[Papers from the Institute oj Archaeology 5(1994) 103-11S\

The Sumerian goddess Inanna (3400-2200 BC)

Paul Collins
Institute of Archaeology, UCL
Introduction
Of" the myriad Sumerian deities that have emerged from the cuneiform records
of ancient Mesopotamia perhaps the most famous - but least understood - is the
goddess Inanna, the 'lady of heaven'. As a patron of sexuality and aggression
she appears in many ancient myths and legends and continues to exert a
fascination over contemporary minds.
Southern Mesopotamia, called Sumer, witnessed the development of the
world's oldest writing system during the Late Uruk period. However, there are
few references to Inanna in the extant cuneiform records before the Dynasty of
Akkad. Any reconstruction of the cult of Inanna at the dawn of history must,
therefore, rely initially on textual evidence of much later periods: the vast
repertoire of myths, hymns and prayers to the goddess have been attributed to the
3rd Dynasty of Ur III and the Isin-Larsa Dynasties (Table 1). Certain details in
these stories may retlect beliefs and practices from earlier periods but, these
elements are difficult to identify. However, the archaeological record of the late
fourth and third millennia has revealed evidence for numerous temples dedicated
to Inanna, testifyingtoan important and widespread cult. This paper first discusses
the archaeological record (Fig. 1), before going on to attempt to define the role
of Inanna and investigate a proposed syncretism of the goddess with the Semitic
deity Ishtar.
The temples of Inanna
Adab (Tell Bismayah)
Among the temples abandoned by Inanna in the Sumerian text of the 'Descent
to the Underworld' (Kramer 1951), is the 'Eshar' of Adab. A number of
inscriptionsreferring to this temple were recovered from a temple building on
Mound V, including a text of Mcsalim (c. 2550 BC). None of these inscriptions
mentions Inanna. Three brick stamps were discovered on mound I Va, describing
the fourth king of the Dynasty of Akkad, NaranvSin, as 'the builder of the temple
ol the Goddess Inanna'(Banks 1912:342). No temple was located on this mound
and the inscriptions may possibly refer to the building on Mound V at which a
deep sounding suggested a long sequence of buildings dating from ED I/II
(Banks 1912:322).
Bad-tibira (Tell al-Mada in)
No temple building is known, but an inscription of Entemena (c.24()4-2375)
found at the site records the building of the E-mush temple, dedicated to Inanna

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104

and Dumuzi. The temple is listed among those abandoned by the goddess in
Inanna's Descent (Kramer 1951).
Eresh(?) {Tell Abu Salabikh)
Among the texts recovered are the 7AMI hymns (c.2500 BC), forerunners of
later temple hymns of Enheduanna discussed in the section' Inanna and Ishtar'.
These take the form of a list of prayers addressed to specific temples throughout
the southern Mesopotamian plain, including the temples of Inanna in Kullaba
and Zabalam, and the temple of 'Inanna of the mountain' (Biggs 1971: 45-56).
A fragmentary god list from the site reveals Inanna as the sixth deity after Anu,
Enlil, Nin.KID, Enki and SES.Kl (Biggs 1974: 83).

Ptsriod

IlalaFUbaid Earl y

5000-4000 BC

Uruk Late Uruk Jendct

4000-3400 BC

Nasr Early Dynastic I

3400-3200 BC

!
!

Early Dynastic [I Early

3200-3000 DC I
Dynastic III Dynasty of
3000-2750

BC

2750-

BC

Akkad
2600

3rdI>ynastyoi"LTr Isin2600-2350

BC

2350-2150

BC

2150-2000

BC

2000-1800

BC

i.arsa Dynasties ] st T
dynasty of Babylon

1800-1600 BC

Table 1 Timeperiodclassi fication forMesopotamia

(after Postgatc 1992: 22)
Girsu {Telloh)
Although there is no evidence for temple buildings, it has been suggested that the
ED II 'Construction Inferieure' had a religious function (Crawford 1987: 72),
ED III texts from Girsu mention an 'Eb temple of Inanna' within an area called
Eanna. The term Eanna presumably refers to a temple complex such as those at
Uruk and Lagash. It is significant that the cities of Girsu and Lagash, which were

