Lectures on

Spectral Graph Theory

Fan R. K. Chung
Author address:
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
E-mail address: [email protected]

Contents
Chapter 1. Eigenvalues and the Laplacian of a graph

1.1. Introduction

1.2. The Laplacian and eigenvalues

1.3. Basic facts about the spectrum of a graph

1.4. Eigenvalues of weighted graphs

11

1.5. Eigenvalues and random walks

14

Chapter 2. Isoperimetric problems

23

2.1. History

23

2.2. The Cheeger constant of a graph

24

2.3. The edge expansion of a graph

25

2.4. The vertex expansion of a graph

29

2.5. A characterization of the Cheeger constant

32

2.6. Isoperimetric inequalities for cartesian products

36

Chapter 3. Diameters and eigenvalues

43

3.1. The diameter of a graph

43

3.2. Eigenvalues and distances between two subsets

45

3.3. Eigenvalues and distances among many subsets

49

3.4. Eigenvalue upper bounds for manifolds

50

Chapter 4. Paths, ows, and routing

59

4.1. Paths and sets of paths

59
iii

iv

CONTENTS

4.2. Flows and Cheeger constants

60

4.3. Eigenvalues and routes with small congestion

62

4.4. Routing in graphs

64

4.5. Comparison theorems

68

Chapter 5. Eigenvalues and quasi-randomness

73

5.1. Quasi-randomness

73

5.2. The discrepancy property

75

5.3. The deviation of a graph

81

5.4. Quasi-random graphs

85

Bibliography

91

CHAPTER 1

Eigenvalues and the Laplacian of a graph

1.1. Introduction
Spectral graph theory has a long history. In the early days, matrix theory
and linear algebra were used to analyze adjacency matrices of graphs. Algebraic
methods are especially eective in treating graphs which are regular and symmetric.
Sometimes, certain eigenvalues have been referred to as the algebraic connectivity
of a graph [126]. There is a large literature on algebraic aspects of spectral graph
theory, well documented in several surveys and books, such as Biggs [25], Cvetkovic,
Doob and Sachs [90, 91], and Seidel [224].
In the past ten years, many developments in spectral graph theory have often
had a geometric avor. For example, the explicit constructions of expander graphs,
due to Lubotzky-Phillips-Sarnak [193] and Margulis [195], are based on eigenvalues
and isoperimetric properties of graphs. The discrete analogue of the Cheeger inequality has been heavily utilized in the study of random walks and rapidly mixing
Markov chains [224]. New spectral techniques have emerged and they are powerful
and well-suited for dealing with general graphs. In a way, spectral graph theory
has entered a new era.
Just as astronomers study stellar spectra to determine the make-up of distant
stars, one of the main goals in graph theory is to deduce the principal properties
and structure of a graph from its graph spectrum (or from a short list of easily
computable invariants). The spectral approach for general graphs is a step in
this direction. We will see that eigenvalues are closely related to almost all major
invariants of a graph, linking one extremal property to another. There is no question
that eigenvalues play a central role in our fundamental understanding of graphs.
The study of graph eigenvalues realizes increasingly rich connections with many
other areas of mathematics. A particularly important development is the interaction between spectral graph theory and dierential geometry. There is an interesting analogy between spectral Riemannian geometry and spectral graph theory. The
concepts and methods of spectral geometry bring useful tools and crucial insights
to the study of graph eigenvalues, which in turn lead to new directions and results
in spectral geometry. Algebraic spectral methods are also very useful, especially
for extremal examples and constructions. In this book, we take a broad approach
with emphasis on the geometric aspects of graph eigenvalues, while including the
algebraic aspects as well. The reader is not required to have special background in
geometry, since this book is almost entirely graph-theoretic.

1. EIGENVALUES AND THE LAPLACIAN OF A GRAPH

From the start, spectral graph theory has had applications to chemistry [27].
Eigenvalues were associated with the stability of molecules. Also, graph spectra
arise naturally in various problems of theoretical physics and quantum mechanics,
for example, in minimizing energies of Hamiltonian systems. The recent progress
on expander graphs and eigenvalues was initiated by problems in communication
networks. The development of rapidly mixing Markov chains has intertwined with
advances in randomized approximation algorithms. Applications of graph eigenvalues occur in numerous areas and in dierent guises. However, the underlying
mathematics of spectral graph theory through all its connections to the pure and
applied, the continuous and discrete, can be viewed as a single unied subject. It
is this aspect that we intend to cover in this book.

