Answer Key
Answer Key
Answer Key
These measures were enacted to regulate the activities of the traders who brought grain to
Delhi. The Sultan fixed the prices of all commodities from grain to cloths, slaves, cattle etc. A
controller of market (shahna-i-mandi) intelligence officers (barids) and secret spies
(munhiyan) were appointed. The grain merchants were placed under the Shahna-i-mandi.
For controlling the food prices, Alauddin Khilji tried to control not only the supply of food grains
from the villages, and its transportation to the city by the grain merchants (Karwanis or
banjaras) but also its proper distribution to the citizens.
His first effort was to see that there were sufficient stocks of food grains with the
government so that the traders did not try to hike up prices by creating an artificial scarcity or
indulging in profiteering (regarding). For this purpose royal stores were set up at Delhi.
Perhaps significant and lasting impact of these reforms was the furthering of the growth of a
market economy in the villages and bringing about a more integral relationship between
the town and the country, the furthering of the process of the internal restructuring of the
sultanate.
Though Alauddin Khiljis market reforms were oriented more towards administrative and
military necessities than internal restructuring but he adopted a holistic approach to see the
reform working properly. That is why he did not control the price of essential commodities
only, for those meant for direct use by the military.
Instead he tried to control the price of everything from caps to socks, from combs to needles,
vegetables, sweet meats to chapatis etc. Such widespread centralised control was found to
influence every section of the society.
The price, control system affected trade severely. The merchants were unable to realise
sufficient profits. The rule was enforced so rigidly that no corn-dealer, farmer or anyone else
could hold back secretly a mound or half a mound of grain and sell it far above the fixed price.
The horse merchants were so tightly controlled that, they were fed up with their lives and
wished for death. The severe punishments given to erring merchants made many to stop
business.
The cultivators most certainly would have been affected adversely by the low price of
food-grain and the high land-revenue. It seems they lost on the other hand what they gained
from one. Alauddin Khiljis policy was to leave the cultivator with so little as to barely enough
for carrying on cultivation and his food requirements.
As a result they were unable to take home the surplus produce even after paying 50 per cent
of their produce as land revenue. They were compelled to sell their grain at a low price to the
merchants who were permitted to purchase grain. The fear of the government was such that
the cultivators would sell even their wives and cattle to pay the land- revenue so many had
lost interest in agriculture.
The impact of Alauddin Khiljis market reforms on the contemporary society was immense. The
fact that articles were sold at cheap rates in Delhi made many to migrate to Delhi. Among
them were learned men and excellant craftsmen. As a result the fame of Delhi increased.
The people of Delhi were happy. They were prepared to follow the rules prescribed by the
state. They became more disciplined. Hence crime decreased. They benefited the state very
much.
This created an environment of socio-cultural development. Literature, the mirror of a
society, took a new life. A distinct type of literature was born in the khanqah (hospice) of
Nizamuddin Auliya. It is known as Malfuz (sufi) literature which gives mystic version of the
history between 1308 to 1322.
Market Regulations and Price Control:
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Descriptive lists of merchants of both categories for each trade were prepared. Each one of
the merchants was asked to apply for the trading license. These merchants were required to
give an undertaking that they would bring the required commodities in sufficient quantity at
the proper time and to sell them at the prices fixed by the government. Once they gave
satisfactory undertaking, licenses were issued to them.
Costly and rare articles such as fine silks, woolens, brocades, cosmetics etc. could be
purchased only by special permits.
Alauddin inflicted severe punishment on those who violated the rules.
Measures to Implement the Regulations:
In order to have a regular supply of food grains, all peasants of the Doab region and the
country to a distance of 200 miles were ordered to pay land revenue in kind.
Further, they were ordered to sell their surplus grains to registered merchants at the
rate fixed by the government.
To guard against scarcity, in case of failure of crops due to famines and droughts,
Alauddin ordered grain to be stored in state granaries. Hoarding was strictly forbidden.
During emergency rationing was introduced.