The Sumerian goddess Inanna

105

part of a single kingdom during ED III, both have temples called Ib (Eb)
dedicated to Inanna. The etymology of the name lb remains unclear.
Kish (Tell IngharraJTell Ukaimir)
The remains of a Neo-Babylonian {612 - 539 BC) temple at Ingharra is assumed
to be the last version of a building which 'was in the early periods dedicated to
Inanna' (Gibson 1972:4). Texts of the 3rd Dynasty of Ur list Zababa and Inanna
as the deities of Kish. In the story of Inanna's Descent (Kramer 1951), the temple
of Inanna at Kish is named as Hursagkalamma.

Figure 1 Map of the Near East showing sites mentioned in the text
Lagash (Al-Hiba)
A temple with an outer oval shaped court which was surrounded by a wall is
identified as the 'Ibgal of Inanna', based on 14 inscribed foundation figurines
found in situ. A foundation stone of Enannatum I (ED III), and votive bowls, all
dedicated to Inanna, were found in the level II fill. The temple levels are dated
by the excavator to late ED III, and a sounding beneath Level III revealed eight
earlier architectural levels, with the lowest producing spouted jars and cups dated
to ED I (Hansen 1980: 424).
Nippur (Nitffar)
Here, 27 levels of a temple dedicated to Inanna, identified initially on foundation
deposits of Shulgi (c.2094 - 2047 BC) in the uppermost level, have been
uncovered. The building is called E-duranki in Shulgi's foundation texts, but in
'Inanna's Descent' it is named as Baradurgarra (Kramer 1951). The best
preserved buildings of the Inanna temple sequence are the ED II and ED Il/III
structures. The plans of these two temples are essentially the same with the later
building wider and longer. I n each, there are two sanctuaries, paralleling the Late

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P. Collins

Uruk Inanna temple depicted on the Warka vase relief. On clearing the floor of
the level VII temple, the excavators discovered over fifty stone bowls and statues
(Crawford 1959; Hansen and Dales 1962). Approximately forty of these objects
were inscribed, and are dedicated, mainly by women, to Inanna.
Shuruppak {Tell Fara)
Many administrative and lexical tablets were recovered from the site dated to c.
2500 BC and are the direct descendants in content of many of the earlier Uruk
tablets. The god lists from Shuruppak name Inanna as the third deity, coming
after Anu and Enlil, but before Enki. It is not known whether these tablets were
the records of a temple, or a palace, or come from various buildings. A possible
temple has been reconstructed by Martin (1975) but it is not known to which deity
it was dedicated.
Ur (Tell al Muqayyar)
It is assumed that a major Early Dynastic building lies buried within the ziggurat
of Ur-Nammu. There is evidence in the form of a list of offerings, dated to ED
III, recovered from the site that Inanna and Nanna (the moon god and patron deity
of Ur) were considered to be the chief gods of Ur at this time (Alberti 1986: 104).
The later hymns of Enheduanna confirm the importance of Inanna at Ur and are
discussed in a later section.
Uruk (Warka): Eanna
The rulers of the Dynasties of Ur III and Isin-Larsa appear to have had a strong
predilection for the religious and literary traditions of Uruk, and their inscriptions
and building activity at Uruk identify the site of a major temple complex connected
with a cult of Inanna, called Eanna, 'the house of heaven'. However, the earliest
surviving reference to this precinct is in an inscription of Lugalkingeneshdudu, king
of Uruk (c.2400 BC). The inscription occurs on a stone vase dedicated at Nippur
to I nanna of Eanna. Unfortunately, the identification of an Inanna temple within the
Eanna precinct has been frustrated by the lack of any relevant objects found in
context. The various complex building phases muddle the issue further. It is
possible that the main Inanna temples lie buried beneath the 3rd Dynasty of Ur
ziggurat of Inanna to the north-east of the Late Uruk complex of buildings.
However, the importance of the goddess in the late fourth millennium at Uruk can
perhaps be inferred from the the number and range of objects associated with
Inanna, including sculpture, seals and sealings, and cuneiform tablets which are
discussed in a later section.
Uruk: Kullaba
It has been suggested that the city of Uruk grew out of two settlements, Kullaba
and Eanna which by the beginning of the third millennium BC formed one unit
surrounded by a city wall (Nissen 1972). Certainly the concept of twin areas of
the city survived into the historic period. An inscription of Utu-hegel (2019 2013 BC), for example, refers to' the citizens of Uruk and the citizens of Kullaba'
(after Soilberger and Kupper 1971; 131). The area identified at Uruk as Kullaba