1.2. The Laplacian and eigenvalues

Before we start to dene eigenvalues, some explanations are in order. The eigenvalues we consider throughout this book are not exactly the same as those in Biggs
[25] or Cvetkovic, Doob and Sachs [90]. Basically, the eigenvalues are dened here
in a general and normalized form. Although this might look a little complicated
at rst, our eigenvalues relate well to other graph invariants for general graphs in
a way that other denitions (such as the eigenvalues of adjacency matrices) often
fail to do. The advantages of this denition are perhaps due to the fact that it is
consistent with the eigenvalues in spectral geometry and in stochastic processes.
Many results which were only known for regular graphs can be generalized to all
graphs. Consequently, this provides a coherent treatment for a general graph. For
denitions and standard graph-theoretic terminology, the reader is referred to [31].
In a graph G, let dv denote the degree of the vertex v. We rst dene the
Laplacian for graphs without loops and multiple edges (the general weighted case
with loops will be treated in Section 1.4). To begin, we consider the matrix L,
dened as follows:

if u = v,
dv
1 if u and v are adjacent,
L(u, v) =

0
otherwise.
Let T denote the diagonal matrix with the (v, v)-th entry having value dv . The
Laplacian of G is dened to be the matrix

1
if u = v and dv = 0,

1
if u and v are adjacent,

L(u, v) =

du dv

0
otherwise.
We can write
L = T 1/2 LT 1/2
with the convention T 1 (v, v) = 0 for dv = 0. We say v is an isolated vertex if
dv = 0. A graph is said to be nontrivial if it contains at least one edge.

1.2. THE LAPLACIAN AND EIGENVALUES

L can be viewed as an operator on the space of functions g : V (G) R which

satises


1  g(u) g(v)

Lg(u) =
du v
du
dv
uv

When G is k-regular, it is easy to see that

1
A,
k
where A is the adjacency matrix of G,( i. e., A(x, y) = 1 if x is adjacent to y, and
0 otherwise,) and I is an identity matrix. All matrices here are n n where n is
the number of vertices in G.
L=I

For a general graph, we have

L =
=

T 1/2 LT 1/2
I T 1/2 AT 1/2 .

We note that L can be written as

L = S S,
where S is the matrix whose rows are indexed by the vertices and whose columns
are indexed by the edges
of G such that each column corresponding to an
edge
e = {u, v} has an entry 1/ du in the row corresponding to u, an entry 1/ dv in
the row corresponding to v, and has zero entries elsewhere. (As it turns out, the
choice of signs can be arbitrary as long as one is positive and the other is negative.)
Also, S denotes the transpose of S.
For readers who are familiar with terminology in homology theory, we remark
that S can be viewed as a boundary operator mapping 1-chains dened on
edges (denoted by C1 ) of a graph to 0-chains dened on vertices (denoted by
C0 ). Then, S is the corresponding coboundary operator and we have
S

C
C1
0

S
Since L is symmetric, its eigenvalues are all real and non-negative. We can
use the variational characterizations of those eigenvalues in terms of the Rayleigh
quotient of L (see, e.g. [162]). Let g denote an arbitrary function which assigns to
each vertex v of G a real value g(v). We can view g as a column vector. Then

g, Lg

g, g

=
=

(1.1)

g, T 1/2 LT 1/2 g

g, g

f, Lf 

T 1/2 f, T 1/2 f 

(f (u) f (v))2
uv


v

f (v)2 dv

1. EIGENVALUES AND THE LAPLACIAN OF A GRAPH

where g = T 1/2 f and

denotes the sum over all unordered pairs {u, v} for which

u and v are adjacent. Here
f, g =
f (x)g(x) denotes the standard inner product
x

(f (u) f (v))2 is sometimes called the Dirichlet sum of G and
in Rn . The sum
uv

uv

the ratio on the left-hand side of (1.1) is often called

 the Rayleigh quotient. (We
note that we can also use the inner product
f, g =
f (x)g(x) for complex-valued
functions.)
From equation (1.1), we see that all eigenvalues are non-negative. In fact, we
can easily deduce from equation (1.1) that 0 is an eigenvalue of L. We denote the
eigenvalues of L by 0 = 0 1 n1 . The set of the i s is usually called
the spectrum of L (or the spectrum of the associated graph G.) Let 1 denote the
constant function which assumes the value 1 on each vertex. Then T 1/2 1 is an
eigenfunction of L with eigenvalue 0. Furthermore,

(1.2)

G = 1

inf

(f (u) f (v))2

uv

f T 1

f (v)2 dv

The corresponding eigenfunction is g = T 1/2 f as in (1.1). It is sometimes convenient

to consider the nontrivial function f achieving (1.2), in which case we call f a
harmonic eigenfunction of L.
The above formulation for G corresponds in a natural way to the eigenvalues
of the Laplace-Beltrami operator for Riemannian manifolds:

M

inf  M

|f |2
2

|f |
M

where f ranges over functions satisfying


f = 0.
M

We remark that the corresponding measure here for each edge is 1 although in the
general case for weighted graphs the measure for an edge is associated with the edge
weight (see Section 1.4.) The measure for each vertex is the degree of the vertex.
A more general notion of vertex weights will be considered in Section 2.5.

