U.S.

Department of Energy Office of Fossil Energy

National Energy Technology Laboratory

Advanced
Turbine
Systems

Advancing
The Gas Turbine
Power Industry

In 1992, the U.S. Department of Energy forged partnerships with industry

and academia under the Advanced Turbine Systems (ATS) Program to go beyond evolutionary performance gains in utility-scale gas turbine development. Agreed upon goals of 60 percent efficiency and single digit NOx
emissions (in parts per million) represented major challenges in the fields of
engineering, materials science, and thermodynamicsthe equivalent of breaking the 4-minute mile.
Today, the goals have not only been met, but a knowledge base has been
amassed that enables even further performance enhancement. The success
firmly establishes the United States as the world leader in gas turbine technology and provides the underlying science to maintain that position.
ATS technology cost and performance characteristics make it the least-cost
electric power generation and co-generation option available, providing a
timely response to the growing dependence on natural gas driven by both
global and regional energy and environmental demands.

Introduction
Through the Advanced Turbine
Systems (ATS) Program, lofty visions in the early 1990s are now
emerging as todays realities in the
form of hardware entering the marketplace. An investment by government and industry in partnerships
encompassing universities and national laboratories is paying significant dividends. This document
examines some of the payoffs
emerging in the utility sector resulting from work sponsored by the
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).
Both industrial and utility-scale
turbines are addressed under the
ATS Program. The DOE Office of
Fossil Energy is responsible for the
utility-scale portion and the DOE
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy is responsible for
the industrial turbine portion. The
focus here is on utility-scale work
implemented under the auspices of
the National Energy Technology

Laboratory (NETL) for the DOE

Office of Fossil Energy.
In 1992, DOE initiated the ATS
Program to push gas turbine performance beyond evolutionary gains.
For utility-scale turbines, the objectives were to achieve: (1) an efficiency of 60 percent on a lower
heating value (LHV) basis in combined-cycle mode; (2) NOx emissions less than 10 ppm by volume
(dry basis) at 15 percent oxygen,
without external controls; (3) a 10
percent lower cost of electricity; and
(4) state-of-the-art reliability, availability, and maintainability (RAM)
levels. To achieve these leapfrog
performance gains, DOE mobilized
the resources of leaders in the gas
turbine industry, academia, and the
national laboratories through unique
partnerships.
The ATS Program adopted a twopronged approach. Major systems

development, under cost-shared cooperative agreements between DOE

and turbine manufacturers, was conducted in parallel with fundamental
(technology base) research carried
out by a university-industry consortium and national laboratories.
Major systems development
began with turbine manufacturers
conducting systems studies in Phase
I followed by concept development
in Phase II. Today, one major system
development is in Phase III, technology readiness testing, and another has moved into full-scale
testing/performance validation.
Throughout, the university-industry
consortium and national laboratories have conducted research to address critical needs identified by
industry in their pursuit of systems
development and eventual global
deployment.

ATS Program Strategy

Turbine
Manufacturers

System
Studies
(Phase I)

Concept
Development
(Phase II)

Technology
Readiness Testing
(Phase III)

Full-Scale Testing/
Performance Validation

Technology Base Research

Universities Industry National Labs

Global
Deployment

Utility-Scale ATS Benefits

The ATS Program is meeting established objectives, laying a foundation for future advances, and providing
a timely response to the burgeoning demand for clean, efficient, and affordable power both here and
abroad. ATS technology represents a major cost and performance enhancement over existing natural
gas combined-cycle, which is considered todays least-cost, environmentally superior electric power
generation option. Moreover, ATS is intended to evolve to full fuel flexibility, allowing use of gas
derived from coal, petroleum coke, biomass, and wastes. This compatibility improves the performance
of advanced solid fuel technologies such as integrated gasification combined-cycle (IGCC) and second
generation pressurized fluidized-bed. In summary, the ATS Program does the following:
! Provides a timely, environmentally sound, and
affordable response to the nations energy
needs, which is requisite to sustaining economic
growth and maintaining competitiveness in the
world market
! Enhances the nations energy security by using
natural gas resources in a highly efficient
manner

! Firmly establishes the United States as the world

leader in gas turbine technology; provides the
underlying science to maintain that leadership;
and positions the United States to capture a large
portion of a burgeoning world energy market,
worth billions of dollars in sales and hundreds
of thousands of jobs
! Provides a cost-effective means to address both
national and global environmental concerns by
reducing carbon dioxide emissions 50 percent
relative to existing power plants, and providing
nearly pollution-free performance
! Allows significant capacity additions at existing
power plant sites by virtue of its highly compact
configuration, which precludes the need for
additional plant siting and transmission line
installations
! Enhances the cost and performance of advanced
solid fuel-based technologies such as integrated
gasification combined-cycle and pressurized
fluidized-bed combustion for markets lacking
gas reserves

Gas Turbine Systems

A gas turbine is a heat engine
that uses a high-temperature, highpressure gas as the working fluid.
Combustion of a fuel in air is usually used to produce the needed temperatures and pressures in the
turbine, which is why gas turbines
are often referred to as combustion turbines. To capture the energy, the working fluid is directed
tangentially by vanes at the base of
combustor nozzles to impinge upon
specially designed airfoils (turbine
blades). The turbine blades, through
their curved shapes, redirect the
gas stream, which absorbs the tangential momentum of the gas and
produces the power. A series of turbine blade rows, or stages, are attached to a rotor/shaft assembly.
The shaft rotation drives an electric
generator and a compressor for the
air used in the gas turbine combus-

tor. Many turbines also use a heat

exchanger called a recouperator to
impart turbine exhaust heat into the
combustors air/fuel mixture.
Gas turbines produce high quality heat that can be used to generate
steam for combined heat and power
and combined-cycle applications,
significantly enhancing efficiency.
For utility applications, combinedcycle is the usual choice because the
steam produced by the gas turbine
exhaust is used to power a steam
turbine for additional electricity
generation. In fact, approximately
75 percent of all gas turbines are
currently being used in combinedcycle plants. Also, the trend in combined-cycle design is to use a
single-shaft configuration, whereby
the gas and steam turbines are on
either side of a common generator

to reduce capital cost, operating complexity, and space requirements.