The Sumerian goddess Inanna

107

(about 500m west of the Eanna precinct) contains the remains of a series of
temples set on terraces dating back to the Ubaid period. The earliest reference
to Kullaba is in the ZA.MI hymns from Abu Salabikh (c. 2500 BC) where Uruk
is called the 'twin brother of Kullaba' (Biggs 1974: 46), and praise is addressed
to the Temple of Inanna of Kullaba. There is no mention of the Eanna complex
in the ZA.MI hymns, whereas in the later temple hymns, Eanna is described as
the 'house with the great me (duties and standards) of Kullaba' (Sjoberg and
Bergmann 1969:29). This suggests that in the third millennium the term Kullaba
encompassed the whole religious area of Uruk including Eanna, rather than one
single temple complex. Utu-hegal's division of the city thus makes a distinction
between the population of the religious sector and the inhabitants of 'secular'
Uruk.
Zabalatn (Ibzaykh)
The earliest connection of Inanna with Zabalam is found on Archaic Level III
tablets from Uruk, where MUS-te (MUS being a reading of the Inanna symbol
discussed in the next section) is interpreted as the city (Green and Nissen 1987:
248). Some four hundred years later, the ZA.MI hymns from Abu Salabikh give
praise to (he Zabalam temple of Inanna (Biggs 1974:53). The temple hymns of
Enheduanna al so address prai se to' the house of Inanna in Zabalam' (Sjoberg and
Bergmann 1969: 36). The temple is called Giguna in the myth of Inanna's
Descent (Kramer 1951).
The symbol of Inanna
The earliest references to the name Inannaare on clay tablets from the Eanna
district of Uruk; in levels below the remains of major religious buildings dating
to the 3rd Dynasty of Ur, and termed 'Archaic' by the excavators. The tablets
were found within Archaic levels IV and III (Late Uruk and Jemdet Nasr
periods). None were found in secure contexts, but were in layers of rubbish, or
unstratified deposits. However, the date attributed by the excavators is generally
accepted (Falkenstein 1936; Nissen 1986).
The level IV tablets (c. 3200 BC) contain signs which are purely pictographic
and among these occurs a symbol which has been identified in texts of a later date
as INANNA or MUS ('radiant' - perhaps a description of Inanna) (Falkenstein
1936; Green and Nissen 1987). On the Uruk III tablets (c. 3100-3000 BC) the
signs have become more abstract in form, and are much closer to the fully
cuneiform shapes of later periods. These tablets can now be read with some
confidence, as the language is recognisably Sumerian. One contains a geographical
list mentioning d.inanna.ki (the place of Inanna), perhaps to be identified with
Eanna, and MUS-te, possibly the town of Zabalam (Green and Nissen 1987:248).
Andrae (1930) has suggested that the Inanna symbol represented a support
for the entrance and door of a reedhouse such as those built in the southern
marshes of Iraq today. The upper ends of the reed bundle are bent over to form
a loop 'through which to slip a pole supporting the reed mat which formed the
d<x>r, and with the surplus ends of the reeds ieft sticking out at the back, thus

