Mercury (planet)

1 Physical characteristics

For other uses, see Mercury (disambiguation).

Mercury is the smallest and innermost planet in the Solar 1.1

System.* [lower-alpha 1] Its orbital period (about 88 Earth
days) is less than any other planet in the Solar System.
Seen from Earth, it appears to move around its orbit in
about 116 days. It has no known natural satellites. It is
named after the Roman deity Mercury, the messenger to
the gods.

Internal structure

Partly because it has almost no atmosphere to retain heat,

Mercury's surface temperature varies diurnally more than
any other planet in the Solar System, ranging from 100
K (173 C; 280 F) at night to 700 K (427 C; 800
F) during the day in some equatorial regions. The poles
are constantly below 180 K (93 C; 136 F). Mercury's
axis has the smallest tilt of any of the Solar System's planets (about 1 30 degree), and its orbital eccentricity is the
largest of all known planets in the Solar System.* [loweralpha 1] At aphelion, Mercury is about 1.5 times as far
from the Sun as it is at perihelion. Mercury's surface is
heavily cratered and similar in appearance to the Moon, Internal structure of Mercury:
indicating that it has been geologically inactive for bil- 1. Crust: 100300 km thick
2. Mantle: 600 km thick
lions of years.
3. Core: 1,800 km radius

Mercury is tidally or gravitationally locked with the Sun

in a 3:2 resonance,* [14] and rotates in a way that is unique
in the Solar System. As seen relative to the xed stars, it
rotates on its axis exactly three times for every two revolutions it makes around the Sun.* [lower-alpha 2]* [15] As
seen from the Sun, in a frame of reference that rotates
with the orbital motion, it appears to rotate only once every two Mercurian years. An observer on Mercury would
therefore see only one day every two years.

Mercury is one of four terrestrial planets in the Solar

System, and is a rocky body like Earth. It is the smallest planet in the Solar System, with an equatorial radius
of 2,439.7 kilometres (1,516.0 mi).* [3] Mercury is also
smalleralbeit more massivethan the largest natural
satellites in the Solar System, Ganymede and Titan. Mercury consists of approximately 70% metallic and 30%
silicate material.* [19] Mercury's density is the second
highest in the Solar System at 5.427 g/cm3 , only slightly
less than Earth's density of 5.515 g/cm3 .* [3] If the effect of gravitational compression were to be factored
out from both planets, the materials of which Mercury
is made would be denser than those of Earth, with an
uncompressed density of 5.3 g/cm3 versus Earth's 4.4
g/cm3 .* [20]

Because Mercury orbits the Sun within Earth's orbit (as

does Venus), it can appear in Earth's sky in the morning or the evening, but not in the middle of the night.
Also, like Venus and the Moon, it displays a complete
range of phases as it moves around its orbit relative to
Earth. Although Mercury can appear as a bright object when viewed from Earth, its proximity to the Sun
makes it more dicult to see than Venus. Two spacecraft have visited Mercury: Mariner 10 ew by in 1974
and 1975; and MESSENGER, launched in 2004, orbited
Mercury over 4,000 times in four years, before exhausting its fuel and crashing into the planet's surface on April
30, 2015.* [16]* [17]* [18]

Mercury's density can be used to infer details of its inner

structure. Although Earth's high density results appreciably from gravitational compression, particularly at the
core, Mercury is much smaller and its inner regions are
not as compressed. Therefore, for it to have such a high
density, its core must be large and rich in iron.* [21]
Geologists estimate that Mercury's core occupies about
55% of its volume; for Earth this proportion is 17%.
Research published in 2007 suggests that Mercury has a
1

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

rock could have been vaporized at such temperatures,

forming an atmosphere ofrock vaporthat could have
been carried away by the solar wind.* [29]
A third hypothesis proposes that the solar nebula caused
drag on the particles from which Mercury was accreting,
which meant that lighter particles were lost from the accreting material and not gathered by Mercury.* [30] Each
hypothesis predicts a dierent surface composition, and
two space missions, MESSENGER and BepiColombo, will
make observations to test them.* [31]* [32] MESSENGER
has found higher-than-expected potassium and sulfur levels on the surface, suggesting that the giant impact hypothesis and vaporization of the crust and mantle did
not occur because potassium and sulfur would have been
driven o by the extreme heat of these events. The ndings would seem to favor the third hypothesis; however,
further analysis of the data is needed.* [33]

1.2 Surface geology

Main article: Geology of Mercury
Gravity anomalies on Mercurymass concentrations (red) suggest subsurface structure and evolution

molten core.* [22]* [23] Surrounding the core is a 500

700 km mantle consisting of silicates.* [24]* [25] Based
on data from the Mariner 10 mission and Earth-based
observation, Mercury's crust is estimated to be 35 km
thick.* [26] One distinctive feature of Mercury's surface
is the presence of numerous narrow ridges, extending up
to several hundred kilometers in length. It is thought that
these were formed as Mercury's core and mantle cooled
and contracted at a time when the crust had already solidied.* [27]

Mercury's surface is similar in appearance to that of the

Moon, showing extensive mare-like plains and heavy cratering, indicating that it has been geologically inactive for
billions of years. Because knowledge of Mercury's geology had been based only on the 1975 Mariner 10 yby and
terrestrial observations, it is the least understood of the
terrestrial planets.* [23] As data from MESSENGER orbiter are processed, this knowledge will increase. For example, an unusual crater with radiating troughs has been
discovered that scientists calledthe spider.* [34] It was
later named Apollodorus.* [35]

Mercury's core has a higher iron content than that of

any other major planet in the Solar System, and several theories have been proposed to explain this. The
most widely accepted theory is that Mercury originally
had a metalsilicate ratio similar to common chondrite
meteorites, thought to be typical of the Solar System's
rocky matter, and a mass approximately 2.25 times its
current mass.* [28] Early in the Solar System's history,
Mercury may have been struck by a planetesimal of approximately 1/6 that mass and several thousand kilometers across.* [28] The impact would have stripped away
much of the original crust and mantle, leaving the core
behind as a relatively major component.* [28] A similar
process, known as the giant impact hypothesis, has been
proposed to explain the formation of the Moon.* [28]
Alternatively, Mercury may have formed from the solar
nebula before the Sun's energy output had stabilized. It
would initially have had twice its present mass, but as the Mercury's surface
protosun contracted, temperatures near Mercury could
have been between 2,500 and 3,500 K and possibly even Albedo features are areas of markedly dierent reas high as 10,000 K.* [29] Much of Mercury's surface ectivity, as seen by telescopic observation. Mer-

1.2

Surface geology

cury has dorsa (also called "wrinkle-ridges"), Moon-like

highlands, montes (mountains), planitiae (plains), rupes
(escarpments), and valles (valleys).* [36]* [37]

Perspective view of Caloris Basin high (red); low (blue).

shaped cavities to multi-ringed impact basins hundreds

of kilometers across. They appear in all states of degradation, from relatively fresh rayed craters to highly degraded crater remnants. Mercurian craters dier subtly
from lunar craters in that the area blanketed by their ejecta
is much smaller, a consequence of Mercury's stronger
surface gravity.* [44] According to IAU rules, each new
crater must be named after an artist that was famous for
MASCS spectrum scan of Mercury's surface by MESSENGER
more than fty years, and dead for more than three years,
Names for features on Mercury come from a variety before the date the crater is named.* [45]
of sources. Names coming from people are limited to
the deceased. Craters are named for artists, musicians,
painters, and authors who have made outstanding or fundamental contributions to their eld. Ridges, or dorsa,
are named for scientists who have contributed to the study
of Mercury. Depressions or fossae are named for works
of architecture. Montes are named for the word hot
in a variety of languages. Plains or planitiae are named
for Mercury in various languages. Escarpments or rups
are named for ships of scientic expeditions. Valleys or
valles are named for radio telescope facilities.* [38]
Mercury was heavily bombarded by comets and asteroids
during and shortly following its formation 4.6 billion
years ago, as well as during a possibly separate subsequent
episode called the Late Heavy Bombardment that ended
3.8 billion years ago.* [39] During this period of intense
crater formation, Mercury received impacts over its entire
surface,* [37] facilitated by the lack of any atmosphere to
slow impactors down.* [40] During this time Mercury was
volcanically active; basins such as the Caloris Basin were
lled by magma, producing smooth plains similar to the
maria found on the Moon.* [41]* [42]
Data from the October 2008 yby of MESSENGER gave
researchers a greater appreciation for the jumbled nature of Mercury's surface. Mercury's surface is more
heterogeneous than either Mars's or the Moon's, both
of which contain signicant stretches of similar geology,
such as maria and plateaus.* [43]