The challenge of achieving ATS
targets of 60 percent efficiency and
single digit NOx emissions in parts
per million is reflected in the fact
that they are conflicting goals,
which magnifies the difficulty. The
road to higher efficiency is higher
working fluid temperatures; yet
higher temperatures exacerbate NOx
emissions, and at 2,800 oF reach a
threshold of thermal NOx formation.
Moreover, limiting oxygen in order
to lower NOx emissions can lead to
unacceptably high levels of carbon
monoxide (CO) and unburned carbon emissions. Furthermore, increasing temperatures above the
2,350 oF used in todays systems
represents a significant challenge to
materials science.

Gas Turbine Combined-Cycle

COMBUSTION SYSTEM
FUEL
GAS

COMBUSTION
TEMPERATURE

TRANSITION
FIRING TEMPERATURE
(TURBINE INLET)

SHAFT
AIR
NOZZLE
VANE
TURBINE
BLADE
HEAT
RECOVERY
STEAM
GENERATOR
STEAM TURBINE

GENERATOR

COMPRESSOR

POWER TURBINE

GAS TURBINE

STEAM

General Electric Power Systems ATS Turbine

General Electric Power Systems (GEPS), one of two turbine manufacturers partnering with DOE to bring the ATS into the utility sector, has
successfully completed initial development work, achieving or exceeding
program goals. The resultant 7H ATS technologya 400-MWe, 60 hertz
combined-cycle systemis part of a larger GEPS H System program,
which includes the 9H, a 480-MWe, 50 hertz system designed for overseas markets.
The H System is poised to enter the commercial marketplace. GEPS
has fabricated the initial commercial units, the MS9001H (9H) and
MS7001H (7H), and successfully completed full-speed, no-load tests on
these units at GEs Greenville, South Carolina manufacturing facility.
Having completed testing in 1999, the 9H is preceding the 7H into commercial service. The MS9001H is paving the way for eventual development of the Baglan Energy Park in South Wales, United Kingdom, with
commercial operation scheduled for 2002. The MS7001H ATS will provide the basis for Sithe Energies new 800-MWe Heritage Station in Scriba,
New York, which is scheduled for commercial service in 2004.

Early entry of the 9H is part of the H System development strategy

to reduce risk. The 9H incorporates critical ATS design features and provided early design verification. Also, because ATS goals required advancements in virtually all components of the gas turbine,
GEPS incorporated its new systems approach for the
H Systemthe design for six sigma (DFSS)
design process. DFSS accelerated development
by improving up-front definition of performance requirements and specifications
for subsystems and components, and by
focusing the research and development
activities. Downstream, the benefits
will be improved reliability, availability, and maintainability due to
integration of manufacturing and
operational considerations into the
DFSS specifications.

GEPS 400-ton
MS7001H in transit to
full-speed, no-load testing

Meeting the
Technical Challenges
Turbine
The need to address the conflicting goals of higher efficiency and
lower NOx emissions required systemic changes. The major driver was
to increase the firing temperature
(temperature into the first rotating
turbine stage) without exceeding the
NOx formation combustion temperature of 2,800 oF. To do so, GEPS
introduced closed-loop steam cooling at the first and second stage
nozzles and turbine blades (buckets)
to reduce the differential between
combustion and firing temperatures.
The closed-loop steam cooling replaced open-loop air cooling that
depends upon film cooling of the
airfoils.
In open-loop air cooling, a significant amount of air is diverted
from the compressor and is introduced into the working fluid. This
approach results in approximately
a 280 oF temperature drop between
the combustor and the turbine rotor
inlet, and loss of compressed air energy into the hot gas path. Alternatively, closed-loop steam improves
cooling and efficiency because of
the superior heat transfer characteristics of steam relative to air, and
the retention and use of heat in the
closed-loop. The gas turbine serves
as a parallel reheat steam generator
for the steam turbine in its intended
combined-cycle application.
The GEPS ATS uses a firing
temperature class of 2,600 oF, approximately 200 oF above the most
efficient predecessor combinedcycle system with no increase in
combustion temperature. To allow
these temperatures, the ATS incor-

General Electrics H SystemTM gas turbine showing the 18-stage compressor

and 4-stage turbine

porates several design features from

aircraft engines.
Single crystal (nickel superalloy) turbine bucket fabrication is
used in the first two stages. This
technique eliminates grain boundaries in the alloy, and offers superior thermal fatigue and creep
characteristics. However, single
crystal material characteristics contribute to the difficulty in airfoil
manufacture, with historic application limited to relatively small hot
section parts. The transition from
manufacturing 10-inch, two-pound
aircraft blades to fabricating blades
23 times longer and 10 times
heavier represents a significant
challenge. Adding to the challenge
is the need to maintain very tight
airfoil wall thickness tolerances for
cooling, and airfoil contours for
aerodynamics.
GEPS developed non-destructive evaluation techniques to verify
production quality of single crystal
ATS airfoils, as well as the
directionally solidified blades used

in stages three and four. Ultrasonic,

infrared, and digital radiography
x-ray inspection techniques are now
in the hands of the turbine blade
supplier. Moreover, to extend the
useful component life, repair techniques were developed for the single
crystal and directionally solidified
airfoils.
Even with advanced cooling
and single crystal fabrication,
thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) are
utilized. TBCs provide essential insulation and protection of the metal
substrate from combustion gases. A
ceramic TBC topcoat provides thermal resistance, and a metal bond
coat provides oxidation resistance
and bonds the topcoat to the substrate. GEPS developed an air
plasma spray deposition process and
associated software for robotic application. An e-beam test facility
replicated turbine blade surface
temperatures and thermal gradients
to validate the process. The TBC is
now being used where applicable
throughout the GEPS product line.