Merchants were severely punished if even the slightest irregularity was detected.
Although in the beginning traders and merchants resisted the market regulations and price
control, later they reconciled themselves to low profits and obeyed the regulations as long
as Alauddin lived. The sultan assured the traders and merchants certain privileges and
facilities also. Though their margin of profit was reduced, there was no apprehension of loss in
any contingency. The sultan advanced them loans for purchase of commodities and if the cost
price was more than fixed price for sale, the trader was allowed a certain percentage on the
total sale and the entire loss of the transaction was borne by the state. Copies of schedules
of prices were supplied to shahnas, barids, traders and merchants and diwan-iriyasat.
The market regulations were, in all probability, enforced in the capital city and its
neighbourhood . These were not in force throughout the empire. Even if Alauddin desired to
implement these regulations throughout the empire, lack of proper and adequate agencies
might have prevented him to do so. These market regulations and price control have been
regarded by some historians as marvels of medieval statesmanship. The sultan was able to
check cheating and profiteering, but in the long run trade and agriculture suffered. He did not
allow any rise in prices. Due to his stern measures Alauddin could enforce order in the market.
The scheme of market regulations and price control died with him. His successors did not have
the will or the mechanism to implement them.
After the advent of Islam, the necessity of making Hinduism a living active force in the life of
the common people was felt deeply. Islam with its liberal outlook, equality of status among its
followers, and concept of one God, posed great threat to Hindu society that was suffering from
ritualism, rigid caste system, evils of untouchability and multiplicity of gods and goddesses. In
this situation many lower class Hindus were attracted by the catholic outlook of Islam in these
respects. They were also tempted to adopt Islam which could afford them better status in
society and a less cumbersome religion. But at this critical juncture the preachers of Bhakti
Movement tried to bring harmony among various religons. The often condemned the Hindu
Caste System. Though the Bhakti cult had a long tradition, it was during this time that the cult
grew to a new dimension.
Features of Bhakti Movement
Its proponents preached the unity of the god-head and emphasized that devotion to
God and faith in him led to salvation. It also laid stress on equality of all human beings
and universal brotherhood. The other tenets of the Bhakti cult were purity of heart and
honest behaviour. The basic features of this cult thus had many similarities with those of
Sufism. This helped greatly in checking the growth of Islam in India.
Impact of Bhakti Movement
The Bhakti movement became popular among the common masses as its teachings were
preached in the form of hymns in various popular languages. In this accessible form Bhakti
ideas were spread among wide strata of the population and the hymns frequently became folk
songs. Amongst the leaders of the Bhakti movement, Ramananda, Kabir, Ramanuja, Sri
Chaitanya, Nanak etc. were prominent.
Sufi Movement
The Sufi Movement had twofold aims:
1.
To make their own spiritual progress and
2.
To serve the mankind.
Sufism, which started as a reform movement, laid emphasis on free-thinking, liberal ideas
and toleration. They believed in the equality of all human beings and brotherhood of man.
Their concept of universal brotherhood and the humanitarian ideas of the Sufi saints attracted
the Indian mind. A movement similar to Sufism, called the Bhakti cult, was already afoot in
India on the eve of the Muslim conquest of the country. The liberal-minded Sufis were,
therefore, welcomed in India. The Sufi movement proved very helpful in bridging the gap
between the followers of the two religions and in bringing the Hindus and the Muslims
together.
The Sufi movement gained impetus during the reign of Akbar who adopted a liberal religious
policy under the influence of the Sufi saints.
Abul Fazal had mentioned the existence of 14 Silsilahs in India. A close link that existed
between the leader or Pir and his murids or disciples was a vital element of the Sufi system.
The Sufism reached India in the 12th century A.D. Its influence grew considerably during the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. In India, Chisti and Suhrawardi Silsila were most
prominent.