1.2. THE LAPLACIAN AND EIGENVALUES

We note that (1.2) has several dierent formulations:


(f (u) f (v))2

= inf sup uv

(1.3)

(f (u) f (v))2


= inf uv

(1.4)

(f (v) t)2 dv

(f (v) f)2 dv

where


f =

f (v)dv

,
vol G
and vol G denotes the volume of the graph G, given by

vol G =
dv .
v

By substituting for f and using the fact that N

N


(ai a)2 =
(ai aj )2
i=1

for a =

N


i<j

ai /N , we have the following expression (which generalizes the one in

i=1

[126]):

(1.5)

where

= vol G inf uv

,
f
(f (u) f (v))2 du dv

1


(f (u) f (v))2

u,v

denotes the sum over all unordered pairs of vertices u, v in G. We can

u,v

characterize the other eigenvalues of L in terms of the Rayleigh quotient. The

largest eigenvalue satises:

(f (u) f (v))2
n1

(1.6)

= sup uv
f

f 2 (v)dv

For a general k, we have

(1.7)


=

inf
f

(f (u) f (v))2

uv
sup 
(f (v) g(v))2 dv

gPk1


(1.8)

inf

f T Pk1

(f (u) f (v))2

uv


v

f (v)2 dv

1. EIGENVALUES AND THE LAPLACIAN OF A GRAPH

where Pi is the subspace generated by the harmonic eigenfunctions corresponding

to i , for i k 1.
The dierent formulations for eigenvalues given above are useful in dierent
settings and they will be used in later chapters. Here are some examples of special
graphs and their eigenvalues.
Example 1.1. For the complete graph Kn on n vertices, the eigenvalues are
0 and n/(n 1) (with multiplicity n 1).
Example 1.2. For the complete bipartite graph Km,n on m + n vertices, the
eigenvalues are 0, 1 (with multiplicity m + n 2), and 2.
Example 1.3. For the star Sn on n vertices, the eigenvalues are 0, 1 (with
multiplicity n 2), and 2.
k
Example 1.4. For the path Pn on n vertices, the eigenvalues are 1 cos n1
for k = 0, 1, , n 1.

Example 1.5. For the cycle Cn on n vertices, the eigenvalues are 1 cos 2k
n
for k = 0, , n 1.
n
Example
n
1.6. For the n-cube Qn on 2 vertices, the eigenvalues are
multiplicity k ) for k = 0, , n.

2k
n

(with

More examples can be found in Chapter 6 on explicit constructions.

1.3. Basic facts about the spectrum of a graph
Roughly speaking, half of the main problems of spectral theory lie in deriving
bounds on the distributions of eigenvalues. The other half concern the impact and
consequences of the eigenvalue bounds as well as their applications. In this section,
we start with a few basic facts about eigenvalues. Some simple upper bounds and
lower bounds are stated. For example, we will see that the eigenvalues of any graph
lie between 0 and 2. The problem of narrowing the range of the eigenvalues for
special classes of graphs oers an open-ended challenge. Numerous questions can
be asked either in terms of other graph invariants or under further assumptions
imposed on the graphs. Some of these will be discussed in subsequent chapters.
Lemma 1.7. For a graph G on n vertices, we have
(i):

i n

with equality holding if and only if G has no isolated vertices.

(ii): For n 2,

n
n1
with equality holding if and only if G is the complete graph on n vertices.
Also, for a graph G without isolated vertices, we have
n
.
n1
n1
1

1.3. BASIC FACTS ABOUT THE SPECTRUM OF A GRAPH

(iii): For a graph which is not a complete graph, we have 1 1.

(iv): If G is connected, then 1 > 0. If i = 0 and i+1 = 0 , then G has
exactly i + 1 connected components.
(v): For all i n 1, we have
i 2.
with n1 = 2 if and only if a connected component of G is bipartite and
nontrivial.
(vi): The spectrum of a graph is the union of the spectra of its connected components.
Proof. (i) follows from considering the trace of L.
The inequalities in (ii) follow from (i) and 0 = 0.
Suppose G contains two nonadjacent vertices a and b, and consider

db if v = a,
da if v = b,
f1 (v) =

0 if v = a, b.
(iii) then follows from (1.2).
If G is connected, the eigenvalue 0 has multiplicity 1 since any harmonic eigenfunction with eigenvalue 0 assumes the same value at each vertex. Thus, (iv) follows
from the fact that the union of two disjoint graphs has as its spectrum the union
of the spectra of the original graphs.
(v) follows from equation (1.6) and the fact that
(f (x) f (y))2 2(f 2 (x) + f 2 (y)).
Therefore


i sup

(f (x) f (y))2

xy

f 2 (x)dx

2.

Equality holds for i = n 1 when f (x) = f (y) for every edge {x, y} in G.
Therefore, since f = 0, G has a bipartite connected component. On the other hand,
if G has a connected component which is bipartite, we can choose the function f
so as to make n1 = 2.
(vi) follows from the denition.
For bipartite graphs, the following slightly stronger result holds:
Lemma 1.8. The following statements are equivalent:
(i): G is bipartite.
(ii): G has i + 1 connected components and nj = 2 for 1 j i.
(iii): For each i , the value 2 i is also an eigenvalue of G.