Compressor
To meet H System air requirements, GEPS turned to the high-pressure compressor design used in its CF6-80C2 aircraft engine. The 7H
system uses a 2.6:1 scale-up of the CF6-80C2 compressor, with four stages
added (bringing it to 18 stages), to achieve a 23:1 pressure ratio and 1,230
lb/sec airflow. The design incorporates both variable inlet guide vanes,
used on previous systems, and variable stator vanes at the front of the
compressor. These variable vanes permit airflow adjustments to accommodate startup, turndown, and variations in ambient air temperatures.
GEPS applied improved 3-D computational fluid dynamic (CFD) tools
in the redesign of the compressor flow path. Full-scale evaluation of the
7H compressor at GEPS Lynn, Massachusetts compressor test facility
validated both the CFD model and the compressor performance.
H System compressors also circulate cooled discharge air in the rotor shaft to regulate temperature and permit the use of steel in lieu of
Inconel. To allow a reduction in compressor airfoil tip clearance, the design included a dedicated ventilation system around the gas turbine.

Combustion

To achieve the single digit NOx emission goal, the H System uses a
lean pre-mix Dry Low NOx (DLN) can-annular combustor system similar
to the DLN in FA-class turbine service. The H System DLN 2.5 combustor combines increased airflow resulting from the use of closed-loop steam
cooling and the new compressor with design refinements to produce both
single digit NOx and CO emissions.
GEPS subjected full-scale prototype, steam-cooled stage 1 nozzle segments to extensive testing under actual gas turbine operating conditions. Testing prompted design changes including application
of TBC to both the combustor liner and downstream transition piece, use of a different base metal, and modified
heat treatment and TBC application methods.

GEPS compressor
rotor during assembly

Control System
The H System uses an integrated, full-authority, digital control
systemthe Mark VI. The Mark VI
also manages steam flows between
the heat recovery steam generator,
steam turbine, and gas turbine;
stores critical data for troubleshooting; and uses pyrometers to monitor stage 1 and stage 2 turbine
bucket temperatures. The pyrometer
system offers rapid detection of rises
in temperature, enabling automatic
turbine shutdown before damage
occurs. The demonstrated success
of the Mark VI has prompted GEPS
to incorporate it into other (nonsteam cooled) engines.

Energy Secretary Bill Richardson, flanked by Robert Nardelli of GE and South

Carolina Senator Ernest Hollings, introduced GEs gas turbine at a ceremony
in Greenville, South Carolina. Richardson stated: This milestone will not only
help maintain a cleaner environment, it will help fuel our growing economy,
and it will keep electric bills low in homes and businesses across our country.

E Power Systems has completed its work on the DOE ATS

Program, and has achieved the Program goals. A full scale 7H
(60 Hz) gas turbine has been designed, fabricated, and successfully
tested at full speed, no load conditions at GEs Greenville, South
Carolina manufacturing/test facility.

The GE H SystemTM combined-cycle power plant creates an entirely

new category of power generation system. Its innovative cooling system allows a major increase in firing temperature, which allows the
combined-cycle power plant to reach record levels of efficiency and
specific work, while retaining low emissions capability, and with reliability parameters comparable to existing products.
The design for this next generation power generation system is now
established. Both the 9H (50 Hz) and the 7H (60 Hz) family members
are currently in the production and final validation phase. The extensive component test validation program, already well underway, will
ensure delivery of a highly reliable combined-cycle power generation
system.

Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation

ATS Turbine
Siemens Westinghouse Power
Corporation (SWPC) has introduced into commercial operation
many key ATS technologies. Operating engine demonstrations and
ongoing technology development
efforts are providing solid evidence
that ATS program goals will be
achieved.

In response to input from its

customer advisory panel, SWPC is
introducing advanced technologies
in an evolutionary manner to
minimize risk. As performance is
proven, SWPC is infusing ATS technologies into commercially offered
machines to enhance cost and performance and expand the benefit of
the ATS program.

The first step in the evolutionary process was commissioning of

the W501G. This unit introduced
key ATS technologies such as
closed-loop steam cooling, advanced compressor design, and
high-temperature materials. After
undergoing extensive evaluation
at Lakeland Electrics McIntosh
Power Station in Lakeland, Florida,
the W501G entered commercial service in March 2000. Conversion to
combined-cycle operation is scheduled for 2001.
The next step is integration of
additional ATS technologies into the
W501G, with testing to begin in
2003. The culmination will be dem-

onstration of the W501ATS in 2005,

which builds on the improvements
incorporated in the W501G.

Leveraging
ATS Technology
The following discusses the
ATS technology introduced during
commissioning of the 420-MWe
W501G and currently being incorporated in other SWPC gas turbine
systems. The combustion outlet
temperature in these tests was
within 50 oF of the projected ATS
temperature.

Closed-Loop
Steam Cooling
The W501G unit applied closedloop steam cooling to the combustor transitions, which duct hot
combustion gas to the turbine inlet.
Four external connections route
steam to each transition supply
manifold through internal piping.
The supply manifold feeds steam to
an internal wall cooling circuit.
After the steam passes through the
cooling circuit, it is collected in an
exhaust manifold and then is ducted
out of the engine.
Testing at Lakeland proved the
viability of closed-loop steam cooling, and confirmed the ability to
switch between steam and air cooling. The steam cooling clearly
demonstrated superiority over air
cooling.

Siemens Westinghouse
W501G

Steam-cooled transition

Optimizing Aerodynamics
In parallel with W501G testing,
SWPC validated the benefits of applying the latest three-dimensional
design philosophy to the ATS fourstage turbine design. This was conducted in a one-third scale turbine
test rig, incorporating the first two
stages. SWPC conducted the testing in a shock tube facility at Ohio
State University, which was instrumented with over 400 pressure, temperature, and heat flux gauges. An
aerodynamic efficiency increase attributed to the use of indexing surpassed expected values.

High-Temperature TBCs
TBCs are an integral part of the
W501ATS engine design. An ongoing development program evaluated several promising bond coats
and ceramic materials prior to the
W501G tests. The selected advanced bond coat/TBC system underwent 24,000 hours of cyclic
accelerated oxidation testing at
1,850 oF. The W501G incorporated
the selected TBC on the first and
second row turbine blades. Plans
are to incorporate the TBC system
into other SWPC engines.

