Teachers Guide

Suggested Time Allotment: 8 to 10 hrs

UNIT 1
Module
2

Heredity: Inheritance and Variation

Content Standard

Performance Standard

Genetic information is organized in

genes on chromosomes
Traits of organisms are inherited
through different patterns.

Overview
Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance

In Grade 8, students learned that cells divide to produce new cells and meiosis is
one of the processes producing genetic variations in Mendelian patterns of inheritance. The
inheritance of characteristics is not always as simple as it is for the characteristics that Mendel
studied in pea plants. In Mendels experiments with pea plants, he found out that one allele was
always dominant over the other. This resulted in just two possible phenotypes for each
characteristic.
This module will focus on the modifications of the Mendelian principles. It is expected
that the students will be able to explain the different patterns of non-Mendelian inheritance and
see the difference between the Mendelian and non-Mendelian patterns of inheritance. The
fundamental role of chromosomes and genes in heredity and variations and the role of DNA in
the transmission of traits will be explained.

Key questions for this module:

How is non-Mendelian inheritance different from Mendels observations?

What is the role of DNA in the transmission of traits?

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Answers to Pre-Assessment :
1. RW
2. The right chain of the DNA molecule: G G C A T C C G G
3.
1. OO

No

2. AA

horn

One

center horn

3. BB

two

4. AB three

horns

horns

In the Mendelian patterns of inheritance, the effects of the recessive gene are not
observed when the dominant gene is present. In this lesson the teacher should stress that
alleles always remain separate and distinct even in incomplete dominance. A very common
error that students may believe is that alleles themselves blend in incomplete dominance.

Activity 1

Phenotypes and Genotypes in Incomplete

Dominance

In this activity, the students should be able to explain incomplete dominance. They should
illustrate by means of a Punnett square a cross involving incomplete dominance pattern of
inheritance. Incomplete dominance is a pattern of inheritance in which neither gene is totally
dominant over the other resulting in an intermediate form of the other two phenotypes.

Teaching Tips:
1. Divide the class into six (6) groups. Three (3) of the groups will solve Problem #1 and
the other three (3) will solve Problem #2.
2. Ask for a volunteer group to present the solution to the problem and discuss the
probabilities of the genotypes and phenotypes obtained from the cross.

Answers to Guide Questions:

Ask students to answer the questions for each of the problems during the discussion.

Q1. Problem # 1: Two types of gametes for each parent, since their genotypes are RW & RW

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Problem # 2: One parent will have one type of gamete and the other two types of gametes,
since their genotypes are RR & RW.
Q2. Pink flowers
Q3. Problem # 1 Pink & Red flowers

Problem # 2 Red, Pink & White flowers

Q4. Problem # 1 RR, RW, WW

Problem # 2 RR, RW

Emphasize the key concepts to the students.

Include in the discussion possible applications to plant breeding.

Key Concepts TO EMPHASIZE:

Incomplete dominance is a form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a
specific trait is not completely dominant over the other allele. This results in a third
phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is a combination of the dominant
and recessive phenotypes.
Now that the students are familiar with incomplete dominance, instruct the students to proceed
with the next activity on codominance

Activity 2

Mystery Bull

In this activity, students are expected to solve problems demonstrating codominance of

traits. A good example of codominance is roan fur in cattle as shown in Figure 2. Cattle can be
red (RR = all red hairs), white (WW = all white hairs), or roan (RW = red & white hairs together).

Teaching Tips:

Before the activity, introduce the lesson by showing a red and white shirt hung up on the
board.

Ask students, If the shirts represent traits for red and white, can you mix them to make
pink?, Why cant you make pink?

Ask about crossing a red cow with a white cow.

Can you have a pink cow?
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Present a picture of a cow to the class, showing the phenotype of the cow with
codominant trait. Ask students of other examples of codominant traits in plants.
Note: It would be better to reproduce a bigger copy of the picture below.

1. (adapted from Grade 8 Learners module since non-Mendelian is not included in the
learning competency)

Source: www.biologycorner.com

Figure 2 Codominance in cattle (Please include a colored picture of a roan cow to show the
appearance of red and white hair together)
Assign additional reading from the given link:
Link: http://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Autosomal_recessive

Answers to Guide Questions:

Q5.

