() :

Classical Electrodynamics (I)

Department of Physics, National Taiwan University
Kwo Ray Chu, Rm. 710, 3366-5113, krchu@yahoo.com.tw
Fall Semester, 2016

1.Textbook and Contents of the Course:

Textbook: J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd
edition. Other books will be referenced in the lecture notes
when needed.
In this course [Classical Electrodynamics , we will cover
the first 7 chapters of the textbook, which elegantly lay down
the foundation of electrodynamics with a systematic exposition
of some key topics in applied mathematics.
Next semester, in Classical Electrodynamics we will
cover selected topics of deep physical insight as well as current
interest. Selected topics (including microwaves, radiating
systems, scattering, diffraction, special theory of relativity, and
synchrotron radiation will help students consolidate the
fundamental principles in Classical Electrodynamics .
2

2. Conduct of Class : Lecture notes will be projected sequentially on

the screen during the class. Physical concepts will be emphasized,
while algebraic details (provided in the lecture notes) will often be
skipped. Questions are encouraged. It is assumed that students
have at least gone through the algebra in the lecture notes before
attending classes (important!).
3. Homework: Approximately 3 problems per chapter will be
assigned for homework. Students are encouraged to do as many
unassigned problems as time allows. Find the problems that appeal
to you. Always do them by yourself. If unsure or unsuccessful,
solutions can be found by, for example, a Google search under
Jackson electrodynamics problem solutions.
4. Teaching Assistants:
d97222018@ntu.edu.tw, 0919-929-514
r04222006@ntu.edu.tw, 0978-030-503
3

5. Grading Policy: Midterm (~46%); Final (~46); Attendance

(~6%); Homework (~2%). The overall score will be normalized
to reflect an average consistent with other courses.
6. Lecture Notes:
Starting from basic equations, the lecture notes follow Jackson
closely with algebraic details filled in.
Equations numbered in the format of (1.1), (1.2) refer to
Jackson. Supplementary equations derived in lecture notes, which
will later be referenced, are numbered (1), (2)... [restarting from (1)
in each chapter.] Equations in Appendices A, Bof each chapter
are numbered (A.1), (A.2)and (B.1), (B.2)
Page numbers cited in the text (e.g. p. 120) refer to Jackson.
Section numbers (e.g. Sec. 1.1) refer to Jackson. Main topics
within each section are highlighted by boldfaced characters. Some
words are typed in italicized characters for attention. Technical
terms which are introduced for the first time are underlined.

Chapter 1: Introduction to Electrostatics

1.1 Coulombs Law
Coulomb's law, discovered experimentally in 1785, is a fundamental
law governing all electrostatic phenomena. It states :
1. The force F between two point charges q and q1 obeys q
er
r
1
q
F q, q1, and 2 .
1
F
r

qq1
F is along r (central force).
e

r
4 0 r 2
F is attractive if q and q1 have opposite signs.
F is repulsive if q and q1 have the same sign.
2. If there are multiple charges present, the total force on q is the
vector sum of the two-body Coulomb forces between q and each of its
surrounding charges. The exponent "2" in r 2 has later been determined
to be accurate up to at least 16 decimal points (see p. 7).
Questions: (1) What is the principle of linear superposition?
(2) What force holds our body from falling apart?
5

1.2 Electric Field

The electric field at point x due to one or more charges is defined
as
E(x) lim F
(1.1)
,
q 0 q
where q is a test charge and F is the total Coulomb force on q. We let
q be infinistesimal so that it will not affect the charge(s) producing E.
q
q xx1
E(x) due to a point charge q1 at x1: E(x) 41 12 er 41
0 r
0 |xx1|3
re r = x x1 ( x x1 )e x ( y y1 )e y ( z z1 )e z
r | x x1 | ( x x1 ) 2 ( y y1 )2 ( z z1 ) 2

er

r
q1

x1

Question: Why write "rer" as "x x1"?

0
For a continuous distribution of charges, let (x) be the volume
S
v
density (charge per unit volume). Then, by the
E( x )

(
)
principle of linear superposition, E(x) due to
x
x x x x
(x)(xx) 3
1
(x) is
E(x) 4
d x
(1.5)

0
|xx|3
0 v
6

1.2 Electric Field (continued)

(x)(xx) 3
1
Questions: (1) E( x) 4
d x at x x. Why ?

3
v

|
x
x
|
0

q1 xx1
as x x1. Is this physical?
(2) E(x) 4
0 |xx1|3
Answer: All charged particles have a finite size (even the electron
has a non-zero, but unknown, size). Hence, they do not produce an
infinite electric field. The particle size is so small that we are always
far away (relative to particle size) from the particle in electrodynamics
problems. Thus, the particle can be treated as a point charge.
(3) Does a point charge experience a force in its own electric field?
Answer: Imagine the charge is distributed in a particle of radius R.
The Coulomb forces within the particle are internal forces, with a zero
vector sum by Newton's third law. This is true even as R 0. Thus, a
point charge experiences no net force in its own electrostatic field.
(4) Any theory on what holds the electron together? (out of the scope
of this course. See Feynman Lectures II, Sec. 28-4 if you are interested.)

