High-Speed Decoding of the Binary Golay Code

H. P. Lee*1, C. H. Chang1, S. I. Chu2
1

Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering,

Fortune Institute of Technology,
Kaohsiung 83160, Taiwan
*[email protected]
2
Department of Electronic Engineering,
National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences,
Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan

ABSTRACT
Recently, some table-lookup decoding algorithms (TLDAs) have been used to correct the binary Golay code. This
paper proposes an efficient high-speed TLDA called message-syndrome decoding algorithm (MSDA) by using the
message syndrome to correct the binary systematic Golay code. The proposed MSDA is based on the novel
message-syndrome lookup table (MSLT). The MSLT merely consists of 12 candidate syndromes and its memory size
is significantly smaller than other existing lookup tables. Computer software simulation results show that the decoding
speed of the proposed MSDA is superior to other proposed TLDAs.
Keywords: Golay code, weight, syndrome, error pattern



1. Introduction
The well-known binary Golay code, also called
the binary (23, 12, 7) quadratic residue (QR)
code [2], was first discovered by Golay [1] in
1949. It is a very useful perfect linear errorcorrecting code; particularly, it has been used in
the past decades for a variety of applications
involving a parity bit being added to each word
to yield a half-rate code called the binary (24, 12,
8) extended Golay code. One of its most
interesting applications is the provision of error
control in the Voyager missions [2]. The Golay
code can allow the correction of up to
t (d  1) / 2 = (7  1) / 2 3 errors, where x
denotes the greatest integer less than or equal
to x, t is the error-correcting capability, and d is
the minimum Hamming distance of the code.
In the past few decades, several decoding
techniques have been developed to decode the
binary Golay codes, for example, the famous
algebraic decoding algorithm (ADA) developed by
Elia [3], the notable shift-search algorithm
proposed by Reed et al. [4] after that, and the
inverse-free BerlekampMassey algorithm used to
obtain the error-locator polynomial by Chen et al.
[5]. The above is some representative literature on
ADAs used to correct Golay codes.

Recently, the TLDAs given in [6-9] have acquired a

prominent role in error-correcting decoding. A
TLDA with a refined lookup table (RLT) has been
proposed by Lin et al. [8]; the RLT only needs 168
bytes memory size. The memory size of the RLT is
the smallest memory size required to correct the
Golay code until now. In general, the TLDA makes
considerably faster decoding speeds possible for
the cyclic codes, in comparison with the ADA.
However, the TLDA requires an extra memory
space in the decoder chip or software and it
increases the decoding cost rapidly when the code
length is large. Although the ADA does not need
any lookup table, it requires a large number of
complicated computations in the finite field. These
complicated computations will degrade the
decoding performance and lead to a serious
decoding delay as the code length increases [10].
Chen et al. [7] proposed the fast lookup table
decoding algorithm (FLTDA) with a lookup table of
1.35K bytes by using the shift-search algorithm [4]
to decode the Golay code. The famous syndrome
decoding algorithm (SDA) with a reduced-size
lookup table (RSLT) given in [2, p119] requires 89
syndromes and their corresponding error patterns,
whereas the RSLT requires 445 bytes of memory.

JournalofAppliedResearchandTechnology

331

HighSpeedDecodingoftheBinaryGolayCode,H.P.Leeetal./331337

Lin et al. [8] proposed the syndrome-weight

decoding algorithm (SWDA) with RLT which
needs 168 bytes of memory, and the simulation
result shows that the decoding speed is
approximately 9.7 times faster than the improved
Elias decoding algorithm (EDA).
In this paper, an efficient high-speed MSDA with a
MSLT is proposed to decode the binary systematic
Golay code. The novel MSLT consists only of 12
candidate syndromes which have one error in the
message part of the received vector, and it merely
requires 24 bytes of memory. Software simulation
results show that the average decoding speed is
the fastest among the TLDAs as mentioned above.
In the four-error soft-decision decoder in [11], the
improved EDA is the role of the hard-decision
decoder. We substituted the proposed MSDA for
the improved EDA in the four-error soft-decision
decoder. Apparently, the decoding speed of the
soft-decision decoder was faster than before.
The remainder of this paper is organized as
follows: The background of the binary systematic
Golay code is briefly reviewed in Section 2. Some
related TLDAs and related theorems are briefly
introduced in Section 3. The proposed MSDA is
presented in Section 4. Computer simulation
results are given in Section 5. Finally, this paper
concludes with a brief summary in Section 6.
2. Background of the binary systematic Golay
code
The binary (23, 12, 7) Golay code can be defined
as a linear cyclic code or QR code [2]. For the
11
binary Golay code over finite field GF(2 ), its
quadratic residue set is given by
Q23 = {i | i j2 mod 23 for 1 j 22}
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 16, 18}.