1. EIGENVALUES AND THE LAPLACIAN OF A GRAPH

Proof. It suces to consider a connected graph. Suppose G is bipartite graph

with vertex set consisting of two parts A and B. For any harmonic eigenfunction
f with eigenvalue , we consider the function g

f (x) if x A,
g(x) =
f (x) if x B.
It is easy to check that g is a harmonic eigenfunction with eigenvalue 2 .

For a connected graph, we can immediately improve the lower bound of 1 in

Lemma 1.7. For two vertices u and v, the distance between u and v is the number of
edges in a shortest path joining u and v. The diameter of a graph is the maximum
distance between any two vertices of G. Here we will give a simple eigenvalue lower
bound in terms of the diameter of a graph. More discussion on the relationship
between eigenvalues and diameter will be given in Chapter 3.
Lemma 1.9. For a connected graph G with diameter D, we have
1

1
D vol G

Proof. Suppose f is a harmonic eigenfunction

 achieving 1 in (1.2). Let v0
denote a vertex with |f (v0 )| = max |f (v)|. Since
f (v) = 0, there exists a vertex
v

u0 satisfying f (u0 )f (v0 ) < 0. Let P denote a shortest path in G joining u0 and v0 .
Then by (1.2) we have

1

(f (x) f (y))

xy

f 2 (x)dx

(f (x) f (y))

{x,y}P

vol G f 2 (v0 )
1
D

(f (v0 ) f (u0 ))
vol G f 2 (v0 )
1
D vol G

by using the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality.

Lemma 1.10. Let f denote a harmonic eigenfunction achieving G in (1.2).
Then, for any vertex x V , we have
1 
(f (x) f (y)) = G f (x).
dx y
yx

1.3. BASIC FACTS ABOUT THE SPECTRUM OF A GRAPH

Proof. We use a variational argument. For a xed x0 V , we consider f

such that

if y = x0 ,
f (x0 ) +
dx0
f (y) =
%

otherwise.
f (y)
vol G dx0
We have


(f (x) f (y))2

x,yV
xy

f2 (x)dx

xV

 2%(f (x0 ) f (y))

  2%(f (y) f (y ))

dx0
vol G dx0

y
y

(f (x) f (y))2 +

x,yV
xy

y=x0

yx0

f 2 (x)dx + 2%f (x0 )

y
yy 


2%
f (y)dy
vol G dx0
y=x0

xV
2

+O(% )
2%

=

(f (x0 ) f (y))

y
yx0

(f (x) f (y))2 +

x,yV
xy

2%
+

dx0

f 2 (x)dx + 2%f (x0 ) +

xV

(f (x0 ) f (y))

y
yx0

vol G dx0

2%f (x0 )dx0

vol G dx0

+O(% )
since

f (x)dx = 0, and


y

xV

(f (y) f (y )) = 0. The denition in (1.2)

y

implies that


(f (x) f (y))2

x,yV
xy

f2 (x)dx

xV

(f (x) f (y))2

x,yV
xy

f 2 (x)dx

xV

If we consider what happens to the Rayleigh quotient for f as % 0 from above,

or from below, we can conclude that
1 
(f (x0 ) f (y)) = G f (x0 ).
dx0 y
yx0

and the Lemma is proved.

10

1. EIGENVALUES AND THE LAPLACIAN OF A GRAPH

One can also prove the statement in Lemma 1.10 by recalling that f = T 1/2 g,
where Lg = G g. Then
T 1 Lf = T 1 (T 1/2 LT 1/2 )(T 1/2 g) = T 1/2 G g = G f,
and examining the entries gives the desired result.
With a little linear algebra, we can improve the bounds on eigenvalues in terms
of the degrees of the vertices.
We consider the trace of (I L)2 . We have

T r(I L)2 =
(1 i )2
i

2,
1 + (n 1)

(1.9)
where

= max |1 i |.

i=0

On the other hand,

(1.10)

T r(I L)2

=
=
=

T r(T 1/2 AT 1 AT 1/2 )

 1
1
1
A(x, y) A(y, x)
d
d
dx
y
x
x,y
 1
 1
1

( )2 ,
dx xy dx
dy
x

where A is the adjacency matrix. From this, we immediately deduce

Lemma 1.11. For a k-regular graph G on n vertices, we have

nk
(1.11)
max |1 i |
i=0
(n 1)k
This follows from the fact that
max |1 i |2
i=0

1
(tr(I L)2 1).
n1

Let dH denote the harmonic mean of the dv s, i.e.,

1 1
1
=
.
dH
n v dv
It is tempting to consider generalizing (1.11) with k replaced by dH . This, however,
is not true as shown by the following example due to Elizabeth Wilmer.
Example 1.12. Consider the m-petal graph on n = 2m+1 vertices, v0 , v1 , ,
v2m with edges {v0 , vi } and {v2i1 , v2i }, for i 1. This graph has eigenvalues
0, 1/2 (with multiplicity m 1), and 3/2 (with multiplicity m + 1). So we have
maxi=0 |1 i | = 1/2. However,


1
n dH
m 1/2

=
(n 1)dH
2m
2
as m .