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P. Collins

forming the "streamer"' (van Buren 1945:48). This interpretation of the sign has
been accepted by many writers (Frankfort 1936; Gelb 1960; Jacobsen 1976).
However, it remains unclear what the Inanna symbol actually represents, and
what its significance is in relation to the goddess. The meaning of the Inanna sign
appears to have been lost by ED II, as it then disappears from the artistic
repertoire, perhaps reflecting a decline in Eanna's importance as other cities
established their own Inanna cults and political independence.
The Inanna sign also appears on sculptures, reliefs and cylinder seals
contemporary with the Archaic IV/III tablets. A variety of scenes are depicted
in association with the sign, but there are common motifs; for example, a bearded
man wearing a net-cloak and Pathan-style hat is often depicted feeding stylised
flowers to flocks of sheep and goats. Found in association with this scene are
vases between two Inanna symbols. It has been suggested by Brandes (1979) that
the seals and sealings with similar designs represent the authority of the central
temple and the man portrayed is the 'priest-king' of Uruk identified in texts as
the en (Fig. 2). Other seal designs, dating to ED I and known as 'city-seals',
consist of symbols, including that of Inanna, apparently representing groups of
city states (Wright, 1969). These may represent economic and political
collaboration between cities, clearly demonstrating the importance of the Uruk
temple and the cult of Inanna.

Figure X Drawing of a seal impression from Uruk (V A10537)

Perhaps the most famous object from Uruk with Inanna symbols is a large
alabaster vase. It was discovered in an area dated to Archaic level III but has been
dated on stylistic grounds to the earlier level IV (Basmachi 1947: 119; Frankfort
1970: 27; Mallowan 1971:78). The vase was broken into fifteen pieces with a
large section of the rim and much of the base missing. Following restoration, the
vase is 110cm high, and has four registers of relief-carving circling it. The lowest
three registers depict, from the bottom: a frieze of vegetation; a line of alternate
rams and ewes moving from left to right; and a file of nine naked men carrying
various vessels, some containing objects. The widest register circles the top of
the vase. On this a naked man holding a large vessel containing various objects
faces a figure who has a raised right arm and is wearing a 'robe which is peculiar
to women* (Basmachi 1947: 119). Behind this figure are two Inanna signs
which, like the figure, fill the whole vertical height of the register. Beyond these
are objects representing the interior fittings of a temple. There appearto be two