(1)

The generator polynomial g(x) of the binary Golay

code is defined by
g( x )

i Q23 ( x  i )
x 11  x 9  x 7  x 6  x 5  x  1,

332

Vol.11,June2013

(2)

where E is a primitive 23rd root of unity in GF(211).

Let the codeword polynomial C( x )

n 1
i 0 Ci x i ,

where Ci GF(2) for 0 i 22, and the message

polynomial m( x )

k 1
i 0 mi x i , where k = 12 is the

message length and mi GF(2) for 0 i 11.

C(x) is a multiple of g(x), namely, C(x) = m(x)g(x).
Also, let the product m(x)x11 divide by g(x), then
one has m(x)x11 = q(x)g(x) + d(x). Multiplying both
sides of last expression by x12 and using x23 = 1,
one yields d(x)x12 + m(x) = (q(x)x12)g(x). The term
(d(x)x12 + m(x)), which is a multiple of g(x), is a
systematic codeword given by
c(x) = d(x)x12 + m(x) = p(x) + m(x),

(3)

i
22
i 12 pi x denotes the parity-check

where p( x )

polynomial [12] of a codeword and pi GF(2) for

12 i 22.
The binary systematic Golay code is practically
applied in the standard of the communication
system for automatic link establishment (ALE) by
the United States Department of Defense [13].
Now, let a 12-bit message be encoded into a 23bit systematic codeword and be transmitted
through a noisy channel to obtain a received
word of the form r(x) = c(x) + e(x).
e( x )

i
is the error pattern polynomial,
22
i 0 ei x

where ei GF(2) for 0 i 22. The syndromes

of the code are defined by
si

r (E i )
e( E i )

c ( E i )  e( E i )
i j
22
j 0 e j (E )

(4)

where i Q23.
To simplify the polynomial expressions above,
the message, codeword, error pattern, received
word, and syndrome polynomials can be
expressed as the binary vector forms m = (m11
... m1 m0), c = (c22 ... c1 c0), e = (e22 ... e1 e0), r =
c + e = (r22 ... r1 r0), and s = (s10 ... s1 s0),
respectively. For the binary systematic Golay
code, it follows from [2, p85] that the systematic
generator matrix G can be expressed as follows:

HighSpeedDecodingoftheBinaryGolayCode,H.P.Leeetal./331337

10 10 1 1 10 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 10 0 1 0 0 1

1 1 0 1 0 0 10 10 1

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 10 0

0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 I12
,
0 0 1 1 0 0 1

10 1 1

10 1 1 0 1 1 1 10 0

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1

10 1 1 10 0 0 1 1 0

0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

12 u 23

>P I12 @12u23

3. Related work and theorems

In this section, some related TLDAs and

theorems are briefly introduced in order to
develop the proposed MSDA. For the TLDA, the
following definition, theorems and corollary given
in [9] are needed.
(5)

Theorem 1. Let a = (an-1 ... a1 a0) and b = (bn-1 ...

b1 b0) be two binary vectors, then

where P and I12 denote the 12u11 matrix and the

12u12 identity matrix, respectively. The systematic
vector form of the codeword can be obtained by
c

mG

( p22 ! p13 p12 m11 ! m1 m0 ) .

(6)

The parity-check polynomial h(x) = x12 + x10 + x7 +

x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 is a factor of x23 1. The 11u23
parity-check matrix H can be expressed as follows:
H

>I

T
11 P 11u 23

(7)

where PT is a 11u12 transpose matrix of P and I11

is a 11u11 identity matrix.
T

The H denotes the 23 u 11 transpose matrix of H;

I
that is, HT 11
. The vector form of the
P 23u11
syndrome can be defined by
s = rHT.