1.4. EIGENVALUES OF WEIGHTED GRAPHS

11

Still, for a general graph, we can use the fact that

 1
1
( )2
d
d
y
xy x

(1.12)
n1 1 + .
 1
1 2
(
) dx
dx
dH
xV

Combining (1.9), (1.10) and (1.12), we obtain the following:

= maxi=0 |1 i | satisfies
Lemma 1.13. For a graph G on n vertices,
2 n (1 (1 + )(
k 1)),
1 + (n 1)
dH
dH
where k denotes the average degree of G.
There are relatively easy ways to improve the upper bound for 1 . From the
characterization in the preceding section, we can choose any function f : V (G) R,
and its Rayleigh quotient will serve as an upper bound for 1 . Here we describe an
upper bound for 1 (see [204]).
Lemma 1.14. Let G be a graph with diameter D 4, and let k denote the
maximum degree of G. Then



k1
2
2
1 1 2
1
+ .
k
D
D
One way to bound eigenvalues from above is to consider contracting the
graph G into a weighted graph H (which will be dened in the next section). Then
the eigenvalues of G can be upper-bounded by the eigenvalues of H or by various
upper bounds on them, which might be easier to obtain. We remark that the proof
of Lemma 1.14 proceeds by basically contracting the graph into a weighted path.
We will prove Lemma 1.14 in the next section.
We note that Lemma 1.14 gives a proof (see [5]) that for any xed k and for
any innite family of regular graphs with degree k,

k1
lim sup 1 1 2
.
k
This bound is the best possible since it is sharp for the Ramanujan graphs (which
will be
discussed in Chapter ??). We note that the cleaner version of 1
1 2 k 1/k is not true for certain graphs (e.g., 4-cycles or complete bipartite graphs). This example also illustrates that the assumption in Lemma 1.14
concerning D 4 is essential.
1.4. Eigenvalues of weighted graphs
Before dening weighted graphs, we will say a few words about two dierent
approaches for giving denitions. We could have started from the very beginning
with weighted graphs, from which simple graphs arise as a special case in which
the weights are 0 or 1. However, the unique characteristics and special strength of

12

1. EIGENVALUES AND THE LAPLACIAN OF A GRAPH

graph theory is its ability to deal with the {0, 1}-problems arising in many natural
situations. The clean formulation of a simple graph has conceptual advantages.
Furthermore, as we shall see, all denitions and subsequent theorems for simple
graphs can usually be easily carried out for weighted graphs. A weighted undirected
graph G (possibly with loops) has associated with it a weight function w : V V
R satisfying
w(u, v) = w(v, u)
and
w(u, v) 0.
We note that if {u, v}  E(G) , then w(u, v) = 0. Unweighted graphs are just the
special case where all the weights are 0 or 1.
In the present context, the degree dv of a vertex v is dened to be:
dv =

w(u, v),

vol G =

dv .

We generalize the denitions of previous sections, so that

dv w(v, v)
w(u, v)
L(u, v) =

if u = v,
if u and v are adjacent,
otherwise.

In particular, for a function f : V R, we have

Lf (x) =

(f (x) f (y))w(x, y).

y
xy

Let T denote the diagonal matrix with the (v, v)-th entry having value dv . The
Laplacian of G is dened to be
L = T 1/2 LT 1/2 .
In other words, we have

w(v, v)

dv
w(u, v)
L(u, v) =


du dv

if u = v, and dv = 0,
if u and v are adjacent,
otherwise.

1.4. EIGENVALUES OF WEIGHTED GRAPHS

13

We can still use the same characterizations for the eigenvalues of the generalized
versions of L. For example,
(1.13)

G := 1

inf

gT 1/2 1

g, Lg

g, g

f (x)Lf (x)
xV

inf

f
!
f (x)dx =0

inf

f 2 (x)dx

xV

(f (x) f (y))2 w(x, y)

xy

f
!
f (x)dx =0

f 2 (x)dx

xV

A contraction of a graph G is formed by identifying two distinct vertices, say

u and v, into a single vertex v . The weights of edges incident to v are dened as
follows:
w(x, v ) =

w(v , v ) =

w(x, u) + w(x, v),

w(u, u) + w(v, v) + 2w(u, v).