The roots of the compressor

design are in three-dimensional viscous flow analyses and custom designed, controlled-diffusion airfoil
shapes. Controlled-diffusion airfoil
design technology evolved from the
aircraft industry. The airfoils emerging from these analytical methods
are thinner and shaped at the ends
to reduce boundary layer effects.
To verify the aerodynamic performance and mechanical integrity
of the W501ATS compressor, a fullscale unit was manufactured and
tested in 1997. SWPC confirmed
performance expectations through
extensive, highly instrumented tests
in a specially designed facility at the
Philadelphia Naval Base.
The ATS compressor technology has been retrofitted into the
W501F product line using analytical techniques developed and
proven under the ATS program.
This significantly expands the benefit of the ATS program,
given projected sales
for this popular
sized unit.

Compressor
The W501G incorporates the
first 16 stages of the 19 stage ATS
compressor, designed to deliver
1,200 lb/sec airflow with a 27:1
pressure ratio. SWPC slightly
modified the last three stages for the
W501G compressor and changed
vanes 1 and 2 from modulated to
fixed. This resulted in air delivery
at the ATS mass-flow rate of 1,200
lb/sec, but at a pressure ratio of 19:1,
which optimizes the compressor for
the W501G system.

Siemens
Westinghouse
ATS compressor

Aerodynamic redesign

Abradable coatings on turbine

ATS Row 4
Turbine Blade and compressor blade ring seals are
To accommodate the 25 percent
increase in mass flow associated
with the ATS compressor, the
W501G uses the ATS Row 4 turbine
blade assembly. The new design
uses a large annulus area to reduce
the exit velocity and capture the
maximum amount of the gas flow
kinetic energy before leaving the
turbine. The uncooled ATS Row 4
turbine blade assembly met predicted performance levels throughout the W501G test program and
established a new level in gas turbine output capability.

Brush Seals and

Abradable Coatings

10

The W501ATS design applies

brush seals to minimize air leakage
and hot gas ingestion into turbine
disc cavities. Seal locations include
the compressor diaphragms, turbine
disc front, turbine rims, and turbine
interstages. SWPC used test rigs to
develop effective, rugged, and reliable brush seals for the various applications. ATS compressor tests at
the Philadelphia Naval Base verified brush seal low leakage and wear
characteristics, which resulted in
application of the seals to W501F
and W501G product lines. Retrofitted units have demonstrated significantly improved performance.

also a part of the W501ATS design.

This approach permits reduced tip
clearances without risk of hardware
damage, and provides more uniform
tip clearance around the perimeter.
Stage 1 turbine ring segment conditions present a particular challenge,
requiring state-of-the-art thermal
barrier properties while providing
abradability. Engine testing verified
the targeted abradability, tip-to-seal
wear, and erosion characteristics.
The coatings have been incorporated into the compressor and the
first two turbine stages of
both the W501F and
W501G machines.

Siemens
Westinghouse
W501G at
Lakeland Electrics
McIntosh Power
Station, Lakeland, Florida

Completing
ATS Development
Development activities are focused on extending the W501G performance to ATS efficiencies by
introducing additional technology
advancements and increasing the
firing temperature to 2,750 oF.

Closed-Loop
Steam Cooling
The next major step will be incorporation of closed-loop steam
cooling into the W501G stage 1 turbine vane. This addition will extend
the benefits of the existing steam
cooled transition by eliminating
cooling air at the turbine inlet, raising the firing temperature, and freeing more compressor air to reduce
NOx emissions.
Prior to retrofitting into the
W501G, the ATS steam cooled vane
underwent evaluation in a test rig
incorporating a single full-scale
combustor and transition capable of
achieving ATS temperatures and
pressures. The tests were conducted at the Arnold Air Force
Base-Arnold Engineering Development Center in Tennessee. Instrumentation verified
analytical predictions of metal
temperatures, heat transfer coefficients, and stress. SWPC
released the stage 1 turbine
vane for manufacture and subsequent installation in the
W501G, with testing scheduled for 2001.

Plans for the W501ATS are to

incorporate closed-loop steam cooling into both stage 1 and stage 2
vanes and ring segments.

Catalytic Combustion
To achieve NOx emission targets across a wide range of ATS
operating conditions, SWPC is developing a catalytic combustor in
conjunction with Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI) under DOEs
Small Business Innovation Research Program. Catalytic combustion serves to stabilize flame
formation by enhancing oxidation
under lean firing conditions. The
SWPC/PCI piloted-ring combustor
will replace the standard diffusion
flame pilot burner with a catalytic
pilot burner. Initial atmospheric
pressure combustion testing determined turndown and emission
characteristics. Follow-on tests
successfully demonstrated catalytic
combustion at full-scale under ATS
combustion temperatures and pressures. Engine testing is planned for
early 2001.

Catalytic pilot flame, which provides

stability to the swirler flame

Materials
An active materials development program has been ongoing to
support incorporation of single
crystal and directionally solidified
turbine blade alloys and steam cooling into the ATS design. The program has addressed the effect of
steam cooling on materials, blade
life prediction, advanced vane alloys, single crystal and directionally
solidified blade alloy properties,
and single crystal airfoil casting.
Single crystal casting trials, using a
CMSX-4 alloy on first stage vanes
and blades, demonstrated the viability of casting these large components with their thin-wall cooling
designs. But alternative manufacturing methods and alloys are being explored to reduce cost.
SWPC plans to use a new ceramic TBC emerging from the Oak
Ridge National Laboratory Thermal
Barrier Coatings Programa part
of the ATS Technology Base Program. The ceramic TBC, compatible with ATS temperatures, will be
integrated with the new bond coat
evaluated by SWPC earlier in the
W501G tests.

iemens Westinghouse is further expanding the benefits

of the ATS program by introducing ATS-developed technologies into its mature product
lines. For example, the latest
W501F incorporates ATS brush
seals, coatings, and compressor
technology. Because the F frame
accounts for a majority of current new unit sales, this infusion
of technology yields significant
savings in fuel and emissions.

11

Transferring Aerospace Technology

to Land-Based Systems
As indicated in the General
Electric and Siemens Westinghouse
discussions, firing temperatures
used in the ATS gas turbines necessitate materials changes in the
hot gas path, particularly in the
first two turbine stages. Moreover,
new manufacturing techniques are
needed to affect the materials
changes. While single crystal and
directionally solidified turbine
blades are being used on aircraft
engines, these parts are far smaller
and one-tenth the weight of ATS
utility-scale machines, and require
less dimensional control.

