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Chemistry
Chemistry is the branch of physical science which deals with the study of matter, its physical and
chemical properties, its chemical composition, the physical and chemical changes which it undergoes and the
energy changes that involved in those changes.

What is MATTER?
Besides life, Matter and Energy are two fundamental entities, which whole of the universe is composed
of.
Matter is anything which occupies space and has a certain mass.
Sand, iron, wood rocks, minerals, ice, water, milk, petrol, oil, air, oxygen, carbon dioxide .in fact,
everything in this universe is a form of matter.
The amount of matter present in a particular sample of body can be represented by, the term mass that
means, mass is a measure of quantity of matter in a body, Mass of a body is constant and does not change
regardless of where it is measured. i.e., the mass of a body would be the same on the moon as it is on the earth.
The term weight should not be used instead of mass since it has different meaning. The term weight
means the force with which the earth attracts a body. That means, weight is a measure of earths gravitational
attraction for a body.
So weight of an object thus depends on the value of g (acceleration due to gravity) and changes from
place to place.
Matter is indestructible i.e., it can neither be created (or) nor destroyed, but we can change it from one
form to other. Thus, the total quantity of matter of the universe is constant.

Energy capacity of doing work, can also be neither created nor destroyed

Matter can be converted into energy (this was proved by the discovery of nuclear reactions
especially nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.,)

The relationship b/w mass and energy is given by the famous Einsteins equation
E = mc2
Based on the above facts, we can conclude the total amount of matter and energy available in the
universe is fixed.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER:
Matter is classified mainly in two ways. One based on its physical state and another based on its
chemical composition. Based on its physical state, matter is classified into solids, liquids and gasses.
Based on its chemical constitution, matter is classified into elements, compounds and mixtures.

Solids
They are rigid substances having definite shape and fixed volume. Pressure and temperature has
negligible effect on their volumes. The particles present in solids occupy definite positions and are very near to
each other. This form of matter is associated with least energy.

Liquids
They have no definite shape but possess fixed volume. Pressure and temperature show slight effect on
their volumes. The particles present in liquids are nearer to each other and this form of matter has more energy
than solids.

Gases
They have no definite shape and definite volume; they spread and occupy all the space available to them.
Pressure and temperature show a large effect on their volumes. The gas particles are far apart from each other
and move in all directions with high velocities randomly. This form of matter is associated with maximum
amount of energy.

Note 1

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If in a closed flask, water exists in three forms viz., ice (solid), water (liquid) and water vapour (gas) at 0
degrees Celsius, then the water molecules in the vapour state will have high average kinetic energy.

Note 2
Solids are rigid substances while liquids and gases are fluids.

Conversion processes of solids, liquids & gases:

Mode of reading:
Conversion of solid to gas is called sublimation process.

Note
Purified camphor is the best example, which undergoes sublimation.

Element:
This term was proposed by Robert Boyle. An element is a substance which cannot be split up into (or)
more simpler substances by applying usual chemical methods like applying heat, light (or) electric energy.
At present 112 elements are known. Out of these 88 elements occur in nature and 24 elements prepared
artificially.
Every element has been given a definite name and is represented by a symbol.
Symbols have been derived.
i)
Either by taking the first alphabet of the name of the element.
Ex. Name
Symbol
Oxygen
O
Carbon
C
Nitrogen
N
Fluorine
F
Phosphorous
P
ii) Or by taking first two alphabets from the name of the element, First alphabet is always capitalised
Calcium
Ca
Aluminium
Al
Nickel
Ni
Magnesium
Mg
Cobalt
Co
etc.
iii) Or from the names of elements in other languages like Latin German etc.
Ex. Name
Latin name
Symbol
Sodium
Natrium
Na
Copper
Cuprum
Cu
Iron
Ferrum
Fe
Silver
Argentum
Ag
Lead
Plumbum
Pb
Gold
Aurum
Au
Potassium
Kalvin
K
Mercury
Hydrargyrum
Mg.
Out of 112 elements, nearly 24 elements are man-made elements (or) synthetic elements. They are
Neptunium (Np) Plutonium (Pu), Americium (Am), Curium (Cm) Berkelium (Bk), Californium (Cf)
Einsteinium (Es), Fermium (Fm) Mendelevium (Md), Nobelium (No), Lawrencium (Lr) kurchatovium (Ku),
Hahnium (Ha).....
All these are called transuranic elements.
The first artificially produced element is Technetium.
Most of the earths crust is made up of by few elements. Only ten elements make up 99 % mass of the
earths crust, oceans and atmosphere.

