M11 Acero PDF
M11 Acero PDF
M11 Acero PDF
and Installation
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American Water Works Association
Contents
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3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
.................................... 16
Manufacture, 16
Testing, 19
3.2
....... 1
......................................21
Caicuiations,26
Economical Diameter of Fipe, 32
Distribution Sysams, 33
Air En-ment
md Release, 33
Good Practioe, 33
..........................51
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...............................................57
Chapter 6 ExternalLoad
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6.1
Load Determination, 57 "
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6.2 Deflsction Determimtion, W
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6.3 Buckling, 61
6.4 Extreme Externa1 Loading Conditions, 62 = 6.5 Computer Programs, 63
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Chapter 7
7. I
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
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Chapter 8 PIpeJoints
....
8.1 Bell-and-Spigot Joint with Rubber Gasket, 86
8.2
Welded Joints, 87
8.3 Sleeve CoupLings, 88
8.4 Fimges, 89
8.5
Grooved-and-Shouldered Couplings, 89
8.6 Expmsion and Contraction-General, !M
8.7 Ground Fnction and Line Temion, 91
8.8 Good Practice, 92
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12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
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This manuai was first authorized in 1943. In 1949, committee 8310D appointed one of its
members, Russel E. Barnard, to act as editor in chief in charge of coiiecting and compiling
the available data on steel pipe. The first draft of the report was completed by January 1957;
the draft was reviewed by the committee and other authoritiec on sreel pipe. The first edition
of this manual was issued in 1964 with the title Steel Pipe-Desi@ und Installation.
The 1985 edition of this rgmual was approved in June 1984. The principal changes
from the 1964 edition rehted to externa1 loads on pipe, reinforcement of finings, and joint
harnesses. Some of the rigorous descriptions, formulas, and calculations included in the
1964edition were diminated where adequate references to such descriptions, formulas, and
calculations
were available. Some chapters of rhe 1964 edition were combined in the 1985
. ,.. edition, thereby reducing the number of chapters from 19 to 13. Also, a comprehensive
< --index wrts added to rhe 1985 edition, and the manual's title was changed to Steel Pip-A
Guide for Desi@ and Installation.
This revision of the manual was approved in Jwie 1988. In addition to corrections to the
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.- . text and editing for chrity throughout, major revisions include redefinition of B' in Eq &7;
. ..- redefinition of h , and Wcin Eq 6-8; revision of Sec. 13.9, including revision of Figure 13-16
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Sec. 13.10, including revision of Figure 13-17 and addition of new tables for harness
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This revision of Manual M1 1 was made by the following members of the Steel Water Pipe
Manufacturers Technical Advisory Committee (SWPMTAC):
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Frank Corteilessa
D.J. Cowling
Demis Dechant
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R. Dewey Dickson
A.D. Harder
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Gary V. Heatherington
C.R. McCormick
Gary D. Redrnond
Edwin N. Seward
George J. Tupac
This revision was idso approvtd by the Standards Committee on Steel Pipe and the
Standards Council. The Standards Committee on Steel Pipe had the following personnel at
the time of approval:
George J. Tupac, CIrwrman
John H. Bambei Jr., Vice Chaiman
Dennis Dechant, Seoetary
Consumer Members
J.H. Bambei Jr., Denver Water Department, Denver, Colo.
G.E. 31wk Jr., GHR Engineering AswSates, Inc., Lakeview, Mass.
R.S.Bryant, Department of Water and Bower, Los b e l e s , Calif.
D.J. Cowling, US Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colo.
J.L. Doane, Portland Bureau of Water Works, Portland, Ore.
C.M. Frenz, M o m County Water Authority, Rochater, N.Y.
Wesley Kremkau, Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission, Hyattsville, Md.
Kemeth Olson, Tacoma City Water, Tacoma, Wash.
E.C. Scheader, Bureau of Water Supply, New York, N.Y.
G.M. Snyder, Metropolitan Water District of Southem CaIifornia, Los Angeles,
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General Inrerest M&s
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Producer Members
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AWWA M A N U A L
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1
History, Uses, and
Physical Characteristics
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el pipe has been used for water lines in the United States sin- the early 1850s.' The pipe
was fmr manufactured by r o h g steel sheets or plata into shape and riveting the seams.
of pipe, continued with improvements
thicknesses couid be readily varied to fir the different pressure
-=
y low tensile strength of the early steels, and the low efFiciency of
cold-riveted seams and riveted or drive stovepipe joints, engineers initially set a safe design
S at 10 000 psi. Over the years, as riveted-pipe fabrication methods improved and
r strength steeh were developed, design s m s e s progressed generally on a 4-m-1
safety factor of tensile strength, increasing from 10 000 to 12 500, m 13750, and Finally to
psi, adjusted as necessary to account for the eficiency of the riveted seam. The pipe
was furnished in diameters ranging from 4 in. through 144 in.md in thickness from 16
f single-, double-, triple-, md even
rying in eficiency from 45 percent to 90percent depending on
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Steel water pipe methe requirements ofappmpriate AWWA smdards has been found
satisfactory for mmy appkatims, same of which are as follows:
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The properties of steel rhat make it so useful are its great strength, its ability to yield or
deflect under a 1 4 w u e stiii offwing fuli resismce to it, its ability to bend without
breaking, and its resistan= to sho&. The water utiZity eagineer s h d d understand these
properties, how they are measured, what they wiii do,and to what extent they can be relied
on.
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Solid mmhis can be differentiated imo two dasses: d u d e and brittle. In engineering
practice, these IWO classes must be mteddifferentlg b u s e they behave differently under
load. A ductik material exhibits a ~~ p h t i c deformatiun or fiow at a faairly definite
The top photwraph shows a section of pipe after it collapsed as a result of Ihe
falure of automatic vacuum-relief val-.
The r e s t w section,rounded out by
water forced through under pressure, is sbown at the botiom.
STBBL PIPE
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stress level (yield point or yield strength}and Shows a considerable total elongation, stretch,
or plastic defomtion before final breakage. With a brittle material, the plastic defomtion
is not weli defined, and the ulrimate elongation before breakage is s d . Mild steel, such as
-- is used in steel water pipe, is typical of the duaile materials. (The behavior of brittle
?materialswill not be examined in this manual.)
It is because of steel's ductility, its ability to yield or flex but not break, that the
Bouquet h y o n pipeline shown in Figures 1-2 and 1-3 still operates satisfactorily in 1983
after 50 years of service. It is ductility that allows comparatively thin-wded steel pipe, even
though decreased in vertical diameter 2-5 percent by earth pressures, to perform
- satisfactorily when buried in deep trenches or under high fills, provided the true required
strength has been incorporated in the design. It is also because of ductility that steel pipe
with theoretically high localized stressesat flanges, saddes, supports, m d joint-harness lug
connections has performed satisfactorily for many years.
Designas who determine s m s using formulas based on Hooke's iaw find that the
calculated results do not reflect the inregnty exhibited by the structures iiiusmted here.
reason for the discrepancy is that the conventionai formulas apply only up to a certoiin
s level and not beyond. Many eminently safe stnictures and parw ofstructuces oontain
calculated stresses above this level. A fuli undersmding of tbe performance of sudi
ures requires that the designer examine empirically the actual behavior of steel as it is
ded from zero to the breaking point.
& - The physical properties of steel (yield strength ami ultimste tensile strength) used as
- the basis for design and purchase specif~cations
are determined from tension tests made ona
"standard specimen pulied in a tensile-testing machine. T h e strength of ductile materials, in
terms of design, is defined by the yield strmgth as measuredby the lower yield point, where
one exists, or by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
offset yield stress,
where a yield point d- not exist. For steel usually used in water pipe, the yield s t r q g h is
fixed by specification as the stress due to a load causing a 0.5-percent extension of the puge
length. The point is shown in Figure 1-4. The yield srrength of steel is considered to be the
same for eithex tension or compression laads.
Ductility of steel is measured as an elongation, or stretch, under a tension load in a
testing machine. Elongation is a measurement of change in length under the load and is
%..expressed as a percenuge of the original gauge length of the test specimen.
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MAGNlFlCATlON
ELASTIC RANGE
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REGION OF
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INCREASE IN LENGTH
ORiGINAL LENGTH
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Figure 1-5
True Stress-Straln
for Steel
the l d by the actual cross-sectional ama of the bar as it decreascs in cross section under .
found that the true stress never decreases. Figure 1-5 is a stress-strain
on which both true stress and true sirain have been plotted. Becsuse conventid
sms-srrain diare used commercially, only conventid diagrams are used for the
remainder of this discussion.
Figure 1 4 shows various parts of a pure-tension stress-strain curve for steel such as
that wed in water utiiity pipe. The change in shpe of the test piecc d d n g the test is shown
by the bars drawn uader the curve. As the bar strettdies, the cross d o n decreases in area
maximum tensile s m g t h , at which point local reduction ofama (neckiag in) toikes
Many types of steel used in construction have stress-strain diagrams of the general
in Figure 1-4, whereas many other types used struchidy and for machine
pam have much higher yield and ultimate strengths, with rcduced ductiiity. Still other
useful e q h e e r i n g steels are quite brittie. In general, the low-d-ty
steels must be used at
rehtively low strains, even though they may have high stcength.
The ssaending line in the left-hand portion of the gmph in Figure 1-4 is stmight or
nearly straight and has an easily recognized slope witb respea to the vertial axis.The break
of the curve is rather sudden. For this type of curve, the point whtre the frrst
deviation from a straight h e occurs marks the proportional limit of the steel. T h e yieldstrength is at some higher stress level. Nearly al1 engineering formulas involving stress&
a lmding such that working srsesses, as calculated,will be below &e: 7
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STEEL P I W
Stresses md strains that f d below the proportional limit-that is, those thatfa11on the
straight portion of the ascending line-are said to be in the elastic range. Steel s t n i c m s
loaded to create stresses or suains within the elastic range r e m precisely to their original
length when the load is removed. Exceptions may occur with certain kinds and conditions of
loading not usually encountered in water utility installations. Within this range, stress
increases in direct proportion to strain.
The mdulus ofelasticity, as commonly defined, is ihe slope of the ascending srraight
portion of the stress-strain diagram. The modulus of elasticity of steel is about 30 000 000
psi, which means that for each incremenr of load that creates a strain or stretch of 1 pin. per
inch of length, a sness of U)psi is imposed on &e steel cross section (30 000 000 x 0.000 001 =
30).
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Immediately above the proprtional liihit, between it and the 0.5-percent extensionunder-load yield strength of the material (Figure 1-4) lies a portion of the suess-strain
diagram that may be termed the elastic-plastic range of the material. Typical stress-strain
curves with this portion magnified are shown in Figure 1-6 for two grades of carbon steel
used for water pipe. Electric-resistance strain gauges provide a means of studying the
elastic-phtic segment of the curve. TRese and associated instruments dlow minute
examination of the shape of the curve in a manner not possible before their development.
The elastic-plastic range is becoming increasingly important to the designer.
Investigation of this range was necessary, for example, to determine and explain the
successful functioning of thin steel flanges on thin steel pipc4 Designs that load steel to
within the elastic-pktic range are safe only for certain types of apparanis, structures, or
parts of structures, For example, designing within this range is safe for the hinge points or
yield hinges in steel ring flanges on steel pipe, for hinge points in structures where local
yielding or relaxation of stress must occur, and for bending in the w d of pipe under earth
load in trenches or under high Fills. It is not safe m rely on performance within this range to
handle principal tension stress in the walls of pipe or pressure vessels or to rely on such
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Whon the total measured strain is known, the actual stress can
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1.6 S W N 1N DESIGN
Analysis of a strucnire becames more complete when consideredin terms of strain as weli as
stress. For example, it has long k n known that apparent stresses calcuhted using classic
formulas based on the theory of elasticity aregreatly in error at hinge-point stress levels. The
magnitude of this error near the yidd-strength stress is demonstratedin the next paragraph,
where the classically calculated result is compared with the measured performatlce.
By definition, the yield-strength load of a steel specimen is that load which causes
a 0.5-percent extension of the gauge length. As was indicated in an earlier paragraph, in
the elastic range a stress of 30 psi is imposed on the cross-sectiod sea for each microinchper-inch increase in length under load. Because an extension of 0.5 percent corresponds w
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STEBL PIPEvzec
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5000 pin./in., the calculated yield-strength stress is 5000 x 30 = 150 000 psi. The measuwd
yield-strength stress, however, is on the order of 30 000-35 000 psi, or about one fourrh of
the calculated stress.
Simikrly varied results between strain and stress analyses occur when the performance
of steel at its yield strength is compared to the performance of its ultimate strength. There is
a great difference in strain between the yield strength of low- or medium-carbon steel at
0.5-percent extension under load and the specified ultimate strength at 30-percent
elongation, a difference which has a decided bearing on design safety. The specified yield
strength corresponds to a strain of 5000 pin./in. To pass the specification requirement of
30-percent elongation, the strain at ultimate strength must be not l a s than 0.3 in./in., or
300 000 pin./in. The ratio of strain at ultimate strength to strain at yield strength, therefore,
is 300 000:5000, or 60: 1. On a stress basis, from &e stress-strain diagram, the ratio of
ultimate strength to yield strength is 50 m 3 0 000, or only 1.67: 1.
Actucilly, mild steels such as those used in waterworks pipe show nearly linear
stress-strain diagrams up to the yield level, after which strains of 10 to 20 times the
elastic-yieid strain occur with no increase in actual load. Tests on bolt behavior under
tension substantiate this e f f e ~ tand
, ~ the ability of bolts to hold securely md safely when
they are drawn into the region of the yield, especially under vibration conditions, is easily
I 'explained by the strain concept but not by the stress concept. The bolts act sornewhat like
stiff springs at the yield-strength level.
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material.
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M,R.E. k i g n of S e 1Rhg F k g a for Water Works S e r k + A Progress Report. Jow. A WWA, 4210:93 1
Ig. 1950).
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96 in. in diameter. Calculations were made to determine the strain that would occur in the
pipe wall adjmnt to the h g e s . Table 1-1 shows the results.
Mote from the table that, in practice, the limiting suain was always below the
s..-q.:T.-; commody recognized yield-strength strain of 5000 pin./in. but did approach it quite
dosely in at h s t oae instan=. Al1 of these flanga are suff~cientlysatisfactory, however, to
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warrant their continued use by designers.
The idea of desia structure on the basis of ultimate i d capacity from test data
rather
than
entirely
on
diowable
stress is simply a return to m empirical point of view, a
. point of view that early engiaeers were obliged m accept in the absence of knowledgeof the
w p
mathemstics and statin necesssry to calculate srresses. The recent development of
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mathemaucal processes for stress analysis has, in some instances, overemphasized the
impomnce of stress and underemphasized the importante of the o v e d strength of a
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The plastic, or ductile, behavior of steel in welded assemblies may be especially important.