Lemma 1.15. If H is formed by contractions from a graph G, then

G H
The proof follows from the fact that an eigenfunction which achieves H for H
can be lifted to a function dened on V (G) such that all vertices in G that contract
to the same vertex in H share the same value.
Now we return to Lemma 1.14.
SKETCHED PROOF OF LEMMA 1.14:
Let u and v denote two vertices that are at distance D 2t + 2 in G. We contract
G into a path H with 2t + 2 edges, with vertices x0 , x1 , . . . xt , z, yt , . . . , y2 , y1 , y0
such that vertices at distance i from u, 0 i t, are contracted to xi , and vertices
at distance j from v, 0 j t, are contracted to yj . The remaining vertices
are contracted to z. To establish an upper bound for 1 , it is enough to choose a
suitable function f , dened as follows:
f (xi ) =

a(k 1)i/2 ,

f (yj ) =

b(k 1)j/2 ,

f (z) =

0,

where the constants a and b are chosen so that


f (x)dx = 0.
x

14

1. EIGENVALUES AND THE LAPLACIAN OF A GRAPH

It can be checked that the Rayleigh quotient satises


(f (u) f (v))2 w(u, v)



2 k1
1
1
uv

,
1
1
+
2
k
t+1
t+1
f (v) dv
v

since the ratio is maximized when w(xi , xi+1 ) = k(k 1)i1 = w(yi , yi+1 ). This
completes the proof of the lemma.
1.5. Eigenvalues and random walks
In a graph G, a walk is just a sequence of vertices (v0 , v1 , , vs ) with
{vi1 , vi } E(G) for all 1 i s. A random walk is determined by the transition
probabilities P (u, v) = P rob(xi+1 = v|xi = u), which are independent of i. Clearly,
for each vertex u,

P (u, v) = 1.
v

For any initial distribution f : V R with

f (v) = 1, the distribution after k

steps is just f P k (i.e., a matrix multiplication with f viewed as a row vector where
P is the matrix of transition probabilities). The random walk is said to be ergodic
if there is a unique stationary distribution (v) satisfying
lim f P s (v) = (v).

It is easy to see that necessary conditions for the ergodicity of P are (i) irreducibility, i.e., for any u, v V , there exists some s such that P s (u, v) > 0 (ii)
aperiodicity, i.e., g.c.d. {s : P s (u, v) > 0} = 1. As it turns out, these are also
sucient conditions. A major problem of interest is to determine the number of
steps s required for P s to be close to its stationary distribution, given an arbitrary
initial distribution.
We say a random walk is reversible if
(u)P (u, v) = (v)P (v, u).
An alternative description for a reversible random walk can be given by considering
a weighted connected graph with edge weights satisfying
w(u, v) = w(v, u) = (v)P (v, u)/c
where c can be any constant chosen for the purpose of simplifying the values.
(For example, we can take c to be the average of (v)P (v, u) over all (v, u) with
P (v, u) = 0, so that the values for w(v, u) are either 0 or 1 for a simple graph.)
The random walk on a weighted graph has as its transition probabilities
P (u, v) =

w(u, v)
,
du


where du =
z w(u, z) is the (weighted) degree of u. The two conditions for
ergodicity are equivalent to the conditions that the graph be (i) connected and
(ii) non-bipartite. From Lemma 1.7, we see that (i) is equivalent to 1 > 0 and

1.5. EIGENVALUES AND RANDOM WALKS

15

(ii) implies n1 < 2. As we will see later in (1.15), together (i) and (ii) deduce
ergodicity.
We remind the reader that an unweighted graph has w(u, v) equal to either 0
or 1. The usual random walk on an unweighted graph has transition probability
1/dv of moving from a vertex v to any one of its neighbors. The transition matrix
P then satises

1/du if u and v are adjacent,
P (u, v) =
0
otherwise.
In other words,
f P (v) =

 1
f (u)
u du

uv

for any f : V (G) R.

It is easy to check that
P = T 1 A = T 1/2 (I L)T 1/2 ,
where A is the adjacency matrix.
In a random walk with an associated weighted connected graph G, the transition matrix P satises
1T P = 1T
where 1 is the vector with all coordinates 1. Therefore the stationary distribution
is exactly = 1T /vol G, We want to show that when k is large enough, for any
initial distribution f : V R, f P k converges to the stationary distribution.
First we consider convergence in the L2 (or Euclidean) norm. Suppose we write

ai i ,
f T 1/2 =
i

where i denotes the orthonormal eigenfunction associated with i .

Recall that 0 = 1T 1/2 / vol G and   denotes the L2 -norm, so

f T 1/2 , 1T 1/2 
1
=
1T 1/2 
vol G
since
f, 1 = 1. We then have
a0 =

f P s 

= f P s 1T /vol G
= f P s a0 0 T 1/2 
= f T 1/2 (I L)s T 1/2 a0 0 T 1/2 

(1 i )s ai i T 1/2 
= 
i=0

dx

(1 )
miny dy

 maxx
d
 x
es
miny dy
s maxx

(1.14)

16

1. EIGENVALUES AND THE LAPLACIAN OF A GRAPH

where

1
if 1 1 n1 1
2 n1 otherwise.


So, after s 1/ log(maxx dx /% miny dy ) steps, the L2 distance between f P s

and its stationary distribution is at most %.