Enhanced-color image of Munch, Sander and Poe craters amid

volcanic plains (orange) near Caloris Basin

The largest known crater is Caloris Basin, with a diameter of 1,550 km.* [46] The impact that created the
Caloris Basin was so powerful that it caused lava eruptions and left a concentric ring over 2 km tall surrounding
the impact crater. At the antipode of the Caloris Basin
is a large region of unusual, hilly terrain known as the
Weird Terrain. One hypothesis for its origin is that
shock waves generated during the Caloris impact traveled
around Mercury, converging at the basin's antipode (180
degrees away). The resulting high stresses fractured the
surface.* [47] Alternatively, it has been suggested that this
terrain formed as a result of the convergence of ejecta at
this basin's antipode.* [48]

Overall, about 15 impact basins have been identied on

the imaged part of Mercury. A notable basin is the 400
km wide, multi-ring Tolstoj Basin that has an ejecta blan1.2.1 Impact basins and craters
ket extending up to 500 km from its rim and a oor that
Craters on Mercury range in diameter from small bowl- has been lled by smooth plains materials. Beethoven

Basin has a similar-sized ejecta blanket and a 625 km

diameter rim.* [44] Like the Moon, the surface of Mercury has likely incurred the eects of space weathering
processes, including Solar wind and micrometeorite impacts.* [49]

Interior of Abedin crater

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

sions of various sizes and bear a strong resemblance to

the lunar maria. Notably, they ll a wide ring surrounding the Caloris Basin. Unlike lunar maria, the smooth
plains of Mercury have the same albedo as the older
inter-crater plains. Despite a lack of unequivocally volcanic characteristics, the localisation and rounded, lobate shape of these plains strongly support volcanic origins.* [44] All the smooth plains of Mercury formed signicantly later than the Caloris basin, as evidenced by
appreciably smaller crater densities than on the Caloris
ejecta blanket.* [44] The oor of the Caloris Basin is lled
by a geologically distinct at plain, broken up by ridges
and fractures in a roughly polygonal pattern. It is not clear
whether they are volcanic lavas induced by the impact, or
a large sheet of impact melt.* [44]
1.2.3 Compressional features

1.2.2

Plains

Degas crater

One unusual feature of Mercury's surface is the numerous

compression folds, or rupes, that crisscross the plains. As
Mercury's interior cooled, it contracted and its surface began to deform, creating wrinkle ridges and lobate scarps
associated with thrust faults. The folds can be seen on top
of other features, such as craters and smoother plains, indicating that the folds are more recent.* [51] Mercury's
surface is exed by signicant tidal bulges raised by the
Sun the Sun's tides on Mercury are about 17 times
stronger than the Moon's on Earth.* [52] The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter discovered that similar features exist on the Moon.
1.2.4 Volcanology

There are two geologically distinct plains regions on Mercury.* [44]* [50] Gently rolling, hilly plains in the regions between craters are Mercury's oldest visible surfaces,* [44] predating the heavily cratered terrain. These
inter-crater plains appear to have obliterated many earlier craters, and show a general paucity of smaller craters
below about 30 km in diameter.* [50]

The so-called Picasso crater the large arc-shaped pit located on the eastern
Weird Terrainformed at the point antipodal to the side of its oor are postulated to have formed when subsurface
magma subsided or drained, causing the surface to collapse into
Caloris Basin impact
the resulting void.

Smooth plains are widespread at areas that ll depres- Images obtained by MESSENGER have revealed evidence

1.3

Surface conditions and exosphere

for pyroclastic ows on Mercury from low-prole shield

volcanoes.* [53]* [54]* [55] MESSENGER data has helped
identify 51 pyroclastic deposits on the surface,* [56]
where 90% of them are found within impact craters.* [56]
A study of the degradation state of the impact craters that
host pyroclastic deposits suggests that pyroclastic activity
occurred on Mercury over a prolonged interval.* [56]
A rimless depressioninside the southwest rim of the
Caloris Basin consists of at least nine overlapping volcanic vents, each individually up to 8 km in diameter. It
is thus a "compound volcano".* [57] The vent oors are at
a least 1 km below their brinks and they bear a closer resemblance to volcanic craters sculpted by explosive eruptions or modied by collapse into void spaces created by
magma withdrawal back down into a conduit.* [57] The
scientists could not quantify the age of the volcanic complex system, but reported that it could be of the order of
a billion years.* [57]
Radar image of Mercury's north pole

1.3

Surface conditions and exosphere

Main article: Atmosphere of Mercury

The surface temperature of Mercury ranges from 100

Composite of the north pole of Mercury, where NASA conrmed

the discovery of a large volume of water ice, in permanently dark
craters that exist there.* [58]

Composite image of Mercury taken by MESSENGER

K to 700 K* [59] at the most extreme places: 0N, 0W,

or 180W. It never rises above 180 K at the poles,* [10]
due to the absence of an atmosphere and a steep temperature gradient between the equator and the poles. The
subsolar point reaches about 700 K during perihelion
(0W or 180W), but only 550 K at aphelion (90 or
270W).* [60] On the dark side of the planet, temperatures average 110 K.* [10]* [61] The intensity of sunlight
on Mercury's surface ranges between 4.59 and 10.61
times the solar constant (1,370 Wm* 2).* [62]

suggest that ice (frozen water) exists on Mercury. The

oors of deep craters at the poles are never exposed
to direct sunlight, and temperatures there remain below
102 K; far lower than the global average.* [63] Water
ice strongly reects radar, and observations by the 70meter Goldstone Solar System Radar and the VLA in
the early 1990s revealed that there are patches of high
radar reection near the poles.* [64] Although ice was not
the only possible cause of these reective regions, astronomers think it was the most likely.* [65]
The icy regions are estimated to contain about 1014
1015 kg of ice,* [66] and may be covered by a layer of
regolith that inhibits sublimation.* [67] By comparison,
the Antarctic ice sheet on Earth has a mass of about
410* 18 kg, and Mars's south polar cap contains about
1016 kg of water.* [66] The origin of the ice on Mercury
is not yet known, but the two most likely sources are from
outgassing of water from the planet's interior or deposition by impacts of comets.* [66]

Although the daylight temperature at the surface of Mer- Mercury is too small and hot for its gravity to retain
cury is generally extremely high, observations strongly any signicant atmosphere over long periods of time;

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

it does have a tenuous surface-bounded exosphere* [68]

containing hydrogen, helium, oxygen, sodium, calcium,
potassium and others at a surface pressure of less than
approximately 0.5 nPa (0.005 picobars).* [13] This exosphere is not stableatoms are continuously lost and
replenished from a variety of sources. Hydrogen atoms
and helium atoms probably come from the solar wind,
diusing into Mercury's magnetosphere before later escaping back into space. Radioactive decay of elements
within Mercury's crust is another source of helium, as
well as sodium and potassium. MESSENGER found high
proportions of calcium, helium, hydroxide, magnesium,
oxygen, potassium, silicon and sodium. Water vapor
is present, released by a combination of processes such Graph showing relative strength of Mercury's magnetic eld
as: comets striking its surface, sputtering creating water out of hydrogen from the solar wind and oxygen
from rock, and sublimation from reservoirs of water ice
in the permanently shadowed polar craters. The detection of high amounts of water-related ions like O* +,
OH* , and H2 O* + was a surprise.* [69]* [70] Because of
the quantities of these ions that were detected in Mercury's space environment, scientists surmise that these
molecules were blasted from the surface or exosphere by
the solar wind.* [71]* [72]
Sodium, potassium and calcium were discovered in the
atmosphere during the 19801990s, and are thought
to result primarily from the vaporization of surface
rock struck by micrometeorite impacts* [73] including
presently from Comet Encke.* [74] In 2008, magnesium
was discovered by MESSENGER.* [75] Studies indicate
that, at times, sodium emissions are localized at points
that correspond to the planet's magnetic poles. This
would indicate an interaction between the magnetosphere
and the planet's surface.* [76]
On November 29, 2012, NASA conrmed that images
from MESSENGER had detected that craters at the north
pole contained water ice. MESSENGER's principal investigator Sean Solomon is quoted in the New York Times
estimating the volume of the ice to be large enough to
encase Washington, D.C., in a frozen block two and a
half miles deep.* [58]* [lower-alpha 3]