Allowing the stress st c e h points in a steel strucnire m go beyond the elastic range is
successful current design practioe. For many years, in buildings and in bridges,
specifications have allowed the designer to use average or nominal smsses due to bending,
shear, and bearing, resuiting h local yklding amund pins and rivets and at other points.
This local yield, which rtdistributes both load and srress, is caused by stress aoncentrations
that are neglectedin the simpk des@ formuhs. b t i c action is and has been dependedon
.to ensure the safety of steel strucrures. Experience has shown that these average or nominal
imaximum stresses form a satisfactory basis for d e s e . Dwing the manufamring p m s s ,
el pipe has been forced beyond its yieid strength many tima, and the same
thing may happen again in installation. Similar yielding can be permined after instaliarion
by design, provided the resulting deformarion has no adverse effect on the fmcrion of the
stfucture.
Basing des@ solely on approximationsfor real s m s daes not always yield safe mults.
The cohpse ofsome smcmm has been trriced toa migger action ofneglectsd p o i n of
~ high
stress concentrations in materials which, for one r-n
or another, are not ductile at these
points. Even ductile materials may fail in a brittie fwhi011 if subjected w o v e r l d in three
p h s at the same time. Careful a m t i o n to such conditions wili resdt in safer design and
d eliminate grossly over-designed struchires that are wmtdul of both material and
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In the fabricatim of pipe, the steel phtes or sheets are oftea formed at room temperatura
'qinto
the desired shape.* Such cold-forming opemtions obviously =use inelastic ddor-.
mtim, since the steei re*
its formed s h p . To ilfustratt thc general. tfftcts of such
deformation w
md ducriiity, tht elemental behavior of a d n - s t t e f msim
specimen subjected to pleistic defomtion oind subsequent reloadhgs wili be considered.
The behavior of
cold-formed plates may bt much more complex.
As iiiusiraed in Figure 1-1 1, if a steel s p c h e n of plate materiai is unlaaded after bmng
stressed into either the phtic or strain-hardenhg mge, the u n l d h g curve wiU foUow a
pth pardel to the elastic porticm of the stras-strain curve, and a residual strain or
permment set will re& after the load is removed.
If the specimen is promptiy reloaded, it wiii follow the unloading curvt m tbe
stress-stmh curve ofthe virgin (uostrahad) material. Ifthe amount ofphticdeformation
is less thm that required for tht oastt of strain hardening, the yield strength of the
- phticaiiy deformad steel wiii be approximwiy the same as h t of the virgin marmid.
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'Howtver, if the amomt of plastic defomtion is sufficient to cause S&
hardenhg, the
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yield strength ofthe steel will bt increased. In either case,the tensa strength wiU remain
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tht same but the ductifity m u r e d from the point of relding will I
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Piastic deformation can occur o d y in tbe presence of shear srrtsses. Shear stresses are
always present in a uniaxial or a biaxid s t a u of stress. However, in a triaxid seate of stress,
the maximum shear stress approaches zero as the prinupd stressm approoich a common
value. As a result, under equal triaxial tensile stresses,failurc occurs by cicavage mther thm
*Tbis gccrion was obtaiacd fmm rrfffenee 9 with minar editing.
tShear and chvagt are usad in the mcmliwgki sense (maarisaopically) to denote dificrtnt f
m
mechanisms. RefmriEt 12, as wcii as most elcmenmry twxbmh on a u r g y , d i i t b c mechpnisms.
13
by shear. Consequently, trhxial tensile stresses tend to cause brittle fracture and should be
avoided. As discussed in the foliowing material, a triaxial state of stress can result from a
uniaxial loading when notches or geometrical discontinuities are present.
If a transversely notched bar is subjscted to a longitudinal tensile force, the stress
concentration effea of the notch causes high longitudinal tensile stresses at the apex of the
notch and lower longinidinal stresses in adjacent material. The lateral contraction in the
width and thickness direction of the highly stressed material at the apex of the notch is
restrained by the smaller lateral contraction of the lower stressed material. Thus, in addition
to the longitudind tensile snesses, tensile stresses are created in the width and thickness
directions, so that a triaxial state of stress is present near the apex of the notch.
The effect of a geometrid discontinuity in a strumre is generaliy similar to, dthough
not necessarily as severe as, the effect of the notch in t h t bar. ExampIes of geometrical
discontinuities sometimes found include poor design details (sudi as abrupt changes in
cross section, attachment welds on components in tension, and square-cornered cutouts)
and fabrication flaws (such as weld crack, undercuts, arc strikes, and scars from chipping
hammers).
Increased strain mtes tend to increase the possibility of brittle behavior. Thus,
structures that are loaded at fast rata are more susceptible to brittle fracture. However, a
rapid strain rate or impact load is not a required condition for a brittle fracture.
Cold work, and the strain aging that n o m l l y follows, generally increases the
Wrelihood of bnttle fractures. This behavior is usuaiiy attributed to the previously
mentioned reduction in ductiiity. The effect of ooId work that occurs in cold-forming
operations can be minimized by selecting a generous forming radius, thus limiting rtie
amount of strain. The amount of strain that can be tolerated depends on both the steel and
the application. A more severe but quite localized rype of cold work is that which o c a m at
the edges of punched holes or at sheared edges. This effect can be essentidy eliminated for
holes by drilling instead of p u n c h g or by reaming after punching;for sheared edges, it can
be elimhated by machining or grinding. Severe hammer blows may also produce enough
cold work to locally reduce the toughness of the steel.
When tensile residual stresses are present, such as those resulting from welding, they
add to m y applied tensile stress, resulting in the actual tensile stress in the member being
greater than the applied stress. Consequently,the likelihcad of brittie fracture ina structure
that contains high residual stresses may be rninimized by a postweld heat treatment. The
decision to use a postweld heat treatment should be d e with assurance that the
anticipated benefitsare needed and will be reahzed, and that possible harmful effects can be
tolerated. Many modern steels for weldd construction are designed to be used in the less
costly as-welded condition when possible. The soundness and mechanical pmperties of
welded joints in some steels may be adversely affected by a postweld heat treatment.
Welding may also contribute to the problem of brittle fracture by introducing notches
and flaws into a structure and by causing an unfavorable change in microstrumire of the
base metal, Such detrimental effects can be minimized by properly designing welds, a i n g
care in selectingtheir location, and using gwd welding practice. The proper electrde must
be selected so that the weld metal w U be as resistant to brinle fracture as the base metal.
STEEL PIPE
14
....
..A:
-. ...
...
-. .
-,
.
..,.
..,
. >.
- .,-.-
- .
-:
.
.,
..
.
.
r>+e , ,-!+:---
- !'
*
.
-.. :., :
;. .
.
,-
.-
..-
- *
- -..;tL-.c:
::
conditions. The most commonly used of these rating tests, the Charpy V-notch impact test,
is described in this section, and the interpretation of its results is discussed briefly.
Referentes 12 and 13give detailed discussions of many other rating tests.
T h e Charpy V-notch impact test spediically evdiluatesnotch toughness-the resistance
to fracture in the presence of a notcb-and is widely used as a guide to the performance of
steels in structures susceptibleto brittle fracture. In this test, a small recranguhr bar, with a
V-shaped notch of specified size at its midlength, is supported at its ends as a beam and
fractured by a blow from a swiuging pendulum. The energy required to fracture the
specimen (which can be caiculated from the height to which the pendulum raises after
breaking the specimen)or the appearance of the fracture surface is determined for a m g e of
temperatures. The appeararice of the fracture surface is usually expressed as the percentage
of the surface that appears to have fractured by shear as indicated by a fibrous appearance. A
shiny or crystalline appearance is ascociated with a cleavage fracture.
(such as those shown in Figure 1-13) of energy or
ion of temperatwe. For the structural steels, the
ure decreasefrom relatively high values to rektively low
sing temperature. The temperature near the lower end of the
temperahire curve, at which a selected value ofenergy is absorbed (often 15ftmlb ), is
temperature. The temperature at which the percentage of
shear fracture decreases to 50 percent is often d e d the fracture-appearance transition
ition temperamre. Both transiuon temperatures provide a
resistance of various steels; the lower the transition
the bemr &e resismce to brittie fracture.The ductilitytransition temperature
transition temperature depend on many parameters (such as wmposition,
rmomechanical processing) and, therefore, can vary significantiy for a
_ BO
- ..
50
--
. .
. .
20
10
100
8o
P
< m W
I -.
4 0 -20
t - 1
-..
-7.
-3';
e-
1
+O
...
/-
mo
20 40
80 100 120 140
TEMPERATURE. 'F
O
7 >
.
'
#- 40-
-;.. . - ?2
..
E m-
A. Energy T r m s l t h Cuwe
+U
1
:
4 0 -20
20
40
80
TEMPERATURE, 'F
:.
Source: Btockenbrough. R.L. & Johnsion, B.G. USS Steel Design Manual. ADUSS 27-340044. US Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, Fa. (Jan. 1981).
Figure 1-1 3 Transition Curves Obtnined from Charpy V-Notch lmpact Tests
..
'
"
.-
i.ii
... .
.'.-..
-5
2 . -7.
.
.
.-..,
-7.
15
GOO~FRACTICE
The ordinary water pipeline requirts li* stress calcularion. The commonly used internal
pressures for stetl water pipe are given in Tables 4-1 and 4-2 in Chapter4. Suggested design
stresses to resist other loadings are given as guides in various chapters on the different design
When designing the details of supports, wye branches, and other specials, especidiy for
large pipe, the engjneer wiii do weU to consider the data in Chapter 13.
The concept of designing on the basis of strain as well as stress will shed light on the
behavior of steel and other mterials in many cases wkre consideration of stress done offers
no reasonabk exphtion. The adon and undesirabk efftcts of stress raisers or stress
concentrations-such as notches, threads, hps, and suddw chaages in cross section-will
be better understd. The steps to be taken in counteracting advcrse tffects become clearer.
References
1. ELLIOT,G.A. The Use of Steel Pipe in
Water Worb. Jow. A WWA, 9:11:839
(Nov. 1922).
2. CATES,
W.H.History of Steel Water Pipe,
Its Fabrication and Dcsign Development, (Apr. 1971).
(1%1).
11. CHAJES,
A.; B R ~ c S.J.;
,
&W I ~
G.EffeCKs of c m - S m i n i t l g on Smictural
Shwt Steels. Jour.of the Stnictural Div.,
Pm.,ASCE, 89, No. ST2 (Apr. 1963).
12. PARKER,
B.R. Brittle Behapnot of Engineering S ~ t u r e sJohn
.
Wiley ami Sons,
Ntw York (1957).
13. Control of Steel Construction to Avoid
Bri* Failure. WcIding Regtaxch CounciI, New York (1957).
14. LIGHTNER,
M.W. & VANDERBECK,
R. W.
Factors Involved in Brittle Fracture.
Regional TecIinicai Mectiags, Americsin
Iron and Steei Insritute, Washington,
D.C. (1956).
15. WLPE,S.T. & B~RSOM,J.M. Fracture
and FanngareControl in Structures-Applicatims of Fracture Mechanics. PraiuccHd,Inc., E n g l e w d Cliffs, N.J. (1977).
AWWA MANUAL
Manufacture and
Testing
ir':-
;+-*.:
."
-'
I.%_
-:>...
17
STR l P
WELDED
TUBE
PRESSURE-63
1
ROLL
WELDING ELECTRODES
FROM
COlL
The current ente= the tube via slidlng contacts and flows along Vee
edges to and from the weld point.
WELD WELDED
POINT SEAM
INDUCTION
COlL
h 1 A
Eddy current flows around the back of the tube and along the edges
to and from the weld point.
18
STEEL PIPE
1.
2.
3.
WlRE ELECTRODE
FLUX
]
4,
Gkrg e--The
*pea'p-eenters
;._
p - t k
Uthls
:cj;:'pmkkcular
diea open.
" 5
Tlk-w die, under
;':&&~uIFc
pressure, IS
-;.- -%&yd
-&M on the U,
:: ::-&Htwrrring it to a
g?iWCal shape.
CLEANI NO TORCH
OuiDE R o L Z
5.
6.
ends.
TV CAMERA
1
174
DLES
GLOSE0
7.
8.
Sourm: Carbon Steel P i p , Strudural Tubing, Line Pipe and Oil Country Tubular Goods. Steei Products Manual. American /ron end Steel
lns titute. Washington, D. C. (Apr. 1982).
Figure 2-6
19
Plpe
.=. ..
..-. .
.
'
--
.,
Pipe sizes mmufactud using the fusion wciding process are G t e d only by si%
limitations of individual pipe manufacturers. This p m s is esmaiiy suikd for
in
Spe
thod9. . . , -
..
-. ..
.. -- .
20
STEEL PIPE
It is common practie in most steel melting operations to obtain more than one
la&-test ingot sample from each heat or bIow; often three or more are taken, representing
the fmt, middle, and last prtions of the heat or blow. Drillings taken from the first or
middle sample are used in determiningthe ladle analysis because experiencehas shown that
these locations most closely represent the chemical analysis of the entire heat or blow. The
additionai samples are used for a survey of uniformity and for control purposes.
Check analysis. Check andysis, as used in the steel industry, means analysis of the
metal after it has been rolled or forged into semifmished or fmished forms. Such an analysis
is made either to verify the average composition of the heat, to verify the composition of a lot
as represented by the ladie analysis, or to determine variations in the composition of a heat or
lot. Check analysis is not used, as the term might impIy, m confirm the accuracy of a
previous result. Check analysis of known heats is justified only where a high degree of
uniformity of composition is essentid-for example, on material that is to be heat treated.
Such analysis should rarely be necessary for water pipe, except to identify or confirm the
assumed a d y s i s of plates or pipe that have lost identity. The results of analyses
representingdifferent locations in the same piece, or taken from different pieces of a lot, may
differ from each other and from the M e anaiysis owing to segregation. These permissible
variations from the specified ranges or limits have been established in the applicable
specification or by common practice. me variations are a natural phenomenon that must be
recognized by inspectors. The methods of anaiysis commonly used are in accordance with
the latest edition of ASTM ~ 7 1 5those approved by the National Bureau of Standards, or
others of equivalent accuracy.
Tests of phydcal properties. The methods of testing the physid properties of
steel pipe are established in ASTM ~ 3 7 0 The
2 physical properties required are containd
in AWWA C200, Standard for Steel Water Pipe 6 Inches and ~arger?or are as otherwise
specified by the purchaser.