Although occurs in the above upper bound for the distance between the
stationary distribution and the s-step distribution, in fact, only 1 is crucial in the
following sense. Note that is either 1 or 2 n1 . Suppose the latter holds,
i.e., n1 1 1 1 . We can consider a modied random walk, called the lazy
walk, on the graph G formed by adding a loop of weight dv to each vertex v. The
k = k /2 1, which follows from equation
new graph has Laplacian eigenvalues
(1.13). Therefore,
1 1
n1 0,
1
and the convergence bound in L2 distance in (1.14) for the modied random walk
becomes

2/1 log(

maxx dx
 ).
% miny dy

In general, suppose a weighted graph with edge weights w(u, v) has eigenvalues
i with n1 1 1 1 . We can then modify the weights by choosing, for some
constant c,

w(v, v) + cdv if u = v

(1.15)
w (u, v) =
w(u, v)
otherwise.
The resulting weighted graph has eigenvalues
k =

2k
k
=
1+c
n1 + k

where
c=

1 + n1
1
1 .
2
2

Then we have
1 1 = n1 1 =

n1 1
.
n1 + 1

Since c 1/2 and we have k 2k /(2 + k ) 2k /3 for k 1. In particular we

set
21
2
= 1 =
1 .
n1 + 1
3
Therefore the modied random walk corresponding to the weight function w has
an improved bound for the convergence rate in L2 distance:

maxx dx
1
 .
log

% miny dy

1.5. EIGENVALUES AND RANDOM WALKS

17

We remark that for many applications in sampling, the convergence in L2

distance seems to be too weak since it does not require convergence at each vertex.
There are several stronger notions of distance several of which we will mention.
A strong notion of convergence that is often used is measured by the relative
pointwise distance (see [224]): After s steps, the relative pointwise distance (r.p.d.)
of P to the stationary distribution (x) is given by
(s) = max
x,y

|P s (y, x) (x)|
.
(x)

Let x denote the characteristic function of x dened by:


1 if y = x,
x (y) =
0 otherwise.
Suppose
x T 1/2 =

i i ,

y T 1/2 =

i i .

where i s denote the eigenfunction of the Laplacian L of the weighted graph associated with the random walk. In particular,
dx
,
0 =
vol G
1
.
0 =
vol G
Let A denote the transpose of A. We have
(t)

= max
x,y

= max
x,y

max

|y P t x (x)|
(x)
|y T 1/2 (I L)t T 1/2 x (x)|
(x)

|(1 i )t i i |
i=0

x,y

t max

x,y

dx /vol G

|i i |
i=0

dx /vol G

t max x T
=
x,y

1/2

 y T 1/2 
dx /vol G

vol G

minx,y dx dy
vol G
et(1)
minx dx
t

18

1. EIGENVALUES AND THE LAPLACIAN OF A GRAPH

= maxi=0 |1 i |. So if we choose t such that

where
t

vol G
1
log % minx dx ,
1

then, after t steps, we have (t) %.

we can improve the above bound by using a lazy walk as
When 1 1 = ,
described in (1.15). The proof is almost identical to the above calculation except
for using the Laplacian of the modied weighted graph associated with the lazy
walk. This can be summarized by the following theorem:
Theorem 1.16. For a weighted graph G, we can choose a modified random
walk P so that the relative pairwise distance (t) is bounded above by:
(t) et

vol G
vol G
exp2t1 /(2+1 )
.
minx dx
minx dx

where = 1 if 2 n1 + 1 and = 21 /(n1 + 1 ) otherwise.

Corollary 1.17. For a weighted graph G, we can choose a modified random
walk P so that we have
(t) ec
if
t

vol G
1
log

minx dx

where = 1 if 2 n1 + 1 and = 21 /(n1 + 1 ) otherwise.

We remark that for any initial distribution f : V R with
f, 1 = 1 and
f (x) 0, we have, for any x,
|f P s (x) (x)|
(x)

f (y)

| P s (y, x) (x) |
(x)

f (y)(s)

(s).

Another notion of distance for measuring convergence is the so-called total

variation distance, which is just half of the L1 distance:
T V (s)

=
=

max

max |

AV (G) yV (G)


1
max
2 yV (G)

xV (G)

(P s (y, x) (x)) |

xA

| P s (y, x) (x) | .

1.5. EIGENVALUES AND RANDOM WALKS

19

The total variation distance is bounded above by the relative pointwise distance,
since

max
max |
(P s (y, x) (x)) |
T V (s) =
AV (G) yV (G)
volA volG
2

max

AV (G)
xA
volA volG
2

xA

(x)(s)

1
(s).
2

Therefore, any convergence bound using relative pointwise distance implies the
same convergence bound using total variation distance. There is yet another notion
of distance, sometimes called -squared distance, denoted by (s) and dened by:

(s) =

max

yV (G)

xV (G)

max

yV (G)

1/2

(P (y, x) (x))
(x)
s

| P s (y, x) (x) |

xV (G)

2T V (s),

using the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality. (s) is also dominated by the relative pointwise distance (which we will mainly use in this book).