The Sumerian goddess Inanna

109

shrines represented within the temple: two figures each stand on a dais on the
back of a bull which has a double outline suggesting two animals side by side.
The human figures on the bulls have been identified as a man and a woman
(Frankfort 1970: 27), but their gender is unclear, and both are dressed in similar
clothing. One figure holds a stack of vessels (possibly bevel rim bowls) while
the other stands in front of an Inanna symbol with hands raised before the face.
On the floor, behind this scene, are a pair of vessels full of fruit and grain. Above
these are a pair of tall vases; two problematical objects; and vases shaped like a
ram and a lion. The interpretation of the characters and objects depicted on the
vase will be discussed further in a later section.
Sacred marriage
In his influential study of magic and religion, James Frazer (1922) identified
what he considered to be a worldwide ritual for promoting all aspects of life in
the community. This involved the enactment (usually annually, in relation to the
seasons) of a sexual act between the deities of fertility represented by the leader
of the community and a priestess of the goddess. The earliest Mesopotamian
textual evidence for this practice dates from the 3rd Dynasty of Ur and the
Dynasties of Isin-Larsa (Kramer 1969). During the isin-Larsa period it is clear
that Dumuzi (called in these texts' Amaushumgalanna1) was considered to be the
consort of Inanna and a sacred marriage ritual was centred at Uruk. Although ED
royal inscriptions describe how rulers might be related to a deity, it is only at
times, such as the 3rd Dynasty of Ur and Isin-Larsa period, when kings were
elevated to divine status, that hymns depict them as embodying the god Dumuzi.
In these texts, Inanna is portrayed as a goddess of sexual love with the king
participating in a ritual enactment of sexual intercourse (Romer 1965: 133).
Although there is no evidence of how the goddess was represented in the ritual,
it is possible that her place was taken by a class of priestess known as nu-gig
(Renger 1975).
Many writers have attempted to use these hymns to explain details of the
carved stone and clay tablets of the Uruk and ED periods (including Frankfort
1970;Jacobscn 1976; Kramer 1969). For example, in his study of Mesopotamian
religion, Jacobsen suggests that the relief on the Warka vase depicts the sacred
marriage ritual. He interprets the top register as depicting 'Amaushumgalanna,
the god of the date palm, shown approaching the gate of his bride at the head of
a long retinue bearing his wedding gifts. Receiving and opening the gate to him
is his bride, the goddess of the storehouse, Inanna, Behind her is the sanctuary
in her temple with its altar and sacred furniture' (Jacobsen 1976: 24). While his
interpretation of the sanctuary as belonging to Inanna is probably secure, based
on the appearance of the Inanna symbol, his identification of the figures depicted
is more problematic. The figureon the Warka vase to whom the gifts are apparently
being presented is, as indicated earlier, usually assumed to be a woman, and
although often interpreted as being Inanna, has been convincingly identified by
Asher-Greve (1985) as a priestess. Much of the figure Jacobsen identifies as the
priest-king/Dumuzi is missing, having been lost when the vase was broken.

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However, fragments of a net-like garment survive together with a long belt, one
end of whichis held by aman. As mentioned earlier a man in a net cloak frequenUy
appears on contemporary cylinder seals, and has been interpreted as the priestking bringing offerings to the temple. Jacobsen translates Amaushumgalanna as
'the one great source of the date clusters', although other scholars have translated
this name more accurately as 'the mother (is) a (heavenly) dragon' (Leick 1991:
31). Inanna is translated as the lady of the date clusters1 (Jacobsen 1976: 26).
Even if correct in translation, Jacobsen's assumption of synonymy between
Amaushumgalanna and Dumuzi is anachronistic. It is clear from flour offering
lists from Shuruppak that Dumuzi and Amaushumgalanna coexisted as two
distinct deities as late as 2500 BC (Jestin 1937: no. 715) and an association of the
two gods i s known only from texts of the 3rd Dynasty of Ur and 1 ater. To account
for this, Jacobsen argues that there was a unification of the two cults reflecting
'the dual economies of Uruk: date growing (Amaushumgalanna, the date god)
and animal husbandry (Dumuzi, the shepherd), (Jacobsen 1976: 135). This is,
however, a circular argument relying on the Ur HI textual evidence.
Nevertheless, ED texts from Bad-tibira make it clear that Dumuzi was
certainly associated with Inanna during this period, and it is possible that sacred
marriage rites developed from a cult at this city. However, there appears to be
no evidence from the first half of the thi rd millennium BC to justify the traditional
interpretation, exemplified by Jacobsen, of the figures on the Warka vase, or for
the existence of a sacred marriage ritual involving Inanna at this time. To apply
this interpretation to events depicted a thousand years earlier is anachronistic and
potentially misleading.
Inanna and Ishtar
In an important early article, Jacobsen (1939) demonstrated that the then
generally accepted belief of a racial conflict between a native Sumerian population
and invading Semitic groups during the ED period, culminating in a Semitic
victory under Sargon of Akkad,hadnobasisin fact. Today Jacobsen's arguments
arc generally accepted, with increasing evidence pointing to a very mixed
Sumerian/Semitic speaking population having existed on the southern plain from
a period predating the supposed conflict. It has also been argued that, during the
ED period, the Sumerian language was being spoken by an increasingly smaller
percentage of the population (Cooper 1973). But although this theory of racial
conflict has been discredited, the concept continues to influence ideas concerning
a syncretism of Inanna with the Semitic goddess Ishtar.
The name of the goddess Eshtar (later Ishtar) occurs as elements in both
Presargonic and Sargonic personal names. It has been suggested that Eshtar
derives Irom a form of 'Attar, a male deity known from Ugaritie and South
Arabian inscriptions (Roberts, 1972: 39). The corresponding female forms are
'Attart/'Ashtart. The two names may have designated the planet Venus under
its aspect of a male morning star ('Attar) and a female evening star ('Attart). This
would apparently account for the dual personality of Ishtar as a goddess of love
(female) and of war (male). In Mesopotamia the masculine form took over the