Hydrostatic test ofstraight pipe. Straight lengths of pressure pipe mdtubing are
.
customarily subjected to an interna1 hydrostatic pressure test. This operation is conduaed
" as a part of the regular mil1 inspection procedure to help detect defects. It is not intended to
bear a direct reiationship to bursthg pressures, working pressures, or design data, although
test pressures sometimes influence design pressures. AWWA C200 contains a formula for
determining hydrostatic test.
It is customary to make hydratatic tests at the pressure required by the standard
during the course of manufacture of the pipe. The requirements for hydrostatic testing in
the presence of the purchaser's inspector involve additional handling, unless tfie inspector is
present during the course of manufacture. The producer, on request, customarily furnishes
a certificate confirming such testing.
Tests of dimensional properties. The diameter, length, wall thickness, straightness, and out-of-roundness of pipe are checked as part of the normal manufacturing
procedure. Such dimensions are subject to the tolerantes prescribed in the appropriate
standards or sptcifications. ..-
>
..
Referentes
. .. ,. -... ,
'
(1977).
.
3%
. -
- ,
:.
r
-
;
-
AWWA MANUAL
-Hydraulicsof Pipelines
:>
.: .:.
,.:
.-,~,&E-A
.+
:
V = 1.318 c
-
# ~ ~
hf =
~ 1 . 8 ~5 4~- 8 7
Tests hsve shown that the vdue of the Hazen-Wiiliams roughness coeficient C is
dependen1not oniy on the surfaceroughnessofthe pipe interior but also on the diameterof
22
STEEL PIPE
the pipe. Flow measurements show that for pipe with smooth interior linings in good
condition, the average vaiw of C m a y be appmximated by the formula:
C = 140 + 0.17d
(3-3)
The recommendedK,vdue for new bare steef pipt or pipe with iiaings confocming to
current AWWA smdmds is 0.36. A graphid solution to the Scobey formula for K,=0.36 is
shown in Figure 3-2. Mdtiplyiag factors for odier frictim d i c i e n w are given in Tabk
3-2.
For design, an n vdue of 0.01 1 is mmmended for steel pipe with iinings conforming
to current AWWA standard$. A graphid solution to the Manning fomuia for n = 0.011 is
shown in Figure 3-3. Multiplyhg facu)rs for other values of n are @venin Tabk 3-3.
.-
HYDRAULICS OF PIPELINES
23
0.1
0.2
0.0
0.4
1
4
,, ,
10
20
40
60
100
200
400600
1000
2000
4000800010000
0.32
discharge
1.125
0.34
1,059
0.36
1.000
0.38
0.946
0.40
0.900
0.32
1.125
0.34
0.36
1.059
1.000
0,W
0.946
n vaiue
Relative discharge
*Data for use with Figure 3-3.
0.009
0.010
1.222
1.100
0.011
1.000
0.012
0.013
0.917
0.846
STEHL PIPE
26
- . . -. .
The quantity of water that will pass through any given pipe depends on the head (pressure)
producing the flow, the diameter and length of the pipe, the condition of the pipe interior
(smooth or rough), the number and abruptness of bends or elbows, and the presence of tees,
brmches, valves, and orher accessories in the line.
The total head, or pressure, affectingflow may be divided into four parts: velocity head
loss, entrance head loss, loss of head through friction, and minor losses due to elbows,
fittings, and valves.
. -.
-E
"g-:>L
.
.
.
,L . . ..
..
Entrance head loss is the head required to overcome the resismce at the ennance io the
pipe; it is usually less than the veiwity head. When the conditions are not specified, it is
ordinarily considered equal to one-half the velacity head, on the assumption of a sharp-edge
entrance. Safe values for the ordinary entrance head loss may be obtained from Table 3-4 by
taking half the velocity head corresponding to the velocity in the pipeline. Head losses for
other rhan sharpsdge entrances may be found in treatises on hydraulics.
d.
&+i:
.
...
.
..
2..-
..->.
,.
. ,
In long lines, minor head losses due to bends and fittings are occasionaiiy ignored. In any
given line, however, it is best to consider di losses so that no important factors will be
overlooked. The minor losses should always be recognized when evaluatingflow tests. Total
Head
Veiocity
ft
fP5
1
2
3
0.02
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.06
0.14
0.25
22
0.39
24
0.56
0.76
1.O
26
23
1.3
32
1.6
34
14
Somce: hmard, R.E. Dcsign Standards for Steel Water Pipe. Joirr. A WWA, 40:124 (Jan. 1948).
HYDRAULICS OF PIPELINHS
..
--
*-
27
head loss in long lines with low velwities, the s u m of ve1wity head loss and entrance head
loss, may be relatively insignifiant; in short lines with high velocities, this sum becomes
very important. Ordinary tables and charts showing flow of water in pipe usually give only
the fiiction head loss in straight pipe. In long lines, this is the largest loss.
In tht f i d correct solution to a flow problem, the sum of ali losses must e q m i the
available head, or pressure, prducing the flow. The foregoing formulas determine H or V,
and the volume of fiow Q is found from:
The information contained in Tables 3-5 through 3-9 wiIl be useful when making
hydraulic calculations.
S for
LRngthofEpe
1-ft Drop
STEEL PIPE
11 111
11 806
12 500
13 194
13 889
24.77
-26.31
27.86
29.41
21
22
23
24
25
-14 583
15 278
15 972
16 667
17 361
32.51
34.05
18056
40.25
41.80
43.34
44.89
16
17
18
19
*--
E-:- < _ .
&.-F.
- ,'
,.
3.
:<S+-+
- '4
O
26
28
29
30
31
S-:
19444
20 139
20 833
32
21 528
22 222
33
34
35
22 917
23 611
24 306
hnad,
RE. Des@
45 833
47 222
48 611
74
76
78
37.15
38.70
50000
51 389
80
52 778
54 167
55 5%
82
84
56 944
5s 333
86
59 722
88
90
61 111
62 500
92
94
%
63 889
65 278
66 667
98
100
68 056
69 444
4-44
47.99
49.54
51.08
52.63
54.18
66
35.60
43 056
44 444
68
70
30.96
18750
62 M '
"
95.98
99.08
102.17
105.27
108.37
111.4
114.56
117.65
120.75
123.85
12h.94
130.04
133.14
136.23
139.33
142.43
145.52
148.62
151.71
154.81
HL= f
a]
v2
(+) (%)
In the equation, Htis the head (energy) l a s due to friction in the l e n e of pipe L ofinside :
diameter D for average velocity V. The friction factor f is a function of pipe mughn
29
HYDRAULICS OF PIPELINES
(a)
-.
Additional Heads
+1
+2
+3
4.33
10
20
30
8.66
12.99
40
50
60
70
80
90
Source: W r d ,
+6
+7
+8
+9
Bressure
PS
ft
C
4:
+5
+4
Head
0.43
4.76
9.09
13.42
17.75
22.08
0.87
5-20
9.53
1.73
6.06
2.16
2.60
3.03
5.63
6.49
6.93
7.36
3.46
7.79
9.96
10.39
13.86
14.29
14.72
10.82
15.15
11.69
16.02
12.12
18.45
18.62
22.95
27.28
19.05
23.38
19.48
23.81
11.26
15.59
19.92
24.25
20.35
20.78
24.68
25.11
8.23
12.56
16.89
21.22
25.55
27.71
28.14
32.47
23.58
32.91
29.01
29.44
29.88
33.34
35.94
40.27
36.80
37.24
37.67
33.77
38.10
38.54
41.13
41.57
42.00
42.43
42.87
17.32
21.65
25.98
26.41
N31
30.74
18.19
22.52
26.85
31.18
34.64
38.97
35.07
35.51
39.40
39.84
1.30
31.61
32.04
36.37
40.70
3.90
34.21
,'.
23.1
2.3
25.4
27.7
6.9
30.0
46.2
48.5
50.8
53.1
69.3
71.6
94.7
73.9
76.2
99.3
92.4
M e w r ~
in.
Water
k.
13.6
27.2
40.8
4.6
97.0
9.2
32.3
55.4
78.5
11.5
34.6
13.9
3.9
39.3
18.5
41.6
43.9
57.7
80.8
60.0
62.4
64.7
67.0
83.1
85.4
87.8
90.1
101.6
103.9
106.2
108.5
110.8
113.2
16.2
20.8
Mercury
Water
Pi
in.
fn.
0.49
13
14
15
176.8
190.4
204.0
6.38
6.87
7.36
16
217.6
7.85
0.98
1.47
:Bamard, R.E. Design Standards for S t d Water Pipe. Jour. A WWA, 40:1:24 (Jan.1948}.
30
STEEL PIPE
SHEAR GATE
Inc.
Figure 3-4 Resistance Coefficients of Valves and Fittings for Fluid Flows
,
.
. . -.
t'
v."-
- \
108
4 5 6
010'
4 5 6
010'
4 5 6
810'
4 . 5 6
810'~-*2.
33-5.6,BlOb
O.%
32
velocity, pipe diameter, and fluid viscosity. Values for f have been developed by ~ o o d
and others. With a known f and L/D, the Darcy-Weisbach formula can be expressed as:
In this equation, K is the resistance coefficient. Figure 3-4 shows values for K based on a
summary of experimental data.
Examples to determine head loss HLfor fittings and vdves and equivalent pipe Iengths
using Figure 3-4 are as follows:
.Y
Pipe = 6 in.
Flow = 450 gpm
C = 100
V = 5.12 fps
CalcuIaitaon~:
. - 5..
. Velwiry head:
,
, ,--
..
.
<.L . :=
Y
SSTI3EL PEPE
..,
..,.
-?
- ;:'a
. . --
S:" .
7'
::
($)=0.41ft
.
:
.,
HL= 0 . 2 x 0.41 =
0.08 ft
--
0.57 ft
HL=1.4x0.41=
enlargement from 6 in. to 8 in.:
:
.
+
>
4. 6411. elbow:
K = 0.6
..
0.25 ft
0.97 ft
+:
--
f_
m
..
Using the Hazen-Wiliiarns formula, the equivalent pipe length for 6411.
pipe, C = 100
with a HL= 0.97 ft, equis 35.3 ft.
.'
-
ECONOMICAL DIAMETER OF Pt PE
,,..
. '
.-
Hydraulic formulas will give the relation between flow rate and head loss in pipes of various diameters and interior surface conditions. When a limited amount of head loss is available,
the usual design prmedure is to select the smallest diameter that will deliver the required
flow when utilizing the available head. This results in the least construction cost. her re
head is provided by pumping, a part of the cost is for energy to provide head to overcome
friction. The cost for energy decreases as pipe diameter increases and friction losses
decrease; however, the cost for the pipe increases. The objective is u s d y to minimize totai .
cost (inixial cost, operation, and maintenance) by selecting the pipe diameter t h t results in
least Iife-cycIe cost. Energy costs may prove to be the most significant cost. However, when
making an assessment of future energy costs, care must be taken to reduce such costs to the
present worth on which dl other costs of the comparisons have been predicated.
,
E
HYDRAULICS OF PIPELINES
Aqueducts
Economic studies of large aqueducts are frequently cornplicatcd by the desirability of
combining different means of carrying water-for example, through open conduits, pipe,
and tunnels-in the same system. Hinds4> demonstrated the use of grapbical rneans in
making such studies in the design of the Colorado River Aqueduct. T h e methedoffinding
economicalslopes elaborated by Hinds had been csd previously in &e desi of rhe Owens
River Aqueduct of Los ~ n ~ e land
e s the
~ Catskill Aqueduct of New York.
Penstocks
An economic study to determine penstock size generally requires that the annual penstock
cost plus the value of power lost in friction be minimai. T h e annual pwstock cost includes
amortization of al1 rekited construction costs, operation and maintenance costs, and
replacement reserve. A precise analyticai evduation, m b g al1 facuirs imo account, may be
neither justified nor practical, since ali variables entering into the problem are subject to
varying degrees of uncertainty .
Figure 3-6, which is used to determine the economic diameter for sreel penstacks and
pump lines, was derived from the method presented by Voetsch m d res en.^
COOD PRACTICE
: .
Definition of Syrnbols
Hydrauiic symbols:
; .
34
STEEL PIPE
'
Ks
n =
9 =
r :
p=
t,
EXPLANATION
ANO
LXAY PLE
Eaomplo for plnstotk
L 2 6 L*. 1%
,=
= le6 CFS
~ f &L*:loo'
,
625
r: ~ o ~ + o . ~ ~ + ~ o ~ I ~ :soa.a~r =
T %#a
~
L,t,*C,t,*L,t,*
... tkk
+,
L , + L I * L I * . .+Ln
n:
L,+C2+Li*
K:
0 :1.281 Ifron
rfwt
m!osty"p~~~Ptof~~
0.8 M
:Cwt
sit%qb:~x465iaSlor&twioxasoxaopg,
prt I+n)
+Ln
mi o f E r I w r i i r i o w o r w f o r ~p ~ r ,
0.0119
R27 a D . N 7 0 i1.15
61; 6.3 7 ( h BUpk C) i EeoooiiTc
&O.
I.ZBS ~ 3 . 74 7~ 5 I m i 4'IOm0'dip.l
& M E : Cdeuldad 0d
i gpdd k v * r ~cbsi tp msrmd dim it
k m this i ~ a m p l i . Thi w b l n i shosiid k nworkrd m t i l tkir
mi*
Oipriciatim ir k r t d on t h i mmiiptiwi ot m a m l ihhing f d iarninp 3*
intirist roquired b npluce 50% o thi pipi in 45 p i r i . Thi onnwl
w y m i n t n q u i r t d 13 q u a i to 0.M5135 timar t h i t i r i t cort.
Adaptd from Steel Penstocks and Tunnel Liners. Steel Plate Engineering Data Vol. 4. American lmn and Steel lnstitute
cooperation with Steel Plate Fabricators Assoc., lnc., 1982. Courtesy of AISI.
HYDRAULICS
g
hf
H
=
=
Ks
L
n
Q
r
=
=
=
=
=
Manning coefficient
discharge (cfs)
hydraulic radius of pipe (ft)
s
V
OF PIPELINES
35
Scobey constant
=
=
S
t
a
i
Ha
=
=
=
=
References
1. CROCKER,SABIN,ed. Piping Handbook.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (4th
ed., 1945).
2. Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings,
and Pipe. Tech. Paper 409, Crane Co.,
Chicago (1942).
3. MOODY,L.F. Friction Factors for Pipe
Flow. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York.
4. HINDS, JULIAN. Economic Water Conduit Size. Engineering News Record,
118:113 (1937).
5. --Economic Sizes of Pressure Conduits. Engineering News Record, 118:443
(1937).