1.3 Gausss Law

Consider a point charge q and a closed surface S and adopt the
following notations:
n
S
q
da : infinitesimal surface area on S
e
E
n : unit vector normal to da
40r2 r

da
d
and pointing outward

e r : unit vector along r

q
r rer
: The angle between n and E
q
q
q

E n da
e
n
cos
=

da
da
d
r

4 0
4 0r 2
4 0r 2 2
r d

Note: d carries the sign of cos .

q inside S ,
d 0, if cos 0
d 0, if cos 0 d 4
q

n q outside S ,
d 0 n
q
S

n
S

q , q inside S Gauss's law for

s E n da 4 d 0
a single charge (1.9)
0
0, q outside S
8
q

1.3 Gausss Law (continued)

By the principle of linear superposition, Gauss's law for a discrete

set of charges is s E n da 1 qi [all charges inside S ]
(1.10)
0 i
v
n
and Gauss's law for a distribution of charge is
3
s E n da 10 v (x)d x

( x)

(1.11)
S
Discussion: (1.11) is the integral form of Gauss's law. As will be
expression
shown in two examples below, it is a powerful mathematical
S
v
E(x)
derived from the Coulomb's law :
( x x)
x x x x
(x)( xx) 3
1
E(x) 4
d
x
(1.5)
|xx |3
0 v

0
Furthermore, as will be discussed at the end of Sec. 1.5, the Gauss's
law is also applicable to time-dependent cases, where the Coulomb's
law in the form of (1.5) (a static law) no longer applies.
A note on notation: (x) is used when x is the only variable [as in
(1.11)]. (x) is used to dintinguish 2 variables, x and x [as in (1.5)].
n

1.3 Gausss Law (continued)

Example 1: Electric field on the surface of a conductor - an

application of Gausss law
Surface area A
Conductor
E 0

E
Surface charge density

Consider an infinite plane conductor. Draw a pillbox of

infinitesimal thickness to enclose a surace of area A and assume
the surface charge density (charge per unit area) is uniform.
The electric field (E) on the surface of the conductor must be
normal to the surface and E 0 inside the conductor. Thus, by
3
Gauss's law,
s E n da 1 v (x)d x,
0

we obtain

EA A E
0

Questions: 1. What if the surface is curved or is non-uniform?

2. Why does E depend only on on the conducting
surface, but not on charges away from the surface?
3. Does E off the surface also depend only on ?

10

1.3 Gausss Law (continued)

Example 2: Shell theorems - another application of Gausss law

Halliday, Resnick, and Walker, Fundamentals of Physics:
The two shell theorems that we found so useful in our study of
gravitation hold equally well in electrostatics:
Theorem 1: A uniform spherical shell of charge behaves, for
external points, as if all its charge were concentrated at its center.
Theorem 2: A uniform spherical shell of charge exerts no force on a
charge particle placed inside the shell.
a

Proof :

Symmetry consideration E Er e r

Er er

Q , r a a: radius of shell
Gauss' law 4 r Er 0
r a Q: total charge on shell
0,
Q , r a (as if Q were at r 0)
Er 4 0r 2
r a (Q produces no E)
0,
11
2

1.4 Differential Form of Gausss Law

Using the divergence theorem:
n is a unit vector normal to the
surface element da and pointing
3
v Ad x s A nda, away from the volume v enclosed
by surface S .

S
we obtain from s E n da 1 v (x)d 3 x [(1.11)]
da
n
0
v
3
3
s E n da v Ed x 10 v (x)d x

v ( E )d 3 x 0
(1.12)

E
0

differential form of Gauss's law

(1.13)

If v f ( x)d 3 x 0 for an arbitrary volume v, then f ( x) 0

everywhere. This is the basis for obtaining (1.13) from (1.12).
Question: Does s A da 0 for an arbitrary closed surface S
imply A = 0 everywhere?

12

 | x x |n

1.5 Another Equation of Electrostatics

and the Scalar Potential

x [( x x) ( y y)
2

y [( x x) 2 ( y
z [( x x) 2 ( y

n
2 2
( z z ) ] e

x
n
y) 2 ( z z ) 2 ]2 e

n
y) 2 ( z z) 2 ]2 e

operates on x.
operates on x.
| x x ' |n | x x |n

z
n
1
2
2
2 2
n

2 [( x x ) ( y y ) ( z z ) ] 2( x x)e x
n
1
2
2
2
n2 [( x x) ( y y) ( z z) ]2 2( y y)e y
n
1
2
2
2
n2 [( x x) ( y y) ( z z) ]2 2( z z )e z
n2

n | x x |

(x x)

(1)
Examples : | x x | xx ; 1 xx3 ; 1 3 3 xx5
|xx|
|xx|
|xx|
|xx|
|xx|

13

1.5 Another Equation of Electrostatics and the Scalar Potential (continued)

1
E(x) 4

(x)(xx)

1
d 3 x 4

(x)
|xx | d 3 x

|xx|3
operates on x, hence can be
|x 1x| x x3
|x x|
moved out of the d 3 x-integral.
1 ( x) d 3 x (x),
4
|xx|
0
(x) 3
1
where (x) 4
d x
(1.17)
scalar potential

0 |xx|
Since E , we have E = 0
(1.14)
Note: E = 0 also E (Griffith, 3rd ed., Sec. 1.6.2)
Question: What is the reference point for (x) in (1.17)?
loop C
Stokes's theorem: c A d s ( A) n da
d
n
d : a line element on a closed loop C
S (open
da
S : arbitrary open surface bounded by loop C
surface
n: unit vector normal to surface element da in
bounded
the direction given by the right -hand rule
by loop C )
14

1.5 Another Equation of Electrostatics and the Scalar Potential (continued)

Work done by bringing charge q from

position A to position B along any path:
B

W A F d
q AB E d
q AB d
q AB d
q(B A )

Question: Is W the work done

by E or by an external force?

E
d
d

x e x y e y z e z ; d dxe x dye y dze z

d x dx y dy z dz d

d is an infinitesimal change of due to an

infinitesimal displacement d .