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On earths atmosphere, oxygen is the first most abundant element, silicon, aluminium, iron are the
second, third and fourth most abundant elements.
If entire universe is considered, 90 % of the matter is hydrogen that means Hydrogen is the first most
abundant element in the universe; Helium is the second most abundant element (9%) (Remaining elements make
up 1 %).
The commercial use of an element depends not only upon its abundance but also upon its accessibility.
Some of the common elements like copper zinc, tin are not abundant but in nature they are found in rich
deposits, from which these can be easily extracted. On the other hand, some elements like titanium & zirconium
etc. are more abundant but in nature their minerals cannot be found much, and their extraction is difficult and
expensive. So these are not widely used.
All elements are mainly classified into three types.
i)

Metals

2)

Non metals

3)

Metalloids

Metals:
Metals are those elements, which exhibits the following properties.
i)

They are lustrous (shining) in nature

ii)

They possess high density

iii)

They are good conductor of heat & electricity

iv)

They are malleable & ductile

v)

They have high melting & boiling points

vi)

These metals react with acids and liberate hydrogen.

vii) These metals can form basic oxides.

Generally metals are solids except Mercury. Mercury is the liquid metal.
Ex: Na, K, Al, Copper, Silver, Gold etc. are metals.

Nonmetals
Generally, the elements which dont show above properties can be considered as nonmetals.
Six of the nonmetals are solids-carbon, boron, phosphorous, sulphur, selenium and iodine.
Bromine is only the liquid nonmetal.
The remaining nonmetals are gases which are nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, hydrogen, helium,
neon, argon, krypton, xenon & radon.

Metalloids
Substances which exhibit both metallic & nonmetallic properties are called Metalloids (or) Semi metals
Ex: Silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium.

COMPOUNDS
Substances those made up of two (or) more elements which are chemically combined in a fixed
proportion by weight are called compounds.
Compounds containing more than four elements are rare. The properties of compounds are entirely
different from that of the properties of its constituent elements.
For example, Water (H2o) is a compound containing the elements.
Hydrogen & Oxygen. ( in the ratio of 1 : 8 by mass) Oxygen supports combustion and hydrogen is
combustible but water can be used for extinguishing fire.
Ex: Water ammonia, Sugar, Salt, benzene, alcohol.........are various compounds.
Compounds are mainly two types
1.
Organic compounds
2.
Inorganic compounds

Organic compounds

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Compounds obtained from living organisms are called organic compounds. (In olden days these
compounds are prepared from living organisms.)
But Now-a-days these compounds are not being prepared from living sources. These are called, carbon
compounds, because, each of these compounds contains carbon as an essential element. All carbon compounds
are hydrocarbons (containing carbon & hydrogen) and their derivatives.
There are a millions of carbon compounds drugs, dyes, plastics, paints sugars, oils, carbohydrates paints,
sugars, oils, carbohydrates proteins, DDT, petroleum products like petrol, kerosene, Benzene coal etc., all are
various carbon compounds.

In organic compounds
Compounds obtained from nonliving sources like rocks, minerals etc. are called inorganic compounds.

MIXTURES:
The substance which consists of two (or) more elements or compounds, which dont chemically combine
together, can be defined as mixture.
Mixtures are of two types.
1.
Homogeneous mixture
2.
Heterogeneous mixture

A Homogeneous mixture
Has a uniform composition throughout its mass. The components of this mixture cannot be seen by naked
eye (or) with the help of microscope.
This homogeneous mixture has isotropic in nature. i.e., every portion of it, has the same composition &
properties.
Examples : Solutions such as common salt in water, sugar dissolved in water, iodine dissolved in
carbontetrachaloride, benzene in toluene, methyl alcohol in water, brass, steel, 22 carat
gold etc. .all are various examples of homogeneous mixtures Smog (smoke + tog).

A Heterogeneous mixture
It does not have a uniform composition throughout its mass. The components of this mixture can be seen
by naked eye with the help of microscope.
Examples : Soil, mixture of sulphur & sand, mixture of iron filings and sand, smoke etc.