6. BABBITT,H.E. & DOLAND,J.J. Water
Supply Engineering. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York (1927; 1955).
7. WHITE, LAZARUS.Catskill Water Supply
of New York, N. Y. John Wiley and Sons,
New York (1913).
8. VOETSCH,CHARLES& FRESEN, M.H.
Economic Diameter of Steel Penstocks.
Trans. ASCE, 103:89 (1938).
9. LISCHER,V.c. Determination of Economical Pipe Diameters in Distribution
Systems. Jour. A WWA, 40:8:849 (Aug.
1948).
10. HALL, L.S.;
KALINSKE,
AWWA MANUAL
Chapter
an
M1
4
Determination of Pipe
Wall Thickness
-
. -
The wal thickness of steeI pipe is dected by a number of factors that will be discussed in
this and succeeding chapters, including the following:
1. Interd pressure
2. E x t e d pressure
,..
a. Trench Ioading pressure (Chapter 6)
b. Fwth-fili pressure (Chapter 6 )
c. Uniform oollapse pressure, atmospheric or hydrauIic (Chapter 4)
d. Vacuum underground (Chapter 6)
3. Special physical loading
.
.
a. Pipe on saddle supports (Chapter 7)
b. Pipe on ring-girder supports (Chapter 7)
.4. Fhcticoil requirements (Chapter 4)
,
'."
The thickness selected should be that whic'hsatisfies the mom swere requiremei
.'
37
between the pipe centerline and the elevation of the static leve1with the valva closed. Surge
or water-hammer pressures must also be considered. These are discussed in Chapter 5. In a
pump-discharge pipeline, rhe internai pressure is measured by the distance between the
pipe and the hydradic grade line created by the pumping operation. Ressure at the outlet
and the loss due to friction enter into this determination. If it is possibie to impose a pressure
equal to the shutoff head of the pumps, the pressure is measured between the pipe and the
shutoff grade line. Figures 4- 1and 4-2 show typical pipeline and hydraulic grade profiles for
gravity and pumped flow.
With pressure determined, the wail thickness is found using Eq 4-1:
...
Where:
+,
..
) - - m - - - -STATIC
---
TEST HGL
STATIC HGL
- .&&i
figure 4-2 Relation of Various Heads or
Pressures forSelection of Design Pressure
(Pumped Flow)
.. .
Modern steel technology has dowed increases in the allowable working stress for steel, with
xhis working stress determined with relation to the steel's yield strength rather than its
ultimate strength. A design stress equal to 50 percent of the s p e c i f ~ dminimum yield
strength is often accepted for steel water pipe. Design criteria for penstocks h v e been
adopted by the Bureau of ~eclamation'that base design stress on 93 the minimum tensile
strength or 2/3 the minimum yield strength, whichever is least. With the use of given
methods of stress d y s i s and proper quality control mesures, hese ailowable design
stresses are considered conservative for the usual water-transmission pipelines. Table 4-1
illustrates grades of steel used as a basis for working pressure and the design stress as
to minimum yield point and minimum ultimate tensile strength for common
steel as referenced in AWWA C200, Standard for Steel Water Pipe 6 Inches and
38
STEEL PIPE
Table 4-t
Grades of Steel Used in AWWA C200 as Basis for Working Pressures in Table 4-2
Specifications for
Fabricated Pipe
Design Stress
50%of Yield Point
psi
Minimum Ultimate
Tensile Strength
psi
.18000
15000
16500
15000
16500
18000
20 000
22 500
25 000
21 000
25 000
30 000
36 000
30 000
33 000
30 000
33 000
36 000
40 000
45 000
50 000
42 000
50 000
60 000
58 000
55 000
60 000
49000
52 000
53000
55 000
60 000
65 000
60 000
65 000
75 000
Design Stress
50%of Yield Point
psi
Minimum Ultimate
Tensile Strength
psi
15000
17 500
21 000
23 000
26 000
30 000
35 000
42 000
46 000
52 000
48 000
60 000
60 000
60 000
66 000
ASTM A36
ASTM A283 GR C
GRD
ASTM A570 GR 30
GR33
GR36
GR40
GR45
GR50
ASTM A572 GR 42
GR50
GR60
Specifications for
Manufactured Pipe
ASTM A53, A135,
GRA
and A139
GRB
ASTM A139
GRC
GRD
GRE
Table 4-2 gives the designer working pressures corresponding to 50 percent of the
specified minimum yield strength for several types of steel commonly used in waterworks
pipelines. The designer is cautioned that the diameters and wall thicknesses listed in the
table are for reference only and do not represent engineering or manufacturing limits.
Modern steel-mill capabilities permit the manufacture of almost any diameter and wall
thickness of pipe; in practice, however, most pipe manufacturers fabricate pipe to standard
diameters and wall thicknesses. Pipe with thick linings such as the cement-mortar l~nings
specified in AWW A C205, Standard for Cement-Mortar Protective Lining and Coating for
Steel Water Pipe-4 In. and Larger-Shop
Applied,3 and AWWA C602, Standard for
Cement-Mortar Lining of Water Pipelines-4
In. (100 mm) and Larger-In
Place,4 is
usually fabricated to the individual manufacturer's standard diameters to accommodate the
required lining thicknesses. It is, therefore, recommended that the pipe manufacturers be
Pressure Limits
High quality in the manufacture of both the pipe and the steel used in its manufacture is
required by AWW A standards. Therefore, hoop stress may be allowed to rise, within limits,
above 50 percent of yield for transient loads. When ultimate tensile strength is considered, a
safety factor well over two is realized. For steel pipe produced to meet AWW A standards,
the increased hoop stress should be limited to 75 percent of the specified yield strength, but
should not exceed the mill test pressure.
39
linings, coatings, and cathodic protection as necessary to provide the required leve1 of
corrosion protection.
. ..
4.4 EXTERNALFLUIDPRESSURE-UNIFORMANDRADIAL
The proper wall thickness must be selected to resist external loading imposed on the pipe.
Such loading may take the form of outside pressure, either atmospheric or hydrostatic, both
of which are uniform and act radially as collapsing forces. Buried pipe must be designed to
resist earth pressure in trench or fiil condition. These considerations are discussed in
Chapter 6.
.::
Where:
..
...--
.'*A.
;iL.<+
-' 3 -
-.
-...
: ,
_
--
.
,
-- .5
L,
- rdn =
-
=
Pc =
E =
u
=
d i a r n e w m n e w W ~ a--f t M - w
(for thin pipes, the difference
between inside diameter, outside diameter, and neutral-axis diameter
is negligible)
.:-..:
$
,.
'
wail thickness (in.)
,- .,=,-.
.
:.- ,.
.collapsing pressure (psi)
. . .=
modulus of elasticity (30 000 000 for steel)
!? -.. .
Poisson's ratio (usually taken as 0.30 for steel).
!
,
,
Applied Calculations
Circular cylindrical shels under external pressure may fail either by buckling or by yielding.
Relatively thin-wded shells fail through instability or buckling under stresses that, on the
average, are below the yield strength of the material. In the waterworks field, the
thickness-diameter ratio is such that there is usually a buckling failure. A number of
theoretical and empirical formulas have been promulgated to provide for the effect of
instability due to collapsing. They include the formulas of ~irnoshenko? Love, ~ o a r k , ~
Stewart, and Bryan.
Stewart developed two empirical equations for the collapsing pressures of steel pipes.
The Stewart formula, which automatically accounts for wall thickness variations, out-ofroundness, and other manufacturing tolerantes, is:
dn
Pc =
formula is considered more conservative than the previous formulas.
..
-- .-.
.:C
STEEL PIPE
Equation 4-4 is predicated on the pipe being mmmerciaiiy round, made of steel with a
minimum yield of at least 27 000 psi, and having a length six diameters or more between
reinforcing elementc.
- .
. . . --.. .r
. .
t
D
t =-
288
t=
.- .
400
4.6 W O D PRACTICE
'>X
Interna1 pressure, external pressure, special physical loading, type of Iinq and coating, and
other practicd requirements govern wall thickness. Good practice with regard to internal
pressure is to use a working tensile stress of 50 peraent of the yield-point stress under the
influence of maximum design pressure. The stress of transitory surge pressures, together
with static pressure, may be taken at 75 percent of the yield-point stress. The daigner
should, however, never overlook the effect of water hammer or surge pressures in design. It
is more positive and economical to select a proven coating or linhg for protedon against
corrosion hazards rhan to add sacrificial wall thickness.
I r
'
'
'
--a.
=
C'
ir'.
--
-S
"
41
m
WdI
Wcight
mT'MuEB$ per Foot
Stress pa'
DJt
FipeAxis
h 4
Sccaon
-dUS
15000
16500
17500
18000
21000
42
STEEL PIPE
.,
Stress psi
wall
waght
Diameterf Thicknesst per Fmt
t
m.
in.
M R a t i o
18
OD
.O747
-10%
-1345
.1563
.1793
30
OD
14.30
19.99
25.67
240.96
172.08
133.83
29.79
34.13
115.16
.2188
.2500
41-56
.1M6
33.40
42.91
49.82
-1345
.1%3
47.40
100.39
82.27
72.00
Pipe&
in.'
Modulus
15000
145
149
1 74
a)9
247
287
262
261
B9
313
299
329
304
349
244
314
365
359
418
365
417
401
458
425
486
438
51 1
500
583
105
115
148
172
122
126
157
161
1%
188
182
188
219
483.12
549.14
61,02
1 097.51
223.05
191.94
1401.02
1 631.50
73.17
93-80
108.77
135
156
21000
203
38.75
44.28
53.68
286.81
18000
137
125
174
224
348.74
398.53
17500
192
18.77
26.16
33.47
168.96
235.41
301.m
16500
(S)
m WaIl Weight
DiameterT Tbicknessf m FOO~ Do/t
k
OD
.1793
.21#
.2500
57.11
69.60
79.44
99.10
138.15
157.55
167.32
137.11
120.00
35.64
45.78
305.93
237.92
3125
.4375
.5#0
53.16
60.94
74.28
84.78
105.77
147.50
168.23
204.73
178.47
146.25
128.00
102.40
73.14
325.05
.3125
37.87
48.65
56.50
64.77
78.95
90.12
112.45
. --4375.5000
32
OD
.lo46
/'
96.00
68.57
60.00
64.00
252.79
217.53
189.63
155.39
136.00
108.80
43
---
.- - ....
Scction
PipeAxis
h?
Mddus
1 867.28
2 269.64
2 585.18
3Sll.28
4439.73
5 042.20
124.49
151.31
172.35
214.09
295.98
336.15
1 332.85
83.30
106.81
123.87
141.80
172.39
196.40
1709.04
1 981.98
2 268.73
2 758.28
3 142.37
3 904.95
5 403.00
6 138.62
1 599.62
2051.45
2 379.37
2 723.95
3 312.46
3774.37
4 691.95
15000
16500
17500
18000
21000
179
219
250
197
241
209
255
215
251
263
306
27s
292
365
300
375
48 1
550
5 10
583
525
438
613
600
700
108
139
161
185
. 226
258
322
45 1
516
114
147
171
1%
118
151
176
239
137
177
205
235
2J37
328
410
574
102
131
152
174
212
243
303
108
138
161
185
225
257
322
438
500
98
1%
147
168
205
234
244.06
293
337.69
383.66
410
469
94.10
120.67
139.96
160.23
194.85
222.02
276.00
92
119
138
158
193
221
276
273
342
479
547
202
246
281
352
492
563
111
142
165
190
232
265
331
350
656
129
166
193
221
270
309
386
44
STEEL PIPE
wau
Pipe
Diamc~rtThicknessI
57
ID
WeigIlf
rier
Foot
Dn/t
Moment
of Inertia
About
PipeAxis
inP
(continud)
Stress gs
Scction
Mdulus
15000
165MJ
17500
18000
21000
158
197
230
.2500
152.88
230.00
18421.89
640.76
132
145
154
.3125
191.31
229.82
268.41
307.09
184.40
154.00
132.29
116.00
23 103.11
801.84
963.29
1 125.09
1 287.26
181
217
192
27 814.90
32 557.37
164
197
230
253
289
.3750
,4375
.5000
37 330.a
263
Values h v e been computed by ekcwinic computer. See text for formulas used.
TSizes under 45 in. are outside diametcr sizes; those 45 in. and over are inside diameter sizes.
furnish w d thiicimesses otkr than shown.
SManufmurm
SWorking pressures may be kiterpolated or extrapolated for other wall thiclumses ox smsscs.
230
269
307
237
276
316
184
276
322
368
45
.
.
.-.
-'
.. . .
stress psi
pipe
Wd
weight
Diamttert Thichmd ncr Foot
Dn/t
PipeAxis
in?
Section
15000
16500
17500
18000
21000
m
46
STEEL PIPE
84
ID
-3125
.3750
.4375
281.43
337.97
394.59
270.80
22.00
194.00
73551.47
88 458.73
103 432.09
1738.29
2 087.52
2 43728
112
123
130
134
134
156
147
172
156
182
161
188
156
188
219
47
(contfnued)
stress psi
RF
Waii
Weight
iw.
iR.
(bare)
Da/t
Pipe AKis
+,
htio
(I)
Section
hladdUS
(S)
15000
16500
17500
18000
21000
... .
Pi~e
Wd
Weight
Diameaq ThicknessS per Foot
zk.
m.
ID
102
754.08
.7500
823.14
892.27
961.49
1030.80
1100.18
361.54
434.10
.9375
1.0000
.3125
ID
108
.37W
.3750
506.74
579.47
652.28
725.17
798.14
871.20
944.34
1017.57
1090.88
1164.27
381.57
458.13
,4375
534.78
.HXIO
.6250
611.51
688.32
765.22
-6875
.7500
842.20
919.27
.8125
.8750
.9375
996.42
1073.65
1150.96
1228.M
401.60
482.17
562.82
.4375
.S000
.S625
.62M
A875
.7500
.S125
.87M
.9375
114,
1.0000
.3125
ID
-7
.-.-.
r
si
.E
-<..L
.*
-.
. .--.L-i--
-i-
--
--
. -:-
>
-5625
.
te:k
<E
.L-!!
. ..11-.
120I.;
1.0000
ID
.3125
.3750
.4375
S000
.5625
.62W
.6875
.75M
S125
.S750
.9375
1.0000
126
ID
(bare)
A875
.a125
-8750
<?%-+;,-.