Yes
Cow 1 will have red calves; Cow 2 will have roan calves; Cow 3 will have red and roan
calves.

Q6.

Yes

Q7.

Student answers should be based on the Punnett square they have already prepared in
their activity.

Q8.

Students may give varied answers.

Q9.

Students may give varied answers. Possible answer: Animal breeders can cross breed
animals in order for them to get the desired traits that will improve livestock in terms of
meat quality and milk production.

Point out that solving problems involving non-Mendelian inheritance makes you realize
that there are no absolutes in real life. Codominance is the result of two alleles sharing
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their territory equally, so no color is dominant; they simply share traits, representing their
color. In cows, red and white do not combine to make pink; instead, roan is produced.
Remember, codominance is all about sharing space and being independent.
Key Concepts TO EMPHASIZE:
In codominance both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the
heterozygote. For example, red cows crossed with white cows will have
offspring that are roan cows. Roan refers to cows with red hair and white
blotches.

Many genes have multiple (more than two) alleles. An example is ABO blood type in humans.

Activity 3

Whats your blood type?

In this activity, the students will determine all possible combinations of genes for a blood
type that a person might have and predict gene combinations expected in offspring based
on the genes carried in male and female gametes.

Teaching tips:
Note: Assign students to know their blood types beforehand. If the blood type is
unknown, ask them to just select any blood type they want.

Start by dividing the class into four groups. Assign a student per group to make a record
of the different blood types of the group members and prepare a tally using the given
table.

AB

Frequency

Ask the assigned students to consolidate the data.

Ask the following questions:

1. Which blood type frequently appeared among you?
2. Do you know how blood types are inherited?
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Direct students to work on the activity and find out the answers to the questions.

Answers to the table:

Completed table. The first table will be answered by group.
Mothers Blood Type

Fathers Blood Type

Childs Blood Type

A, B, AB, or O

A or AB

AB

AB

A, B, AB, or O

A, B or O

Completed table. The second table will be done individually.

Possible alleles from Father
A
B
A
Possible
alleles B
from Mother
O

IA IA

; Type A
; Type AB
IA IA , ii; Type A& O
B
B
; Type AB
I I ; Type B
IB IB, ii; Type B & O
IA IA, ii; Type A&O IB IB, ii; Type B & ii; Type O

IA

IA

IB

IB

Answers to Guide Questions:

Q10.

AB, B, A, O

Q11.

A, B, AB

Q12 . B, O
Key Concepts TO EMPHASIZE:

In humans, there are four blood types (phenotypes): A, B, AB, O.

Blood type is controlled by three alleles: A, B, O.

O is recessive, two O alleles must be present for a person to have type O blood.
A and B are codominant. If a person receives an A allele and a B allele, their
blood type is type AB.

The inheritance of some characters does not strictly follow Mendels Law of Independent
Assortment. There are many traits that are inherited together more frequently. For example, the
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expression of certain traits depends on whether one is male or female. Apparently, the
expression of the traits is determined by or related to ones sex.

Activity 4

Boy or Girl ?

In this activity, students will determine the probability of having male or female gender
by illustrating the prediction using a Punnett square.

Reproduce an enlarged version of Figure 3 & 4.

Ask a student volunteer to explain what the figure is all about.

Male
XY

Female
XX

Sex chromosomes

Meiosis

Gametes

Figure 3. Gamete formation involving only sex chromosome

Parent

Male
XY

Female
XX

Gametes
X

Fertilization

Zygote

Female
XX

Male
XY

Female
XX

Male
XY

Figure 4. Sex determination

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Ask the students to work on the activity to help them understand the determination of
sex.

Answers to Guide Questions:

Q 13.

Male

Q 14.

X bearing sperm

Q15.

50%

Q16.

X chromosome

Q17.

Y chromosome

Q18.