Separation of mixtures
The components of a mixture differ in their physical and chemical properties. By taking this as an
advantage, we can separate a mixture.
Some preliminary techniques which are used to separate the mixtures are given below.
i)
Filtration: This method is useful when one of the components is an insoluble solid in a solvent. The
insoluble solid is obtained by filtration through filter paper.
Example : Common Salt containing sand is separated by filtration.
Explanation: First the mixture is mixed with water. It is shaken so as to dissolve common salt.
The sand remains insoluble. This mixture is put to filtration. The sand collects on the filter paper. It is
dried. The filtrate is taken in evaporating dish and heated till whole of the water is evaporated. Then solid
common salt is obtained in the dish.
Sugar containing charcoal, potassium nitrate containing raw dust (or) mixtures having insoluble
component scan be separated by filtration.
Note: Table salt can be separated from sea water just by evaporation.
ii)
Sublimation: This method is useful when one of the components undergoes sublimation (solid directly
converts into gas without possessing liquid state) and other components are not decomposed by heating.
For Example: Camphor (or) Naphthalene can be separated from common salt by sublimation. The
mixture of ammonium chloride & potassium chloride can be separated by sublimation, (Ammonium
chloride undergoes sublimation.)

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iv)

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Distillation: It is a process of converting a liquid into its vapours by heating and then condensing the
vapours again into the same liquid by cooling. Thus distillation involves both vaporisation and
condensation.
i.e., Distillation = Vaporisation + Condensation.
This method is used to separate the liquids which have different boiling points (or) a liquid from
nonvolatile solid (or) solids either in solution or suspension. The mixture of copper sulphate and water
(or) mixture of water (b.p.1000c) and methyl alcohol (b.p.450.C) can be separated by this method.
Magnetic separation: If one of the components of a mixture has magnetic properties, it can be separated
by using a magnet. Iron is separated from a mixture of iron filings and sulphur by moving a magnet
through mixture.

ALLOYS
When two (or) more elements are melted together and the resulting liquid is allowed to solidify, If the
obtained product exhibits metallic properties, then that product is called alloy.
Alloy is a homogeneous mixture of a metal with metal, metal with a nonmetal (or) metal with both metal
& nonmetal.
Alloys are prepared because they have more suitable properties for certain applications than the simple
metals.
Alloys are used because they are harden and stronger and resistance to corrosion.
An alloy containing mercury as one of the components is called amalgam. Most of the metals form
amalgams. But Iron, platinum, tungsten.... like metals cannot form amalgams.
Alloys are mainly two types
1.
Ferrous alloys
2.
Nonferrous alloys

Ferrous alloys
They always contains Iron, carbon mainly. If the % of carbon is below 0.1, that alloy is called pure
ferrous alloy (or) Iron alloy if the % of carbon is above 0.1, then that type of alloys are called steels.

Nonferrous alloys
They do not contain iron.
Alloy
Brass
Bronze
German Silver
Gunmetal
Rolled gold
Magnalium
Elektron
Duralumin
Typemetal
Solden
Nichrome
Constantan
Stainless stell

Composition

Main uses

Cu 60 80 %
Zn 20 40 %
Cu 75 90 %
Sn 10 25 %
Cu 56 % Zn 24 %
Ni 20 %
Cu 87 %
Sn 10 % Zn 3 %
Cu 95 % Al 5 %
Al 94 % Mg 6 %
Mg 95 %
Al 95 % Cu 4 %
Mn 0.5 % Mg 0.5 %
Pb 82 % Sb 15 %
Sn 3 %
Pb 50 70 %
Sn 30 50 %
Ni 60 % Cr 15 %
Fe 25 %
Ni 40 %
Cu 50 %
Fe 89.4 %
Cr 10 %
Mn 0.35 %

Utensils, electrical goods,

Condenser, tubes.
Coins, statues.
Utensils, resistance coils.
Machine parts, Guns
Artificial Jewelry
Balance beams
Construction of air craft
Making aero plane parts
Making printing types.
Soldering
Electrical resistances
Electrical resistances
Utensils ornamental pieces.

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C 0.25 %

SOLUTION
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two (or) more substances, the substance that is present in larger
amount is called solvent and the substance that is present in lower amount is called solvent.
For example, In a aqueous solution of salt (i.e., salt in water) salt is solute and water is solvent.
Formation of a solution is not a chemical change. It is a physical phenomenon.

Types of solutions
Solutions are classified into gaseous solutions, liquid solutions and solid solutions based on the physical
state of the solvent.
1.
Gaseous solutions
a) gas in gas
:
Air (mixture of N2, O2)
2.