-,
i
$
STEEL PIPE
.3125
-3750
.U75
.HWK)
5625
.6250
.6875
-7500
.8125
643.55
724.37
805.28
886.26
S7.33
1048.49
1129.73
1211.05
1292.45
421.62
506.20
590.86
675.60
7M.42
845.33
930.33
1015.40
1100.56
Ddt
&ti0
Moment
of Irleda
About
Pipe Axis
i n ~
(1)
150.36
138.00
127.54
118.57
110.80
104.00
347.60
290.00
292 350.87
319513.64
346 774.99
374 135.14
401 594.41
429 152.98
155 936.84
187 449.05
248.86 219 070.05
218.00 250 S00.20
194.00 282 639.72
174.80 314 588.81
159.09 346 647.75
146.00 378 816.75
134.92 411 096.20
125.43 443 486.19
117.20 475 987.02
110.00 508 599.07
366.80 183 313.25
306.00 220 337.67
262.57 257 483.24
230.00 294 750.26
204.67 332 139.01
184.40 369 d9.79
167.82 407 282.80
154.00 445 038.33
142.31 482 916.58
132.29 520 917.94
123.60 559 042.60
116.00 597 290.87
386.00 213 719.72
322.00 2% 864.35
5 656.12
6174.18
6 92.88
7 212.24
202
222
236
243
221
239
243
257
265
7 732.26
276
279
300
322
287
309
331
8 252.94
294
87
104
122
139
156
174
263
283
303
324
95
115
134
153
172
191
210
229
343
353
101
122
142
162
182
203
104
125
146
167
188
248
267
263
284
286
306
304
208
229
250
271
292
313
324
333
90
109
99
118
2 871.10
3 447.34
4 024.25
4 601.84
5 180.11
5 759.06
6 338.70
6919.03
7 500.04
8 081.75
8 664.15
9 247.26
3 198.49
3 840.31
4 482.84
5 126.09
5 770.06
6 414.75
7 060.16
7 706.29
8 353.15
9 000.74
9 649.06
10 298.12
3 543.54
4 254.48
4 966.17
5 678.62
5 47425
6 259.42
7 045.38
7 832.14
8 619.70
9408.05
10 197.20
130.00
122.00
405.20
338.00
. -,
16500
149.69
139.14
_ .. .,..
15000
6 391.82
7 105.77
7820.49
8 535.96
9 252.21
9 969.21
10 686.99
1 1 405.53
162.00
Stress pss'
Section
lModulUa
300 143.19
M3 556.43
387 104.47
430 787.49
474 605.90
518 559.88
562 649.73
606 875.67
651 238.16
695 737.31
247315.39
297 220.04
276.29
242.00
215.33
194.00
176.55
<
J
<
3906.26
4 689.86
257
191
a18
2a6
243
260
278
82
99
115
132
148
164
181
197
214
230
247
263
ln
145
163
181
199
217
235
253
271
289
78
94
109
86
103
125
141
138
156
172
188
172
189
203
219
234
250
74
89
104
119
134
149
164
179
193
21000
175M) 18000
w o k h g Pressure psi$
223
243
115
134
154
173
192
21 1
230
249
269
288
307
241
258
91
109
128
146
164
182
201
219
237
255
273
275
292
82
98
115
131
147
164
180
87
120
155
206
223
1%
213
104
122
139
156
174
191
2CM
226
309
138
158
178
197
217
237
257
276
296
316
94
113
131
150
169
188
206
225
244
263
306
281
300
89
328
107
125
125
143
161
179
1%
214
232
146
350
104
167
188
208
229
250
271
49
Table 4-2
Wall
Pipe
Weight
Diametert Thicknesst per Foot
tn.
tn.
(bare)
126 ID
.8750
.9375
1.0000
132 ID
Dolt
Ratio
Moment
of Inertia
About
Pipe Axis
in.4
(I)
Stress psi
Section
Modulus
15000
16 500
17500
146.00
136.40
128.00
701804.90 10 987.16
753050.81 II 777.92
804 447.32 12569.49
208
223
238
229
246
262
.3125
.3750
.4375
.5000
.5625
.6250
.6875
.7500
.8125
.8750
.9375
1.0000
424.40
354.00
303.71
266.00
236.67
213.20
194.00
178.00
164.46
152.86
142.80
134.00
284259.12
341 595.49
399 093.85
456 754.99
514578.70
572 565.57
630716.01
689030.01
747508.16
806 150.65
864 957.68
923 929.84
4 286.66
5 146.45
6 007.06
6868.50
7730.76
8 593.85
9457.78
10322.55
II 188.15
12 054.59
12921.87
13 790.00
71
85
99
ll4
128
142
156
170
185
199
213
227
78
94
109
125
141
156
172
188
203
219
234
250
138 ID
.3125
.3750
.4375
.5000
.5625
.6250
.6875
.7500
.8125
.8750
.9375
1.0000
461.68
554.26
646.93
739.69
832.52
925.44
1018.45
1111.53
1204.70
1297.96
1391.29
1484.72
443.60
324710.23
370.00
390 181.56
317.43
455 830.18
278.00
521 656.30
247.33
587660.13
222.80
653 842.24
202.73
720202.83
186.00
786742.10
171.85
853 460.45
159.71
920 358.44
149.20
987436.10
140.00 1 054693.80
4684.73
5 624.24
6564.61
7505.85
8447.94
9390.91
10 334.75
II 279.46
12 225.04
13 171.50
14 ll8.84
15067.05
68
82
95
109
122
136
149
163
177
190
204
217
144 ID
.3125
.3750
.4375
.5000
.5625
.6250
.6875
.7500
.8125
.8750
.9375
1.0000
481.71
578.30
674.97
771.73
868.57
965.50
1062.51
1159.60
1256.78
1354.04
1451.38
1548.80
462.80
368 827.58 5 100.47
386.00
443 169.18 6 123.24
331.14
517703.79 7 146.90
290.00
592431.62 8 171.47
258.00
667 352.85 9 196.94
232.40
742467.87 10 223.31
211.45
817777.28 II 250.59
194.00
893281.08 12278.78
968 979.66 13 307.87
179.23
166.57 I 044 873.60 14337.89
155.60 I 120962.90 15368.81
146.00 I 197248.20 16400.66
75
90
105
120
135
149
164
179
194
209
224
239
72
86
100
ll5
129
143
158
172
186
201
215
229
65
78
91
104
117
130
143
156
169
182
195
208
*Valueshave been computed by electronic computer. See text for formulas used.
tSizes under 45 in. are outside diameter sizes; those 45 in. and over are inside diameter sizes.
tManufacturers can furnish wall thicknesses other than shown.
Workingpressures may be interpolated or extrapolated for other wall thicknesses or stresses.
"" ~-.-
21 000
WorkingPressurepsi
is)
ll85.80
1271.13
1356.54
441.65
530.23
618.90
707.64
796.47
885.39
974.39
1063.47
ll52.63
1241.88
1331.21
1420.63
18 000
243
260
278
83
99
ll6
133
149
166
182
199
215
232
249
265
250
268
286
85
102
119
136
153
170
188
205
222
239
256
273
292
313
333
99
119
139
159
179
199
219
239
259
278
298
318
79
95
III
127
143
159
174
190
206
222
238
254
82
98
ll4
130
147
163
179
196
212
228
245
261
95
ll4
133
152
171
190
209
228
247
266
285
304
76
91
106
122
137
152
167
182
197
213
228
243
78
94
109
125
141
156
172
188
203
219
234
250
91
109
128
146
164
182
201
219
237
255
273
292
STEBL PIPE
Referentes
1. Weided Stcel Penstocks. Engnr. Mono-
B. TIMOSHENKO,
S. Strmgrh of Matm'als.
Part 11. D. Van NosCo., NEw York
(1940).
7. ROARK, R.J. Formulas fur Smss and
Strah. McGmw-Hill Book Co., New
York (4th ed., 1965).
8. PARMAKIAN,
J. Mnimum Thickness for
Handling Pipcs, Water Power and D m
Constructim. (june 1982.)
References
:
.
L
,-.
-. .. . .
. . .
p;
., ,.
..L.. .
- 7
.
.-2
. ->
,,-:.
- , .
..
>
..
.,.
-.-: - . -.
. .
. :. . .
. . .. .
-
'-
....
.-. .
'
.- I
.
.-
.:.
....
.
.
. .
- .
. .
.
.-
..
,.
*...-.
=--?,
?d..
.-Y
>
-,. .
,< :
..
<
--
..-
.:
. ,-- , -..
.<.
-?.,.-
--+-=
-,
. - .
. ,
- -.
--
.
-,
i .
+
A
<-,
, .,>
..
..,:- .,
.-:..
--1%
.- -. .-
, - ! .
-. .. .
,.:
;f..
.
,
-f
..
.
,
..:
. > .. , .
2.-
w.
9;
,-,
.-:
.-..
z . 2,sri;
-4
- - ..
.
7.
. ..- , -
..
'
>.Lt9
.>k :.
,---
<
,--!y
.S :
- ,
..
'+
:*
.: .;i:.., ,.
-7-
.p.
....
.-. -
-,
<
1..
o
.
,
<
:
;
.'<
> . :.
- "
,-
- .-
., . .
-
--,- .. . . . . . .
;.7,'
., .
. ,.
.
:-
.. 1.
-,...
..
. .
. . . .
..
., 2%-.
->. . , - .-
. . . .
. .,
---.._
...
.,-,;,
.-
4.-
,-
--:-
*.
. -< -
.: . - ,
..
..- ..=.
+ -
\:
,.
,-
',>
.- + - y
.r=
'- -
-.
--7,
. .
-.
2
. .. . ..
:.!
. .- ' C.
. . -
. ,.
> , :.
-.
..
3:-
--
:-.y
.,
'.
. .2
J .
. !:
..
..-.: ...
--.-.=
, -.... ,
.?
.,.;.
--+
:Y?
:.j<
..-
.;
$-.
- -.
.
'r
,
.
.- .
...
.
.
. =: , .
2-
i
-
a?:
--
>
-.
,::
>
2
.
--
--
.....
-.
.-
: - .. ;
-,; -:
;
.
-51.
...
-.1.-
.=
i?.
, ,.
-.
;-
. ' .-.
.
l..'-
.-
. -..
.- ;
--
- -
..;.V.
- -.
. ,
'
.
, .
...
-.
C w s d c i n . u~ne
1982.)
.. -.-.,
MI1
AWWA M A N U A L
b:.
<+=-
.E
>. T.m.
- .
:
F.
>-.' .
E ..
S;
Water hammer is the result of a change in flow velocity in a closed conduit causing elastic
wava to travel upstream and downstream from the point of origin. The elastic waves, in
turn, cause increases or decreases in pressure as they mvel dong the line, and these pressure
changes are variously referred to as water hammer, surge, os uansient pressure.
The phenomenon of water hammer is extremdy complex, and no attempt will be made
to cover the subject in depth in this manual. Only the fudamentals ofelastic-mve theory
and specific data pertaining to the properties of stael pipe will be discussed. For a more
detoiiled understoinding of water hammer, thc refemes listed at the end of this chapter
shouid be consulted.
.
.. , -.
-.:-..
. .
,
'=2
IC RELATiONSHIPS
h=
aV
52
STEEL PIPE
h
p
L
2L
a
2000
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 ~ 6 0 7 0 O W
INSIDE DIAMETER
(o'ls)
WALL
m
The nurnbers at the rlght of the curves represent the rnodutus of elasticty ( 1 in 1 000000-psi units for various pipe
materials.4
53
Figure 5-1 gives values of pressure wave velocity for various pipt materials with d/f
ratios up to 90. For steel pipe, higher ratios are frequently encountered in k g e sizes, and
Table 5-1 gives mmputed values up to d / t = 400.
When the flow ratc is changed in a time greater than zerobut less than or equal to W a
scmnds, tht magnitude of the pressure rise is the same as with instantaneous closure, but the
duration of the maximum value decrease as the time of closure approaches W a seconds.
Under these conditions, the pressure distribution along the pipeline varies as tht time of
closure mies. T h e pressure decreases uniformly almg the line if closureis in Wa seconds.
The maximum pressure at the control valve exists along the fuli length of &e line with
insmtaneous closure, md for slower ram mvels up the pipe a distance equal to L-(Ta/2)
feet, then decreases uniformly. T h e surge pressure distribution along the conduit is
independent of the profile or p m d contour of the line so long as the wtd pressure remaIns
above the vapor pressure of the fluid.
For valve closing times greater than W a seconds, the maximum pmsure rise will be a
function of the maximum rate of change in flow with respect to time, dV/d T . Nonlinear
closure rates of a vdve can be investigated, and the proper valve closing time determintd to
hold the maximum pressure rise to any d e s i d limitiq value. The effea of pumps and
quick-closing check vdves or control vaives can be investigatedusing the graphical mcthod
or numericai method through use of a computer.
The profile of the conduit leading away from a pumping smtion may have a mjor
influence on the surge conditions. When high points oocur along the l
k
,
the surge
hydraulic-grade elevation may fail below the pipe profde ctiwing negative pressures,
perhaps as isow as the vapor pressure of the fluid. If this occurs, the liquid column may be
sepmted by a zone of vapor for a short time. Parting and rejoining of the liquid aolumncan
prdtlce extremely high pressures and may cause failure of the aonduit.'
The effect of friction can be accounted for in any surge probkm. When friction losses
are less ttian 5 percent of the normal static or working pressure, they cm u s d y be
neglected.
The greater the degree of a m c y desired for the resdts of a surge analysis, the more
must be known aibout the various hydradic and physical chmacteristicsof the system. The
velmity of the pressure wave a is a fundamental factor in any surge study, as the surge
pressures are directly proportional to its value. l X s vtlocity dtpends on the pipe diameter,
wdl thickness, materiai of the pipe d s , as wdl as the density and compressibility of the
fluid in the pipe.
54
STEEL PIPE
- -
:--
, -
,L.
.- ,
5.3
. .
::::.-
--
..-
>
,,
. -1
---A-
:
-
.. .-
. .
.-
> i
-
GENERALSTUDIES
FOR WATER H~MMERCONTROL
- .. .
--- 3
7---
,.-.::*.
.
,-.
J
.
.
Studies of surges can be undertaken during the design stke. Once the general hyout
-' system has been completd, the kngth,,diameter,tbickness, material, and cap
-pipe,
,
as weli as the type and s h of pumps, cm be established. The normal
pressures at various points in the system can be computed and the allowabk
pressures fixed. By this means, the margin for water hammer can be found,
should then be adjusted to provide either safety factors large enough to withstand s
conditions as might be encountered or suitable remedid or control devias.
-.
. ,
..
A
.>-
-c:
C
?.
- .
u
.
a:'
55
method is usually l e s costly.1t is important to note that there is no single device that will
cure di surge difficulties. Only by a study of both normaloperating conditions and possible
emergency conditions can methads be determined to provide proper control.