1.4

Magnetic eld and magnetosphere

Main article: Mercury's magnetic eld

Despite its small size and slow 59-day-long rotation, Mercury has a signicant, and apparently global, magnetic
eld. According to measurements taken by Mariner
10, it is about 1.1% the strength of Earth's. The
magnetic-eld strength at Mercury's equator is about 300
nT.* [77]* [78] Like that of Earth, Mercury's magnetic
eld is dipolar.* [76] Unlike Earth, Mercury's poles are
nearly aligned with the planet's spin axis.* [79] Measurements from both the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER space
probes have indicated that the strength and shape of the
magnetic eld are stable.* [79]

It is likely that this magnetic eld is generated by a

dynamo eect, in a manner similar to the magnetic eld
of Earth.* [80]* [81] This dynamo eect would result from
the circulation of the planet's iron-rich liquid core. Particularly strong tidal eects caused by the planet's high
orbital eccentricity would serve to keep the core in the
liquid state necessary for this dynamo eect.* [82]
Mercury's magnetic eld is strong enough to deect the
solar wind around the planet, creating a magnetosphere.
The planet's magnetosphere, though small enough to t
within Earth,* [76] is strong enough to trap solar wind
plasma. This contributes to the space weathering of the
planet's surface.* [79] Observations taken by the Mariner
10 spacecraft detected this low energy plasma in the magnetosphere of the planet's nightside. Bursts of energetic
particles in the planet's magnetotail indicate a dynamic
quality to the planet's magnetosphere.* [76]
During its second yby of the planet on October 6, 2008,
MESSENGER discovered that Mercury's magnetic eld
can be extremely leaky. The spacecraft encountered magnetic tornadoes twisted bundles of magnetic elds connecting the planetary magnetic eld to interplanetary space that were up to 800 km wide or a
third of the radius of the planet. These twisted magnetic
ux tubes, technically known as ux transfer events, form
open windows in the planet's magnetic shield through
which the solar wind may enter and directly impact Mercury's surface via magnetic reconnection* [83] This also
occurs in Earth's magnetic eld. The MESSENGER observations showed the reconnection rate is ten times higher
at Mercury, but its proximity to the Sun only accounts for
about a third of the reconnection rate observed by MESSENGER.* [83]

Orbit, rotation, and longitude

June 29

July 9

June 24

July 4
Q

plane of the ecliptic at the time it lies between Earth and

the Sun. This occurs about every seven years on average.* [85]
Mercury's axial tilt is almost zero,* [86] with the best measured value as low as 0.027 degrees.* [87] This is signicantly smaller than that of Jupiter, which has the second
smallest axial tilt of all planets at 3.1 degrees. This means
that to an observer at Mercury's poles, the center of the
Sun never rises more than 2.1 arcminutes above the horizon.* [87]

June 19
June 14
June 9

July 14

June 4

May 30

May 25

May 5
May 10

q
May 20
May 15

Orbit
Mercury (yellow). Dates refer to 2006.

At certain points on Mercury's surface, an observer would

be able to see the Sun rise about halfway, then reverse
and set before rising again, all within the same Mercurian
day. This is because approximately four Earth days before perihelion, Mercury's angular orbital velocity equals
its angular rotational velocity so that the Sun's apparent
of motion ceases; closer to perihelion, Mercury's angular orbital velocity then exceeds the angular rotational velocity.
Thus, to a hypothetical observer on Mercury, the Sun
appears to move in a retrograde direction. Four Earth
days after perihelion, the Sun's normal apparent motion
resumes.* [19]

Animation
of Mercury's and Earth's revolution around the Sun
Mercury has the most eccentric orbit of all the planets; its
eccentricity is 0.21 with its distance from the Sun ranging from 46,000,000 to 70,000,000 km (29,000,000 to
43,000,000 mi). It takes 87.969 Earth days to complete
an orbit. The diagram on the right illustrates the eects
of the eccentricity, showing Mercury's orbit overlaid with
a circular orbit having the same semi-major axis. Mercury's higher velocity when it is near perihelion is clear
from the greater distance it covers in each 5-day interval. In the diagram the varying distance of Mercury to
the Sun is represented by the size of the planet, which
is inversely proportional to Mercury's distance from the
Sun. This varying distance to the Sun, combined with a
3:2 spinorbit resonance of the planet's rotation around
its axis, result in complex variations of the surface temperature.* [19] This resonance makes a single solar day
on Mercury last exactly two Mercury years, or about 176
Earth days.* [84]

For the same reason, there are two points on Mercury's

equator, 180 degrees apart in longitude, at either of
which, around perihelion in alternate Mercurian years
(once a Mercurian day), the Sun passes overhead, then
reverses its apparent motion and passes overhead again,
then reverses a second time and passes overhead a third
time, taking a total of about 16 Earth-days for this entire
process. In the other alternate Mercurian years, the same
thing happens at the other of these two points. The amplitude of the retrograde motion is small, so the overall
eect is that, for two or three weeks, the Sun is almost
stationary overhead, and is at its most brilliant because
Mercury is at perihelion, its closest to the Sun. This prolonged exposure to the Sun at its brightest makes these
two points the hottest places on Mercury. Conversely,
there are two other points on the equator, 90 degrees of
longitude apart from the rst ones, where the Sun passes
overhead only when the planet is at aphelion in alternate
years, when the apparent motion of the Sun in Mercury's
sky is relatively rapid. These points, which are the ones on
the equator where the apparent retrograde motion of the
Sun happens when it is crossing the horizon as described
in the preceding paragraph, receive much less solar heat
than the rst ones described above.

Mercury attains inferior conjunction (nearest approach to

Earth) every 116 Earth days on average,* [3] but this interval can range from 105 days to 129 days due to the
planet's eccentric orbit. Mercury can come as near as
82.2 gigametres (0.549 astronomical units; 51.1 million
miles) to Earth, and that is slowly declining: The next approach to within 82.1 Gm (51.0 million miles) is in 2679,
Mercury's orbit is inclined by 7 degrees to the plane of and to within 82.0 Gm (51.0 million miles) in 4487, but it
Earth's orbit (the ecliptic), as shown in the diagram on will not be closer to Earth than 80 Gm (50 million miles)
the right. As a result, transits of Mercury across the face until AD 28,622.* [88] Its period of retrograde motion as
of the Sun can only occur when the planet is crossing the

ORBIT, ROTATION, AND LONGITUDE

seen from Earth can vary from 8 to 15 days on either side The original reason astronomers thought it was synof inferior conjunction. This large range arises from the chronously locked was that, whenever Mercury was best
planet's high orbital eccentricity.* [19]
placed for observation, it was always nearly at the same
point in its 3:2 resonance, hence showing the same face.
This is because, coincidentally, Mercury's rotation period
2.1 Longitude convention
is almost exactly half of its synodic period with respect to
Earth. Due to Mercury's 3:2 spinorbit resonance, a solar
The longitude convention for Mercury puts the zero of day (the length between two meridian transits of the Sun)
longitude at one of the two hottest points on the surface, lasts about 176 Earth days.* [19] A sidereal day (the peas described above. However, when this area was rst riod of rotation) lasts about 58.7 Earth days.* [19]
visited, by Mariner 10, this zero meridian was in darkness, so it was impossible to select a feature on the surface Simulations indicate that the orbital eccentricity of Merto dene the exact position of the meridian. Therefore, cury varies chaotically from nearly zero (circular) to more
of years due to perturbations from
a small crater further west was chosen, called Hun Kal, than 0.45 over millions
*
*
the
other
planets.
[19]
[92] This was thought to explain
which provides the exact reference point for measuring
Mercury's
3:2
spinorbit
resonance (rather than the more
longitude. The center of Hun Kal denes the 20 West
usual
1:1),
because
this
state
is more likely to arise durmeridian. A 1970 International Astronomical Union res*
ing
a
period
of
high
eccentricity.
[93] However, accuolution suggests that longitudes be measured positively in
rate
modeling
based
on
a
realistic
model
of tidal response
*
the westerly direction on Mercury. [89] The two hottest
has
demonstrated
that
Mercury
was
captured
into the
places on the equator are therefore at longitudes 0W and
3:2
spinorbit
state
at
a
very
early
stage
of
its
history,
180W, and the coolest points on the equator are at lonwithin
20
(more
likely,
10)
million
years
after
its
formagitudes 90W and 270W. However, the MESSENGER
*
tion.
[94]
*
project uses an east-positive convention. [90]
Numerical simulations show that a future secular orbital
resonant perihelion interaction with Jupiter may cause the
2.2 Spinorbit resonance
eccentricity of Mercury's orbit to increase to the point
where there is a 1% chance that the planet may collide
with Venus within the next ve billion years.* [95]* [96]
1