Thus, W depends only on the values of at A and B, and it is

independent of the charge's path from A to B. This justifies the
concept of potential energy, which implies that the total work done
on q in a round trip along any closed path C is 0: C E d 0 (1.21)
Stokes's thm. C E d S ( E) n da S ( E) n da 0.
Since S is an arbitrary surface, we have E 0, which is (1.14).

15

1.7 Poisson and Laplace Equations

E
0
Rewrite
E

(1.16)

Sub. (1.13) into (1.16), we obtain the Poisson equation

(1.28)

(1.13)

In a charge-free region, (1.28) reduces to the Laplace euqation

2 0

(1.29)

Questions:
1. What do we need to know to solve a differential equation such as

2 ? (Ans.: region of interest and boundary conditions)

0

2
2. In , does include charges on the boundary? (Ans.: No).
2

3. If 0 and 0, where are the charges that produce ?

(Ans.: Charges on and/or outside the boundary).

16

Summary of Secs. 1-5 and 7:

F

qq1
e
2 r
4 0 r

E lim qF
q0

er

r
q1

x1
0

x
0

f 0
E 0

q1

e
4 0r 2 r
q (xx1)
1
4 0|xx1|3

re r x x1
r x x1

principle of
1 (x)(xx) d 3 x linear superposition
4
|xx|3
0
| x x |n
1 (x) d 3 x
n | x x |n2 (x x)
4

|xx|
0
(x) 3
1
4
d x

0 |x x|
derived in Sec. using E qe r
4 0r 2
3
s E n da 1 v ( x ) d x
0

E 0

divergence thm.

2 0

17

Questions on Secs. 1-5 and 7:

1. Can one calculate E by using E = 0 alone?
Helmholtzs Theorem (Griffiths, Sec. 1.6.1): If a vector field goes to
0 at infinity, it is uniquely determined by its divergence and curl.
2. Can one calculate (hence E) by using 2 = 0 ? How?
1 ( x) d 3 x ?
3. Can one calculate (hence E) by using ( x ) 4

0 |x x|
How?
1 ( x) d 3 x , into two
4. Why break one equation, ( x ) 4

0 |x x|
equations: E = 0 and E = 0 ?
1 ( x) d 3 x , gives E = 0 and E
5. Coulombs law, ( x ) 4

0 |x x|
= /0 . Can it give any other independent relation for E?
6. Can we derive Coulombs law from E = 0 and E = /0?
Yes, if E goes to 0 at infinity (see lecture notes, end of Sec. 1.8)
18

7. Is the integral form of Gausss law mathematically equivalent

to the differential form of Gausss law?
Answer: Yes. To prove the mathematical equivalence, we need to
show that the integral form of Gausss law is both a sufficient and
necessary condition for the differential form of Gausss law. This
can be demonstrated as follows:

1
3
E nda v (x)d x

(1.11)

divergence thm.
3
v ( E 0 ) d x 0 (for arbitrary volume v )

E 0

(1.13)

Downward manipulation () shows that (1.11) is a sufficient

condition for (1.13). Upward manipulation () shows that (1.11) is a
necessary condition for (1.13). Hence, the two forms of Gausss law
are mathematically equivalent.

19

8. Is Gausss law mathematically equivalent to Coulombs law?

Answer: No, because Coulombs law is a sufficient but not a
necessary condition for Gausss law. That is, we may derive Gausss
law from Coulombs law, but not the reverse.
While Coulombs law completely specifies the E field, we need
more information to completely specify the E field in addition to
Gausss law. This becomes clear if we write Gausss law in its
differential form, E = 0 . By Helmholtzs Theorem, we also
need E to completely determine E. In electrostatics, this is given
by E = 0. In general, it is given by Faradays law,
E B
t (Ch. 5)
(x)(xx) 3
1
Coulomb's law [E( x) 4
d x ] is valid only for the

|xx|3
0 v
static E field. As will be shown in later chapters, Gauss's law governs
also the time-dependent E field, such as the E field of an EM wave.
20

9. Is Gausss law physically equivalent to Coulombs law?

Answer: Yes, but only in static cases, i.e. the E-field surrounding
a point charge qi is spherically symmetric about qi, so that Ei =
Er(r)er. Applying Gausss law for a single charge [(1.9)] on a
spherical surface of radius r centered at qi, we obtain
q
q
q
2
Coulomb's law for
E nda 0i Er 4 r 0i Ei 4 i r 2 er a single charge qi
0
Let rer = xxi (x and xi are with respect to the center of the
coordinate system). By the principle of linear superposition, we
obtain Coulombs law for any number of charges [(1.10) or (1.11)].
Also, in Sec. 1.3, we have derived Gausss law from Coulombs
law; hence, the two laws are physically equivalent in electrostatics.
However, as discussed in Question 8, the two laws are not
mathematically (nor physically) equivalent in time-dependent cases,
e.g. the E-field is asymmetric about a moving charge (See Fig. 11.9).