It is not feasible to make general recommendationson te type, size, and appliation of
surge-control equipment for al1 plants. Several possibk solutions should be considad for
any individualinstaliation, and one selected that @ves the maximum protection for &e least
expenditure. Surges can often be reduced subst&tially by using bypasses around check
valves, by cusbioning chtck valves for the last 15-20 percent of &e smke, or by adopting a
two-speed rate of valve smke. Water hammer resulting from power failure to centrifugal
pumps can sometimesbe held to d e limits by providing flywheek or by dowing the pumps
to run backward. Air-inlef valves may be needed, or the preferred solution m y be to use a
surge m&, a surge damper, or a hydropneumatic b b e r . Under certain opera*
conditions, no devices wiii be required to hold the pressure rise within safe iimits.
It is essentiai m coordinate di the elements of a system properly and to ascertain that
opemting practices conform to the requirements for safety. As changes take place in the
system demand, it may be necessary to review and revise the surgeconditiom, poirticuhly if
the capacity is increased, additionoil pumpage or storage is addcd, or h t e r stations are
phned.
If a competent investigation is made during the design stage and the remmmeendations
arising from it m a r i e d out, the finalplant will almost always operate without damage due
to water hammer. The agreement between te theoreticai analyses, properly applied, and
the actual tests of installations is esremely close. When a surge study was not undertaken
aud dangerous conditions existed, tbere have almost invariably been serious surge, and
sometimes m t l y damage has raulted. The time and efort spent on a surge study in advance
of the fuialdesign is the least expeasive means of ensuring agahst surges. The elastic-wave
r
y has beea complettly proven in acnial pmxice, and design engineers should take the
initiative in making surge snidies and insmbg surge-controldwices without waiting for
serio- failures to oacur.
.
. -.
, ..
.'+:'
,
'
i
It is not withia thc scope of t h i s manual to cover an analysis of pressure rise in a complicated
piptrine. Some basic data are, however, provided for simple probkms.
The pressure rise for instantaneous valve dosure is givenby Eq 5- 1. Vdiies of the wave
velocity a may bt read fcom P i5- 1 for diameter-thicknecs ratios of 90 md less, d from
Table 5- 1 for higher ratios.
Por solutions to more mmplex problems, it is recommended that referenm be made to
the many publications avaihble (see, for example, referentes 5,6,7, and 8at the end of this
chapter). Computer progmns are available t h t indude &c effecw of pipeline friction and
56
STEEL PIPE
give accurate results. There are several means of reducing surges by the addition of devices
or revising operating conditions, but these are outside the scope of this manual. Most of the
available computer programs permit evaluation of the various means of reducing or
controlling surges. (Reference 8 describes some of these means.)
References
-
The following
the text.
ALIN,
A.L.
Penstock
Surge
Tank
at
BOERENDANS,
W.L. Pressure Air Chambers in Centrifugal Pumping. Jour.
AWWA, 31:11:1865 (Nov. 1939).
DAWSON,F.M. & KALINSKE,A.A. Methods of Calculating Water Hammer Pressures. Jour. AWWA, 31:11:1835 (Nov.
1939).
EVANS,W.E. & CRAWFORD,c.c. Charts
and Designing Air Chambers for Pump
Discharge Lines. Proc. ASCE, 79:57
(1916).
KERR, S.L. Practical Aspects of Water
Hammer. Jour. A WWA, 40:6:599 (June
1948).
--Surges in Pipe Lines-Oil and
Water. Trans. ASME, 72:667 (1950).
--Effect of Valve Action on Water
Hammer. Jour. AWWA, 52:1:65 (Jan.
1960).
PARMAKIAN,JOHN. Pressure Surges at
Large Pump Installations. Trans. ASME,
75:995 (1953).
Proceedings Second Intern. Conf. Pressure Surge. Fluid Engineering, British
Hydraulic Res. Assoc., London (1976).
Second Symposium on Water Hammer.
Trans. ASME, 59:651 (1937).
SIMIN, OLGA.Water Hammer. (Includes
a digest of N. Joukovsky's study.) Proc.
AWWA Ann. Conf., St. Louis, Mo. (June
1904).
Standard Allowances for Water Hammer-Panel Discussion. Jour. AWWA,
44:11:977 (Nov. 1952).
STEPANOFF,A.J. Elements of Graphical
Solution of Water Hammer Problems in
Centrifugal-Pump
Systems. Trans.
ASME, 71:515 (1949).
STREETER,V.L. Unsteady Flow Calculations by Numerical Methods. ASME.
Jour. of Basic Engrg. (June 1972).
Symposium on Water Hammer. Am. Soc.
Mech. Engrs., New York (1933; reprinted
1949).
Water Hammer Allowances in Pipe Design. Committee Report. Jour. A WWA,
50:3:340 (Mar. 1958).
II
II1II
AWWA M A N U A I
..-
!:,
-,
Externa1 L o a d s
.. ,
+:
1.1,
5.
5
Extemal loads on buried pipe are generally comprised of the weight of the backfill together
with live and impaci I d s . T h e Marston theory' is generally used to determine the Icds
imposed on buried pipe by the soil surrounding it. This theory is applicableto both flexible
and rigid pipes instded in a variety of conditions, including ditch md projecting conduit
installations. Ditch conduits are stnictures instaiied and completely buried in narrow
dtches in relatively passive or undisturbed soil. Projecting mnduits are s ctures instalid
in shallow bedding with the top of the mnduit projecting above the surfa of the natural
gronnd and then covered with the embankment. Por purposes of calculo g the extemal
vertical loads on projecting conduits, the field conditions affecting the loads are
conveniently grouped into four subclassifications based on the @tude
of settlemtat of
' the interior prism* of soil relative to that of the exterior prismt and the height of
embankment in relation to the height at which settlements of the interior and exterior
prisms of soil are equaL2
Steel pipe is considered to be flexible, and the Marston theory provides a simple
pmdure for calculating externa1soil l d s on flexible pipe. If the flexiblepipe is buried in a
ditch less than two times the width of the pipe, the load may be computed as follows:
- -.
<!
. ..
.I -.
:,,
*The backfii prism dircctly above the pipe. = - --..
TThe b d d l prism between the trench walls d vertical linw drawn at the OD of the pipe.
58
STEEL PIPE
Whcre:
If the pipe is burid in m e m b h n t or wide trench, the load may be computed from:
Wc=Ccw~c2
Where:
Where:
. ..-- -
--- ,
:%-
,. -
The d e d l d calculation in Eq 6-4 is the weight of a prism of soil with a width equd to that
.
of the pipe md a height e q d to the depth offill over the pipe. This prism load is convenient
. .. - .
to calculate and is usually used for all instalhtion conditim for both trench md
. .
.
-.- .
embmkment wnditions. For use in the Iowa defltctioa formula, divide Eq 6-4 by 12.
.. ; . y .-TI,.
In ddition to supportingdead loads imposed by earth cover, buried pipelines malso
:,,:.., ,;-.+.e:
., ,!.
be e x p e d to superimposedconcentratedor distributed iivt loads. CoactatratedEve loads
.
- .
are generally caused by tnick-whetl loads and railway-car loads. Distributed live l& are
caused
by surchrges such as pila of material and temporary strucnrres. The &ea of live
.loads
on
si pipeline depends on thc deptb of cover over the pipe. A method for determinhg
..
.. .. .
the
live
l
d using moaed Boussinesqequations is presented on pp. 224-235 of refererice 3
,. .
of this chapter.
. ,
,,
.
- ,
r.
"I
HXTERNAL LOAD
59
Where:
.
:-
.-.
.. . ... -.
.- .!
?R
..
. ,
E..
- .
-.
i
,: .
-'
-> . .
::. .
-... .>
.
:
--.
...
.
-.
-.
..,.
.
-.
- .., ..
.
.
,
ii-
.
,
where E_=~modulus
of e l a J t i ~ t y ~ 3 O ~ Opsi
Q ~for
O steel and 4 000 000 psi for
cement mortar)
.
I = transverse moment of inertia per unit length of pipe wall*
= &dulus of soil reaction (lb/ine2) (Tables 6- 1 and 6-2).
.
. -
,.
. -.
. ,-
*Under Imd, tht individual elemenm-Le., mortar lining, sreel shell, and mortar mating-work together
as laminated rings (E,[, +E I I +
~ Ec 1, -sheI1, lining, and coating). Strumrally, the combiied actionof thesc
clements increases the moment of inertiaof tthe pipe smion, above that of the shell alone, thus incrcssing its
abidity to resist 1 4 s . The pipe wall stiffness EI of these individual elements is additive.
Table 4-1
Average Values* of Modulus of Sol1 Reaction (E') (For initial flexlble pipe detlettion)
m&
200,
400
lo00
60
STEEL PLPE
Allowable deflection for various lining and coating systems that are often accepted are:
Mortar-lined and coated = 2 percent of pipe diameter
Mortar-lined and flexible coated = 3 percent of pipe diameter
Flexible lining and coated = 5 percent of pipe diameter
Live-lmd effect, added to dead bad when applicable, is generally based on AASHTU
HS-20truck loads or Cooper E-80 railroad loads as indicated in Table 6-3. These vdues are
given in pounds per square faot md include 50-percent impact factor. It is noted that there
is no live-load effect for HS-20 loads when the earth cover exceeds 8 ft or for E-80 loads
A
-
..
ML
CL.
MH
CH
OL
OH
R
>
.
.
SOUC
~ :b d h t i ~of
1 Soils f ~ Ern g i r ~ e e .
Purposcs.
~
ASTM Standard Da4874,ASTM, Phiiadelphia, Pa. (1969).
L.
Railroad E-80 M i n g *
Height of Covtr
Load
HeightofCover
had
fi
Psf
ft
1800
800
2
5
8
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
>
3800
2400
...
1600
1100
250
12
200
15
176
100
20
800
6Cm
300
30
100
*Negiect live load when lcss than 100 psf; use dead load oniy.
EXTERNAL LOAD
The soil modulus can be determined from common consolidation tests, tri&iai
lahratory tests, or from fieldplate-bearing tests of the actual soil in which the pipe will be
embedded.
Since M, is taken as the secant modulus, it accounts in part for nonlinearities in
stress-strain response of soil around the pipe. Determination of M* is b a d on the amial
load applied to a pipe. ~ e c r e a s i nthe
~ load mults in a decreased value for M,. Many
vsearchers h v e studied the relationship bemeen E' and M,, with recommendations
varying widely (E' = 0.7 to 1.5 Ms).This is understandable, since M, is a "pure" soil
property, whereas E' is empirical. It appears justified to assume the two to be thesame, E'=
6.3 BUCKLING
Pipe emkdded in soil may coiiapse or buckle from elastic instability resuiting from loads
and deformations. The summation of extemal loads should be equal to or kss than the
allowable buckling pressure. The allowable buckiing pressure may be determined by the
following:
-3
>
_ -
Where:
qa =
=
=
=
FS
+ 4e(-.065H)
62
STEEL PIPE
._.-.
+'
--
.. ..
-. -
<,
. .
. ...
.. .
.,.
-.
-. - - e . <
., -
-. >
.. .,,- :
-,_
'
L>
.:.&
- ,. :
+:>-r:
:.
M=,
Where:
-,>
--
.-..
- ,----? -
...
, --
'-
-.
,;.
-..
&$;!:::
.
.-
5.2.
S-: 7: -..
- -
--,a,
'-.
._
.
_q
.
:.-..
- >
.
,?
.-
'
'j"
--
1'
.,
As&:
CdcuEata'm:
Using Figure 6-1 as reference:
Tire pattem:
Surface presswe is:
44 24
42
= 55768 paf
7.33
- 1.83
2o
B = - =2
1.0
.,-*
*:
..
*- -. -- - . - -. . , - ,...
..
.
, -..
.
.
- .
.. .$&$.
:. . W m e : Spangler, M:G. & ~ a d y , ' ~Soll-Engineerlng.
.~.
Harper & Row, Pubiishers. &w
<
-.
--
.---
..
t.-
-- ,:- fX..?!
'
'
.- ,
y.
....
.
g7.w.
.:
;,
,:b
-.
- .
..
-.
n = 0.333
p = 1615 H. '.--
?+-:
f.::%
- ...
- ..%
h.
&:Y-
..:
. . > .-
c'
..
3;::
gs. 9.-.
,:
p- ,
Using the Iowa formula (Eq 6-5) to calculatedeflectionfor 54-in. pipe and 60411.
pipe,
wall thickness '/4 in. for .$ach size, lj' = 1250, DI= 1.O, md soil weight of 120 pcf, &e mults
are:
. _
3 ft cover:
s.,
<
S-
I-c:
d'r
=:
"'
-i
k:.,.,
1
;.
<
....
..
*-
. .
- .-
L
-
. . ,
.L.
,<...
.-'r
,-
, * < 7
.:
AA-<
...
.-
- -.
-
Traditional procedures dependmg on weight and the elastic modulus of soil w determine
d. However, computer programs that permit a
k:.;= more r a t i d deteminati011in the design of pipe are now avaihble f r m miversities,
consulting engineers, and manuacturers.
64
STEEL PIPE
*S-:
N m 5 N.M. Simplified C o m p m a h d Vertial Rasures in E i d c F o u d a h . C k . 24.Engrg. &p. Sm
Univ. of Illinois (1935).
1. M A R ~ NANSON.
,
The Theory of Externai Loads on Closed Conduits in the
Light of tht Letest Expcriments. Proc.
Ninth Annual hetting Highway Res.
4.
--
p.
EXTERNAL LOAD
65
- PROUDFIT,
D.P. Performance of Large-
- ;
:.
(Dcc. 1956).
..
;i-
7. ~ R I Z E K , R.J.; PARMELEE,
R.A.; KAY,
J.N.; & ELNAGGAR,
H.A. Stnictural
Analysis and Design of Fipe. HCHRP
Rept. 116 (1971).
(Jm.
1948).
3-Hing.
Jour. A WWA, 48:854 (July
1956).
Behavior of Flexible Steel Pipe
SPANGLER,M.G.Underground ConUnder Embadcments and in Trenches.
duits-An Appmisal of MDdern Research.
Bull. Armco Drainage & Metal Products,
Trans. ASCE, 113:316 (1 948).
Inc., Middlctown, Ohio (1 955).
Protective Casings for Pipelines.
Design and Deflection Control of
lowa State College Engr. Rpts. 1 1
Buried Stwl Pipe Supporting Earth M s
(195 1-52).
md Live Loads. Proc. ASTM, 57:1233
(1 957).
& PHILLIPS,
D. L. Deflections of
Timber-Struttcd Corrugared-Metal Pipe
- BRAUNE,CAIN& JANDA. E&-th Fressure
Culverts Under Earth Fas. B d . 102.
