Topic 1.

2
AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE
The mole
Reacting masses and atom economy
Solutions and titrations
The ideal gas equation
Empirical and molecular formulae
Ionic equations

Mill Hill County High School

THE MOLE
Since atoms are so small, any sensible laboratory quantity of substance must contain a
huge number of atoms:
1 litre of water contains 3.3 x 1025 molecules.
1 gram of magnesium contains 2.5 x 1022 atoms.
100 cm3 of oxygen contains 2.5 x 1021molecules.
Such numbers are not convenient to work with, so it is necessary to find a unit of
"amount" which corresponds better to the sort of quantities of substance normally being
measured. The unit chosen for this purpose is the mole. The number is chosen so that 1
mole of a substance corresponds to its relative atomic/molecular/formula mass measured
in grams. A mole is thus defined as follows:
A mole of a substance is the amount of that substance that contains the same number
of elementary particles as there are carbon atoms in 12.00000 grams of carbon-12.
One mole of carbon-12 has a mass of 12.0g.
One mole of hydrogen atoms has a mass of 1.0g.
One mole of hydrogen molecules has a mass of 2.0g.
One mole of sodium chloride has a mass of 58.5g.
The number of particles in one mole of a substance is 6.02 x 1023. This is known as
Avogadro's number, L.
Thus when we need to know the number of particles of a substance, we usually count the
number of moles. It is much easier than counting the number of particles.
The number of particles can be calculated by multiplying the number of moles by
Avogadros number. The number of moles can be calculated by dividing the number of
particles by Avogadros number.

(Number of particles) = (number of moles) x L

particles
moles

The mass of one mole of a substance is known as its molar mass, and has units of gmol-1.
It must be distinguished from relative atomic/molecular/formula mass, which is a ratio
and hence has no units, although both have the same numerical value.

The symbol for molar mass of compounds or molecular elements is mr. The symbol for
molar mass of atoms is ar.
Mass (m), molar mass (mr or ar) and number of moles (n) are thus related by the
following equation:

MASS = MOLAR MASS X NUMBER OF MOLES

or m = mr x n
Mass must be measured in grams and molar mass in gmol-1.

mass
moles

molar
mass

REACTING MASSES
It is possible to use the relationship moles = mass/mr to deduce the masses of reactants
and products that will react with each other.
When performing calculations involving reacting masses, there are two main points
which must be taken into account:
The total combined mass of the reactants must be the same as the total combined
mass of the products. This is known as the law of conservation of mass.
The ratio in which species react corresponds to the number of moles, and not their
mass. Masses must therefore all be converted into moles, then compared to each other,
then converted back.
i) reactions which go to completion
Eg What mass of aluminium will be needed to react with 10 g of CuO, and what mass of
Al2O3 will be produced?
3CuO(s) + 2Al(s) Al2O3(s) + 3Cu(s)
10 g
= 10/79.5
= 0.126 moles of CuO
3:2 ratio with Al
so 2/3 x 0.126 = 0.0839 moles of Al, so mass of Al = 0.0839 x 27 = 2.3 g
3:1 ratio with Al2O3
so 1/3 x 0.126 = 0.0419 moles of Al2O3, so mass of Al2O3 = 0.0419 x 102 = 4.3 g

ii) reactions which do not go to completion

Many inorganic reactions go to completion. Reactions which go to completion are said to
be quantitative. It is because the reactions go to completion that the substances can be
analysed in this way.
Some reactions, however, particularly organic reactions, do not go to completion. It is
possible to calculate the percentage yield of product by using the following equation:
% yield =

amount of product formed

maximum amount of product possible

x 100

Eg 2.0 g of ethanol (C2H5OH) is oxidised to ethanoic acid (CH3COOH). 1.9 g of ethanoic

acid is produced. What is the percentage yield? (assume 1:1 ratio)
Moles of ethanol = 2/46 = 0.0435
Max moles of ethanoic acid = 0.0435
so max mass of ethanoic acid = 0.0435 x 60 = 2.61 g
percentage yield = 1.9/2.61 x 100 = 73%