12

To support the major systems

development efforts, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory has coordinated a materials and manufacturing technology program to hasten
the incorporation of single crystal
cast components into the ATS hot
gas path.

The GE-PCC work has produced a number of findings and advances in casting technology that
will enable General Electric to incorporate higher-yield SX and DS
components into their ATS unit.
Early work determined that significant improvement in oxidation resistance resulted from reducing
sulfur levels to 1.00.5 ppm in the
super nickel alloy used. GE-PCC
developed a low-cost melt desulfurization process to replace expensive heat treatment methods for
sulfur removal.
In parallel, GE-PCC advanced
the casting and silica core processes
to enable SX manufacture of complex-cored and solid airfoils for
land-based turbine applications.
Also explored was the use of alu-

mina ceramic formulated core materials to provide enhanced stability

and dimensional control. Prototype
testing showed promise for commercial application. Liquid metal
cooling (LMC) was evaluated for
application to DS processing. LMC
provides increased thermal gradients without increasing the casting
metal temperature by improving
heat input and removal from castings. Casting of large stage-2 buckets for a 9G prototype machine was
successfully demonstrated.
Siemens Westinghouse is developing a process to fabricate complex SX blades and vanes from
small, readily producible castings
using transient liquid phase bonding. Transient liquid phase bonding was developed in the 1970s by

Single Crystal
Casting
General Electric and PCC
Airfoils (GE-PCC) teamed up to
address the challenges of bringing
cost-effective single crystal (SX)
technology to land-based gas turbine engine applications. As noted
by General Electric, the requirements for grain perfection and those
for accurate part geometry compete
with one another and create formidable challenges to successful, widespread use of large, directionally
solidified (DS) and single crystal
(SX) parts.
General Electrics liquid metal cooling furnace

Pratt & Whitney for aircraft engine

components. The bonding media
contains a melting point depressant
and a carefully selected subset of the
parent metal chemistry to attain 90
percent of the base metal properties.
In the fabricated component approach, bond planes are placed in
insensitive locations.

Howmet Research Corporation is pursuing ways to enhance SX

and DS casting technology toward
improving yields for the large ATS
hot gas path components. Activities
are focused on: (1) improving current Vacuum Induction Melt (VIM)
furnace capability and control; (2)

Fabricated blade, showing complexity

of internals

addressing deficiencies in current

shell systems; and (3) investigating
novel cooling concepts for increased
thermal gradients during the solidification process.

Fabricated blade showing bonding

plane

Siemens Westinghouse, in conjunction with the National Institute

for Science and Technology (NIST),
PCC, and Howmet, has moved the
fabricated component approach to
prototype production. Efforts have
determined segments and bonding
planes, developed coreless SX casting technology for the segments,
developed fixtures to bond the segments, verified the structural integrity, and designed non-destructive
evaluation (NDE) methods. Both
fabricated stage 1 vanes and blades
are to be used on the SWPC ATS unit.

The thrust of the VIM furnace

efforts is definition of the factors
that will improve control of mold
temperatures and thermal gradients.
Howmet conducted furnace surveys
on the GEPS 9H blade casting process to update and validate a solidification process model. Computer
models were also developed to analyze potential and current furnace
materials. These models will provide the tools to optimize the VIM
furnace design. Howmet has demonstrated that improvements of up
to 40 percent in the thermal gradient are attainable by enhancing the
current system.
The shell systems activities address the additional requirements
imposed on the ceramic mold with
increased casting size. For example,
longer casting times induce shell
creep, thicker shells reduce thermal

gradients, and the larger and heavier

molds lead to structural and handling
problems. Howmet investigated
materials additives to strengthen the
shell, and additives to improve thermal conductivity. Under some conditions, additives reduced creep
deflection by 2590 percent. Similarly, material additives achieved
improvements in thermal conductivity of up to five times under some
conditions.
As indicated above, maintaining a high thermal gradient at the
solidification front is critical to preventing casting defects and enhancing yields. Novel cooling methods
have the potential for achieving
revolutionary increases in thermal
gradients. The research being carried out is defining the heat transfer
mechanisms necessary to design
such novel cooling methods. Work
to date has shown that the maximum
thermal gradient may be limited by
three rather than one resistance
mechanism. By identifying the
principal rate limiting thermal characteristic, a significant increase in
thermal gradient may be achieved.

he advances in materials and

manufacturing technology
needed to effectively transfer
aerospace technology to the
large land-based turbine systems
represented the single greatest
challenge to meeting ATS goals.
Only through mutual investments
in extensive R&D under ATS partnerships was the challenge successfully met and a foundation
laid for further advancement.

13

Advancing Combustion Technology Through

NETL Partnerships

ETL conducts combustion research in partnership with industry and university-industry consortia to address the challenges
associated with achieving substantial gains in efficiency and environmental performance, and
expanding fuel options for gas turbines. As discussed previously,
moving to higher temperatures and
pressures for efficiency improvement conflicts with the need for
low emissions. Using new gas turbine cycles and operating on lower
energy density renewable or opportunity fuels introduce additional demands on combustion.

14

To address combustion challenges, NETLs on-site research

supports the ATS program by developing and evaluating new technology for ATS applications. The
NETL laboratories have provided
public data on various issues associated with low-emission combustion, including the stability behavior
of low-emission combustion, novel
combustor concepts, and combustion in new engine cycles.
The NETL research is often
carried out through partnerships
with industrial or academic collaborators. Cooperative Research
and Development Agreements
(CRADAs) can be used to protect
participants intellectual property,
while other approaches such as sharing public data have produced benefits to the various members of the
turbine community. The following
activities exemplify NETLs gas turbine research.

Surface Stabilized
Combustion
NETL teamed with Alzeta Corporation to investigate a new approach to ultra-low-NOx (2 ppm or
less) combustion under high temperature and pressure regimesSurface-Stabilized Combustion (SSC).
The Low Emissions Combustor Test
and Research (LECTR) facility at
NETL provided the test platform for
the investigation. LECTR is readily
adaptable to a variety of combustor
designs, and is capable of delivering representative gas turbine temperatures and pressures.
SSC may offer improved performance compared to existing DLN
combustors, which use high excess

NETL Dynamic Gas Turbine Combustor

air levels to reduce flame temperatures and thus NOx emissions.