Definition 1. Let the Hamming norm or weight of a

binary vector a = (an-1 ... a1 a0) be designated by
w(a). The Hamming distance between two binary
vectors a and b is defined by d(a, b) = w(a + b).

(8)

The following lemma given in [14] shows that the

mapping between the syndromes and error
patterns under the error-correcting capability is
one-to-one.
Lemma 1. The mapping between the syndromes
of a code and the corresponding error patterns of
weight t is one-to-one.

w(a + b) = w(a) + w(b) 2ni 1 ai bi .

(9)

Corollary 1. Let a and b, defined in Definition 1,

be two binary vectors. If aibi = 0 for 1 i n, then

w(a + b) = w(a) + w(b).

(10)

Theorem 2. For the binary systematic (n, k, d) QR

codes, let us assume that there are v errors in the
received word, where 1 v t. All v errors occur in
the n k parity-check bits if and only if the weight
of syndrome w(s) = v.

As mentioned above, the error-correcting capability of

the binary Golay code is t =3. The full lookup table
(FLT) in the conventional table lookup decoding
algorithm (CTLDA) requires

23
1 i

= 2,047

syndromes and their corresponding error patterns by

Lemma 1. Each syndrome and error pattern needs 2
bytes and 3 bytes, respectively, to store in the FLT.
Thus, the total memory size needed for the FLT is
(2047 u (2 + 3)) = 10,235 bytes. However, such a
large memory is less efficient in practice.
Recently, some useful TLDAs have been
presented in the literature to reduce the memory
size of the FLT. The LTDA [7] used the shiftsearch method [4] to reduce the memory size of
the FLT and the binary-search method to reduce
the search time in the FLT. The shift-search
method deletes all v = t error patterns and keeps 1
v t 1 error patterns.

JournalofAppliedResearchandTechnology

333

HighSpeedDecodingoftheBinaryGolayCode,H.P.Leeetal./331337

2
Therefore, the LTDA needs ti 11 23
276
i 1 23i
i
syndromes and their corresponding error patterns;
that is, the FLT needs 276 u (2 + 3) = 1,380 bytes
memory size. Nevertheless, the memory size of the
FLT is still large and the simulation result shows that
the average decoding time of the proposed MSDA
is about 10.6 times faster that the LTDA. To develop
the following TLDAs, Theorem 3 is useful to reduce
the memory size of the FLT. The well-known SDA
with RSLT [2, p119] has the following useful
theorem of the cyclic codes to dramatically reduce
the memory size of the FLT. For more detailed proof
of this theorem, see [2, p118].

Theorem 3. Let s(x) be the syndrome polynomial

corresponding to a received polynomial r(x). Also,
let r(1)(x) be the polynomial obtained by cyclically
shifting the coefficients of r(x) one bit to the left.
Then the remainder obtained when dividing xs(x) by
g(x) is the syndrome s(1)(x) corresponding to r(1)(x).

Decoding the binary systematic Golay code by

Theorem 3, the RSLT of the SDA only needs 1/23
memory size of the FLT, namely 10,235/23 = 445
bytes memory size [8]. Nonetheless, the memory
size of the RSLT is still large and can be further
reduced. Similarly, by Theorem 3, r(j)(x) is the
polynomial obtained by cyclically shifting the
coefficients of r(x) j bits to the left. Next, the
syndrome difference sdi is defined by sdi = s si for
1 i N, where s is the syndrome of r, si is the
syndrome in lookup table, and N is the table size.
Similarly, the syndrome difference s(dij ) is defined by

s(dij ) s( j )  si for 1 j n, where s(j) is the

syndrome of r(j). By using the property of the
syndrome difference, the RLT of the SWDA only
requires 168 bytes. However, the decoding speed is
not very outstanding according to the simulation
result. To overcome this problem, the MSDA is
presented by using the syndrome that only one error
occurred in the message part of the received word.
4. MSDA for the binary Golay code

In this section, an efficient high-speed MSDA with a

MSLT for decoding the binary systematic Golay
code is developed to further reduce the decoding
time and the memory size of the RLT. By Theorem
2 and (8), it is obvious that at least one error is in
the message bits if the weight of syndrome w(s) > 3.