Environmental factors, such as age of mother that may lead to nondisjunction

(Trisomy 21), Aneuploidy where there is an excess or lack of X or Y chromosome and

genital development during conception, and the social interactions after birth may
contribute to a certain degree to the expression of human sexuality.
Key Concepts

Males have 44 body chromosomes and two sex chromosomes X and Y. The
males determine the sex of their children. Females have 44 body
chromosomes and two sex chromosomes, both X. The total number in each
cell of an individual is 46 or 23 pairs of chromosomes. These chromosomes
contain the genes, which are the factors of heredity.

This section discusses three kinds of sex-related inheritance, namely, sex-limited, sexinfluenced and sex-linked.

Activity 5

When Gender Matters

This activity diagrams a cross involving sex-linked genes. The teacher points out that
when a gene controlling a trait is located in the sex chromosomes, the trait is said to be sexlinked. This is a term generally used with traits the genes of which are found in the Xchromosomes. Y-linked traits are often called holandric traits.

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Figure 5. Sex-linked Genes

Source: www.mun.ca

Provide other examples of sex-linked traits by showing pictures.

Use Table 3 to show inheritance of sex-linked traits.

Table 3 Genotypes and phenotypes of color blindness in humans
Genotype

Phenotype

1. X X

Normal female

2. X XC

Normal female, carrier of the gene

3. XC XC

Color-blind female

4. X Y

Normal male

5. XC Y

Color-blind male

Instruct students to work on the activity to solve problems related to sex-linked

traits and calculate expected genotypic and phenotypic ratios.

Answers to Guide Questions:

Q19 .

XC Y

Q20.

X XC

Q21.

50%

Q22.

50%

Q23.

50%

Key concepts TO EMPHASIZE:

Sex-linked traits are inherited through the X chromosomes.

Males have only one X chromosome. Thus, if they inherit the affected X,
they will have the disorder.

Females have two X chromosomes. Therefore, they can inherit/carry the

trait without being affected if it acts in a recessive manner.
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Ask students the following questions to introduce the next topic: Have you seen a bald
man? What about a bald woman? It appears that gender matters for the other kinds of traits as
well.
Sex-limited Traits
Sex limited traits are generally autosomal, which means that they are not found on the X
or Y chromosomes. The genes for these traits behave exactly the same way that any autosomal
gene behaves. The difference here comes in the expression of the genes in the phenotype of
the individual. Sex-limited traits are expressed in only one gender. In cattle, for instance,
lactation is expressed in females but never in males. Both male and female cattle however
possess a gene pair for lactation. The gene for lactation (L) is dominant over the non-lactating
gene(l). Table 4 shows the genotypes and phenotypes of the gene for lactation. These genes
are carried by both males and females, but it is only expressed in females. Have you noticed
that in female cattle, if at least one gene pair is for lactation (L), the female produces milk? In
male cattle, it does not matter if they possess one or two genes for lactation. They never
produce milk.

Use Table 4 to show the genotypes and phenotypes of the gene for lactation.

Emphasize to the students that these genes are carried by both males and
females, but it is only expressed in females.

Table 4. Expression of Lactation in Cattle

Female Genotypes

Female Phenotypes

XXLL

Female lactating

XXLl

Female lactating

XXII

Female not lactating

Male Genotypes

Male Phenotypes

XYLL

Male not lactating

XYLI

Male not lactating

XYII

Male not lactating

Source: Functional Biology Modular Approach, Second edition

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Answers to Guide Questions:

Q24.

Other examples of sex-limited traits: fanlike tail feather in peacocks that is never
expressed in peahens and horns that are exclusively found in males of certain sheep
species.

Sex-influenced Traits

Sex-influenced traits are also autosomal. Again, what makes these traits unusual is
the way they are expressed phenotypically. In this case, the difference is in the ways the two
genders express the genes.
One classic example of a sex influenced trait is pattern of baldness in humans, though
the condition is not restricted to males. This gene has two alleles, bald and non-bald. The
behaviors of the products of these genes are highly influenced by the hormones in the
individual, particularly by the hormone testosterone. All humans have testosterone, but males
have much higher levels of this hormone than females do. The result is that, in males, the
baldness allele behaves like a dominant allele, while in females it behaves like a recessive
allele.

Teaching Tips:

Use Table 5 to explain sex-influenced traits.

Assign students to prepare a family tree.