2.3 Advance of perihelion

Main article: Perihelion precession of Mercury

2
5

After one orbit, Mercury has rotated 1.5 times, so after two complete orbits the same hemisphere is again illuminated.

For many years it was thought that Mercury was synchronously tidally locked with the Sun, rotating once for
each orbit and always keeping the same face directed towards the Sun, in the same way that the same side of the
Moon always faces Earth. Radar observations in 1965
proved that the planet has a 3:2 spinorbit resonance,
rotating three times for every two revolutions around
the Sun; the eccentricity of Mercury's orbit makes this
resonance stable at perihelion, when the solar tide is
strongest, the Sun is nearly still in Mercury's sky.* [91]

In 1859, the French mathematician and astronomer

Urbain Le Verrier reported that the slow precession of
Mercury's orbit around the Sun could not be completely
explained by Newtonian mechanics and perturbations by
the known planets. He suggested, among possible explanations, that another planet (or perhaps instead a series of
smaller 'corpuscules') might exist in an orbit even closer
to the Sun than that of Mercury, to account for this perturbation.* [97] (Other explanations considered included
a slight oblateness of the Sun.) The success of the search
for Neptune based on its perturbations of the orbit of
Uranus led astronomers to place faith in this possible explanation, and the hypothetical planet was named Vulcan,
but no such planet was ever found.* [98]
The perihelion precession of Mercury is 5,600 arcseconds
(1.5556) per century relative to Earth, or 574.100.65
arcseconds per century* [99] relative to the inertial ICRF.
Newtonian mechanics, taking into account all the eects
from the other planets, predicts a precession of 5,557
arcseconds (1.5436) per century.* [99] In the early 20th
century, Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity provided the explanation for the observed precession. The
eect is small: just 42.98 arcseconds per century for
Mercury; it therefore requires a little over twelve million

9
orbits for a full excess turn. Similar, but much smaller, crescent, because it is much closer to Earth than when
eects exist for other Solar System bodies: 8.62 arcsec- gibbous.* [11]* [104]
onds per century for Venus, 3.84 for Earth, 1.35 for Mars,
and 10.05 for 1566 Icarus.* [100]* [101]
Albert Einstein's formula for the perihelion shift is =
2
24 3 T 2 c2a(1e2 ) ,
where e is the orbital eccentricity, a the semi-major axis,
and T the orbital period.

Observation

False-color map showing the maximum temperatures of the north

polar region

Nonetheless, the brightest (full phase) appearance of

Mercury is an essentially impossible time for practical observation, because of the extreme proximity of the Sun.
Mercury is best observed at the rst and last quarter, although they are phases of lesser brightness. The rst
and last quarter phases occur at greatest elongation east
and west, respectively. At both of these times Mercury's
separation from the Sun ranges anywhere from 17.9 at
perihelion to 27.8 at aphelion.* [105]* [106] At greatest
elongation west, Mercury rises at its earliest before the
Sun, and at greatest elongation east, it sets at its latest after the Sun.* [107]
Image mosaic by Mariner 10, 1974

Mercury's apparent magnitude varies between 2.6* [11]

(brighter than the brightest star Sirius) and about +5.7
(approximating the theoretical limit of naked-eye visibility). The extremes occur when Mercury is close to
the Sun in the sky.* [11]* [12] Observation of Mercury is
complicated by its proximity to the Sun, as it is lost in
the Sun's glare for much of the time. Mercury can be observed for only a brief period during either morning or
evening twilight.* [102]

At tropical and subtropical latitudes, Mercury is more

easily seen than at higher latitudes. In low latitudes and
at the right times of year, the ecliptic intersects the horizon at a steep angle. When Mercury is vertically above
the Sun in the sky and is at maximum elongation from the
Sun (28 degrees), and when the Sun is 18 degrees below
the horizon, so the sky is just completely dark,* [loweralpha 4] Mercury is 10 degrees above the horizon. This
is the greatest angle of elevation at which Mercury can be
seen in a completely dark sky.

At temperate latitudes, Mercury is more often easily visMercury can, like several other planets and the brightest ible from Earth's Southern Hemisphere than from its
stars, be seen during a total solar eclipse.* [103]
Northern Hemisphere. This is because Mercury's maxLike the Moon and Venus, Mercury exhibits phases as imum possible elongations west of the Sun always ocseen from Earth. It isnewat inferior conjunction and cur when it is early autumn in the Southern Hemisphere,
fullat superior conjunction. The planet is rendered in- whereas its maximum possible eastern elongations hapvisible from Earth on both of these occasions because of pen during late winter in the Southern Hemisphere.* [107]
its being obscured by the Sun,* [102] except its new phase In both of these cases, the angle Mercury strikes with the
during a transit.
ecliptic is maximized, allowing it to rise several hours beMercury is technically brightest as seen from Earth when fore the Sun in the former instance and not set until sevit is at a full phase. Although Mercury is farthest eral hours after sundown in the latter in countries located
zone latitudes, such as Argentina
from Earth when it is full, the greater illuminated area at southern temperate
*
[107]
and
South
Africa.
that is visible and the opposition brightness surge more
than compensates for the distance.* [11] The opposite An alternate method for viewing Mercury involves obis true for Venus, which appears brightest when it is a serving the planet during daylight hours when conditions

10

False-color image of Carnegie Rupes, a tectonic landformhigh

terrain (red); low (blue).

OBSERVATION HISTORY

Mercury, from Liber astronomiae, 1550

mythology.* [113]
are clear, ideally when it is at its point of greatest elongation. This allows the planet to be found easily, even
when using telescopes with 8 cm (3.1 in) apertures. Care
must be taken to ensure the instrument isn't pointed directly towards the Sun because of the risk for eye damage.
This method bypasses the limitation of twilight observing
when the ecliptic is located at a low elevation (e.g. on autumn evenings).

The ancient Greeks knew the planet as (Stilbon), meaning the gleaming, (Hermaon)
and (Hermes),* [114] a planetary name that is retained in modern Greek (: Ermis).* [115] The Romans named the planet after the swift-footed Roman
messenger god, Mercury (Latin Mercurius), which they
equated with the Greek Hermes, because it moves across
the sky faster than any other planet.* [116]* [117] The
Ground-based telescope observations of Mercury reveal astronomical symbol for Mercury is a stylized version of
*
only an illuminated partial disk with limited detail. The Hermes' caduceus. [118]
rst of two spacecraft to visit the planet was Mariner 10, The Roman-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy wrote about
which mapped about 45% of its surface from 1974 to the possibility of planetary transits across the face of the
1975. The second is the MESSENGER spacecraft, which Sun in his work Planetary Hypotheses. He suggested that
after three Mercury ybys between 2008 and 2009, at- no transits had been observed either because planets such
tained orbit around Mercury on March 17, 2011,* [108] as Mercury were too small to see, or because the transits
to study and map the rest of the planet.* [109]
were too infrequent.* [119]
The Hubble Space Telescope cannot observe Mercury at
all, due to safety procedures that prevent its pointing too
close to the Sun.* [110]
Because the shift of 0.15 revolutions in a year makes
up a seven-year cycle (0.15 7 1.0), in the seventh
year Mercury follows almost exactly (earlier by 7 days)
the sequence of phenomena it showed seven years before.* [105]

4
4.1

Observation history
Ancient astronomers

The earliest known recorded observations of Mercury are

from the Mul.Apin tablets. These observations were most
likely made by an Assyrian astronomer around the 14th
century BC.* [111] The cuneiform name used to designate Mercury on the Mul.Apin tablets is transcribed as
Udu.Idim.Gu\u4 .Ud (the jumping planet).* [loweralpha 5]* [112] Babylonian records of Mercury date back
to the 1st millennium BC. The Babylonians called the
planet Nabu after the messenger to the gods in their

Ibn al-Shatir's model for the appearances of Mercury, showing

the multiplication of epicycles using the Tusi couple, thus eliminating the Ptolemaic eccentrics and equant.