The Sutnerian goddess Inanna

111

functions of the female and a goddess developed contrary to its grammatical

gender; perhaps under influence from Sumerian Inanna who may have possessed
similar attributes. This is discussed further in the next section.
In 1968 Hallo and van Dijk argued that following Sargon's conquest of the
southern plain, the king of Akkad initiated a deliberate policy of combining
Sumerian gods with his own Semitic deities. In this way he would 'lay the
theological loundations for a united empire of Sumerand Akkad' (Hallo and van
Dijk 1968: 9) and make Semitic gods 'more acceptable to the Sumerian
population1 (Leick 1991: 96). This formed part of Sargon's centralisation of
power.
Sargon's claim to sovereignty was probably strengthened by the appointment
of his daughter Enheduanna as high priestess at Ur (and after her, Sargon's greatgranddaughter, Enmenanna). Ur and Uruk had a long history as a condominium,
and when Sargon defeated their overlord, Lugalzagezi of Umma, the two cities
fell to him. It is likely, although there are no contemporary inscriptions for
Enheduanna outside Ur, that Sargon's daughter also held a religious role at the
twin city of Uruk, since her texts not only mention Nanna (patron god of Ur) but
also the two leading deities of Uruk: Anu and Inanna. Enheduanna is credited
in colophons with the composition of a collection of temple hymns (Sjoberg and
Bergmann 1969) together with a number of hymns of praise to Inanna:
in.nin.sa.gur.Te (Sjoberg 1976), ninmejiha.ra (Hallo and van Dijk 1968) and
possibly also 'Inannaand Ebih' (in.ninjne.kush.a). According to Hallo and van
Dijk, the hymns of Enheduanna reflect historical events and tell how she was
expelled from Ur and Uruk by a rival to the authority of the kings of Akkad, She
pleads to both Anu and Nanna for her position to be restored but eventual ly owes
her restoration to Inanna. However, all these compositions arc preserved as
copies dating to the 3rd Dynasty of Ur and their origins remain hypothetical.
The works of Enheduanna have a clear Sumerian orientation and praise
Sumerian gods rather than Semitic deities, especially Inanna. Yet later
chronographic tradition clearly regarded the dynasty of Akkad as the 'Dynasty
of Ishtar'. This title may rest on the importance of the cult of Ishtar at the capital
city rather than reflecting Akkadian religious policy. In curse formulae found in
two of Naram-Sin's inscriptions, a list of gods begins with Enlil (supreme god
of Sumer) and INANNA.an/7m (analysed to mean 'skirmisher') (Roberts
1972: 145). The Sumerian ideogram INANNA was borrowed by the Semitic
speaking scribes and should probably be read as Ishtar, as 'one does not expect
an Akkadian epithet with a Sumerian deity' (Roberts 1972: 147). In other texts
ol the Akkadian kings this goddess is often paired with Ilaba, described as the city
god of Akkad and personal god of Sargon and Naram-Sin. Generally a person
had both a male and a female personal god. The latter was normal ly overshadowed
by her spouse but Ishtar seems to have been an exception to this rule, with Ilaba
as the more shadowy figure. This could explain the later designation of the
Akkad Period as the 'Dynasty of Ishtar'.
There was no attempt by Sargon and his successors to impose their Semitic
gods on their empire. It is clear from Akkadian royal inscriptions that the kings
of Akkad attribute their rule over the southern plain of Sumer to Enlil (supreme
god of the Sumerian pantheon) who maintained his primacy in god lists (Roberts