Trace the inheritance of baldness in their family.

Direct students to go over the readings in the Learners module to help them
understand better the inheritance of baldness

Emphasize the difference between sex-limited and sex-influenced traits.

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Table 5. Expression of Baldness Pattern in Humans
Male Genotypes

Male Phenotypes

XYBB

Male bald

XYBb

Male bald

XXbb

Male nonbald

Female Genotypes

Female Phenotypes

XXBB

Female bald

XXBb

Female nonbald

XXbb

Female nonbald

Source: Functional Biology Modular Approach, Second edition

Answers to Guide Questions:

Xb

Q25.

Yb
Genotypic ratio: 1XXBb: 1XYBb

XB
XB

Q26.

XXBb

XYBb

XXBb

XYBb

Phenotypic ratio: 1 female non

bald: 1 male bald

Sex-limited and sex-influenced traits are similar in that their expression depends on
whether the person is male or female.

Q27.

Sex-limited traits are exclusively in one sex and never in the opposite sex. Sexinfluenced traits are expressed in both males and females, only more frequently in one
sex than in the other.
Key Concepts TO EMPHASIZE :

Sex-limited traits are those that are expressed exclusively in one sex.

Sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in

one than in the other sex.

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Try this (optional)

Answers to the questions:
1. Key for the trait. Mother: XH= XH X H Father Xh = Xh Y
A. Illustrate using a Punnett square the probability that their children will have the
XH

disease.
Xh

XH

XH Yh

XH Y

XH Yh

XH Y

Q28. Man : Xh Y , : . Female : XH X H

Q29. Yes
Q30.100% of the female will be carriers of the disease. All males will be haemophiliacs.

If the genotype of the father is IA i and mother is ii, it is possible for them to have children
with blood type A and O. Refer to the Punnett square.
IA

IA i

ii

IA i

ii

Q31.

Blood type A and blood type O

Q32.

Out of every child conceived, there will be 50% chance that the child will have
blood type A and 50% blood type O.

Connect the lesson to the chromosome and the inherited trait that genes produce.

Instruct the students to perform an activity that will help them understand some
important concepts in DNA structure.

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Activity 6

DNA Modeling

In this activity, the students should be able to describe the composition and structure of
DNA. The students should be able to manipulate the nucleotides (basic building blocks) of DNA
and get a feel of how the molecule is produced.
Teaching Tips
Assign students to read in advance about DNA structure.

Ask each group to bring the materials necessary for the activity.

Reproduce the template of the nitrogen bases a day before the activity.

Prepare a diagram of the DNA structure.

Create your own model of the DNA following the same procedure in the activity sheet
of the students. The model will be shown to the students to give them concrete
example of what they will do.

Divide the students into 6 groups.

Review the hereditary traits that were passed from the parents to their offspring and
ask the students: What do you think is responsible for the formation of such traits?

Summarize individual responses and relate the ideas of students of what the DNA is.

Answers to Guide Questions:

Q33. Sugar and phosphate
Q34.

Base

Q35.

Adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine

Q36.

Yes, adenine can only pair with thymine because of their chemical structures.

Q37.

Yes, guanine can only pair with cytosine because of their chemical structures.

Q38.

Sugar and phosphate; nitrogen bases

Key Concepts TO EMPHASIZE:

DNA is composed of chains of nucleotides built on a sugar and phosphate backbone
and wrapped around each other in the form of a double helix. The backbone supports
four bases: guanine, cytosine, adenine, and thymine. Guanine and cytosine are
complementary, always appearing opposite each other on the helix, as are adenine and
thymine. This is critical in the reproduction of the genetic material, as it allows a strand to
divide and copy itself, since it only needs half of the material in the helix to duplicate
successfully.
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Summary

Many characteristics have more complex inheritance patterns than those studied
by Mendel. They are associated with phenomena such as codominance,
incomplete dominance, multiple alleles, and sex-linked traits.

Codominance occurs when both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype
of the heterozygote.

Incomplete dominance occurs when the phenotype of the offspring is

somewhere in between the phenotypes of both parents; a completely dominant
allele does not occur.