In ancient China, Mercury was known as the Hour

Star(Chen-xing ). It was associated with the di-

4.2

Ground-based telescopic research

11

rection north and the phase of water in the Five Phases

system of metaphysics.* [120] Modern Chinese, Korean,
Japanese and Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet literally as the water star( ), based on the Five
elements.* [121]* [122]* [123] Hindu mythology used the
name Budha for Mercury, and this god was thought
to preside over Wednesday.* [124] The god Odin (or
Woden) of Germanic paganism was associated with the
planet Mercury and Wednesday.* [125] The Maya may
have represented Mercury as an owl (or possibly four
owls; two for the morning aspect and two for the evening) Elongation is the angle between the Sun and the planet, with Earth
that served as a messenger to the underworld.* [126]
as the reference point. Mercury appears close to the Sun.
In medieval Islamic astronomy, the Andalusian astronomer Ab Ishq Ibrhm al-Zarql in the 11th century described the deferent of Mercury's geocentric orbit as being oval, like an egg or a pignon, although this
insight did not inuence his astronomical theory or his
astronomical calculations.* [127]* [128] In the 12th century, Ibn Bajjah observed two planets as black spots
on the face of the Sun, which was later suggested as
the transit of Mercury and/or Venus by the Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi in the 13th century.* [129]
(Note that most such medieval reports of transits were
later taken as observations of sunspots.* [130])

by Galileo in the early 17th century. Although he observed phases when he looked at Venus, his telescope was
not powerful enough to see the phases of Mercury. In
1631, Pierre Gassendi made the rst telescopic observations of the transit of a planet across the Sun when he saw
a transit of Mercury predicted by Johannes Kepler. In
1639, Giovanni Zupi used a telescope to discover that the
planet had orbital phases similar to Venus and the Moon.
The observation demonstrated conclusively that Mercury
orbited around the Sun.* [19]

In India, the Kerala school astronomer Nilakantha Somayaji in the 15th century developed a partially heliocentric planetary model in which Mercury orbits the Sun,
which in turn orbits Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century.* [131]

A rare event in astronomy is the passage of one planet in

front of another (occultation), as seen from Earth. Mercury and Venus occult each other every few centuries, and
the event of May 28, 1737 is the only one historically
observed, having been seen by John Bevis at the Royal
Greenwich Observatory.* [132] The next occultation of
Mercury by Venus will be on December 3, 2133.* [133]

4.2

The diculties inherent in observing Mercury mean that

it has been far less studied than the other planets. In 1800,
Johann Schrter made observations of surface features,
claiming to have observed 20-kilometre-high (12 mi)
mountains. Friedrich Bessel used Schrter's drawings to
erroneously estimate the rotation period as 24 hours and
an axial tilt of 70.* [134] In the 1880s, Giovanni Schiaparelli mapped the planet more accurately, and suggested
that Mercury's rotational period was 88 days, the same
as its orbital period due to tidal locking.* [135] This phenomenon is known as synchronous rotation. The eort to
map the surface of Mercury was continued by Eugenios
Antoniadi, who published a book in 1934 that included
both maps and his own observations.* [76] Many of the
planet's surface features, particularly the albedo features,
take their names from Antoniadi's map.* [136]

Ground-based telescopic research

In June 1962, Soviet scientists at the Institute of Radioengineering and Electronics of the USSR Academy of
Sciences, led by Vladimir Kotelnikov, became the rst
to bounce a radar signal o Mercury and receive it, starting radar observations of the planet.* [137]* [138]* [139]
Transit of Mercury. Mercury is the small dot in the lower center, Three years later, radar observations by Americans
in front of the Sun. The dark area on the left of the solar disk is Gordon Pettengill and R. Dyce, using the 300-meter
Arecibo Observatory radio telescope in Puerto Rico,
a sunspot.
showed conclusively that the planet's rotational period
The rst telescopic observations of Mercury were made was about 59 days.* [140]* [141] The theory that Mer-

12

OBSERVATION HISTORY

cury's rotation was synchronous had become widely held,

and it was a surprise to astronomers when these radio
observations were announced. If Mercury were tidally
locked, its dark face would be extremely cold, but measurements of radio emission revealed that it was much
hotter than expected. Astronomers were reluctant to drop
the synchronous rotation theory and proposed alternative
mechanisms such as powerful heat-distributing winds to
explain the observations.* [142]

MESSENGER being prepared for launch

Water ice (yellow) at Mercury's north polar region

Italian astronomer Giuseppe Colombo noted that the rotation value was about two-thirds of Mercury's orbital period, and proposed that the planet's orbital and rotational
periods were locked into a 3:2 rather than a 1:1 resonance.* [143] Data from Mariner 10 subsequently conrmed this view.* [144] This means that Schiaparelli's and
Antoniadi's maps were not wrong. Instead, the asMercury transiting the Sun as viewed by the Mars rover Curiosity
tronomers saw the same features during every second or- (June 3, 2014).* [149]
bit and recorded them, but disregarded those seen in the
meantime, when Mercury's other face was toward the
Sun, because the orbital geometry meant that these observations were made under poor viewing conditions.* [134]
Ground-based optical observations did not shed much
further light on Mercury, but radio astronomers using interferometry at microwave wavelengths, a technique that
enables removal of the solar radiation, were able to discern physical and chemical characteristics of the subsurface layers to a depth of several meters.* [145]* [146] Not
until the rst space probe ew past Mercury did many
of its most fundamental morphological properties become known. Moreover, recent technological advances
have led to improved ground-based observations. In
2000, high-resolution lucky imaging observations were
conducted by the Mount Wilson Observatory 1.5 meter
Hale telescope. They provided the rst views that resolved surface features on the parts of Mercury that were
not imaged in the Mariner 10 mission.* [147] Most of the
planet has been mapped by the Arecibo radar telescope,
with 5 km (3.1 mi) resolution, including polar deposits in
shadowed craters of what may be water ice.* [148]

cal challenges, because it orbits so much closer to the Sun

than Earth. A Mercury-bound spacecraft launched from
Earth must travel over 91 million kilometres (57 million
miles) into the Sun's gravitational potential well. Mercury
has an orbital speed of 48 km/s (30 mi/s), whereas Earth's
orbital speed is 30 km/s (19 mi/s). Therefore, the spacecraft must make a large change in velocity (delta-v) to
enter a Hohmann transfer orbit that passes near Mercury,
as compared to the delta-v required for other planetary
missions.* [150]

The potential energy liberated by moving down the Sun's

potential well becomes kinetic energy; requiring another
large delta-v change to do anything other than rapidly
pass by Mercury. To land safely or enter a stable orbit the spacecraft would rely entirely on rocket motors.
Aerobraking is ruled out because Mercury has a negligible atmosphere. A trip to Mercury requires more rocket
fuel than that required to escape the Solar System completely. As a result, only two space probes have visited it
4.3 Research with space probes
so far.* [151] A proposed alternative approach would use
Main article: Exploration of Mercury
a solar sail to attain a Mercury-synchronous orbit around
Reaching Mercury from Earth poses signicant techni- the Sun.* [152]