334

Vol.11,June2013

Definition 2. The message-syndrome lookup table

(MSLT) is a table of all the error patterns occurred in
the message part with weight 1 d v d t / 2 together

with their corresponding syndromes, where x

denotes the smallest integer less than or equal to x.
Therefore, the novel MSLT merely consists of 12
candidate syndromes which are the syndromes of
having one error in the message part; that is, si is
the syndrome of ei which is one error located at bit
i for 1 i 12. The MSLT is listed in Table 1.
Syndrome

Syndrome

s1 = (01011100011)

s2 = (10111000110)

s3 = (00101101111)

s4 = (01011011110)

s5 = (10110111100)

s6 = (00110011011)

s7 = (01100110110)

s8 = (11001101100)

s9 = (11000111011)

s10 = (11010010101)

s11 = (11111001001)

s12 = (10101110001)

Table 1. MSLT for the Binary

Systematic Golay Code.

To develop the proposed MSDA by using the

MSLT, the following lemma and properties are
necessary.
Lemma 2. For the binary Golay code, let e be an
error pattern, and let ep and em be its parity-check
part and message part, respectively. Let sp and sm
be the syndromes corresponding to ep and em,
respectively. Assume that w(e) d 3, then we have

(i)

w(sp) = w(ep);

(ii)

w(sm) t d w(em), where d = 7;

(iii)

((sm << 12) + em) is always a codeword,

where << denotes the logical left shift
operator in programming or the extension
by zeros on the right in mathematics.

Proof: By Equation (8), (i) is obvious. Again, by

Equation (8), given that ((sm << 12) + em)HT = ((sm
I
I
I
<< 12) + em) 11 = (sm << 12) 11 + em 11 = sm
P
P
P
+ sm = 0, ((sm << 12)+ em) is thus a codeword, which
proves (iii). Hence, w((sm << 12) + em) = w(sm) +
w(em) t d, that is, w(sm) t d w(em). The proof is
thus completed.

HighSpeedDecodingoftheBinaryGolayCode,H.P.Leeetal./331337

By Lemma 2, if v t, then one can obtain the

following two properties.

(5)

If w(sdi) d 2, then return c = r (sdi << 12)

(1 << (i 1)), and go to step 13.

Property 1. For the binary Golay code, the weight

of the syndrome difference w(sdi) has the
following cases:

(6)

Cyclically shift r and s left by 11 bits

obtaining r(11) and s(11), and then compute
w(s(11)).

Case 1: If w(s) 3, then all three errors are in

the parity-check part and no error is in
the message part.

(7)

If w(s(11)) = 2 or 3, then return c = ((r(11)

(s(11) << 12)) << 12) ((r(11) (s(11) << 12))
>> 11), and go to step 13.

Case 2: If w(s) > 3 and w(sdi) < 3, then only 1

error is in the message part.

(8)

(11)
For 1 d i 12, compute the syndrome sdi

Case 3: If w(s) > 3 and w(sdi) > 3, than at least 2

errors are in the message part.

(11)

= s(11) si and its weight w( sdi ).

(9)

Next, for Case 3 of Property 1, the r and s are

cyclically shifted left by 11 bits, then one obtains
r(11) and s(11), respectively. Thus, one yields the
following property.
Property 2 For the binary Golay code, if w(s) > 3
(11)
and w(sdi) > 3, then the weight of s(11) and sdi

have the following cases:

Case 1: If w(s(11)) = 2 or 3, then r has at least 2
errors in the message part and no error
is in the parity-check part.
(11)

Case 2: If w(s(11)) > 3 and w( sdi ) 2, then r has

at least 2 errors in the message part.
(11)

Case 3: If w(s(11)) > 3 or w( sdi ) > 3, then 2

errors are in the message part and one
of them is at the position of bit 0.
By using the MSLT, the decoding process of the
MSDA is as follows:

(11)