Eg When propanone (CH3COCH3) is reduced to propan-2-ol (CH3CH2CH2OH), a 76%

yield is obtained. How much propan-2-ol can be obtained from1.4 g of propanone?
(assume 1:1 ratio)
Moles of propanone = 1.4/58 = 0.0241 moles
So max moles of propan-2-ol produced = 0.0241 moles
So actual amount produced = 0.0241 x 76/100 = 0.0183 moles
So mass of propan-2-ol = 0.0183 x 60 = 1.1 g

ATOM ECONOMY
When we carry out a chemical reaction in order to make a product, we often make other
products, called by-products, as well.
Eg In the production of NaOH from NaCl the following reaction takes place:
2NaCl + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2 + Cl2
The atom economy of a reaction is the percentage of the total mass of reactants that can,
in theory, be converted into the desired product. It can be calculated as follows:
% atom economy = mass of desired product
total mass of products

x 100

Assuming we start with 2 moles of NaCl and 2 moles of H2O, we will make 2 moles of
NaOH, and 1 mole of H2 and Cl2.
So % atom economy =

(2 x 40)
x 100 =
(2 x 40) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 71)

52.3 %

The remaining 47.7% of the mass is converted into less useful products and is hence
wasted.
So the higher the atom economy, the less waste and the more efficient the product process
(assuming the reaction does actually go to completion).
All reactions which have only one product have an atom economy of 100%
Atom economy is an important consideration when considering how to make a particular
useful product.

SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in which the proportions
of the substances are identical throughout the mixture.
The major component of a solution is called the solvent and the minor components are
called the solutes. In most cases water is the solvent.
The amount of solute present in a fixed quantity of solvent or solution is called the
concentration of the solution. It is usually measured in grams of solute per dm3 of
solution or in moles of solute per dm3 of solution. In the latter case (moldm-3) it is also
known as the molarity of the solution.
The number of moles of solute, molarity of the solution and volume of solution can thus
be related by the equation:

Number of moles = volume x molarity

n=CxV

moles
volume(dm3)

molarity

The volume of solution in this case must always be measured in dm3 (or litres). If the
volumes are given in cm3 then V/1000 must be used instead.
If concentration is given in gdm-3, it must be converted to molarity before it can be used
in the above equation. This can be done easily by dividing by the molar mass of the
solute.

Concentration (gdm-3) = Molarity x molar mass

Or Cg = Cm x mr

C(grams)
mr

molarity

The volume of one solution required to react with a known volume of another can be
deduced from the above relationships and knowledge of the relevant chemical equation.
Remember it is moles which react in the ratio shown, so all quantities must be converted
to moles before the comparison can be made.
The quantitative investigation of chemical reactions by comparing reacting volumes is
known as volumetric analysis. The procedure by which reacting volumes are determined
is known as a titration.
In titrations, a solution whose concentration is unknown is titrated against a solution
whose concentration is known. The solution of known concentration is always placed in
the burette, and the solution of unknown concentration is always placed in the conical
flask.
Eg 28.3 cm3 of a 0.10 moldm-3 solution of NaOH was required to react with 25 cm3 of a
solution of H2SO4. What was the concentration of the H2SO4 solution?
Equation: H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Moles of NaOH = 28.3/1000 x 0.1 = 2.8 x 10-3
2:1 ratio so moles of H2SO4 = 2.8 x 10-3/2 = 1.4 x 10-3
so concentration of H2SO4 = 1.4 x 10-3/25 x 1000 = 0.056 moldm-3.
Eg Calculate the volume of 0.50 moldm-3 nitric acid required to react completely with 5 g
of lead (II) carbonate.
Equation: PbCO3 + 2HNO3 Pb(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O
Moles of PbCO3 = 5/267 = 0.0187
1:2 ratio so moles of HNO3 = 0.0187 x 2 = 0.0375
Volume of HNO3 = 0.0375/0.5 x 1000 = 74.9 cm3.