4.3
4.3.1

Research with space probes

13

Mariner 10

Main article: Mariner 10

Mariner 10,
the rst probe to visit Mercury
The rst spacecraft to visit Mercury was NASA's Mariner
10 (19741975).* [116] The spacecraft used the gravity
of Venus to adjust its orbital velocity so that it could approach Mercury, making it both the rst spacecraft to
use this gravitational slingshot eect and the rst
NASA mission to visit multiple planets.* [150] Mariner
10 provided the rst close-up images of Mercury's surface, which immediately showed its heavily cratered nature, and revealed many other types of geological features, such as the giant scarps that were later ascribed to
the eect of the planet shrinking slightly as its iron core
cools.* [153] Unfortunately, due to the length of Mariner
10's orbital period, the same face of the planet was lit at
each of Mariner 10's close approaches. This made observation of both sides of the planet impossible,* [154] and
resulted in the mapping of less than 45% of the planet's
surface.* [155]
The spacecraft made three close approaches to Mercury,
the closest of which took it to within 327 km (203 mi)
of the surface.* [156] At the rst close approach, instruments detected a magnetic eld, to the great surprise of
planetary geologistsMercury's rotation was expected to
be much too slow to generate a signicant dynamo eect.
The second close approach was primarily used for imaging, but at the third approach, extensive magnetic data
were obtained. The data revealed that the planet's magnetic eld is much like Earth's, which deects the solar
wind around the planet. The origin of Mercury's magnetic eld is still the subject of several competing theories.* [157]
On March 24, 1975, just eight days after its nal close
approach, Mariner 10 ran out of fuel. Because its orbit could no longer be accurately controlled, mission controllers instructed the probe to shut down.* [158] Mariner
10 is thought to be still orbiting the Sun, passing close to
Mercury every few months.* [159]
4.3.2

MESSENGER

Main article: MESSENGER

A second NASA mission to Mercury, named MESSEN-

Estimated details of the impact of MESSENGER on 30 April

2015

GER (MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging), was launched on 3 August 2004. It
made a y-by of Earth in August 2005, and of Venus in
October 2006 and June 2007 to place it onto the correct
trajectory to reach an orbit around Mercury.* [160] A rst
y-by of Mercury occurred on January 14, 2008, a second on October 6, 2008,* [161] and a third on September
29, 2009.* [162] Most of the hemisphere not imaged by
Mariner 10 was mapped during these y-bys. The probe
successfully entered an elliptical orbit around the planet
on March 18, 2011. The rst orbital image of Mercury
was obtained on March 29, 2011. The probe nished a
one-year mapping mission,* [161] and then entered a oneyear extended mission into 2013. In addition to continued observations and mapping of Mercury, MESSENGER
observed the 2012 solar maximum.* [163]
The mission was designed to clear up six key issues: Mercury's high density, its geological history, the nature of
its magnetic eld, the structure of its core, whether it
has ice at its poles, and where its tenuous atmosphere
comes from. To this end, the probe carried imaging devices that gathered much-higher-resolution images of much more of Mercury than Mariner 10, assorted spectrometers to determine abundances of elements in the crust, and magnetometers and devices to
measure velocities of charged particles. Measurements
of changes in the probe's orbital velocity were expected
to be used to infer details of the planet's interior structure.* [31] MESSENGER's nal maneuver was on April
24, 2015, and it crashed into Mercury's surface on April
30, 2015.* [164]* [165]* [166] The spacecraft's impact
with Mercury occurred near 3:26 PM EDT on April 30,
2015, leaving a crater estimated to be 16 m (52 ft) in diameter.* [167]

14

7 NOTES

Back
First (29 March 2011) and last (30 April 2015) images of Mercury by MESSENGER

4.3.3

BepiColombo

Mars,

6 See also

Main article: BepiColombo

Budha, Hinduism's name for the planet and the god

Mercury

The European Space Agency is planning a joint mission

with Japan called BepiColombo, which will orbit Mercury with two probes: one to map the planet and the
other to study its magnetosphere.* [168] Once launched
in 2018, BepiColombo is expected to reach Mercury in
2024.* [169] It will release a magnetometer probe into an
elliptical orbit, then chemical rockets will re to deposit
the mapper probe into a circular orbit. Both probes will
operate for one terrestrial year.* [168] The mapper probe
will carry an array of spectrometers similar to those on
MESSENGER, and will study the planet at many dierent wavelengths including infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray and
gamma ray.* [170]

row:

Mercury
Front: Moon, Pluto, Haumea

Colonization of Mercury
Exploration of Mercury
Mercury in astrology
Mercury in ction
Timeline of the far future

7 Notes
[1] Pluto was considered a planet from its discovery in 1930
to 2006, but after that it has been reclassied as a dwarf
planet. Pluto's orbital eccentricity is greater than Mercury's. Pluto is also smaller than Mercury, but was thought
to be larger until 1976.

Comparison

Size comparison with other Solar System objects

Mercury, Earth

[2] In astronomy, the wordsrotationandrevolutionhave

dierent meanings. Rotationis the turning of a body
about an axis that passes through the body, as in Earth
rotates once a day.Revolutionis motion around a
centre that is external to the body, usually in orbit, as in
Earth takes a year for each revolution around the Sun.
The verbs rotateand revolvemean doing rotation
and revolution, respectively.
[3] If the area of Washington is about 177 km2 and 2.5 miles
is taken to equal 4 km, Solomon's estimate would equal
about 700 cubic kilometres of ice, which would have a
mass of about 600 billion tons (610* 14 kg).
[4] See Twilight#Astronomical twilight

Venus, Earth, Mars

[5] Some sources precede the cuneiform transcription with

MUL. MULis a cuneiform sign that was used
in the Sumerian language to designate a star or planet, but
it is not considered part of the actual name. The4is a
reference number in the Sumero-Akkadian transliteration
Mercury,
system to designate which of several syllables a certain
cuneiform sign is most likely designating.

15

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External links

Media related to Mercury (planet) at Wikimedia Commons

Mariner 10 Atlas of Mercury NASA
Mercury nomenclature and map with feature names
from the USGS planetary nomenclature page
MESSENGER Mission web site
Mercury QuickMap from MESSENGER web site
SolarViews.com Mercury
Astronomy Cast: Mercury
Geody Mercury World's search engine that supports
NASA World Wind, Celestia, and other applications.
A Day On Mercury ash animation
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2013
Bauer, Amanda; Merrield, Michael (2009).
Mercury. Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the
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MESSENGER False Color Mercury Globe Spin
APOD

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Mercury (planet) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet)?oldid=739617142 Contributors: Joao, Brion VIBBER, Mav,

Bryan Derksen, Zundark, Stephen Gilbert, AstroNomer, Jeronimo, -- April, Ed Poor, Amillar, Wayne Hardman, Eob, Danny, XJaM, Scott
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Hardy, Tim Starling, BrianHansen~enwiki, Ixfd64, Cyde, Shoaler, Iluvcapra, Minesweeper, Alo, Tregoweth, Egil, Looxix~enwiki, Ihcoyc,
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ProveIt, ComaDivine, HalfShadow, Ga, Quinkysan, Commander Keane bot, Kudzu1, Aksi great, Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Ppntori,
The monkeyhate, Oneismany, Saros136, Bluebot, KaragouniS, TimBentley, SlimJim, NCurse, Dhiresh, Green meklar, Hibernian, Stevage,
Dlohcierekim's sock, CSWarren, Miguel Andrade, DHN-bot~enwiki, Methnor, Mcstxc7, Rlevse, Gracenotes, GoodDay, Scwlong, Sgt
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Kuru, RTejedor, John, Treyt021, Heimstern, CenozoicEra, VirtualDave, Linnell, JorisvS, Temple, Mgiganteus1, Treedog669, LonelyPker,
Moop stick, PowerCS, Jess Mars, Ckatz, RandomCritic, A. Parrot, Omnedon, JHunterJ, Tyrael odium, Slakr, Lampman, Bojangles04,
Mr Stephen, Mikieminnow, Eurocommuter, SirFozzie, Waggers, Don Alessandro, Ryulong, RichardF, Novangelis, Jose77, NinjaCharlie, General Eisenhower, Krispos42, JeK1971, Iridescent, Michaelbusch, Dekaels~enwiki, Clarityend, Wfgiuliano, Scooter20, Gholam,
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GravityIsForSuckers, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, Yupik, Majorly, Luna Santin, Ricnun, Opelio, Chetanbhawani, Dr. Submillimeter, Grzond, SkoreKeep, Hassocks5489, Chadjj, Myanw, PresN, Uusitunnus, Sluzzelin, Raukodacil, JAnDbot, Dan D. Ric, Deective, MER-C,
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SpaceGuide, Heliac, Jbhuntly, Hong Qi Gong, ALLFUCKYOU, Sssssssssssssssso, Unixhonsetr, Linuxxs, BFDSB, Dingly, WhitnareBlain, Kingdomkey01, Glen, DerHexer, Salopian, W like wiki, Wiccablade, Kheider, NatureA16, DancingPenguin, Schmoofy, Hedwig
in Washington, TMSTKSBK, Hdt83, MartinBot, Albireo3000~enwiki, Arjun01, Jim.henderson, Illuminatedwax, Anaxial, Jay Litman,