3.
weights)

Liquid solutions

b) liquid in gas
a) gas in liquid

:
:

Smoke (carbon particles in air)

Soda water (Co2 in water)

Solid solutions

b) liquid in liquid
c) solid in liquid
a)gas in solid

:
:
:

Alcohol in water
Salt water, sugar in water.
pumice stones (i.e., paper

b) liquid in solid
c) Solid in solid

:
:

Cheese, Jelly,
Some alloys brass (Zn & Cu

solids)
The concentrations of solution can be expressed in term of Molarity, Normality etc...
Solutions are mainly classified into three types based on the size of the solute particle. True solutions,
colloidal solutions and suspensions.

True solution
If the solute particle size in a solution is less than 1 m (milli micron) (1m = 10 9m) that is called a
true solution.
Example : Salt solutions, sugar solution, sea water, vinegar (means acetic acid dissolved in water).
These are clear solutions.

Colloidal Solution (or) Colloids

If the solute particle size in a solution is in between 1 m to 1 ( micron) that is called colloidal
solution
Example : Starch solution, Milk, Ink, Blood, Soap solution, Toothpaste, Jelly, Gum, Smoke, cloud.
These type of solutions are unclear.

Suspensions
If the solute particle size of a solution is greater than 1 (one micron), that is called suspension
Example: Sand particles suspended in water, chalk water mixture, Milk of magnesia. These
suspensions are unstable. After sometime, the suspended particles settle down.
Note :True solution is homogeneous mixture while colloidal solution and suspension are heterogeneous
mixtures.
Note: Sky appears as blue due to Tyndall effect
The scattering of light by colloidal particles is called Tyndall effect.
The air present in atmosphere is a colloidal solution; The dust particles present in air can act as colloidal
particles and scatter the blue dour of visible light (VIBUYOR) into atmosphere. Thats why sky appears blue.
Above the atmosphere, the sky is colorless.

INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
SOME IMPORTANT CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

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Many of the materials, which we use, and upon which, we have grown to depend, are the products of
chemistry.
For example, washing soda which is used for cleaning purposes, baking soda which is used as an antacid,
bleaching powder which is used for disinfecting water, glass which is used for making mirrors, tumblers, lenses
etc., cement which is used for constricting buildings etc. all these are various products of chemistry and are
manufactured in chemical industries.

WASHING SODA Na2 Co3 10H2O

It is actually sodium carbonate decahydrate Na 2 Co3. 10H2O. It is hydrated salt (salt containing water
molecules). Sodium carbonate also available in anhydrous salt form (salt without water molecules) that
anhydrous sodium carbonate (Na2 CO3) is commonly known as soda ash.
Crude sodium carbonate occurs as dry deposits in the lakes of many arid regions such as east Africa,
Egypt, USA etc., In India it is found in Dehradun, Mathura, Jaunpur, Varanasi etc., in the form of reh and
sajji. India produces nearly 1.54 million tons of soda ash every year.
Sodium carbonate is prepared on a large scale by Solvay process. The raw materials used in the
manufacture of sodium carbonate are sodium chloride (NaCl) ammonia (NH 3) and limestone (CaCO3). In the
manufacturing of this sodium carbonate a cold and concentrated sodium chloride solution (called brine) is
saturated with ammonia. This mixture is then allowed to react with (CO 2) carbon dioxide. Then sodium
bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is formed. It is separated and heated then sodium carbonate is formed.
This washing soda is a transparent crystalline solid. When it is left in open air, it loses water (of
crystallization) and crumbles to a white powder. This process is called efflorescence. So washing soda is an
efflorescent salt.
When washing soda dissolves in water, basic solution is formed which turns red items to blue. (as
washing soda has basic nature)

BAKING SODA, NaHCO3 :