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1972: 159 no. 33). It is possible that the northern plain, centred on the capital city
Akkad, lay under the authority of Ishtar.annunitum thus reflecting a division of
the country'found in the later Ur III royal title'king of Sumer and Akkad'. Divine
control thus followed tradition since beyond the Mesopotamian plain, northern
conquests were attributed by Sargon and Naram-Sin to Dagon (god of the middle
Euphrates).
Since there appears to have been no deliberate attempt by the kings of Akkad
to combine Sumerian and Semitic deities, the confusion, or association, of
Inanna with Ishtar must have resulted from the goddesses possessing cimiparable
powers. This idea is discussed in the next section. However, any process of
association must have been increased by the unification of Mesopotamia under
the kings of Akkad, and resulted in the 'apparently seamless garment of
Mesopotamian religion'(Roberts 1972: 154). Indeed, the confusion between the
two deities is already apparent in inscriptions dating to late in the Early Dynastic
period, as demonstrated by material from the following sites:
Akkad (unlocaied)
Chosen by Sargon, founder of the Dynasty of Akkad, as his capital, the city
contained a temple called Eulmash dedicated to Ishlar, which is mentioned in
numerous texts from the Akkad Empire and remained an important cult centre
down to the 1 st Dynasty of Babylon. Years were named after events during the
Akkad period and a relevant example survives. An inscription, probably dating
from the reign of Sargon's grandson, Naram-Sin, records, 'Yean The temple of
Inanna was built in Akkad' (Foster 1983).
Ashur (Qalal Sherqai)
In the so-called 'Archaic Ishtar' temple, live superimposed floors were revealed
(levels D,E,F,G,H) (Andrae 1922). Level H is ED Ilia in date, and it is probable
that G is constructed from the remains of level H (Tunca 1984: 239), The
identification of this temple with Inanna/Ishtar is problematic. The oldest
inscriptions from Ashur are those of Ititi (Dynasty of Akkad) and Ilushuma (3rd
Dynasty of Ur) referring to the erection of a stele and temple dedicated to Ishtar.
Both inscriptions were recovered beyond the temple building. A small gypsum
relief (5cm) showing a heavily jewelled, naked woman found in the 'ArchaicTemple' has been interpreted as a cull statue of Ishtar by Andrae (1930) but there
is no evidence to confirm this suggestion.
Ebla (Tell Mardikh)
Among the lexical tablets from the Hall of Archives which is dated by the
excavator to c. 2250 BC (Matthiae 1980: 53), offering lists show that a temple
dedicated to the Semitic goddess Eshtar existed at Ebla. In bilingual vocabularies
from the site, Eshtar is equated with Sumerian Inanna. Further evidence for a
close connection between Ebla and Sumer is provided by the fact that the leading
characters in the Ebla mythological tc\ts are Sumerian, rather than Eblaite, great
gods and include Inanna (Matthiae 1980: 188).

The Sumerian goddess Inanna

U3

Man (Tell Hariri)

A temple was revealed through seven levels: g-a (levels d-a are attributed to the
ED period). According to inscriptions on three statues from ED III levels, the
temple was dedicated to INANNA.US. The reading of INANNA.US is also
known from texts found at Ebla and it has been suggested that the Sumerian
ideogram INANNA should be read as Ishtar with US as an epithet (Gelb 1977).
Two other buildings at Man are identified as the temples of Ninni.zaza and
Ishtarai, following the discovery of a number of inscribed objects. Linguistic
analysis suggests that all three names known from Man refer to the Semitic
goddess Ishtar (Roberts 1972: 100 no. 284).
Representations of Inanna
Asher-Greve (1985) has convincingly argued that there are no representations of
deities dating to the fourth millennium. Although no depictions of the goddess
exist, the most important document for defining the role and functions of Inanna
at this time is the Warka vase (Fig. 3). As suggested earlier, the relief on the vase
depicts a double shrine of Inanna at Uruk. Furthermore, the objects within the
sanctuary may relate to either of the two figures, perhaps cultic statues, standing
on the back of bulls. I suggest that the vase in the form of a ram should be
associated with the figure holding a 'stack of vessels', while the lioness vase
(behind the ram) relates to the figure with an Inanna symbol (behind the figure
with 'bowls').