10. To express the E-field of a point charge q by Coulomb's law:

q
E
e , q must be stationary. Is there any other condition?
4 0r 2 r

21

1.6 Surface Distributions of Charges and Dipoles and

Discontinuities in the Electric Field and Potential
Surface Layer of Charge :
The surface charge density is defined as charge per unit area
q

on the surface: ( x ) lim a

a 0
Note: and have different dimensions.
q
Apply Gauss's law, E n da , to an
0

infinitesimally thin pillbox, we obtain

q
( E1 n1 E 2 n 2 ) a
0
n1 n 2
q
(E E ) n 1

0 a

a, q
n2
n1

E2

E1 pillbox
(thickness 0)
(1.22)

The tangential component of E can be shown to be continuous

across the layer by applying C E d 0 to the loop drawn in
dashed lines in the figure.
22

1.6 Surface Distributions of Charges and Dipoles (continued)

Example: (see figure)

Apply the shell theorems

(uniform distribution of

Q on a layer of radius a )
is continuous.
At r a,
Er is discontinuous.
r
a

Q , ra
4 a
Q0
4 r , r a
0

Questions :
1. Fields (E and ) of a point charge diverge as one moves
infinistesimally close to the charge. Explain why fields of the
surface charge do not diverge as one moves infinistesimally close
to the surface.
Answer: A point charge is a finite amount of charge concentrated
at a point. However, for the surface charge, one must integrate over
a finite surface area to obtain a finite amount of charge. Hence, there
is only an infinistesimal amount charge at a single point on the layer.
2. Why is continuous across the layer?
23

1.6 Surface Distributions of Charges and Dipoles (continued)

|xx xx|

(x)

Dipole Layer :
D( x ) lim ( x )d (x )
d ( x ) 0

( x )

n points
from
to

x
r

x
Assume that, at any given point, the two layers have equal and
opposite surface charge densities (see figure).

(x)
1 (x) d 3 x 1 [ (x) da
(x) 4
da]

s
s
'
4 0 |xx|
|x( xnd )|
0 |xx|
da=da

1
]da
1 s (x)[ 1
4 0
|xx| |x(xnd )|
24

1.6 Surface Distributions of Charges and Dipoles (continued)

Using the binomial expansion:

( x y ) n x n nx n1 y

n can be negative
and/or a non-integer.

n(n1) n2 2
x y ,
2!

we obtain

y
n

2
12
a
a

b
1
1
1
1 b (1 2 2 2 )
|b+a|
b
b
(b2 a2 2ab) 2
x

2
1 (1 a 2 a2b ) 1 a3b [valid for a b]
b
b b
2b
b

Let

b x x
a nd

a
b 0

1
1 dn xx3
|x(xnd )| |xx|
|xx|

[valid for d | x x |]
25

1.6 Surface Distributions of Charges and Dipoles (continued)

Sub.

1
1 dn xx3
|x(xnd )| |xx|
|xx|

1
into (x) 1 s (x)[ 1
]da, we obtain
4 0
|xx| |x(xnd )|
|x1x| |x1x|

1
x)d (x) n xx3 da 1 s D(x)n 1 da
(x) 4
(

s
|xx|
4 0
|xx|
0
D ( x)
(1.24)
and d appear as a product here, so its meaningful
to define the product as the dipole layer strength.
or (x) 1 s D(x) n xx 1 2 da 1 s D(x)d
4 0
4 0
|xx| |xx|

cos 1 r 2
See figure two (1.26)
d 0, if cos 0

pages back.
d 0, if cos 0
d

26

1.6 Surface Distributions of Charges and Dipoles (continued)

1 D (x) d
(1.26)
4 0 s
Rewrite : (x)
1
1
(1.24)
4 s D (x)n |xx| da

0
Note: (1) The direction of n and sign of d are shown below with
respect to the polarity of the dipole layer:
direction of n :
sign of d : See derivation
of (1.26).

n
x

d 0

d 0

+
(2) The RHS of (1.24) is an explicit function of x (the position
of observation). The RHS of (1.26) is an implicit function
of x, because the total solid angle depends on x.
Questions: (1) Under what condition are (1.24) and (1.26) invalid?
(2) What is the reference point for in these 2 eqs.?
27

1.6 Surface Distributions of Charges and Dipoles (continued)

Special case 1: A flat-disc shaped double layer with D const.

d

1
4
D(x)d (1.26)
0 s
2D
2D
0

0
( D ) D
(1.27)
2D

2 0
0
0
electric field between layers: E D . Question: Is E continuous
0d across the dipole layer?

is discontinuous across the dipole layer.

p
a
d
Special case 2: Point dipole
q q
n
D da
p lim a n

a 0
a 0 d
point
dipole
a = q
dipole
layer
dipole layer point dipole
lim a n( d )da n d a nqd
a 0

1 lim
1 da 1 p(xx)

D
(
x
)
n
(x) 4

4 0 |xx|3
|xx|
0 a 0 a

(1.24)
xx3
|xx|

(1.25)
28

Delta Functions (pp. 26 - 27)

( x a)

Definition of delta function:

if x a
( x a ) 0 ,
a2
a1 ( x a )dx 1 , if a1 a a2

a1 a a 2
Note: Since the delta function is defined in terms of an integral,
it takes an integration to bring out its full meaning.

Properties of delta function:

(i) a 2 f ( x) ( x a) dx f (a )
(2)
1
0

a2
a
(ii) a f ( x) ( x a )dx f ( x) ( x a ) |aa2 a 2 f ( x) ( x a )dx
a

f (a )

(3)
29

Delta Functions (continued)

(iii) Let x a be the root of f ( x) 0, then

a2
f ( a2 )

[
f
(
x
)]
dx

a1
f ( a1 ) [ f ( x)] d f1( x) df ( x)
dx

f ( x)

f ( a2 ) f ( a1 )

a1 a

a2

f ( a2 ) 1 ( f )df 1 1 , f (a) 0
f ( x ) f (a ) f (a )
f ( a ) f ( a )
1
2
f ( a1 ) f

a1 a a 2 x
ff ((aa1 )) 1 ( f )df 1 1 , f (a ) 0
f
f
a
(
)
f
(
a
)