Baking soda is sodium bicarbonate. The commercial sodium bicarbonate is obtained as a primary product
of the solvay process.
Sodium bicarbonate is a white crystalline salt. It is slightly soluble in water. This solution has also basic
nature. If a solution of sodium bicarbonate ((or) Solid) is boiled (or) heated, carbon dioxide is released. Hence it
is used in fire extinguisher and as a constituent of baking powder to aerate the dough.
2 NaHCO3 Na2Co3 + H2O + Co2
Sodium bicarbonate is used as an ingredient in an antacid. Being basic, this sodium bicarbonate
neutralizes the excess acid/ Sodium bicarbonate is used as an additive in food and drinks, under the name of
baking powder. Baking powder contains sodium bicarbonate and an acid like tartaric acid so when baking
powder is heated, sodium bicarbonate decomposes & gives sodium carbonate and CO 2. This carbon dioxide
(CO2) causes, bread and cakes to rise. Tartaric acid present in baking powder neutralises sodium carbonate. If
tartaric acid is not present in baking powder, the cake will taste bitter due to the presence of (basic) sodium
carbonate. Sodium bicarbonate is used in fire extinguisher. Soda - acid fire extinguisher contains.
A solution of sodium bicarbonate & sulphuric acid can be made to come into contact with each other
either by pressing a knob (or) by inverting the extinguisher. Then carbon dioxide is liberated and it forces a
stream of effervescing liquid on to the fire. The carbon dioxide surrounds the combustible substances and cuts
off the supply of air. Thus it helps to put out the fire.

BLEACHING POWDER, CaOCl2 :

Bleaching powder is a yellowish white powder, which smells of chlorine, when it is left exposed to the
air, it gradually loses its chlorine.
Bleaching powder is known as chloride of lime, and represented by the formula, CaOCl 2. It is prepared
by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime (CaCOH2)
Cl + Ca (OH)2 CaOCl2 + H2O
The manufacture of bleaching powder is carried out either in hasen clever (or) in Bachmanns plant.

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The quality and price of a bleaching powder sample can be estimated based on the (%) percentage of
available chlorine in it. A good sample of bleaching powder should contains 3538% of available chlorine.
Bleaching powder is used, for bleaching cotton, in textile industries, for bleaching wood pulp in paper
industries and for bleaching washed cloths in laundry. It is also used as an oxidising agent in many chemical
industries and it is also used for disinfecting drinking water to make, water free from germs.

PLASTER OF PARIS CaSo41/2 H2O :

Plaster of Paris is a white powder chemically plaster of paris is called calcium sulphate, hemihydrate its
formula is CaSo4 1/2H2O.
It is obtained, when gypsum (CaSo4.2H2O) is heated to 1200C.
Here, it is necessary to control the temp. Otherwise when heated above 200 0C, the gypsum is fully
dehydrated and gives anhydrous calcium sulphate (CaSO 4). It is called dead burnt gypsum. It cannot set with
water.

Setting of plaster of paris:

When plaster of paris is made into a thin paste with water, it quickly sets to a hard mass with the
evolution of heat and with a slight expansion at the same time.
This plaster of paris can be used in medical applications for setting fractured bones in the right position
and in dentistry.
The setting plaster of paris involves two stages
i)
Setting state: In this stage, plaster of paris sets with water in a pasty mass.
ii) Hardening stage: That pasty mass converts into
This plaster of paris can also be used for making moulds, for preparing statues, for preparing black board
chalks and used for plastering the walls after mixing with hydrated lime.

Lime, CaO :
Lime is also called quicklime, its formula CaO. It is chemically known as calcium oxide
Note :
(Calcium oxide CaO quick lime
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH2) Slaked lime)
When limestone (CaCO3) is heated to 1273K, it gives of carbon dioxide gas and lime is left behind as a
solid, This process is called calcination of lime stone.
This is a reversible reaction So, we have to remove carbon dioxide (Co 2) from time to time. Otherwise, it
will combine with CaO and gives again CaCO3 (Limestone)
Pure lime is an amorphous (soft) while solid having high melting point 2273 k
When lime is added to water, a hissing sound is produced and a large amount of heat is generated. This
reaction produces slaked lime and this process is called Slaking of lime.
Lime is not only used in white washing but also used as a drying agent in the laboratory for drying
ammonia and alcohol. etc. and used for the manufacture of cement, glass, calcium chloride etc.

CEMENT
Cement is one of the most important building materials. It was first discovered by Joseph Aspidin. He
called it Portland cement because he thought that it resembled the limestone found in portland.