If w( sdi ) = 1 or 2, then return c = ((r(11) (

s(di11) << 12) (1 << (i 1))) << 12) ((r(11)

(11)

( sdi

<< 12) (1 << (i 1))) >> 11), and

go to step 13.
(10) Compute r = r 1 and s = s s1.
(11) For 2 d i 12, compute the syndrome sdi =
s si and its weight w(sdi).
(12) If w(sdi) = 1, then return c = r (sdi << 12)
(1 << (i 1)).
(13) Stop.
An example is given below. By (6), a message
vector m = (100000000000) is encoded into a
binary
systematic
Golay
code
c
=
(10101110001100000000000). Assume that a
noise vector is e = (00010000000000010000001),
then the received word becomes r = c + e =
(10111110001100010000001).
The
decoding
steps proceed as follows:

(1)

Giving a received vector r.

(1)

(2)

Compute the syndrome s = rHT and its

weight w(s).

The
received
vector
is
(10111110001100010000001).

(2)

If w(s) d 3, then return c = r (s << 12),

and go to step 13.

Compute the syndrome s = (10000001111)

and its weight w(s) = 5.

(3)

Given that w(s) > 3, go to step 4.

(4)

For i = 1, compute the syndrome sd1 = s s1

= (11011101100) and its weight w(sd1) = 7.

(3)
(4)

For 1 d i 12, compute the syndrome sdi =

s si and its weight w(sdi).

JournalofAppliedResearchandTechnology

335

HighSpeedDecodingoftheBinaryGolayCode,H.P.Leeetal./331337

(5)
(4)

Given that w(sd1) > 2, go to step 4.

repeating steps 4 and 5
For i = 12, compute the syndrome sd12 = s
s12 = (00101111110) and its weight
w(sd12) = 7.

(5)

Given that w(sd12) > 2, go to step 6.

(6)

Cyclically shift r and s left by 11 bits

obtaining r(11) = (10001000000110111110
001) and s(11) = (01101011101), and then
compute w(s(11)) = 7.

(7)

Given that w(s(11)) 2 or 3, go to step 8.

(8)

(11)
For i = 1, compute the syndrome sd1 =

Therefore, the correct message can be retrieved

from the received vector.
5. Simulation results

The proposed MSDA has been programmed in

C++ language. On an Intel Q6600 PC, all
codewords with up to three errors, namely 212 u
3
8,384512
i 1 C 23
i

(11)

(9)

(11)

repeating steps 8 and 9

(8)

(11)
For i = 12, compute the syndrome sd12 =

(11)

s12 = (11000101100) and its weight

(11)
w( sd12 )

(9)

= 5.
(11)

Given that w( sd12 ) > 2, go to step 10.

(10) Compute
r
=
r

1
=
(10111110001100010000000) and s = s
s1 = (11011101100).
(11) For i = 2, compute the syndrome sd2 = s s2
= (01100101010) and its weight w(sd2) = 5.
(12) Given that w(sd2) > 1, go to step 11.
repeating steps 11 and 12
(11)
(13) For i = 8, compute the syndrome sd8 = s s8
= (00010000000) and its weight w(sd8) = 1.
(14) If w(sd8) = 1, then return the correct
(12)
codeword c = r1 (sd8 << 12) (1 << (i
1)) = (10111110001100010000000)
(00010000000000000000000)

(10000000) = (10101110001100000000000).
Go to step 13.
(15) Stop.
(13)

336

Vol.11,June2013

were

Number of errors

Algorithms

Given that w( sd1 ) > 2, go to step 8.

vectors,

created to check every possible error pattern. The

detailed decoding times for decoding the binary
systematic Golay code with different decoding
algorithms are given in Table 2. The proposed
MSDA has the fastest average decoding time and
works perfectly with an average decoding time of
0.6038 s per error pattern.

s(11) s1 = (00110111110) and its weight

w( sd1 ) = 7.

received

Proposed
MSDA
SDA with
RSLT
FLTDA
with table
SWDA with
RLT
Improved
EDA

Average

0.3396

0.4228

0.6364

0.6038

0.7332

0.8612

0.8876

0.8705

0.1774

0.1813

7.406

6.419

4.651

5.957

7.551

7.321

16.32

27.25

27.33

26.86

Table 2. Computer Decoding Time for Decoding the

Binary Golay Code (in s).