Note: In both expressions above, the integration is from a samller

value to a larger value, as in the definition of the delta function.
Compare with (2) [ f ( x)] 1 ( x a ) [ 1 ( x a )] (4)
f ( a )

f ( x )

If f ( x) has multiple roots xi [f ( xi ) 0, i 1, 2,], then

[ f ( x)] 1 ( x x ) [ 1 ( x x )]
i f ( xi )

i f ( x )

Exercise: Show (a x) ( x a ) and (cx) ( x) / | c |

(5)
30

Delta Functions (continued)

Extension to 3 dimensions :
1. Cartesian coordinates: x = (x1 , x2 , x3 )
(x x) ( x1 x1 ) ( x2 x2 ) ( x3 x3 )

(6)

V (x x)d 3 x ( x1 x1 )dx1 ( x2 x2 )dx2 ( x3 x3 )dx3

0, if x lies outside V
1, if x lies inside V
2. Cylindrical coordinates: x = ( , , z )
(x x) 1 ( ) ( ) ( z z )

V (x x)d 3 x V (x x) d d dz

x3

x2
x1

(7)

( ) d ( ) d ( z z )dz

0, if x lies outside V
1, if x lies inside V

Question: If x and x both have the dimension of cm, what are the
dimensions of (x) and (x)? [See Appendix (A), Eq. (A.9).]

31

Delta Functions (continued)

3. Spherical coordinates: r = (r , , )

r
1
2

(r r ) ( ) ( ), or

(r r) r sin
(8)
1 (r r ) (cos cos ) ( )
r 2

By (4), (cos cos ) 1 ( ) sin1 ( ), 0

sin

3
V (r r)d x V

(r r)
r2

2
drd (cos )d
(cos cos ) ( ) r

3
0, if r lies outside V
d
x

[see
(9)
below]
1, if r lies inside V
Note: Volume integration in spherical coordinates

2
2

2
sin d 0 d Variables are to
0 dr 0 rd 0 r sin d 0 r dr
0
be integrated

1
2
from smaller to
0 r 2 dr 1 d (cos ) 0 d
11 d (cos )
larger values.
d 3 x r 2 sin drd d or r 2 drd (cos )d
(9)

32

Delta Functions (continued)

Approximate representations of the delta function :

The delta function, ( x), can be represented analytically by the
following functions because they satisfy the definition of the delta
function in the limit 0 ( > 0).
1

( x) lim
0 x 2 2
2
x2
1
( x) lim
e 2
0
2
1 , for x
2
2
( x) lim
0 0, otherwise

33

Delta Functions (continued)

Representation of volume charge density by delta functions:

of a point charge q at the origin

(x) of a uniform line charge on the z -axis

of a uniform surface charge on the x-y plane

q ( x) ( y ) ( z ), triple infinity

( x) ( y ), double infinity
( z ), single infinity

due to a point charge q at the origin

E due to a uniform line charge on the z -axis

due to a uniform surface charge on the x -y plane

12 (most divergent)
r

1 (less divergent)
as one approaches the charge.
r

remains a constant value

The conceptual difficulty of infinite can be resolved by giving the
point, line, or surface a finite radius a or thickness t and let a or t 0.

34

Delta Functions (continued)

Problem 1: A total charge Q is uniformly distributed around

a circular ring of radius a and infinitesimal thickness. Write the
charge density (x) in cylindrical coordinates.
Solution:
Let (x) = K (r a ) (z ) and find K as follows.
3
(x)d x K (r a) ( z )rdrd dz

2 Ka Q
Q
K
2 a
a
r
Q
( x)
(r a) ( z )
2 a
Note: has the dimension of "charge/volume" as expected.
35

Delta Functions (continued)

Problem 2: Prove 2 1r 4 (r )

(r ) 0, if r 0
Solution: Definition of (r ) :
3
(r )d x 1
Hence, we need to prove
(i) 2 1 0, if r 0

(ii) 2 r1 d 3 x 4 (r )d 3 x 4

It is convenient to use the spherical coordinates. To prove (i), we

we write 2 as (see back cover of Jackson)
(sin )
2
1
2 12 (r 2 ) 2 1
r r sin
r 2 sin 2 2
r r
2
2 r1 12 d (r 2 d 1r ) 12 d ( r 2 ) 0 if r 0
dr
r dr
r dr r
2
Note: r 2 is undetermined at r 0. However, here we are only

concerned with the region r 0.

36

Delta Functions (continued)

To prove (ii), we integrate 2 1r over a spherical volume V

2
3
3
1 da r 2 1 d 4
v r1 d x v 1r d x s er
s r 2
r

divergence thm.

r2

er

r d

Note: Since r > 0 on the spherical surface, again we do not have

the problem of evaluating r 2 / r 2 at r = 0.
r
Change to a coordinate system in which r x x
x
x
and r x x . We obatin from 2 1r 4 (r )
(1.31)
2 1 4 (x x)
|xx|
( x)
(x) 3
1
Problem 3: Derive 2 (x) from (x) 4
d x

0
0 |xx|
1 (x) 2 1 d 3 x
Solution: 2 (x) 4

|xx|
0
1 (x) 4 (x x) d 3 x (x)
4

0
37
0

1.8 Greens Theorem

Green's theorem, a powerful tool for treating electrostatic boundaryvalue problems, is a simple application of the divergence theorem:
3
v A d x s A n da

Let A = , where and are arbitrary functions of position.