GASES
The volume occupied by a gas depends on a number of factors:
i)
ii)
iii)

the temperature: the hotter the gas, the faster the particles are moving and
the more space they will occupy
the pressure: the higher the pressure, the more compressed the gas will be
and the less space it will occupy
the amount of gas: the more gas particles there are, the more space they will
occupy

The volume occupied by a gas does not depend on what gas it is, however: one mole of
any gas, at the same temperature and pressure, will have the same volume as one mole of
any other gas.
The pressure, temperature, volume and amount of gas can be related by a simple equation
known as the ideal gas equation:
PV = nRT
P is the pressure measured in pascals (Pa) or Nm-2. One atmosphere, which is normal
atmospheric pressure, is 101325 Pa.
V is the volume in m3. Remember; 1 m3 = 1000 dm3 = 106 cm3.
T is the absolute temperature, measured in Kelvin (K). Remember; 0 oC = 273 K.
R is the molar gas constant and has a value of 8.31 Jmol-1K-1.
This equation can be rearranged to find the density of gases and the RMM of gases, using
the relationship m = n x mr.
PV = mRT/mr, so the mass of one mole is given by mr = mRT/PV, where m is the mass in
kg. The answer m will also be in kg so it must be converted into grams.
The density of a gas, or mass/volume, is given by (m/V) = mrP/RT.

SUMMARY USING MOLES

Using the four relationships described, it is possible to calculate the amount of any
substance in a chemical reaction provided that the chemical equation is known and the
amount of one of the reacting species is also known. The procedure is summarised in the
table below:
for gases:

for solutions:

n = PV
RT

n = CV

use the ratios

in the equation
to find the number
of moles of other
species

n = mass
RMM

n = particles
L

These relationships are frequently used in practical chemistry. Typical calculations in AS

Practical Chemistry involve:
i)

Determining the concentration of a solution

ii)

Determining the relative molecular mass of a solid

iii)

Determining the percentage purity of a solid

The percentage purity of a substance can be calculated as follows:

Percentage purity = mass substance would have if it was pure
mass of impure substance

x 100

EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE

The empirical formula of a compound is the formula which shows the simplest wholenumber ratio in which the atoms in that compound exist.
It can be calculated if the composition by mass of the compound is known.
The molecular formula of a substance is the formula which shows the number of each
type of atom in the one molecule of that substance.
It applies only to molecular substances, and can be deduced if the empirical formula and
molar mass of the compound are known.
The molecular formula is always a simple whole number multiple of the empirical
formula.
Eg a substance contains 85.8% carbon and 14.2% hydrogen, what is its empirical
formula? If its relative molecular mass is 56, what is its molecular formula?
Mole ratio = 85.8
12

14.2
1

7.15
7.15

:
:

14.2
7.15

so empirical formula = CH2

RMM = 56 = (CH2) so 14n = 56 and n = 56/14 = 4

Molecular formula = C4H8
It is also possible to calculate the percentage composition by mass of a substance, if its
empirical or molecular formula is known.
Eg What is the percentage composition by mass of ethanoic acid, C2H4O2?
RMM = 60
% C = (12 x 2)/60 x 100 = 40.0%
% H = (1 x 4)/60 x 100 = 6.67%
%O = (16 x 2)/60 x 100 = 53.3%