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The raw materials used for the manufacture of Portland cement are limestone and clay. Lime stone
provides calcium oxide and the clay provides silica, alumina & ferric oxide. The approximate composition of
cement is,
CaO

60 70 %

SiO2

20 25 %

Al2O3 5 10 %
Fe2O3 2 3 %
First, the limestone & clay are finely powdered and then mixed together in the ratio of 3:1. This mixture
is again ground to a fine powder. The finely ground powder is then heated to 1773 k in a rotatory kiln. Then
clinker (obtained product is called like this) is cooled and mixed with 2 5% gypsum. The purpose of adding
gypsum is to increase the setting time of cement. Finally this mixture is finely ground and will be sold.
Cement is mixed with sand to form mortar, which is used for plastering and binding bricks and stones.
A mixture of cement with sand and aggregates of crushed stones is called concrete which is used in the
construction of roads, bridges, dams etc., steel roads, bars and other hard materials are sometimes embedded
(fixed) in the wet concrete. As the concrete sets, it sticks to these materials to form Reinforced Concrete Cement
(RCC), which is much stronger. Other materials used for reinforcing concrete are asbestos, wire mesh, bamboo
etc., RCC is used for making pipes, gitters etc.

GLASS
Glass is a transparent super cooled liquid. It is a mixture of sodium silicate, calcium silicate and sand. It
has no definite melting point and no definite crystalline structure.
Raw materials used for the manufacture of glass are silica, soda ash and lime stone.
The mixture of silica (sand) soda ash and limestone is finely powdered. This mixture called Batch is
mixed with broken glass pieces (called cullet), and then fused (melted) in a furnace at 1673k where cullet
increases the melting ability of the glass, produced.
After few hours mass is melted to a clear liquid and is allowed to cool down.
If the glass is cooled rapidly, it becomes brittle and fragile and when cooled very slowly, it becomes
opaque. So glass should be cooled neither very slowly nor very quickly, but in a special way. The way of slow
and uniform cooling of glass is called Annealing.
The varieties of glass
Varities
Materials used
Uses.
Soda glass
Chalk, Na2 CO3 Sand
Windows & bottles.
Bottle glass

Chalk, Na2 SiO4, iron oxide, and sand

Fine glass

K2CO3 NO2 Co3, Sand and red lead

Pyrex glass

Chalk, Na2 CO3 K2 CO3 Sand, Oxides

Bottles,
medical
apparatus.
Optical instruments,
artificial
games
elestsic bulbs.
Cooking
utensils,
High
quality
lab
apparatus.

of boron aluminium

STEEL
Steel is the most important form of commercial iron. The carbon content of steel is intermediate b/w that
of pig iron (cast iron) and wrought iron. Steel is manufactured by Bessemer converter process.

MAN MADE MATERIALS:

Some of the important man made materials prepared from carbon compounds are
1) Synthetic fibres
2) Plastics

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4)

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Synthetic rubber
Soaps & detergents

SYNTHETIC FIBRES : (or Manmade fibres)

A fibre is a kind of thread which is strong enough to make clothes, nets, ropes... there are three important
synthetic fibres : Rayon, Nylon and polyester (terylene).
Rayan is a manmade fibre prepared from a natural raw material, called cellulose, whereas Nylon and
Telylene are purely synthetic fibres which do not require a natural material like cellulose for their manufacture.
Note
: Cellulose is a natural polymer ((C 6H10O5)n). The walls of the all the plant cells are made up
of cellulose. So, wood contains a large amount of this cellulose. Paper which is made from
wood, grains etc., is a purified form of cellulose. Cotton and Jute are two natural fibres
made of cellulose and Rayon is a manmade fibre from cellulose.
Rayon resembles silk in appearance and hence it is also called artificial silk.
Rayon is made from cellulose by viscose process. Rayon is used in the textile industry for making
textiles (fabrics) like sarees and it is used in tyre industry for the manufacture of tyre cord. Rayon which is
mixed with wool is used in the manufacture of carpets and it is used in medical field for making bandages and
surgical dressings.

Nylon
Nylon is a synthetic polyamide fibre. The chemicals used in the synthesis of Nylon fibres are.
1) Adipic acid
2) Hexamethylene diamine
HOOC [(CH2) CO NH (CH2)6]n NH2 + nH20
Nylone
Water
n represents a very large number.
Nylon is used for making fishing nets, tyre cord, climbing ropes, parachute fabrics bristles for tooth
brushes and paint brushes. It is also used in the production of textiles, like sarees, shirts, neck. ties, socks and
other garments.