The SSC DLN burner uses a thin,
compressed, and sintered porous
metal fiber mat (Pyromat) at the
burner inlet to stabilize combustion.
The Pyromat stabilizes combustion
by maintaining the presence of a
high-temperature surface in the
fuel-air flow path.
Testing at NETL defined the
key parameters and operating envelope, and refined the design. Subsequent testing in conjunction with
Solar Turbines validated ultralow-NOx and low CO emissions performance, further developed the
hardware, and positioned the technology for commercialization.

Duel-Fuel
Combustion

Macrolaminate fuel injector array,

shown here after testing, is used for
dual-fuel applications Photo
courtesy of Parker Hannifin

Humid Air
Combustion
The Humid Air Turbine (HAT)
cycle is an advanced gas turbine
cycle in which water-saturated air
is introduced along with gaseous fuels, and is combusted at high pressure. Projected advantages are
reduced NOx, and enhanced power
output gained by increasing mass
flow through the turbine. The HAT
cycle could potentially provide a
low-cost option for power generation, with high thermal efficiency
and rapid startup time.
A NETL partnership with United
Technologies Research Center and
Pratt & Whitney addressed actual
HAT cycle combustion characteristics using the LECTR facility. A
unique method to produce coincident ultra-low-NOx and CO levels
was found in tests of an air-cooled
combustion liner. The results were
used to further develop HAT cycle
modeling efforts. Previous investigations on the HAT cycle had largely
been limited to systems and modeling studies.

Many gas turbine installations

require operation on both liquid and
gaseous fuels without affecting operability or environmental performance. Liquid fuels are more difficult
to mix and pose difficulties in
achieving the homogeneous fuel-air
mixture distribution that is needed
for low-NOx combustion.
Under a CRADA, NETL and
Parker Hannifin evaluated a novel
dual fuel pre-mixer concept using a
manufacturing technique called
macrolamination. This technique
allows complex internal flow channels to be formed by etching them
into thin substrates and bonding the
substrates together to form fuel injector arrays.
Testing at NETL showed that
the Parker Hannifin pre-mixer enabled comparable environmental
performance with both natural gas
and type 2 diesel fuel at representative temperatures and pressures.

Stabilizing
Combustion
Dynamics
Combustion oscillations (or
dynamics) continues to be a challenging issue for the design of lowemissions combustors. Oscillations
often complicate achievement of
emissions goals, or limit engine capability for new fuels or new requirements. To address this issue,
NETL has conducted various research projects to identify methods
to improve combustion stability.
These investigations have identified
important time scales that can be
modified to improve combustion

performance. In partnership with

the Pittsburgh Supercomputing
Center, NETL has explored the dynamic structure of turbine flames.
The results are being used to understand how the dynamic combustion
response can be modified to enhance
stability. In addition, through an
AGTSR award, Virginia Tech has
conducted a series of acoustic tests
in the NETL facilities that have
demonstrated promising methods
to evaluate the acoustic response of
turbine combustors. Methods to
measure both the acoustic and combustion responses are vital to enhance the stability of low-emission
combustors and achieve the goals of
tomorrows advanced combustion
systems.
Another promising approach to
enhance combustion stability is
called active dynamics control.
Active control pulses the fuel to release heat out-of-phase relative to
the oscillation. Through a CRADA,
NETL and Solar Turbines recently
explored a variation of active combustion dynamics control, called
periodic equivalence ratio modulation (PERM). In applying PERM,
adjacent injectors alternately inject
fuel at a modulated frequency. This
modulation serves to dampen pressure pulses from any particular injector, while maintaining a desired
time-averaged fuel-air ratio (equivalence ratio). Testing on a 12-injector engine showed that PERM
effectively eliminated a 3-psi peakto-peak pressure oscillation. Modulation was carried out at frequencies
from 10 to 100 hertz without noticeable effect on engine performance.

15

Establishing the Scientific Foundation for

the 21st Century Gas Turbine

16

Anchoring ATS efforts to provide the underlying science (technology base research)requisite
for major systems developments
is the Advanced Gas Turbine Systems Research (AGTSR) Program.
AGTSR is a university/industry
consortium that has grown into a
vibrant virtual laboratory with national scope and worldwide recognition. Since its inception in 1992,
AGTSR has networked the participation of 100 universities in 38
states, and 10 major players in the
gas turbine industry. Through networking research activities, AGTSR
has exponentially increased the interactions among researchers and
interested parties, breaking the mold
of traditional one-on-one university
research (researcher and funding
agency). Moreover, AGTSR has not
only established a body of scientific
excellence in gas turbine technology,
but provided for continued U.S. leadership in turbine technology through
an ongoing education program.
With DOE oversight and industry guidance, the South Carolina Institute for Energy Studies (SCIES)
administers the AGTSR Program,
providing the linkage between universities, industry, and government.
A 10-member Industry Review
Board (IRB) provides corporate
leaders who define the thrust of the
research program and technical
experts to evaluate research proposals. IRB membership includes
gas turbine manufacturers, parts
suppliers, customers, and industry research and development organizations. SCIES coordinates the

research efforts, creates teams of

excellence in the various fields of
endeavor, conducts workshops, and
arranges internships and fellowships
as part of an education program.
Research remains the primary
mission of AGTSR. But as the program matured, other functions
emerged as a consequence of the
programs success. Workshops became necessary for effective technology transfer. And education
activities became a natural outgrowth
to sustain scientific excellence, such
as internships, fellowships, faculty
studies, and special studies. To date,
16 separate universities around the
country have sponsored workshops
on key topics. All interns were
eventually employed by the gas turbine industry or by a university. Well
over 400 university personnel and
over 100 industry experts have
participated directly in the AGTSR
program.