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Jaeson, Arthur Fonzarelli, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Werothegreat, Nwamaddox, Watch37264, J.delanoy, DrKay, EscapingLife, Rhertz, Numbo3, DomBot, Silverxxx, All Is One, Jameswheeleratskool, Nigholith, KeepItClean, WarthogDemon, Thaurisil,
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Dfoofnik, CzarNick, Crakkpot, Winky123, Tarotcards, Ilikerps, Skittlez jr, Bushcarrot, NewEnglandYankee, Cadwaladr, Rominandreu,
Nwbeeson, Wesino, SJP, Aminullah, Divad89, Ronbo76, Dkreisst, Sir bbk, Rmih, Xiahou, Dialashop, Idioma-bot, Antony1103, Wikieditor06, Lights, BarroColorado, Deor, VolkovBot, CWii, Iosef, TheUltimateHistorian, BoogaLouie, AlnoktaBOT, Rutherfordjigsaw, Katydidit, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Skopelos-slim, Blobinator11, Negativem, Rosensta, Nxavar, Easel3, Agentgonzo, AlexDenney, Qxz,
Someguy1221, Fearophobia, Melsaran, MasterSci, JhsBot, Leafyplant, Broadbot, Raymondwinn, Seb az86556, Guest9999, Pishogue,
Bibila, Maxim, Quindraco, NodnarbLlad, Knightshield, Suriel1981, Roland Kaufmann, Pious7, Complex (de), Luther93, Geruhjima,
Haikon, Enviroboy, Topdeck, Fleela, Sylent, BrianY, Monkey50~enwiki, Thanatos666, WatermelonPotion, Ceranthor, Truthanado, Euicho, AlleborgoBot, PAntoni, Vsst, Anishkicks, Moofman22, EmxBot, Netopalis, Ponyo, SieBot, TJRC, Jim77742, Paul20070, PlanetStar, Tiddly Tom, OTAVIO1981, Oldag07, Mbz1, Caltas, Matthew Yeager, Triwbe, Indy-MD, Carapar999, Whoajackie1, Storytellershrink, Calabraxthis, Joemanhy6, TrulyBlue, Rubble pile, Til Eulenspiegel, Arda Xi, Keilana, RadicalOne, Oda Mari, Cablehorn, ICroch,
Gublenk, Bpell, Biranavy, Ayudante, Oxymoron83, Stupidtom, Ginger bowl, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, Murlough23, RSStockdale,
Alex.muller, BenoniBot~enwiki, JohnSawyer, Syngori, Maelgwnbot, LonelyMarble, Dstlascaux, Lafuzion, Mikef777, Anchor Link Bot,
Paulinho28, Ascidian, Escape Orbit, Velvetron, ImageRemovalBot, Athenean, WikipedianMarlith, Mr. Granger, RegentsPark, Twinsday,
Loren.wilton, Martarius, Elassint, ClueBot, Trojancowboy, WurmWoode, The Thing That Should Not Be, Meisterkoch, 0nullbinary0,
Plastikspork, Podzemnik, FileMaster, Arakunem, Pairadox, Rodrigo7887, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Tomisgooood, Ryoutou, CounterVandalismBot, Wickedanubis, VandalCruncher, Av0id3r, TarzanASG, Dozols, TypoBoy, Jerry1234567898765, Piledhigheranddeeper,
Candee pus, ChandlerMapBot, Ry2k7an, DragonBot, McMarcoP, K3hK3h, Alexbot, Jusdafax, ImNotRichImStillLyin, Goon Noot,
Fact man 13, D4tinf4mznigg4, Pronkman, Sun Creator, Xx CONFUSED xx, Cenarium, Aahh, Zomno, Jotterbot, Cacadril, Nvvchar,
Thortveitite, Smallkid620, Cyclopaedia, Stepheng3, Thingg, Aitias, Bagunceiro, Graham1973, FlatheadScrewdriver, Jupiter849, DumZiBoT, Otr500, Arianewiki1, XLinkBot, Kaustubh, Terry0051, Oxnard22, Bobrulesu, Stickee, Rolandscholten, Jovianeye, Zhalberd, Mattrave, Avoided, Soccerduck2009, Eiaschool, Punay, S.lukas~enwiki, Noctibus, WikiDao, Eleven even, MystBot, Daveros2008, Catswilltakeovertheworld1day, Kbdankbot, D.M. from Ukraine, Elader, Swbf2lord, M cabonell p, Basilicofresco, Yousou, Julistus, Roentgenium111, Lovemun333, DOI bot, SoccergirlM22, Raywil, HannahCRichards, Bkmays, Ronhjones, Stickboy142, Fluernutter, Wlgst
wfre, LaaknorBot, CarsracBot, Glane23, PFSLAKES1, AnnaFrance, LinkFA-Bot, George Lin123, 84user, Numbo3-bot, Ehrenkater,
Craigsjones, Tide rolls, MuZemike, Jarble, Fryed-peach, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Adi, Aldebaran66, Becky Sayles, Peanutaxis,
Rogerb67, YngNorman, Szajci, Tbayboy, AnomieBOT, Archon 2488, Rubinbot, JackieBot, Graywords, Westerness, Materialscientist,
Archaeopteryx, RadioBroadcast, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Didsrocks, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Timir2, Smk65536, DSisyphBot, YBG, Tomwsulcer, Mlpearc, Srich32977, Almabot, Arsia Mons, GrouchoBot, Ute in DC, Wilsonchas, RibotBOT, Enceladusgeysers,
Nedim Ardoa, Wholphin, , White whirlwind, In fact, Shadowjams, A. di M., Fotaun, DasallmchtigeJ, FrescoBot, NSH002,
LucienBOT, Originalwana, Io Herodotus, Lookang, KokkaShinto, Rat Splat, HJ Mitchell, Dhtwiki, John85, Citation bot 1, Kobrabones,
AstaBOTh15, HRoestBot, Tra, Tom.Reding, MJ94, Codwiki, Hoo man, RedBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Fartherred, IVAN3MAN,
Zbayz, Jugni, FoxBot, Pdebee, Double sharp, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Cocu, Treaclecustard, Drlesmgolden, Begoon, Reaper Eternal,
Jem54, Diannaa, Earthandmoon, Tbhotch, Ugly Ketchup, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Ripchip Bot, Phlegat, Hajatvrc, NerdyScienceDude, Salvio
giuliano, Jpatros, Steve03Mills, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Ajraddatz, Mordgier, Zeenatdhami, Peravinan23, FakeAvJsA, Badmadrain, Primefac, Bobthemonkeyz, GoingBatty, Gwillhickers, HarDNox, Stormchaser89, P. S. F. Freitas, Canyon1980, ZroBot,
Claudio M Souza, Liquidmetalrob, A2soup, Wieralee, AvicAWB, H3llBot, Wayne Slam, Andattaca2010, Sbmeirow, DOwenWilliams,
L Kensington, SBaker43, Sailsbystars, Fanyavizuri, ChuispastonBot, Planet photometry, Brandon998, Whoop whoop pull up, Mjbmrbot, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Anirban89, YMSOLYT, Xession, Thejavadrinker, Cheers!, 007croc, Zz pot, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Bibcode Bot, Schuy B., Dalit Llama, BG19bot, MKar, StevenBjerke, SpaceChimp1992, Rodrigolopes, Cadiomals, Rgbc2000, Soerfm,
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Exoplanetaryscience, Ahatmose, Elaqueate, Racer Omega, Markmartinguy001, Mahusha, PlayStation 14, Monkbot, Thecodingproject,
Signedzzz, GeoreyT2000, Loraof, Rpot2, ComicsAreJustAllRight, Tetra quark, DN-boards1, TheWhistleGag, Alexandritechrysoberyl,
Mousenight, KasparBot, TheGlatiator, Edulovers, Huritisho, MartinZ02, PlanetUser, Efroimsk and Anonymous: 1339