1/2
 (P s (x, y) (y))2

max
xV (G)
(y)
yV (G)

1
max (
((s))2 (y)) 2

(s).

(s) =

xV (G)

yV (G)

We note that
(s)2


x

(x)

 (P s (x, y) (y))2
(y)
y

x T 1/2 (P s I0 )T 1 (P s I0 )T 1/2 x

x ((I L)2s I0 )x ,

where I0 denotes the projection onto the eigenfunction 0 , i denotes the i-th
orthonormal eigenfunction of L and x denotes the characteristic function of x.
Since

x =
i (x)i ,
i

20

1. EIGENVALUES AND THE LAPLACIAN OF A GRAPH

we have
(1.16)

(s)2

x ((I L)2s I0 )x



(
i (x)i )((I L)2s I0 )(
i (x)i )
x

2i (x)(1

2s

i )

i=0


i=0



2i (x)(1 i )2s

(1 i )2s .

i=0

Equality in (1.16) holds if, for example, G is vertex-transitive, i.e., there is an

automorphism mapping u to v for any two vertices in G, (for more discussions, see
Chapter 7 on symmetrical graphs). Therefore, we conclude
Theorem 1.18. Suppose G is a vertex transitive graph. Then a random walk
after s steps converges to the uniform distribution under total variation distance or
-squared distance in a number of steps bounded by the sum of (1 i )2s , where i
ranges over the non-trivial eigenvalues of the Laplacian:
1
1 
T V (s) (s) = ( (1 i )2s )1/2 .
(1.17)
2
2
i=0

The above theorem is often derived from the Plancherel formula. Here we have
employed a direct proof. We remark that for some graphs which are not vertextransitive, a somewhat weaker version of (1.17) can still be used with additional
work (see [81] and the remarks in Section 4.6). Here we will use Theorem 1.18 to
consider random walks on an n-cube.
Example 1.19. For the n-cube Qn , our (lazy) random walk (as dened in
(1.15)) converges to the uniform distribution under the total variation distance, as
estimated as follows:
From Example (1.6), the eigenvalues of the Qn are 2k/n of

multiplicity nk for k = 0, , n. The adjusted eigenvalues for the weighted graph

corresponding to the lazy walk are k = 2k /(n1 + 1 ) = k n/(n + 1). By using
Theorem 1.18 (also see [104]), we have
n  
1
1  n
2k 2s 1/2
(
) )
T V (s) (s)
(1
k
2
2
n+1

k=1
n


1
(
2
e

4ks

ek log n n+1 )1/2

k=1
c

if s 14 n log n + cn.
We can also compute the rate of convergence of the lazy walk under the relative pointwise distance. Suppose we denote vertices of Qn by subsets of an n-set

1.5. EIGENVALUES AND RANDOM WALKS

21

{1, 2, , n}. The orthonormal eigenfunctions are S for S {1, 2, , n} where

(1)|SX|
2n/2
for any X {1, 2, , n}. For a vertex indexed by the subset S, the characteristic
function is denoted by

1 if X = S,
S (X) =
0 otherwise.
S (X) =

Clearly,
X =

 (1)|SX|
2n/2

S .

Therefore,
|P s (X, Y ) (Y )|
(Y )

= |2n X P s Y 1|

1|
|2n X P s X

2|S| s
=
)
(1
n+1
S=
n  

n
2k s
)
=
(1
k
n+1
k=1

This implies
(s)

n  

n
2k s
)
(1
k
n+1

k=1
n


2ks

ek log n n+1

k=1
c

e
if
s

n log n
+ cn.
2

So, the rate of convergence under relative pointwise distance is about twice
that under the total variation distance for Qn .
In general, T V (s), (s) and (s) can be quite dierent [81]. Nevertheless, a
convergence lower bound for any of these notions of distance (and the L2 -norm) is
1 . This we will leave as an exercise. We remark that Aldous [4] has shown that
if T V (s) %, then P s (y, x) c (x) for all vertices x, where c depends only on
%.
Notes
For an induced subgraph of a graph, we can dene the Laplacian with boundary
conditions. We will leave the denitions for eigenvalues with Neumann boundary
conditions and Dirichlet boundary conditions for Chapter ??.

22

1. EIGENVALUES AND THE LAPLACIAN OF A GRAPH

The Laplacian for a directed graph is also very interesting. The Laplacian for
a hypergraph has very rich structures. However, in this book we mainly focus on
the Laplacian of a graph since the theory on these generalizations and extensions
is still being developed.
vol G
In some cases, the factor log min
in the upper bound for (t) can be further
x dx
reduced. Recently, P. Diaconis and L. Salo-Coste [100] introduced a discrete version of the logarithmic Sobolev inequalities which can reduce this factor further for
certain graphs (for (t)). In Chapter 12, we will discuss some advanced techniques
for further bounding the convergence rate under the relative pointwise distance.