A 2
S

A n n n
da
n
v
Sub. these 2 expressions for A and A n in the
divergence theorem, we obtain Green's first identity,

2
3
(1.34)
v ( )d x s n da
Interchange and in (1.34).

v ( 2 )d 3 x s
da
n
Subtract these two equations, we obtain Green's second identity,

2
2
3
(1.35) 38
v ( )d x s ( n n )da

1.8 Greens Theorem (continued)

Green's theorem relates a volume integral to a surface integral and

the volume integral contains the operator 2 . These features are useful
for the manipulateion of the Poisson equation in bounded space.
For example, applying Green's second identity:

2
2
3
(1.35)
v ( )d x s ( n n )da
we may convert the Poisson equation into an integral equation.
1 ( 1 ), be the electrostatic potential
In (1.35), letting be R
|xx|

(thus, 2 ), and x be the integration variable, we obtain

0

3
v [4 (x x) 01R (x)]d x s [ n ( R1 ) R1 n ]da
x inside v
( x) 3 1
1
1 1 da (1.36)
(x) 4

d
x

v
s
|xx
4 R n
n R
0
( x) 3
1
Question: Why is (1.36) different from (x) 4
d x [(1.17)]?

0 |xx|
(1.36) is an integral equation (not a solution) for . In infinite space,
( x) 3
1 . Hence, (1.36) reduces to ( x) 1
we have R
d x . 39

4 0 v |xx|

1.9 Uniqueness of Solution with Dirichlet or

Neumann Boundary Conditions
Dirichlet boundary condition: s specified

Neumann boundary condition: n s specified

Cauchy boundary condition: and both specified
s

n s
As another application of Green's theorem, we use it to prove the
uniqueness theorem for the solution of the Poisson equation.
Let there be two solutions, 1 and 2 , which both satisfy
n on S (Dirichlet b.c.), or
2
0 with

n
n n on S (Neumann b.c.) V

21 0
1,2 n on S , or
i.e. 2
with
S
on S

1,2
n

2
0
n
U n n 0 on S , or
2
Define U 1 2 , then U 0 with

n U n n 0 on S 40

1.9 Uniqueness of Solution (continued)

Rewrite Green's 1st identity: v 2 d 3 x s n da

Let U
b.c. U 0 or U / n 0 on S
2
3
v (U
U U U )d 3 x s U U
da

U
d
x0

v
n
2

U 0 everywhere within V

if U 0 on S
0,
U 1 2
S
const , if U / n 0 on S
1 and 2 differ by at most a constant, hence are the same solution.
Note: Since the solution is uniquely determined by specifying either
or / n on the boundary, the Cauchy boundary condition
( and / n both specified on the boundary) is an overspecification, which may lead to inconsistency.
Exercise : Prove that there cannot be any static E inside a closed,
hollow conductor if there is no charge in the hollow region. 41

1.10 Formal Solution of Electrostatic Boundary-Value

Problem with Green Function
Green Function GD ( x, x) :
In electrostatics, the Green function is
the solution of the following problem:

GD 0 for
x on S x

0
2
GD ( x, x) 4 ( x x ) with GD (x, x ) 0 for x on S ,

where x is the variable of the differential equation and x is treated as

a constant. GD ( x, x) is the potential of a unit point source (q 4 0 )
located at x subject to the b. c. that GD (x, x) vanishes for x on S .
Symmetry Property of GD ( x, x) :

GD 0 for
y on S x

S
Consider two equations: one with a
0
point source at x, the other with a point source at x. The variable is y.
2y GD ( y, x ) 4 ( y x ),

b.c. GD ( y, x ) 0 for y on S

2y GD ( y, x ) 4 ( y x), b.c. GD ( y, x) 0 for y on S

42

1.10 Formal Solution of Electrostatic Boundary-Value Problem(continued)

Rewrite: v 2y 2y d 3 y s n n da
(1.35)

Let GD (y , x) and GD (y , x), where y is the variable.

4 ( y x)
4 ( y x)

v [GD (y , x) 2y GD (y , x) GD (y , x') 2y GD (y , x)]d 3 y

s [GD (y , x) GD (y , x) GD (y , x) GD (y , x)]da

n
0 on S

0 on S

4 [GD (x, x) GD (x, x)] 0

GD (x, x) GD (x, x) [symmetry property of GD ( x, x)]
Questions:
1. Does 2GD (x, x) 4 (x x) imply 2GD (x, x) 4 (x x)?
2. Give two examples to show the physical meaning of the symmetry
property of GD (x, x).
43

1.10 Formal Solution of Electrostatic Boundary-Value Problem(continued)

Formal Solution of Electrostatic Boundary -Value Problem :

(x) 3
1
d x is applicable only to
The expression (x) 4

0 |xx|
unbounded space. By Green's theorem, we may generalize it to an
expression for bounded space with prescribed boundary conditions.
Consider a general electrostatic boundary-value problem:
2 (x) (x) / 0 with (x) s (x) for x on S
(10)
s
Green's 2nd identity:

2
2
3
S

(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)

x
d
x
v

(1.35)
s (x) n (x) (x) n (x) da

In (1.35), let (x) be the solution of (10) with variable x, and let
(x) G D (x, x), where G D (x, x) is the Green function satisfying
2GD (x, x) 4 (x x) with GD ( x, x) 0 for x on S (11)
Substitution of (x) and (x) into (1.35) gives
44

1.10 Formal Solution of Electrostatic Boundary-Value Problem(continued)

( x)

4 ( xx)

0
2
2
3
v [ (x) GD (x, x) GD (x, x) (x)]d x s
s [ (x) n GD (x, x) GD (x, x) n (x)]da

0 on S

Thus, we obtain
G ( x,x)
3
1
(x) 4
v (x)GD (x, x)d x 41 s (x) Dn da (1.44)
0
(1.44) expresses the solution of the general electrostatic problem
in (10) in terms of the solution GD (x, x) of the point source problem
in (11) and the boundary value (s ) of on S . To evaluate (1.44), we
first solve (11) for GD (x, x), then substitute GD (x, x), (x), s into
(1.44). It is often simpler to solve GD (x, x) from (11) than solving
directly from (10), because (11) has the simple b.c. of GD (x, x) 0 on
S . Applications of (1.44) can be found in Chs. 2 and 3. The problem
below gives an application without the need to solve (11) for G ( x, x).