TERYLENE
Terylene is a polyester fibre. Terylene is actually a polyester of terephthalic acid and ethylene glcol.
Thus the chemicals used in the synthesis of a polyester fibre i.e., terylene are,
Terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol.
Polyester fibre like terylene is used in making sarees, dress materials, and curtains.
Polyester (or terylene) mixed with cotton is called terry cotton, which is used for making shirts,
trousers and other dresses. Terylene mixed with wool is called terywool, used for making suits.

POLYMERS
A polymer is a very big molecule formed by the combination of a large number of small molecules
called monomers. Polymers are of two types:
Natural polymers & synthetic polymers.
Examples of natural polymers : Cellulose, natural rubber, cotton, wool, silk, proteins, skin and wood
etc.. Example of synthetic polymers: Polythene, polyxinyl chloride (PVC). Polystyrene, nylon, terylene,
neoprene, thiokol and plastics.

Polythene
When ethylene is heated in the presence of oxygen at a temp. of 200 0C and 1500 2000 atm. pressure,
polythene is formed.

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

When one hydrogen atom of ethylene is replaced by one chlorine atom, we get vinyl chloride, CH 2 = CH
Cl). This vinyl chloride on polymerisation gives us a plastic, called poly vinyl chloride (PVC)

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PLASTICS
Plastics are actually synthetic polymers. Plastics are of two types: thermoplastics and thermosetting
plastics.
A plastic substance which can be melted repeatedly by heating and can be moulded again and again into
different shapes is called a thermoplastic substance (or) thermoplastic polymer.
Examples of thermoplastics are : Polythene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene and Nylon.
A plastic substance, which ones set, does not become soft on heating and cannot be moulded a second
time is called a thermosetting plastic (or) thermosetting polymer.
Example of thermosetting plastics are : Bakelite, Melamine, and urea formaldehyde resins.
Why thermoplastics can be softened by heat whereas, thermosetting plastics cannot be softened by heat?
Explanation : In thermoplastic polymers, the long carbon chains of polymers are not cross linked with
one another, Due to this, on heating the individual polymer chains can slip over one another and hence
thermoplastic material becomes soft and ultimately it melts.
Whereas, in thermosetting plastics, the long polymer chains are cross linked with one another, the cross
linkages prevent the displacement of individual polymer chains when heated. Thus they cannot become soft.
Sample problem : Which is better for constructing the handle of an electric iron a thermoplastic (or) a
thermosetting plastic ? give reason.
A: A thermosetting plastic (like bake life) is better for constructing the handle of an electric iron (box).
Because this type of plastic will not become soft by heat of hot electric iron.

NATURAL RUBBER
Natural rubber is one of the most important natural polymers, Natural rubber is also known as plantation
rubber. Rubber is obtained as latex from rubber trees later is a white, milky liquid obtained by making a cut in
the rubber tree. Later contains 30 40 % rubber in the form of a colloidal solution in water. Rubber can be
coagulated from later by adding a little of acetic acid. This coagulated rubber is separated from the solution,
woshed and dried. It is then transported to the market in the form of large sheets of crude rubber.

Chemical nature of natural rubber

Natural rubber is a linear polymer of an unsaturated hydrocarbon, called Isoprene, (Which is actually 2
methyl butadiene)
There may be as many as 11,000 to 20,000 isoprene units in a polymer chain natural rubber. Since it
contains thousands of isoprene units, it is not possible to give the complete structure of a rubber molecule on a
paper.
The quality of raw natural rubber can be improved by Vulcanisation. The process of heating natural
rubber with sulphur to improve its properties is called vulcanization. Vulcanization makes the rubber hard,
strong more elastic and causes it to lose its sticky qualities, vulcanized natural rubber is used for making rubber
bands, football bladders, gloves and rubber tubes.
Rubber is quite a soft material and it can be hardened by adding carbon black to it during the
vulcanisation process, carbon black is sued as filter for natural rubber and it increases the strength of natural
rubber and its abrasion resistance.

Synthetic Rubber
Synthetic rubber is also a kind of polymer. There synthetic rubbers are for more superior to the natural
Neoprene and thiokol.
Neoprene : is a polymer of chloroprene ( (or) 2 chlorobuta diene). Neoprene is used for making
conveyor belts used in industry and coalmines. Neoprene conveyor belts are especially useful in coalmines
because they do not catch fire easily.
Thiokol : is a polymer of ethylene polysulphide.
Thiokol is used for making the hoses and tank linings for the handling and storage of oils and solvents.
It is also used for making lining of vessels used in the manufacture of chemicals.