband,who
has notrecognizedherinhermaleguise.
and unusual
Thereare of coursenumerousotheroutstanding
- some of themtrulygrandand hefemalecharactersin kabuki
- and quitea numberof other
roic,othersdepravedand immoral
waysof lookingat thewaystheywereconceivedforthisall-male
theater.The briefsurveypresentedhere,the firstof its kind I
knowof in English,hopefullyprovidesa pictureof theJapanese
woman's infinitevarietywithin kabukVs severely restricted
boundaries.It mightalso serveas a starting
pointformorecritical and historicalexaminationsof the ways in which,once kabukihad progressedfromgay to gei, theactorgrappledwiththe
problemsoffemalerepresentation.
BrooklynCollege and theGraduateCenter,CUNY

NOTES
1
GaryLeupp, Male Colors: The Construction
of Homosexualityin TokugawaJaof Hawaii Press,1995), 185.
pan (Berkeley:University
2Sue-Ellen
Case, Feminismand Theatre(London:Macmillan,1988), 6.
3For reasonsof
space, thediscussiondoes notcoverthe important
categoryof old
women.Most play titlesmentionedin thetextare based on theabbreviatedversionsby

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Drama
Comparative

5 14

whichplays are popularlyknown.Plays typicallyhave at leastone formaltitleand sevon the

eral popularones, makingtheiridentification
problematic.For moreinformation
see Samuel L. Leiter,New KabukiEncyclopedia:A RevisedAdaptation
playsmentioned,
ofKabukiJiten(Westport:Greenwood,1996).
4A
brief,but excellentlook at issues relatingto the presenceof the onnagata,as
seen froman anthropological
Robertson,Takarazuka:Sexual
perspective,is in Jennifer
Politics and Popular Culture in Modern Japan (Berkeley: Universityof California
Press,1998), 53-56.
5A
Japanese Things:
completeEnglishtranslationis in Basil Hall Chamberlain,
BeingNoteson VariousSubjectsConnectedwithJapan (Tokyo: Turtle,1971; orig.pub.
1904), 502-508.
6 Lafcadio
Hearn,Japan: An Attemptat Interpretation
(New York: Macmillan,
1935; orig.pub. 1904), 396-397.
7
Case, Feminismand Theatre,7.
8 Mark
Oshima, "The Keisei as a MeetingPoint of DifferentWorlds," in The
Womenof thePleasure Quarter:Japanese Paintingsand Printsof theFloating World,
ed. Elizabeth de Sabato Swinton(New York: Hudson Hills Press, in associationwith
WorcesterArtMuseum,1995), 101.
9
Lesley Ferris,ActingWomen:Imagesof Womenin Theatre(New York:New York
Press,1989), 89.
University
10Ibid.
11Elizabethde Sabato
Swinton,"The ArtisticVision," in The Womenof thePleasure Quarter,130.
12Yoshizawa
Ayame,"The Words of Ayame,"in The Actors' Analects,ed. and
of TokyoPress,1969), 50.
trans.CharlesJ.Dunn and Bunz Torigoe(Tokyo:University
13NakamuraUtaemonV,
quotedin Tobe Ginsaku,"Onnagatano Gih to Seishin"
Kabuki 12 (1971): 140-41.
[The Onnagata's Techniqueand Mentality],
14Ibid.,143.
15Tsuda
of Edo Kabuki] (Tokyo:
Rui, Edo Kabuki no Shuhen[The Environment
Perikansha,1990), 71.
16Kint
Tamao, "Sbete Yasashii Haha Oyatachi"[All GentleMothers],Engekikai
[TheaterWorldMagazine] 29:2 (February1971), 68.
17Leupp,Male Colors, 172-178.

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