Chisti order was founded in India by Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti. His dargah at Ajmer became
a centre of veneration for both the Muslims and Hindus. After his death in 1236 A.D., his
devotees continued to celebrate an annual Urs festival at Ajmer. But the most famous Sufi
saint of the Chisti order was Nizamuddin Auliya. He led a simple austere life and lived in Delhi.
By his vast learning, religious knowledge, and tolerant attitude to all religions, he earned
devotion of both the Hindu and Muslim masses.
The Sufi Movement in India helped in establishing peace and amity among the Hindus and
Muslims.
Impact of Sufism
The liberal ideas and unorthodox principles of Sufism had a profound influence on Indian
society. The liberal principles of Sufi sects restrained orthodox. Muslims in their attitude and
encouraged many Muslim rulers to pursue tolerant attitude to their non-Muslim subjects. Most
Sufi saints preached their teachings in the language of common man that contributed greatly
to the evolution of various Indian languages like Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi, Kashmiri and Hindi. The
impact of Sufi Movement was deeply felt on some renowned poets of the period, like Amir
Khusrau and Malik Muhammad Jayasi who composed poems in Persian and Hindi in praise of
Sufi principles
Mohiniattam
Mohiniattam is a classical dance form of Kerala. Mohiniattam is derived from the words
"Mohini" (meaning beautiful women) and "attam"(meaning dance). Thus, Mohiniattam dance
form is a beautiful feminine style with surging flow of body movements. Mohiniattam dance in
Kerala developed in the tradition of Devadasi system, which later grew and developed a
classical status.
Odissi
Odissi is one of the famous classical Indian dances from Orissa state. The history of Odissi
dance is almost two thousand years old. Odissi is a highly inspired, passionate, ecstatic and
sensuous form of dance. Like most of the South Indian classical dances of India Odissi too had
its origin in the Devadasi tradition. The state of Orissa has a great cultural history.
Important Personalities
Mallika Sarabhai
Mallika Sarabhai, a multifaceted personality, is a noted Kuchipudi and Bharatnatyam
dancer. She has immensely contributed to the fields of acting, writing and publishing. She is a
social activist and has participated in many socio-developmental projects initiated by the
United Nations. Mallika Sarabhai has also received the "French Palme D'or'', the highest
civilian award of France.
Pandit Birju Maharaj
Birju Maharaj is a leading exponent and torch-bearer of the Kalka-Bindadin gharana of
Lucknow. He is the only son and disciple of Shri Achhan Maharaj and is a familiar face of
Indian Kathak dance all over the world. He has performed in almost all the countries of the
globe.
Rukmini Devi Arundale
Rukmini Devi Arundale was a reputed dancer and choreographer of Bharatnatyam, an
Indian classical dance form. Her charismatic personality and contribution to the renaissance of
Indian Classical music attained her niche in the arena of Indian culture. It is believed that
Rukmini Devi had declined the chair of the President of India, once offered by Morarji
Desai, the then Prime Minister of India.
Shovana Narayan
Shovana Narayan is a Kathak Maestro and an outstanding dancer. She is an incarnation of
the great artistic and social traditions of India. She created a new and innovative style of
performing arts by enriching it with a deeper and wider canvas of expression and dimensions.
Sonal Mansingh
Sonal Mansingh is an eminent Indian classical dancer and a leading exponent of
Bharatnatyam, Kuchipudi, and Chhau. Besides being a dancer, Sonal Mansingh is a wellknown choreographer, teacher, orator and a social activist. For her contributions in the field of
"Classical dancing" she has received accolades from many national and international
organizations.
Yamini Krishnamurthy
Yamini 'Poornatilaka' Krishnamurthy, better known as Yamini Krishnamurthy is a renowned
Kuchipudi and Bharatnatyam dancer. She is also considered as the torch-bearer of the
Kuchipudi form of dance. She started her career with a dance performance in 1957, at the age
of seventeen years.
The emperor adopted many Hindu beliefs and practices, such as, the transmigration of
Soul and the doctrine of Karma. He began to celebrate many Hindu festivals, such
as Raksha Bandhan, Dushera, Diwali, Shivratri and Vasant. Sometimes he would put
the Hindu paint-mark (Tilak) on his forehead. He opened the highest services to non- Muslims.