45

1.10 Formal Solution of Electrostatic Boundary-Value Problem(continued)

Problem: A hollow cube (see figure) has six

square sides. There is no charge inside. Five sides
are grounded. The sixth side, insulated from the
others, is held at a constant potential 0. Find the
potential at the center of the cube.
Solution: Let the center of the cube be at x 0 and rewrite (1.44):
3
1
(x) 4
v (x) GD (x, x)d x 41 s (x) n GD (x, x)da (1.44)
0
If all 6 sides had the potential 0 , then (x 0) 0 and by (1.44)
0 41 s 0 n GD (0, x)da
(12)
For the present problem, we have 0 on side 1 and 0 on
the other 5 sides. By (1.44), the potential at the center is
(x 0) 41 side 10 n GD (0, x)da 16 41 s 0 n GD (0, x)da

0 by (12)
16 0 n GD (0, x) is symmetric
with respect to all six sides.
46

1.11 Electrostatic Potential Energy and Energy

Density; Capacitance
Electric Field Energy: Let ( x) be the field due to the presence
of (x). The work done to add (x) is Using a a a
W v (x) (x)d 3 x
we obtain
E ( E) E
0 E
3
( E) E E
0 v (x) E(x) d x

0 v ( E)d 3 x 0 v E Ed 3 x 0 v E Ed 3 x

E da 0, as r For this integral to vanish,

By conservation s
the volume of integration
1 12 r 2
of energy, this
must be infinite.
rr
must be the total
E-field energy.

1 dE 2 ( x )
2

E ( x)

2
E (x)
W 0 v d 3 x 0 E(x) dE(x) 20 v E(x) d 3 x [v ]
2

E E E E ( E) E ( E)
0
r

0as

W 12 v (x) (x)d 3 x 20 s E da 12 v (x) (x)d 3 x

(1.54)

(1.53) 47

1.11 Electrostatic Potential Energy (continued)

An alternative derivation of (1.53) and (1.54):

Consider a state in which a charge density (x) has produced
an electrostatic potential (x), i.e.
(x) (x).

Then, by the principle of superposition,

(x) (x), where 0 1.
To find the electric field energy, we consider the energy needed to
build up (x) from 0 (no charge and no potential) to 1 (the
present state). At any stage in the build-up process, the relative
charge density (hence the relative potential) remains the same;
namely, the intermediate state is characterized by the charge density
(x) and potential (x).
In such a build-up process, when the potential is (x), the work
done by adding an incremental charge (x)d is

dW v d 3 x (x) (x)d

48

1.11 Electrostatic Potential Energy (continued)

Hence, the total work done from 0 to 1 is

1
0 dW

1
x (x) (x) 0 d

1 d 3 x ( x) ( x)
2 v

(1.53)

This integral 0 only if r .

Green's 1st identity

2 v 2 d 3 x 20 [ v d 3 x s ( n )da]

v d

2
20 v E d 3 x [v ]
(1.54)
~ 1r ~ r12 r
Questions: 1. If we bring q and q toward each other, the work done

2
is negative. Why is then W 20 v E d 3 x always positive?
2. Give one example to show that the E-field carries energy.
3. If we do work to bring q from 1 to 2 , where does the work end in?

(1.55)
Electric Field Energy Density : We postulate wE 20 E
Question : Can the field energy density of multiple charges be
separately calculated, then linearly summed?
2

2
Answer: No, because wE 20 E 20 ( E j ) ( E j ) 20 E j
49

1.11 Electrostatic Potential Energy (continued)

Force on the Surface of a Conductor: Consider conductor

a conductor with surface charge on it. At any point
E
on the surface, the total field (Etotal) must be normal

to the surface and Etotal = 0 inside the conductor. By

Gausss law, we have Etotal just outside the conductor, where is
the local surface charge density at the observation point (upper figure).
But the local by itself will produce equal and opposite fields on both
Eself Eself
sides of (call it self field self ) and by Gausss law
E self (outside) Eself (inside) Eself 2 ,
E
E
0

ext

ext

which is half of outside Etotal (. Since the inside Etotal = 0, all the
external charges away from the local must have produced an
external field with Eext=self which cancels self inside and
thus doubles self outside. The local can only experience a force
due to the field (ext) produced by the external surface charge. Thus,
2
force on the surface/unit area Eext 2 (see pp. 42-43)
0
Question: Eself is due to the charge on an infinitesimal area. Why? 50

1.11 Electrostatic Potential Energy (continued)

V2 , Q2
Capacitance: Refer to the figure
V1 , Q1
V n P Q
Q n C V
1 j 1 1 j j
1 j 1 1 j j

n
n
V3 , Q3
V4 , Q4
V2 P2 j Q j
Q2 C2 jV j

j 1
j 1
Invert the

n
n
equations

Q
CnjV j

V
P
Q

nj j
n
n
A system of
j

j
1

n conductors
Cii : capacitance
by the principle of
Cij (i j ): coefficient of induction
linear superposition