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Images

File:1_Denevi_5_Degas_crater_MESSENGER_soacecraft.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/1_

Denevi_5_Degas_crater_MESSENGER_soacecraft.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/gallery/
sciencePhotos/image.php?page=1&gallery_id=2&image_id=537 Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington
File:1e6m_comparison_Mars_Mercury_Moon_Pluto_Haumea_-_no_transparency.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/5/56/1e6m_comparison_Mars_Mercury_Moon_Pluto_Haumea_-_no_transparency.png License: GPLv2 Contributors: derived from Paul Stansifer's Image:1e7m comparison.png, by me, 84user, using w:en:POV-Ray, w:en:Celestia, and w:en:IrfanView.
Planetary texture maps (with the exception of Haumea) were from en:Celestia, used under the GPL, version 2. A generic asteroid texture
was used for Haumea. 84user's contribution (only tweaking the numbers and getting textures) is public domain. For POV les used see
User:84user/Size comparison. Original artist: Paul Stansifer, 84user, NASA, Celestia, JPL/Caltech
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Details_of_MESSENGER'{}s_Impact_Location.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Details_
of_MESSENGER%27s_Impact_Location.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/gallery/sciencePhotos/
image.php?gallery_id=2&image_id=1602 (image link) Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington
File:EW1027346412Gnomap.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/EW1027346412Gnomap.png License: Public domain Contributors: Original text : from http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/gallery/sciencePhotos/pics/EW1027346412G.nomap.
png http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/gallery/sciencePhotos/image.php?gallery_id=2&image_id=1325) Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins
University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:En-Mercury(Planet).ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/En-Mercury%28Planet%29.ogg License:

CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: MasterDirk made this recording based on Wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was MasterDirk at
en.wikipedia
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Free-to-read_lock_75.svg License: CC0
Contributors: Adapted from 9px|Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white_green.svg Original artist: This version:Trappist_the_monk (talk)
(Uploads)
File:Gravity_Anomalies_on_Mercury.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Gravity_Anomalies_on_
Mercury.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/gallery/sciencePhotos/pics/Mercury_gravity_2015.jpeg
Original artist: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Science Visualization Studio/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington
File:Internal_Structure_of_Mercury.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Internal_Structure_of_
Mercury.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: source from Mercury Globe-MESSENGER mosaic centered at 0degN-0degE.jpg
Original artist: Jcpag2012
File:MESSENGER_Assembly.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/MESSENGER_Assembly.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=2681 Original artist: NASA
File:Mariner_10.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Mariner_10.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://solarviews.com/cap/craft/marin10.htm (image link) Original artist: NASA
File:Merc_fig2sm.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Merc_fig2sm.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [3] from [4] on SCIENCE@NASA Original artist: Quote from [5]: "NASA photo by..."
File:Mercury'{}s_orbital_resonance.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Mercury%27s_orbital_
resonance.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mercury%27s_orbital_resonance.png Original
artist: Tos, converted to SVG from PNG. Original author: Worldtraveller
File:Mercury,_Earth_size_comparison.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Mercury%2C_Earth_
size_comparison.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg
Mercury Globe-MESSENGER mosaic centered at 0degN-0degE.jpg Original artist: NASA
Mercury image: NASA / APL (from MESSENGER)
File:Mercury-bonatti.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Mercury-bonatti.png License: Public domain
Contributors: Guido Bonatti, De Astronomia Libri X (Basel, Nicolaus Pruknerus, 1550) Original artist: Nicolaus Pruknerus, Guido Bonatti
File:Mercury.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Mercury.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Mercury_Globe-MESSENGER_mosaic_centered_at_0degN-0degE.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/3/3f/Mercury_Globe-MESSENGER_mosaic_centered_at_0degN-0degE.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA [1]
Original artist: NASA-APL
File:Mercury_Magnetic_Field_NASA.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Mercury_Magnetic_Field_
NASA.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Mercury_in_color_-_Prockter07-edit1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Mercury_in_color_
-_Prockter07-edit1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA/JPL.
Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington
File:Mercury_in_color_-_Prockter07_centered.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Mercury_in_
color_-_Prockter07_centered.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA/JPL Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University
Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington. Edited version of Image:Mercury in color - Prockter07.jpg by Papa Lima
Whiskey.
File:Mercury_symbol.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Mercury_symbol.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lexicon
File:Mercury_weird_terrain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Mercury_weird_terrain.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Source: http://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/captions/mercury/mercter.htm
Original artist: NASA/JPL
File:Mercuryorbitsolarsystem.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Mercuryorbitsolarsystem.gif License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lookang many thanks to author of original simulation = Todd K. Timberlake
author of Easy Java Simulation = Francisco Esquembre
File:North_pole_of_Mercury_--_NASA.jpg
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File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
File:PIA18389-MarsCuriosityRover-MercuryTransitsSun-20140603.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
c/cf/PIA18389-MarsCuriosityRover-MercuryTransitsSun-20140603.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/
images/msl/20140610/PIA18389_mercury_transit-640.gif Original artist: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS/Texas A&M
File:PIA19247-Mercury-NPolarRegion-Messenger20150316.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/
PIA19247-Mercury-NPolarRegion-Messenger20150316.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/jpeg/
PIA19247.jpg Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington

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File:PIA19411-Mercury-WaterIce-Radar-MDIS-Messenger-20150416.jpg Source:
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commons/8/88/PIA19411-Mercury-WaterIce-Radar-MDIS-Messenger-20150416.jpg License:
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File:PIA19420-Mercury-NorthHem-Topography-MLA-Messenger-20150416.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/6/6d/PIA19420-Mercury-NorthHem-Topography-MLA-Messenger-20150416.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http:
//photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/jpeg/PIA19420.jpg Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington
File:PIA19421-Mercury-Craters-MunchSanderPoe-20150416.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/
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File:PIA19422-Mercury-CarnegieRupes-MDIS-MLA-20150416.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/
31/PIA19422-Mercury-CarnegieRupes-MDIS-MLA-20150416.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.
gov/jpeg/PIA19422.jpg Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington
File:PIA19423-Mercury-AbedinCrater-20150416.jpg
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PIA19423-Mercury-AbedinCrater-20150416.jpg License:
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PIA19423.jpg Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington
File:PIA19449-PlanetMercury-MESSENGER-Images-First-20110329-Last-20150430.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
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Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington
File:PIA19450-PlanetMercury-CalorisBasin-20150501.jpg Source:
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File:Picasso_crater.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Picasso_crater.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/gallery/sciencePhotos/image.php?gallery_id=2&image_id=382 Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington
File:Planet_Elongation.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Planet_Elongation.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-424/ch1.htm Original artist: NASA
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Original artist: ?
File:Shatir500.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Shatir500.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
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File:Sound-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Sound-icon.svg License:
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LGPL Contributors:

File:Speakerlink-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Speakerlink-new.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kelvinsong
File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Prol by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Prol
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Public domain Contributors: Mercury Globe-MESSENGER mosaic centered at 0degN-0degE.jpg
Venus globe.jpg
The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg
Mars 23 aug 2003 hubble.jpg Original artist: NASA
Mercury image: JHUAPL
Venus image: JPL
Mars image: HST
File:ThePlanets_Orbits_Mercury_PolarView.svg Source:
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Orbits_Mercury_PolarView.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Plotted by a program written by the User:Eurocommuter Original
artist: User:Eurocommuter
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Secrets_of_Mercury.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/gallery/sciencePhotos/pics/MASCS50Mono_
2500.png Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington
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Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
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