Figure 3 Detail of a vase from Uruk (after Green and Black, 1992:150, drawing
by Tessa Rickards).
The lioness and ram may represent two aspects of the goddess (perhaps the
male and female principle), signified by the double Inanna symbols at the

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114

entrance to the temple. Inanna/lshlar was often associated with a lion on cylinder
seals and reliefs following the Akkad Dynasty, but an early connection between
the two is found on a chlorite bowl discovered in the lnanna temple at Nippur,
level VIII (ED III). The vessel depicts a snake in combat with a large cat, and is
labelled in cuneiform 'lnanna and the serpent'. lnanna, conceived as a lioness,
may represent the aggressive aspect of nature. The role of the ram found on the
Warka vase, and depicted on contemporary cyl i nder seals and rcl iefs i n association
with the lnanna symbol, is less easy to define. It is not found associated with a
deity in later periods but I suggest it may represent Inanna's role as goddess of
fertility, an important aspect of lnanna according to later hymns and prayers.
Inanna was thus easily equated with the Semitic goddess Ishtar who probably
possessed similar attributes: as the 'skirmisher' Ishtar was a warrior and Roberts
(1972) indicates that there is some evidence to suggest a sexual role.

Figure 4 Details of: a) seal of Adda (after Collon 1982: no. 190); b) vase of
Entemena (after Orthman 1975: 188).
A possible representation of Inanna/Ishtar appears on a cylinder seal of
Akkad date. Identified by an inscription as belonging to the scribe Adda, the seal
depicts four of the major gods of Mesopotamia: Enki, Shamash, a hunting god
and a winged goddess in a flounced robe with weapons rising from her shoulders.
She holds a date cluster in one hand (Fig. 4a). This female deity, suggested to
be Inanna/Ishtar combining her two aspects of war and sexuality (Collon 1987:
165), is very similar to the representation of a goddess on a fragment of a large
vessel, now in Berlin, and probably dating to the time of Entemenaof Lagash (ED
iI[)(Orthmann 1975:188). It shows a goddess, full face, wearing a flounced robe
and a horned crown over long flowing hair. From her shoulders rise maces or
other weapons and in her right hand is a date cluster (Fig. 4b). The similarities
between the two goddesses are obvious and, if the Berlin relief does depict
Inanna, it represents one of the earliest known portraits of the deity. A similar
goddess, holding weapons in her left hand, is depicted on a fragment of a stone
plaque from the Nippur Inanna temple. It was found out of context but has been

The Sumerian goddess Inanna

115

dated on stylistic grounds to c. 2500 BC(Orthmann 1975: 192). The identification

of all three representations is, however, far from secure.
Conclusion
The complex character of Inanna/Ishtar that emerges from representations and
literary texts probably represents an assimilation of the functions of numerous,
often provincial, female deities as well as the more obvious roles of Inanna and
Ishtar during the third millennium BC. The tradition ol Inanna/Ishtar as a goddess
of love and war thus presented a portrait of the goddess 'as the independent,
wilful, and spoiled young noblewoman whose seductive and voluptuous charm
hides a fickle heart and a vicious temper' (Roberts 1972: 40). As such, Inanna
formed a character of such complexity and adaptability that she was highly
attractive to poets and story-tellers, ensuring her survival as an important deity
throughout ancient Mesopotamian history.
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