From Table 2, the proposed MSDA has the fastest

average decoding time and is about 44.5 times
faster than the improved EDA. Furthermore, we
substituted the proposed MSDA for the improved
EDA in the four-error soft-decision decoder [11].
Apparently, the decoding speed of the softdecision decoder was about 44.5 times faster than
before. The decoding time of the two hard-decision
decoders with respect to the SNR values is shown
in Figure 1.
6. Conclusions

This paper presented a simple and more efficient

decoding algorithm for decoding the binary
systematic Golay code. The key ideas of the
MSDA are based on the properties of cyclic codes,
the one-error syndrome in the message part, the
weight of syndrome, the weight of syndrome

HighSpeedDecodingoftheBinaryGolayCode,H.P.Leeetal./331337

difference, Property 1, and Property 2. The MSLT

of the MSDA merely requires a very small memory
size of 24 bytes. These facts lead to a substantial
improvement in decoding the binary systematic
Golay code. Simulation results show that, following
the new decoding strategies, the proposed MSDA
achieves the best efficiency. Hence, it is naturally
suitable and proper for DSP or embedded system
software implementation.

[7] Y. H. Chen et al., Efficient decoding of systematic

(23, 12, 7) and (41, 21, 9) quadratic residue codes, J Inf
Sci Eng, vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 1831-1843, 2010.
[8] T. C. Lin et al., On the decoding of the (24, 12, 8) Golay
code, Inf Sci, vol. 180, no. 23, pp. 4729-4736, 2010.
[9] T. C. Lin et al., High speed decoding of the binary
(47, 24, 11) quadratic residue code, Inf Sci, vol. 180, no.
20, pp. 4060-4068, 2010.
[10] S. Lin and E. J. Jr Weldon, Long BCH codes are
bad, Inf Contr, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 445-451, 1967.
[11] S. I. Chu et al., Fast decoding of the (23, 12, 7)
Golay code with four-error-correcting capability, Eur
Trans Telecomm, vol, 22, no. 7, pp. 388-395, 2011.
[12] C. A. Vzquez-Fernndez and G. Vega-Hernndez,
On the Weight Distribution of the Dual of some Cyclic
Codes with Two Non Conjugated Zeros, J Appl Res
Technol, vol.9, no.1, pp. 36-48, 2011.
[13] MIL-STD-188/141B. Department of Defense
Interface Standard: Interoperability and Performance
Standards for Medium and High Frequency Radio
Systems.
http://www.everyspec.com/MIL-STD/MILSTD+(0100+-+0299)/MIL_STD_188_141B_1703.

Figure 1. Decoding Time of Two Hard-Decision

Decoders at SNR of 0~6 dB.

[14] I. S Reed et al., The algebraic decoding of the (41,

21, 9) quadratic residue code, IEEE Trans Inf Theory,
vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 974-986, 1992.

References
[1] M. Golay, Notes on digital coding, Proc. IRE, vol. 37,
p. 657, 1949.
[2] S. Wicker, "Error Control Systems for Digital
Communication and Storage, Prentice Hall: Upper
Saddle River, NJ, 1995.
[3] M. Elia, Algebraic decoding of the (23, 12, 7) Golay
code, IEEE Trans Inf Theory, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 150151, 1987.
[4] I. S. Reed et al., Decoding the (24, 12, 8) Golay code,
IEE P-COMPUT DIG T, vol. 137, no. 3, pp. 202-206, 1990.
[5] Y. H. Chen et al., Algebraic decoding of quadratic
residue codes using Berlekamp-Massey algorithm, J Inf
Sci Eng, vol. 23, no. 1, 2007, pp. 127-145.
[6] H. Chang et al., A weight method of decoding the (23,
12, 7) Golay code Using Reduced Lookup Table, 2008
International Conference On Communication, Circuits and
Systems (ICCCAS 2008), Xiamen, China, 2008, pp. 1-5.

JournalofAppliedResearchandTechnology

337