The structure of AGTSR serves

to ensure the quality, relevance, and
timeliness of the research. The
quality of research is assured by
university peer review at workshops and through the publication
process. Relevance of the research
is established by having industry define the research needs, select the
research, and critique the results.
Timeliness is guaranteed by industry and DOE involvement with
Performing Member institutions
throughout the life of the projects.

he creation of a national network of universities under

AGTSR mobilized the scientific
talent needed to understand
the fundamental mechanisms
impeding gas turbine performance gains and to identify
pathways for overcoming them.

AGTS professor and graduate student reviewing progress on their project

Examples of Success
The successes in the AGTSR
program are too numerous to recount. The following examples are
offered to exemplify the work carried out in the three program areas.

Combustion
Instability Control for Low
Emissions CombustorsGeorgia
Tech. Gas turbine design today incorporates lean pre-mix combustion
to reduce NOx emissions. Effective
mixing of the high volume of air with
the fuel for lean combustion is difficult and often leads to combustion
instability that can cause vibration
and damage, or turbine shutdown.
Georgia Tech developed an automatic means to actively detect the
onset of combustion instabilities,
identify combustion characteristics,
and instantaneously attenuate the
unstable mode. Georgia Tech first
fabricated a low-NOx gas turbine
simulator to develop the Active Control System. Siemens Westinghouse
carried out successful verification
testing on a full-scale 3-MW gas
turbine combustor. The observed
four-fold reduction in amplitudes of
combustion pressure oscillations
represents a major milestone in the
implementation of active combustion control. Two patents have been
issued on the Georgia Tech technology, a third is pending, and the technology is being transferred to
industry. NASA has purchased an
Active Control System for testing.
Computer Code Improvements for Low Emission Combustor DesignCornell University. It
is crucial for low emission turbine
combustor design codes to accurately predict NOx and CO emissions. To date, computer codes used

1.5

Control Off

Identification

Control On

1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0

Time (sec)
Pressure

Control Signal

Active Control System identifies combustion instabilities and instantaneously

attenuates the unstable mode

for combustor emission design have

either impractically long run times,
or have unacceptable computational
inaccuracies. Cornell University has
improved significantly upon an in
situ adaptive tabulation (ISAT) algorithm, which reduces computer
computation times for combustion
chemistry by a factor of 40. In controlled piloted jet flame validation
tests, the improved ISAT accurately
predicted NOx and CO levels, as well
as local extinction and re-ignition.
At least one gas turbine manufacturer has already incorporated the
improved ISAT algorithm into their
combustor design system.

Aerodynamics
and Heat Transfer
Advanced Component Cooling for Improved Turbine PerformanceClemson University.
Materials and air cooling techniquesused in the past to enable
high turbine inlet temperatures and
resulting performance benefitsare
approaching limits of diminishing
returns. Accordingly, General Electric and Siemens Westinghouse are

using steam cooling for their very

high temperature ATS turbines.
Clemson University has conducted
experiments in four test configurations to show that steam cooling performance is substantially improved
by adding small quantities of water
mist. Depending on the test configuration, an addition of 1 percent
(by weight) of mist typically enhanced cooling heat transfer by 50
100 percent, and in best cases, by
as much as 700 percent. By quantifying the potential benefits and defining key parameters, Clemson has
provided the scientific underpinning to support development of a
next generation closed-loop cooling
system.

17

18

Simplified Method for Evaluating Aerodynamic Interactions

between Vane/Blade RowsMassachusetts Institute of Technology. Reducing efficiency losses, due
to aerodynamic interactions between adjacent rows of stationary
vanes and rotating blades, is another
important approach to improving
gas turbine performance. However,
the computer codes that are capable
of aerodynamic analyses of the unsteady effects and complex geometry of adjacent airfoil rows require
extensive manpower efforts to set
up, multiple computer runs, and
very long run times. Such analyses
often require resources and time in
excess of those available for a turbine development program. In a
project coordinated with Solar Turbines, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) has been developing a relatively simple aerodynamics analysis approach to represent
the unsteady effects on compressor
rotor blades resulting from their
relative motion with respect to the
downstream stationary stator vanes.
MIT has conducted computer aerodynamic analyses to show that this
unsteadiness effect is negligible and
the downstream stators can be represented by a time-averaged pressure profile for the conditions
analyzed. MIT is now seeking to
delineate the general conditions under which this observation holds.
For those conditions, the significance of the MIT results is that
multiple expensive computer runs
representing adjacent blade-vane
rows will not be needed to determine rotor aerodynamic performance. Only a single run, using a
time-averaged downstream pressure
profile, is needed.

Materials Research tions. UCONN uses laser techniques

Non-Destructive Evaluations
of Thermal Barrier Coatings
University of Connecticut and
University of California, Santa
Barbara. The University of Connecticut (UCONN) and University of
California, Santa Barbara (UCSB)
are developing NDE methods for
TBCs. NDE methods are needed to
improve TBC manufacturing quality and operational lifetime inconsistencies, which have impeded the
full implementation of the turbine
power and efficiency benefits derived from TBCs. The need is so
great and the results from a past
AGTSR project are so promising
that several of the U.S. gas turbine
manufacturers, a coating supplier,
and an instrument maker are providing a substantial in-kind and direct
cost-share for this current AGTSR
project. One expected output from
this project is a low-cost and portable prototype NDE instrument
for TBCs, which will be used by turbine manufacturers, overhaul facilities, and coating suppliers. In
separate coordinated efforts, UCONN
and UCSB are using laser techniques differently for NDE evalua-

As-Deposited

to measure stresses in coated laboratory specimens cycled to failure

and coated engine parts from the
field. Correlation of the laser signals with TBC stress degradation is
used to assess remaining TBC life.
UCSB complements laser measurements of degraded materials properties with mechanistic modeling to
predict remaining life. Both projects
have demonstrated laser signal correlation with life-affecting properties.
Small-Particle Plasma Spray
TBCsNorthwestern University.
Northwestern University has demonstrated a small-particle plasma
spray (SPPS) process to produce
novel TBCs. SPPS allows small
particles to be placed into the
plasma in a more controlled manner to reduce powder vaporization
and produce less open porosity.
Multiple micrometer thick layers
are used in lieu of a single coat to
enhance toughness. Also, graded
porosity can be applied to enhance
thermal conductivity and elastic
properties. Testing has shown both
improved thermal conductivity and
oxidation resistant behavior.