Thus, he inaugurated an era of complete religious toleration.
Akbar, in his personal life, continued to be a good and tolerant, Muslim. Akbar offered his daily
five prayers and go through other observances of his religion. He sought the company of
Muslim religious men and every year devoutly performed the pilgrimage to the mausoleum of
Sheikh Moinuddin Chishti at Ajmer.
Akbar held discussions with the Brahmin scholars, Purushottam and Devi, and reputed
theologians of other faiths in the balcony of his bedroom during the night. He had respect
for all the faiths including Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism and
Christianity.
Mughal Emperor Akbar was highly influenced by Hinduism. Akbar was acquainted with many
Hindu beliefs and practices. But as Akbar was anxious to acquire first-hand knowledge of the
principles and doctrines, of that religion as given in the Shrutis and Smritis, he associated
himself with prominent Hindu scholars, notable among them being Purushottam and Devi.
They were drawn to the balcony of the private apartments of the royal palace during the night
in order to explain to the emperor the mysteries of Hindu religion.
The Hindus but their scholars and chiefs looked upon the great emperor Akbar as one of
themselves. The religious policy of Akbar served the interests of all the religion and culture.
Akbar ardently desired religious unity India, and, therefore, he founded a religion of his own,
named Din-i-Ilahi. Din-i-Ilahi was founded with the laudable object of bringing to an end
religious bitterness and conflict. It is no wonder that Akbar failed to realize that both the
Hindus and Muslims were so orthodox in that age that it was unthinkable for them to give up
their hereditary beliefs and practices.
introduced. His administration was very efficient but a bit strict. He divided his empire into
provinces known as Sarkars, these were further sub-divided into Parganas and these
were again divided into smaller units. He is believed to be the first one to introduce
"Rupaiya" and "paisa' in place of "Tanka". He is also credited with the introduction of
custom duty, which is followed even today.
He built many inns, mosques and laid down the network of roads the most famous
among them being the Grand Trunk Road. He also had a refined taste in architecture, it is
evident in the Rohtas Fort built by him.
He continued his administrative as well as military activities simultaneously. He besieged the
strong fort of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand where he died at in an accidental explosion of
gunpowder in 1545. Though he ruled India for a short period of five years but changes made
by him had the everlasting impact on the lives of people. He is considered to be the most
successful ruler of medieval India. In the opinion of S.A. Rashid, as an able general,
consummate soldier, as a determined ruler Sher Shah stand head over shoulders above the
other rulers. So great was his personality that his greatest enemy, Humayun, on his death
referred to him as "Ustad-I-Badshahan", teacher of kings. Sher Shah Suri was succeeded by
his son Jalal Khan who later adopted the name of Islam Shah. He built a magnificent tomb of
his father, Sher Shah Suri at Sasaram, Bihar.
Meerut. In 1193 he prepared the ground for another invasion by Muhammad Ghori. This
invasion was directed against the Gahadavala ruler Jayachandra. Muhammad routed
Jayachandras forces. Kanauj was occupied by the Muslims after the battle of Chandawar. The
Battles of Tarain and Chandawar contributed to the establishment of Turkish rule in India.
Causes for the failure of Hindu kingdoms
The causes for the downfall of Hindu states have to be analysed historically. The most
important cause was that they lacked unity. They were divided by factions. The Rajput
princes exhausted one another by their mutual conflicts. Secondly, many Hindu states were
declining in power. Their military methods were out of date and far inferior to those of
Muslims. Indians continued to rely on elephants while the Muslims possessed quick-moving
cavalry. The Muslims soldiers had better organization and able leaders. Their religious zeal and
their greed for the greater wealth of India provided stimulus to them. Among the Hindus, the
duty of fighting was confined to a particular class, the Kshatriyas. Moreover, the Hindus were
always on the defensive, which was always a weak position.