Experiments on Culvcrt Pipe. Public
Highway Research Board; Pub. 350,
Roads, lO:9 (1929).
National Acaderny of Sciences-Natiod
BUMISTER,D.M.The Importmcc of
Research Council, Washington, D.C.
ManiralControlling Conditions U p n Tri(1955).
axial Compression Test Conditions. Specid Tech. Pub. 106, ASTM,Philaddphia,
- TERZAGHI,
KARL.TReoreticai Soil Mechnics. John Wiley and Sons, N e w York
Pa. (1951).
- HOUSEL,W.S.Interprctation of Triaxial -. . .
(1943).
Comprcssion Tests on Granular Soils.
.
*
- WAGNEK,A.A. Shear Characteristics of
.- .. Special Tech. h b . 106, ASTM, Phila,
Remolded Earth Marerials. Special Tech.
delphi Pa. (1951).
, .. . . ,
Pub. 106, ASTM, PhiladeIphia, Pa.
- Lusmn?, U. BucklingofSoil Surrounded
.
(1951).
2 . Tubes. Jout. Soil Mechanics and Forrn- ;
, WIGGIN,T.H.; ENGER,M.L.; &
SCHLICK,
W.J. A Propwed New Method
datim Diei. -ASCE (Nov. 1966).
PROCTOR,
R.R. b i g n and Construdon : - - - :" -- 2 '- for Determining Barre1 Thickntsses of
of Rolled-Earth Dams. E n g i ~ ~ News
n g 2 i';;!: - - : Gst-Iron Pipe. Jour. A WWA, 31:811
. .
(May 1939). ;,
Record, 111245 (1933).
An Approximate Method for Pre. .
..
..
the Smlement of Foundauons
- r -. . .,
- . -, ,
.. - -- , ' c ' .
otings. Second Intexn. Conf. Soil
,:; .
.. .
nics & Foundation Engr. The - : ,:-- . .- --=. . .. ,
.
.-- ..-,
> ,--,..- .-:
. -, - ,
..
, .>
-.q.
Hague, Netherlands (1948).
+.
I
,
.,
--
- ---
---
---
:
,
-y-
T.
'
':
-'
'
L...h
. ' ?
'.
-,,
;
: -.
.
.
.:,.
y,.
-.
->.
.i
, ,.
-..
.
. ,,
.f
,
Y
'
*.:
..
.,. .
'
. ..
.-1-
2
.
. .*.
'
'F.
..,!
. -- *
'.
.>,:
'
.'.*.
.
.
-.
.-
i'
'
'.
There has been very little uniformity in the design or spacing of saddie supports. The spans
have k n gradually increased, however, as experiwce has shown that such increases were
safe and practical. In general, the ordinary theory of flexure applies when a circular pipe is
supported at intervals, is held circular at md between the supporw,and is compktely fillsd.
If the pipe is only partiaily fded and the cross section at poinrs between supports becomes
out-of-round, rhe maximum f&er stress is considerably greater than indicated by the
ordrnary flexure formula, being highest for the haif-fiiied condition?
In the case of a pipe carrying intemd pressure where the ends are fully restrained, &e
Poisson-ratio effect of the bmp stress, which produces lateral tension, must be added to the
flexural stress to obtain the total beam stress.
Excessive deflection should be avoided when the pipe acts as a beam. A maximum
deflectionof ' h o of the span is suggested as gmd practice. This is the same recommendation
used for beams carrying plastered ceilings.
SUPPORTS FOR P I E
.. -
::,
67
->
-2
SEVERAL LAYERS
OF FELT W l f H
QRAPHITE BETWEEN
. .:
uyce: Barrilird. RE.h i g n Siandards tw S h l Water Piw. Jour. AWWA. 40:1.24 (Jan. 1948t
.-
stresses are less for a large contact angle than for a s m d l one, and interestingly, their
intensity is practidly independent of the width of tbe saddle (Dimension B, Figure 7-1).
The width ofthe saddle may thcrefort be that which is most desicable from the stadpoint of
good pier design.
Because saddie supporw =use critica1 points of stress in the memi adjacent to the
saddk alg&,it is frequcntly moreeconomicalto &ase rhe wall tbickness ofthe pipe when
a,.
1
.
68
STEEL PIPE
it is overstressed than to provide stiffening rings. This is especially true where pipe sizes are
36 in. in diameter and smaller. Even a small increase in wall thickness has a great stiffening
effect. The whole length of the span may be thickened, or only a length at the saddle
support-equal
to about two pipe diameters plus saddle width-need be thickened.
When pipe lengths resting on saddles are joined by flanges or mechanical couplings, the
strength and position of the joints must be such that they will safely resist the bending and
shear forces while remaining tight. Ordinarily it is advisable to place joints at, or as near as
practic~ble to, the point of zero bending moment in the span or spans. Manufacturers of
mechanical joints should be consulted regarding the use of their joints on self-supporting
pipe spans.
The pipe should be held in each saddle by a steel hold-down strap bolted to the
concrete. Secure anchorages must be provided at intervals in multiple-span installations.
The ability of steel pipe to resist saddle load has sometimes been greatly underestimated
by designers. Unnecessary expense has thus been entailed, because more supports have
been provided than may have been necessary. According to one report, 1the maximum value
of the localized stresses in a pipe has been greatly underestimated by designers. The same
report states that the maximum value of the localized stresses in a pipe that fits the saddle
well probably does not exceed that given by the following formula:
=k t~ loge ( ~ )
(7-1)
Where:
S
P
R
t
k
The maximum saddle reaction a pipe can stand is about twice the value of P (Eq 7-1) when Sf
equals the yield point of the steel used. Equation 7-1 does not account for temperature
stresses.
Certain other stresses must be added to the localized stress to determine the total stress.
Let:
Sf
Sp
Sb
Sb
Sf
Sc
=
=
(7-2)
It should be noted that Sc is the maximum stress at the saddle. Any pipe selected must
meet two requirements: the maximum beam stress Sb in the span must be within the
allowable limit, and the maximum stress at the saddle must also be within the allowable
limit. One or the other will govern.
*A reference by Pablo Arriaga3 gives a more realistic stress than previous reference by Schorer2 and
reference by Wilson.4
~-
III
II
The flexure stress Sj should be calculated in the usual manner. In single spans, this
stress is rnaximum at the center between supports and may be quite small over the support if
flexible joints are used at the pipe ends. In multiple-span cases, the flexure smess in rigidly
joined pipe will be that indicated by the theory of continuous beams.
For pipe with diameters of 6 in.to 144 in., Table 7- 1 gives practica1 safe spans that may
be on the conservative side for pipes supporting their weight plus that of the contained
water. Other live loads such as earthquake, wind, or the like should also be calculated. Data
for calculating spans for kirge pipe on saddles have been published.2
.--
..,
69
.
. .
Table 7-t
.
-.
- -, Practical Safe Spans for Simply Supported Pipe in 120 Contact Saddles*
-.
. ..
,.
..- -+-, .,
(in
--.
WdThihSs
and L
- -.
--=
70
STEEL PIPE
. :-
'
=,:,,,.,
In the designof free spans of pipe, it may be desirable to determine the theoreucai deflection
in order to judge flexibiIity or ascertain that the defiection dms nor exceed a desirableupper
limit, Freely supported pipe sometimes must be hid so that it wili drain fully and containno
pockets between supports. The allowable deflection or sag between supportsmust be found
to determine the necessary grade.
In any given case, the deflection is influenced by conditions of instdation. The pipe
m a y be a single span or may be continuous over several supports. The ends may act as
though free or fned. In addition to its own weight and that of the water, the p
the weight of insulation or other uniform load. Cuncentrated loads such as
appurtenances, or fittings may be present between supports.
.-.-...-- .
The maximum theoretical deflection can be determined using:
-.
EI
= 22.5 W L ~
,
. ,
Where:
-..-
.-
. . ..
..-
Except for some changes in unit designation, this is the standard textbook formula for
uniformly distributed lmd and free ends. It can be used for concentraredloads at the center of the span, and it can be applied to other end conditions by applying a correction factor
described later in this chapter.
Tests conducted to determine the deflection of horizontal standard-weight pi
filled with water1 have indicated that with pipe larger thm 2 in. and supported at intervals
greater than 10 ft, the deflection is less than that determined theoretically for a uniformiy
loaded pipe fmed at both ends. The actual deflection of s d r pipe appmched the
theoretid deflection for free ends.
;-
4 . ~
--,
The foliowing methods of calcuhting deflection are based on the formulas commonly foun
in textbooks for the cases given. Maximum deflection in a given case can be c a l d t e d b
first assuming that the load is uniformly distributed and the ends are free. This is case
below. Later this result can be modified if the bad is concentrated or the ends
[cases 2,3,and 4 below). The deflection for case 1may be calculated using Eq 7-3. Note
in cases 1and 2 the load W is the total uniformly distributed load on the span, but in cases
and 4 it is the load concentrated at the center of the span.
The four most commonly enaountered conditions, with their correspondingdeflection
factors, are:
Case 1: If the ioad W is uniformly distributed and the ends are free, the defle
calculated using Eq 7-3.
Case 2: If the load W is uniformly distributed but the ends are fixed, the deflecti
0.2 times that for case l.
Case 3: If the load W is abncentrated at the center and the ends are free, the deflectioni
1.6 times that for case 1.
71
Case 4: Xf the load W is concentrated at the center and the ends are fmed, the deflection
is 0.4 times that for case 1.
T h e deflections caused by different loads are additive. Therefore, if a uniformly loaded
pipe span contains a concentrated load, the calculated deflection for the latter is added to
that for the uniform load, and the total sag in the pipe is the sum of the two deflections.
---&;-
r. .:
-.,.T.
:
+
:-.t*;2?-..
, .-
If intermittently supported pipelines are to drain freely, they must contain no sag pocketc.
To eliminate pockets, each downstream support leve1 must be lower than its upstream
neighbor by an amount that depends on the sag of the pipe between them. A przticd
average gradient of support elevations to meet this requirement may be found by using the
following formulad
.:-,.-
--
:ir:.--
(7-4)
. -.
- -
.
? =..
.-L ;: -
- =
,:
-'
2 .
5'
., .
3>*=
.:
>,
.-y..
....
- -*
- ;:-<;.:7:
: .-:
l.
'
In other words, thc eleiatiogof one end should be higher than the other byan amount
equal to four times the deflection calculated at midspm of the pipe.
Example: If the deflection of an insuhted, 20411. OD, 0.375-h. wall thickness pipe
-;c..
r carrying steam is 0.4 in. in a simple, free-ended 50-ft span, what should be the grade of a
-. -..
..
.
,
,
Solurh:
G =4(u'4'
50 =. O
. .:032
!:T. .k
... f t
.ter
....
;
-.!
, .*
..-.
..
.- , & ,
GRDERCONSRUCTION
.
:
-'
- '
:;-
:=;'
'
::
.;:.
.:
---,
--
72
STEEL PIPE
D. Doiaii (Altemate)
EQUIVALENT FIANGE WIDTH
fi
C
C'
- -.
:?
f,
fL
fh
,
h
p
- .,
r
t
t,
w
A,
D
L
Q
y
i f
= e~fentricit
y of the reaction Q from tarigent to centroidal axis of stiffener ring
fiaving radius R (h.)
= contact width of circuIar girder rjng of reamguh cross sedon (in.)
= 1.56
r, (see Figure 7 - 8 ~ifshell
)
is used as combincd sedon with stiffener
gicder web or if additional phte reinforcement is used at contact face
= maxhum combined ring stress in sheil (psi)
= combined mrirrimum longitudid b m stress
= h u m longitudinal rim-bendiag stress in sheii
= head above bottom of pipe (ft)
= variable pressure on inside of pipe circumference
= unit weight of fluid flowing in pipe (lb/cu ft)
. .
= mem roidius of pipe shell (h.)
= thiclmess of pipe shell (in.)
. ,.
= thickness of girder web (in.)
. .,. .... .... ..
= weight of pipe shell per unit of arta (psf)
= mof supprting ring (sq h.)(sce Figure 7-88)
= diameier of pipe = 2 r (h.)
= length of span from -ter to ccnter of ring-gder suppom (ft)
= total lmd of pipe sheU transmitttd by shear to one r h g m
er (lb)
= distance from neutral mis to extreme ftber (in.)
= moment of inertia (in.9.
fi+
.:
pounds,
4,k
SPAN L
SUPPORTS
mi: Bafnam:
73
IFERENCE .
SPAN L
C . TO C.OF SUPPORTS
R.E. DesJgn Standard$ tor Steei Water Pipe. Jour. AWWA, 40:1:2# (Jan. 1948).
:se girders prevent the distortion of the pipe at ths points of support.
ure 7-4
,
1:-
:&
','
The combined maximurn longitudha1 stress (for free-end beam conditions) is:
35-
FA
I.
.--
The maximurn rim-bending stress in the sheii due to internal pressure is:
A, + 1.56t
&
6 (7)
-S{
'
. i.
-.
.,'
i
. ;:
A
.
-
.Q
.,:;
.,
pr
-+'
..
-=>-
~Thisequation was developed on the assumption that the stiffener ring is integral with the
pipe shell and that the rim ioad is Symmetrical. As the rim load is not symmetrical, bemuse
&P' .. of the weight of the water, a g w d approximation of the maximum value of& is obtained by
e,-:.?:substituting the value of f,from Eq 7-5 in place of p/t.
If the girder ring is fitted to the pipe in a loose manner, the rim-bending stress due to
!g@+# ,
, the reaction at the supports should be &en
into account, because the load will be
transmitted mostly by direct bearing on the lower hdfof the ringrather than through shear
distributed around the pipe.
5 - .
. The total combined Iongitudinal shell stress f is:
,
-..
r L
A,-K.
7
.
- $ i<:
-b>:-:.?
" ?Stressin Ring Girder
'L.
;The minimum possible value of the maximum bending moment in the ring girder occurs
when a = 0.04R-outsidethe neutral axis. When this is &e, the maximum bendmg moment
&' . M in !he girder is:
3.
-a
><
. ..
T h e &um
-. .... -
.
.. .
- .- ..>. --.-,,-
IPE
f 2 = q
i1-
'
<
f*j-+j2+b5
C..
(7.'14'
..