Engine Tested

Laser fluorescence testing in support of NDE development at UCONN & UCSB

AGTSR Performing Members

Air Force Institute of Technology
University of Alabama, Huntsville
Arizona State University
University of Arkansas
Arkansas Tech University
Auburn University
Brigham Young University
California Institute of Technology
University of California, Berkeley
University of California, Davis
University of California, Irvine
University of California, San Diego
University of California,
Santa Barbara
Carnegie Mellon University
University of Central Florida
University of Cincinnati
Clarkson University
Clemson University
Cleveland State University
University of Colorado, Boulder
University of Connecticut
Cornell University
University of Dayton
University of Delaware
University of Denver
Drexel University
Duke University
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
University
Florida Atlantic University
Florida Institute of Technology
University of Florida
Georgia Institute of Technology
University of Hawaii, Manoa
University of Houston
University of Idaho
University of Illinois, Chicago
Iowa State University
University of Iowa
University of Kansas
University of Kentucky
Lehigh University
Louisiana State University
University of Maryland,
College Park
University of Massachusetts, Lowell
Mercer University

Michigan State University

Michigan Technological University
University of Michigan
University of Minnesota
Mississippi State University
University of Missouri-Rolla
Massachusetts Institute
of Technology
University of New Orleans
State University of NY, Buffalo
State University of NY,
Stony Brook
North Carolina State University
University of North Dakota
Northeastern University
Northwestern University
University of Notre Dame
Ohio State University
University of Oklahoma
Pennsylvania State University
University of Pittsburgh
Polytechnic University (New York)
Princeton University
Purdue University
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
University of South Carolina
Southern University
University of Southern California
University of South Florida
Stanford University

Stevens Institute of Technology

Syracuse University
University of Tennessee
University of Tennessee
Space Institute
Tennessee Technological
University
Texas A&M University
University of Texas, Arlington
University of Texas, Austin
University of Tulsa
University of Utah
Valparaiso University
Vanderbilt University
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
University of Virginia
Washington University
University of Washington
Washington State University
Wayne State University
Western Michigan University
West Virginia University
University of Wisconsin, Madison
University of Wisconsin,
Milwaukee
Wichita State University
Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Wright State University
University of Wyoming
Yale University

AGTSR Industrial Project Partners

There are ten industrial turbine developers participating in the project. Each
company contributes $25,000 (non-voting $7,500) a year to the program.

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

EPRI (non-voting)
General Electric Power
Honeywell Engine Systems
Parker Hannifin (non-voting)
Pratt & Whitney
Rolls-Royce Allison
Solar Turbines
Southern Company Services
(non-voting)
" Siemens Westinghouse
" Woodward FST (non-voting)

19

Taking the Next Step

The ATS Program by any measure is a resounding success. Much
of the technology developed under
the Program is already being incorporated into existing products and
two 400-MWe ATS units are poised
to enter commercial service. Revolutionary goals set in the early 1990s
have been met or surpassed. This
accomplishment, while proving the
skeptics wrong, further substantiated the tremendous potential inherent in mobilizing the nations best
talents to achieve difficult strategic
objectives.
Another related challenge awaits.
Gas turbines are being called upon
to meet other strategically important
market needs. Utility restructuring,
increasingly stringent environmen-

20

tal regulations, and a growing demand for peaking power, intermediate duty, and distributed generation
are combining to establish the need
for a next generation of turbine systems. The market is quite large and
the payoff in environmental and
cost-of-electricity benefits are great
through improvements in efficiency
and reduction of emissions levels,
particularly with the 50-year replacement cycle. But competitive
forces embodied in utility restructuring that are driving this market
need are also making it difficult for
the power industry to invest in high
risk research and development.
The time is right for a Next Generation Turbine Program that again
mobilizes the nations best talents,

but for a different set of needs. Intermediate sized flexible turbine

systems will be required to operate
effectively over a wide range of duty
cycles, with a variety of fuels, while
achieving 15 percent efficiency and
cost-of-electricity improvements.
To achieve greater than 70 percent
efficiency, the challenge of developing Turbine/Fuel Cell Hybrids, a
whole new cycle, will have to be
undertaken. These leapfrog performance goals are made possible by
the technological advances achieved
under the ATS Program, coupled
with the experience gained in forging private-public partnerships with
industry, academia, and the national
laboratories.

Next Generation Turbine Program

The Department of Energy has launched the Next Generation Turbine (NGT) Program in response to
needs identified in market and public benefit analyses and workshops structured to obtain stakeholder
input.

The NGT Program addresses the challenges of:

! Providing continued energy security through reduced fuel consumption and dependence on
imported fuel supplies;
! Protecting citizens from the threat of pollution and global climate change through major efficiency
and environmental performance gains; and
! Ensuring that the nations electricity supply system remains affordable, robust, and reliable through
lowering life-cycle costs and advancing reliability, availability, and maintainability (RAM) technology.

There are three elements in the NGT Program:

! Systems Development and Integration includes the government-industry partnerships needed to
develop low-cost, fuel and duty flexible gas turbines and hybrid systems that are responsive to the
energy and environmental demands of the 21st century.
! RAM Improvements provide the instrumentation, analytical modeling, and evaluation techniques
necessary to predict impending problems and establish maintenance requirements based on gas
turbine operational characteristics.
! Crosscutting Research and Development provides the underlying science in combustion, materials, and diagnostics needed to support new technology development.

Benefits will include:

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Conservation of natural resources (water and land);

Reduced air emissions (CO2, NOx, SOx);
Lower primary energy consumption (oil, coal, or natural gas depending on the region);
Lower cost-of-electricity;
Improved system reliability;
Improved competitiveness in the world market; and
Job creation.

For More Information

Abbie W. Layne
Product Manager
National Energy Technology Laboratory
Advanced Turbines & Engines Systems
(304) 285-4603
[email protected]
Heather Quedenfeld
National Energy Technology Laboratory
Communications and Public Affairs Division
(304) 285-5430
[email protected]
U.S. Department of Energy
National Energy Technology Laboratory
3610 Collins Ferry Road
Morgantown, WV 26507-0880
Customer Service 800-553-7681

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on recycled paper

November 2000