Many genes have multiple (more than two) alleles. An example is ABO blood
type in humans. There are three common alleles for the gene that controls this
characteristic. The alleles IA and IB are dominant over i.

In humans, XX chromosomes determine femaleness and XY determine

maleness.

A sex-linked trait is based on the X chromosome. Females have two X

chromosomes; they can inherit or carry the trait without being affected if it acts in
a recessive manner.

Sex-limited traits are those that are expressed exclusively in one sex.

Sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in one
than in the other sex.

Genes are located in the chromosomes.

DNA contains the information needed to form and control the physical make-up
and chemical processes of an organism.

DNA is a double-stranded helix made up of repeating units of nucleotides.

A nucleotide is composed of the following: sugar and phosphate molecules, and

nitrogeneous base. The base can either be adenine, guanine, thymine, and
cytosine.

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Glossary

Allele a different form of a gene that controls a certain trait.

Codominance two dominant alleles of a contrasting pair fully expressed at the same
time in the heterozygous individual.

Incomplete dominance - occurs when the phenotype of the offspring is somewhere in

between the phenotypes of both parents; a completely dominant allele does not occur.

Multiple Alleles when more than two alleles control the inheritance of a character.

Sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in one sex
than in the other.

Sex-limited traits that are expressed exclusively in one sex of the species.

Sex-linked traits traits that are controlled by genes located on the same sex
chromosome.

DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid

Punnett square the method by which one can determine the possible genotypes and
phenotypes when two parents are crossed

Antigen - A substance that when introduced into the body stimulates the production of an
antibody

Gamete - are reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to form a new cell called
a zygote.

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Summative Assessment (For end of module)

Answers to questions
1.
r
r

Rr

Rr

Rr

Rr

Genotypic ratio: Rr 100%

Phenotypic ratio: 100% pink

2. A third phenotype results when traits are inherited in incomplete dominance.

r

3.

rr

rr

rr

rr

F2

Phenotypic ratio :100% white

4. Co- dominance
B

BW

BW

BW

BW

5.
W
W

Phenotype: checkered

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Answer key
Summative Assessment (for end of the unit)
Knowledge:
1. One chain of a DNA molecule has a nucleotide sequence C, C, G, C, T. What is the
sequence of the nucleotides on its partner chain?

GGCGA

Understanding:
2.

Predict the phenotypic ratios of offspring when a homozygous white cow is crossed with a
roan bull. Illustrate using a Punnett square.

RW

RW

WW

WW

Process skills
3. In fruit flies, humans and other mammals, sex is determined by an X-Y system. However,
many organisms do not have the X-Y system of sex determination. For example, birds have
a

Z-W

system.

Male

birds

are

ZZ,

where

as

females

are

ZW.

In chickens, barred feathers (ZB) are dominant over nonbarred feathers (Zb).
a. Draw a Punnett square that shows the results of a cross between a barred female

ZB

and a nonbarred male.

Zb

Z B Zb

Zb W

Zb

Z B Zb

Zb W

b. What is the probability that the offspring will be:

i.

Barred females? none

ii.

Nonbarred females? 50%

iii.

Barred males? 50%

iv.

Nonbarred males? None

4. A. phosphate

B. base

C. sugar

5.

Blood type

Gene Pairs

AA,AO

BB,BO

AB

AB

OO

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References:
PRINTED
Campbell, N.et.al. (2009). Biology (8th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc.
Rabago, L. et.al. (2010).Functional Biology: Modular Approach. Vibal Publishing House, Inc.
Mader (2009). Essentials of Biology (2nd ed.). Mcgraw Hill Companies, Inc.
University of the Philippines National Institute for Science & Mathematics Education
Development 2000. Sourcebook on Practical Work for Teachers: High school biology (Vol. 2).
Q.C.
DepEd. (2009). Biology Science and Technology Textbook

for second year, Book Media

Press, Inc.

Electronic Sources
http://www.karenmayes.com/pages/dna.pdf
http://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Autosomal_recessive

LRMDS
Project EASE Module
APEX

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Figure 7 Basic Subunits of DNA

Reference:
DNA Paper Model Activity

http://www.karenmayes.com/pages/dna.pdf

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