Pij and Cij depend on the geometrical shape and position of the
conductors. Potential energy of the i -th conductor is [using (1.53)]
Wi 12 i (x)i (x)d 3 x 12 QiVi i (x) Vi ; i (x)d 3 x Qi
n
n n
(1.62)
Potential energy 12 QiVi 12 CijViV j
of the system
i 1
i 1 j 1
51

Appendix A: Unit Systems and Dimensions

Unit Systems:
Two systems of electromagnetic units are in common use today:
the SI and Gaussian systems. Regardless of ones personal
preference, it is important to be familiar with both systems and, in
particular, the conversion from one system to the other. Conversion
formulae can be divided into two categories: symbol/equation
conversion such as E and E = q/(40r2)] and unit conversion
(such as coulomb).
Conversion formulae for symbols and equations are listed in
Table 3 on p. 782 of Jackson and conversion formulae for units in
Table 4 on p. 783 (both tables attached on next page). These two
tables are all we need to convert between SI and Gaussian systems.
Correct use of the tables requires practices.
52

Appendix A: Unit Systems and Dimensions (continued)

Jackson, p. 782, Table 3

Jackson, p. 783, Table 4

53

Appendix A: Unit Systems and Dimensions (continued)

Conversion of symbols and equations:

Consider, for example, the conversion of the SI equation
q
E
(A.1)
4 0r 2
into the Gaussian system.
This involves the conversion of symbols and equations. So we use
Table 3. First, we note from Table 3 (top) that mechanical symbols
(e.g. time, length, mass, force, energy, and frequency) are unchanged
in the conversion. Thus, we only need to deal with electromagnetic
symbols on both sides of (A.1).
G
From Table 3, we find E SI E
and q SI 4 0 q G (A.2)
4 0
Sub. E G / 4 0 and 4 0 q G , respectively, for E and q in (A.1),
we obtain the corresponding equation in the Gaussian system:
EG
4 0

4 0 qG
4 0r 2

qG
2
r

(A.3)
54

Appendix A: Unit Systems and Dimensions (continued)

Conversion of units and evaluation of physical quantities:

q
Consider again the SI equation : E
(A.1)
4 0r 2
Given r 0.01 m, q 1 statcoulomb, we may evaluate E in 3 steps:
Step 1: Express r , q, and 0 in SI units. From Table 3 (bottom)
and Table 4, we find
1
0 8.854 1012 Farad/m
9 Farad/m

36
10

(A.4)
r 0.01 m (same as given)
q ( 1 statcoulomb) 1 9 coulomb

310
Step 2: Sub. the numbers (but not the units ) from (A.4) into (A.1).

This gives E

q
4 0

r2

1
3109
4 1 9 (0.01)2
36 10

3 104

Step 3: Look up Table 4 for the SI unit of E. As shown in Table 4,

the SI unit of E is V/m. Thus, E 3 104 V/m
(A.5)
55

Appendix A: Unit Systems and Dimensions (continued)

As another exercise, we write (A.1) in the Gaussian system :

q
(A.3)
E 2
r
and evaluate E for the same r ( 0.01 m) and q ( 1 statcoulomb).
Step 1: Express r and q in Gaussian units. From Table 4, we find
r ( 0.01 m) 1 cm
(A.6)
q 1 statcoulomb (same as given)
Step 2: Sub. the numbers (but not the units) from (A.6) into (A.3).
q
This gives E 2 11 1
r
Step 3: Look up Table 4 for the Gaussian unit of E. We find the
(A.7)
unit to be statvolt/cm. Thus, E 1 statvolt/cm

Table 4 shows 1 statvolt/cm 3 10 4 V/m. Hence, the 2 results

E 3 104 V/m
in (A.5) and (A.7):
are identical as expected.
E
1
statvolt/cm

56

Appendix A: Unit Systems and Dimensions (continued)

Units and Dimensions :

In the Gaussian system, the basic units are length (), mass (m), and
time (t ). In the SI system, they are the above plus the current ( I ). [See
Table 1 (top) on p. 779 of Jackson.] All other units are derived units.
If a physical quantity is expressed in term of the basic units, we
have the dimension of this quantity.
A mechanical quantity has the same dimension in both systems.
For example, the acceleration a ( d 2 x / dt 2 ) has the dimension of
t 2 . From f ma, we obtain the dimension of force : mt 2 , which
in turn gives the dimension of work (f ) or energy: m 2t 2 .
An electromagnetic quantity has different dimensions in different
systems. For example, the charge q has the SI dimension of It. From
the Gaussian equation f q1q2 / r 2 and the dimensions of force and
length, we find the Gaussian dimension of q to be m1/23/2t 1. Since
q has the dimension of energy (m 2t 2 ), the potential has the SI
dimension of m 2t 3 I 1 and the Gaussian dimension of m1/ 21/ 2t 1. 57

Appendix A: Unit Systems and Dimensions (continued)

All physical quantities in an equation must be expressed in the

same unit system and all terms must have the same dimension. For
example, by Stokes's theorem, we have

C E d S ( E) n da

(A.8)

where both terms have the dimension of (the dimension of E ).

In the definition of the delta function:

a12 ( x a)dx 1,
a

(A.9)

the RHS is dimensionless. Thus, if x has the dimension of , ( x a )

must have the dimension of 1. However, "0" is not to be regarded
as a dimensionless quantity. This is clear if we write (A.8) as
C E d S ( E) n da 0.
Well-known equations need not be checked for dimensional
consistency. However, for newly derived equations, a dimensional
check can be a convenient way to find mistakes.

58