FORMULAE OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

An ion is a species in which the number of electrons is not equal to the number of
protons. An ion thus has an overall charge, characteristic of the difference in the number
of protons and electrons. Ions with a positive charge are known as cations and ions with a
negative charge are known as anions.
Compounds made up of ions are known as salts. They are all electrically neutral, so must
all contain at least one anion and at least one cation.
Salts do not have molecular formulae, as they do not form molecules. They are written as
unit formulae.
The unit formula of an ionic compound is the formula which shows the simplest whole
number ratio in which the ions in the compound exist. This depends on the charges of the
ions involved. Some important ions and their charges are shown below:
i)
Charge
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
+2
+2
+2
+2
+2
+2
+2
+3
+3
+3

cations
Formula

Name

Na+
K+
Ag+
H+
NH4+
Cu+
Mg2+
Ca2+
Fe2+
Zn2+
Pb2+
Cu2+
Ni2+
Al3+
Cr3+
Fe3+

Sodium
Potassium
Silver
Hydrogen
Ammonium
Copper(I)
Magnesium
Calcium
Iron(II)
Zinc
Lead(II)
Copper(II)
Nickel(II)
Aluminium
Chromium(III)
Iron(III)

Note that some atoms can form more than one stable cation. In such cases it is necessary
to specify the charge that is on the cation by writing the charge in brackets after the name
of the metal.

ii) anions
Charge
-1
-2
-2
-1
-1

Formula

Name

OHSO42CO32NO3HCO3-

Hydroxide
Sulphate
Carbonate
Nitrate
Hydrogencarbonate
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

The purpose of chemistry is essentially to study chemical reactions. In chemical

reactions, elements or compounds react with each other to form other elements and/or
other compounds.
Chemical reactions involve the movement of electrons between different species. The
nuclei always remain intact.
Every chemical reaction can be represented by a chemical equation. A chemical equation
indicates the species involved in the reaction and shows the way in which they react.
Every chemical equation must contain three pieces of information:
i)

the identities of all the reactants and products

The chemical formulae of all the species involved in the reaction should be shown. Any
species left unchanged should be left out. Reactants must be written on the left of the
arrow and products on the right.
Remember that in chemical reactions all the nuclei remain unchanged. Therefore the total
number of atoms of each type must be the same on each side of the equation. Atoms
themselves cannot be created or destroyed in chemical reactions; only transferred from
species to species.

ii)

the reaction coefficients

Atoms, elements and compounds combine with each other in simple whole number
ratios, eg 1:1, 1:2, 1:3. The ratio in which the species react and in which products are
formed are shown in the reaction coefficients. These are the numbers which precede the
chemical formula of each species in the equation. If no coefficient is shown it is assumed
to be 1.
Deducing the reaction coefficients for a reaction is known as balancing the equation. The
total number of atoms of each element must be the same on both sides of the equation.
When balancing chemical equations, always balance compounds first and elements
second. It's easier that way.
N.B. Reaction coefficients in no way show the actual amount of a substance which is
reacting. They provide information only on the way in which they react.
iii)

The state symbols

The state symbol shows the physical state of each reacting species and must be included
in every chemical equation. There are four state symbols required for A-level chemistry:
(s) - solid
(l) - liquid
(g) - gas
(aq) - aqueous, or dissolved in water

IONIC EQUATIONS
Many reactions that take place in aqueous solution do not involve all of the ions that are
written in the equation. Some species remain in aqueous solution before and after the
reaction. They therefore play no part in the reaction and are known as spectator ions.
In ionic equations, spectator ions are left out.
Eg BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
This reaction involves the precipitation of barium sulphate.
Notice that the Cl- ions and the Na+ ions remain in the aqueous state before and after the
reaction. They are therefore spectator ions.
The above reaction can then be rewritten as follows:
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
Eg Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 6NaOH(aq) 2Al(OH)3(s) + 3Na2SO4(aq)
This reaction involves the precipitation of aluminium hydroxide.
The Na+ and SO42- ions are spectator ions and can be left out
The ionic equation for the reaction is:
Al3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Al(OH)3(s)
Ionic equations are very useful for simplifying precipitation reactions.
They can also simplify acid-base reactions:
Eg NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
The Na+ and Cl- ions are spectator ions, so the ionic equation for the reaction is:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
All reactions between strong acids and strong alkalis have the same ionic equation.