~ ~ * ~ ~ ~ ~ k ~ & ; i i- P,.3.sI&+
g g i t d- c i- ~ 6 ~ r h c p ~ * ~ U -w- t v pipskf&y
n t a e.. * 3
& $
j
,I
;
2
Figure 7-6
75
figure 7-5 Ring Cirders Provlde Support for 54-in. Mameter Pipe
Figure 7-7
Anchor Blodr
75
76
STEEL PIPE
beam stress fL for a simply supported full pipe (Eq 7-6; w = o ) . The
~ corresponding stress
ratios designated by nL and n, become functions of a pure number k defined as:
In actual cases, the vaiue of k varies from about 0.20 to 1.20. Within this range:
The half-full condition causes higher stress than the full condition when k is less than unity.
The ratio n~ remains the sarne for canti~uously
supported pipe. The value of fL (Eq 7-6; w =
O) multiplied by n~ gives the maximum longitudinal stress for the half-full condition;
likewise, if multipiied by n , it gives the maximum radial bending stress in the pipe sheii. As
the rim bending stressfb,from Eq 7-7 is zero in Eq 7-8, relatively high langitudiaal stresses
may be ailowed for rhe half-full condition. A value of 10 000 psi has been suggested by
Cates7 for the full condition and 18000 psi for the half-full condition.
In the Bng girder, the maximum moment for the half-fuU condition is 3.88 times the
moment value for the fuli pipe when a value of 0.04 for a / R (the value that gives the
minimum moment for full condition) is used in design.This is notas seriousas it rnay appear
at first, because the assumptiom leading to the vdue 3.88 are conservative. Also, severa1of
the forces and conditions present when the pipe is full are not present when it is halffull. For
these reasons, stresses near the yield point may be dowed for the relatively infrequent
conditions of filling and emptying the pipe.13 The pipe shell and ring girder should,
however, be investigated for the half-fuU condition. T h e references should be consulted.
Design-aid coefficientsfor analyzing stiffener rings for fuii, partly full, and earthquake
forces have been p~blished.~.Other useful data have aIso appearedb3*
'*12.
l4
fr =
-
(W
+9h)
120
2 (0.25)
1
(=)
= 10 440 psi
The maximum longitudinal srress (Eq 7-6) for continuous pipeline:
Zw+&
- 10o2(12)
4(0.25)
= 18 690 psi
2)
(5)
2(12)(12)
120
62.5
2
77
..
.
- .
.
. . <> S
,,
2.;
--<-
- -
.-
.. -
..
:. .-
-,
.
T.
--.,
.-,
=18690+16540=35230psi
1.
., .-
.-, .
- :.
..- .-
.
-.. .
:;y-
,
.-A- ... .
--
.:...,
-.... - ---
-:.-.;
,
7.;
'
..
-
. ..
-.-
-.
L.?--.
..
.
-- '
..-. 5.
..
.
.. ,
.. . . .
-.+ .
- . - * =.
,-.
R=
-.
--.
iG:
#. --;
=
.
.,i
-<<+-':
-:.
- -.-
-.
.-
'
.-S
--,:.:A>,
. -:-:..
-<
. .,- -,
.,.Y
.-
.
;
. , 4. .c..L..
--....
. .
'.
-.
T y p l . UsuaUy recomrnendedfor crossing canals and other Iow places where a s@e
le@ of pipe for spans up to 60 ft can be ussd, type
1 pipe
may be d e and shipped from
- the factory in one length or in two lengths; in the latter case, a welded joint must be d e in
the field at the time of instalhtion.
Type 2. Used in aossing highways, canals, or rivers, where the length of the crossini
makes necessary two intermediate supporting columns, typt 2 pipe is designed in three
lengths with flanges welded to the ends of each length at points of contraflexure, together
with expansion joints for both intake and outlet. This type is normally used for crmsings
fmm 60 ft to 132 ft, with end spans haif the length of the center span.
Type 3. Type 3 differs from rypc 2 in that each end span k 80 percent of the length of
the center span. Type 3, therefore, can be used for longer crossings rhan type 2. It requires
two expmsion joints md five lengths ofpipe with flanges welded m ends of ea& Iengrh at
points ofcontrafiexure. Type 3 may be used for overall crossing lengths from 104 ft to 260ft.
--
--
<
.
A
-.
.-
,i; d
79
80
STEEL PIPE
Concrete Footings
- - --:-
-,
Before assemblingthe pipe, concrete footings (but not the intakeor outiet boxes) should be
poured. If the pipe is to be supporkd on rollers, a pocket is ieft at the topof the hotings as a
base for the roller bed phtes. If steel bents are to be used, anchor bolts are set in concrete
footings for holding the lower end of the pin-ended steel bents or the base plates. The
concrete footings should be finished a little iow to d o w for grouting these suppodng
members to their proper height.
2-
r.
Expansion Joints
-+
.-
>
>
'
Expnsion joints are installed in lhg-spoiii steel pipe to aliow for expansion or contraction
caused by temperature changes . These joints are placed near the concrete headwaiis and
should be left entirely loose until the concrete has been allowed to set for at ieast two weeks.
..-
Ifexpansion jaints are tightened before concrete is poured, the pipe may pull loose frorn the
green concrete. After concrete has set thoroughly, expansion joints are tightened and al1
danger of damage fmm pipe movement is eliminated.
To protect the expansion joint during shipment, it may be necessary for the
manufaaurer to tack-weld steel ties to the inside of the pipe, tying the two pieces of pipe
together across the joint. NOTE:When this is done, the steel ties must by hccked loose from
the pipe as soon as it is set in place and before concrete is poured.
--
Assembling Pipe
.
Pipe being assembled should be supported by temporary framework between piers. Al1
bolts except expansion joint bolts should be tightened. When pipe is in place, concrete
intake and outlet boxes should be poured. Bed plates for the rollers or pin-ended steel bents
can then be grouted in place to the proper height. Temporary supports and blocking should
be removed before the pipe is fiiied with water, otherwise the structure will be subjected to
undue stress.
-.
. , -.
..
-,.
.-
,;-
-.
.. - ,
.
:.
- .'=%
...-;t
.
.<
-0:"
-'
82
STEEL PIPE
'-+
Tabie 7-2 Values of Moment of Inertia and Sedion Modulus of Steel PIpe (continued)
Nominal Sizt*
in.
..
,
L :
W d Thicluiess
h.
Moment
9Znema
in.
O. 188
0.250
5Q4
3 390.87
524
0.312
545
4 485.86
S 569.M
0.375
0.438
0.500
566
586
607
6 658.W
7 736.,68
8 786.13
S"c'on qdulu9
188.38
249.22
309.42
369.94
429.82
488.12
84
S T E E L PiPE
6415.09
7706.71
5545
5706
5869
6079
343 575.02
4308 10.89
518 58823
5 678.93
7 106.16
8 536.43
397 494.49
6249
6119
6 259.76
7 83257
10 323.1 1
7 m25
9 391.42
I l zsO.07
8 17191
5188
0.500
0.625
0.750
0.m
0.625
0.750
: *S&
W062.21
0.625
0.79
369 669.79
5345
0.625
0.750
6638
6816
6994
0.500
0.625
0.7%
7221
7407
7593
498 34695
559 79537
456 779.50
572 596.56
689 067.4
521 -34
653 877.33
786 784.58
0.m
7a29
592 463.77
:'
:.
.. .
'
940%56
6 %S87
859432
under 45 in. are ourside diameter sizes; time 45 in. and over m inside diameter si=.
Referentes
1. ROARK, R.J.Form~lasfor Stress and
Srmtn. McGraw-Hiii b k Co., New
9.
Spans.EtigitigineerriPg
News-Record, 124:852
(1940).
10. FOS~ER,
H.A. Formulas Facilimte Design
of Ring-Supporred P i p . Ch. Eagrg.,
York (1954).
2. SCHORER,
HEMAN. Des@ of Large
Pipeiines. T m . ASCE,98:101 (1933).
3. ARRUGA, P.M. The Infiuence of Circumferentiai Tensiw w the Trmverse
Bending of a Pressure C d u i t on Conmete Masonry Supports (Saddlt S u p
poxrs) in thc Vicinitg of the Supprt.
Technid Library, US BUREC, Denver,
19:629 ( 1949).
f l. GARRETT~
G.H.Dcsign of L o n g - S p
Self-Supporting Steel Pipe. Jour.
AWWA, M1197 (Nov.1948).
12. BARNARD,R.E. Design Standards for
Steel W a t r Pipt. Jour. AWWA, M 2 4
(Jan.1948).
2 - 13. C R O C ~
SABIN,
,
ed. FipUng H d b o o k .
McGmw-HiU Book Co., New York (4th
4. WILSON~
W.M. & NBWMAEK,
N.M. The
Su.ength of Thin C y W d Shells m
Columns. B d . 255, Engrg. Exp. Stn.,
Univ. of iilinois, Urbana, N.(1933).
5. FOSTER,
H.A. Formulas Indicate Earth-
'
The folIoamoamng
refmences are nur cited in
t k texr.
- Steel Pensmks and Tunnel Lim.AISI.
Steel Plate Engnecring Data Vol. 4,
Yo& (1935).
-
..
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.--
-,
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'+_
.
4
AWWA MANUAL
;- -*"-.+--+.
- ..
.
;
' Y
'
-.
- -
.:
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,.
-.
- -
-- - .
-
- .
-':-
The pipe joim selected and the care with which it is instdied are important consideratims
for the design engineer md inspeaor. Many kinds of joints are used with steel water pipe.
Commont y p are bell-md-spigot rubber-gasketjoints, field-weldedjoints (both Uus&
in Figure 8-11> sleeve couplings, grooved-and-shouldered coupiings, and fhges. Aii of
these joints are covered in tbis chapter. Patented joints obtainable from some pipe
mmufacturers include, among others, the integral mechmid-compression gasket of
sMing-box type and the r o l l a gaslret type. Remmmended use and des& data for
patented joints may be obtained from the mmufacnmr of the joint.
- .
p-
..
- -
Pipe Joints
L
..
..
.
.
-:
'
.
.-
..
.
-
- ..
.
. > . -.
'-"
-1
87
PIPE JOIMTS
BUTT STRAP
E. Fabrieated Rub
..
.
Gasket Jolnt
..
- -
RUBBER GASKET
H. Carnegie-Shape Rubber Gasket Joint
U.
11
.
I
CARNEGIE SHAPE
\RUBBER GASKET '
l. Carneaie-Shaue Rubber Gasket Joint With Weld-On Bell Rlna
,>
U--
... - .. '...-
c..-
...,
'
..'
.
!
'
- - -.. -.
*,.
6.
l.-.:
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- ,
.-
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.,
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.,
.
.
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.--.---.
.---&
. ,-,
,.-..
.
-y,-,:.-.
. .
.=Y*;.
.>i
:,a ,
--
Field welding of joints in steel water pipe 24 in. in diameter and larger is a frequently used
-., jointing method that results in strong, permanently tight joints. Slip joints for lap welding
_.,-:having a single fillet weld (Figure 8-1A) have proved satisfactory for most installations.
';..,. Singie-butt welds (Figure S l B ) and double-butt welds (Figure 8- lc)should withstand, to
.,
:y--
-A-
F_.
L=7..
+.
-5:
'
' U - ,
,,
beiow 40F (4OC), the SEAmd weidhg pracedures should be carefiiy sel&
to
.
.
aacommadate these adverse conditions.
=.
.
..:. .=. .
.,,
$Y.
Sleeve couplingsare used on pipeiines ofal1 b e t e r s and especiallyon lhed pipe tao s d
for a person m enter. Very complete technical data have betn publjshed? A typid sleeve
coupling is shown in F i 8-2.
Sleeve couplings provide tightness md strwgth with flexibility. They relieve
-ion
mdc o n d o n f o m in a pipeluie and prwide sufficient flexibility so that pipe
=y be laid on longd u s curves and g m h without thc useof s p d . The mbber gaslets
are firmly held between the coupling prts md tht pipc, and they join thc lengths securely
@nst high pressure, iow pressure, or mcuum. The compkteiyendosedmbber gaskts m
profrom -e
ami h y . These joints h v t been used s d u l i y sin= 1891.
Acceptabk axid movement inflexible sleeve couplings rcsults from shear dispkment
of the rubber gaskets rather
from siiding of the gaskets on ihc niating S&
of the
pipe. If gream dispiace.ment is needed, true expmslon joints should be prwidad r a k
sleeve muplings.
S k v e couplings trmsmit only minor tension or shear smsses acms pipe joints, rind
they wii not m
tMerentid setteementat the j h t s when usad done. However, a degree
of aegibih is psible when used in c o n j d m with an~theradjacent flexible joint.
Skeve couphgs are suitable for joining buried or exposed anchored pipe that are M on
curves tstablisked using defkdcms up to the d m u m pmitted at &e thupiing.
discusd in Sec. 8.7 and Scc. 13.8. Details of joint haraess are @ven in Chaprer 13.
-
PipeLayoutWhen UsingSleeveCouplings
centerline should be determhd u s a data suppbd by thi: wupling manufacrurer.
Extreme uamq is nmssary only in p h t layout work md other very specid pro*.
-.When these cases [Kxur, tbe data supplicd by the coupling manufacmer wiU aid
t e c h n i k and checkers in rcaching agreement on dimensions.
i;
.'.
Figure 8-2
Sleeve Coupling
PIPE JOINTS
89
loca= properly the free end of the pipe seaion behg laid. Tables showing d w of curves,
pipe lengths, and offset defkctions, as well as formulas and sketches showing dimensions,
are avaiiable from ooupling manufacmrers.
steel rhg, hubless fIange, which is made from miid plate, biet, or curved flat;
forged steel, m d e with a low hub, or with a welding neck, by a rolling or forging
pmcess.
The more costly welding-neck type of flange ordinarily is not justifitd for the
comparatively low pressures usuaiiy found in w a m r k s serviae.
->
Pressure Ratings
s.:
.:
~c
it
D-AND-SHOULDERED COUPLINGS
coupling is a bolted, segmentd, clamp-type, mechanical
encloses a U-shped rubber gasket. The housing Imks the
end movement, yet dows some degree of flexibility and
->-
u i>
COUPLING
COUPLING
GASKET
GASKET
GROOVES
alignment. The rubber gasket is tight under either pressure or vacuum swvice. The
coupling is shom d o n e d in F
i 8-3 ami 8-4.
Errds of pipe must be spckdiy prepard to - d a t e
grooved-and-shouMered .:
coupihgs. Thk is done by grooving, bmding, rolling, or welding adapten to pipe enh. .:
Carefulstmtimmust be &ven pipe-end prepamion so h t the c~luphgswiii fit properiy. -2
Some typid groovcd-8nd-shouldcred joints are demibed in AWWA C606, Standard for
Groovcd and Shoutdcred Type ~oints?
+>
The coefficientof expansionof sttelis 6.5 x 186 per degree (F)oftemperaturcchange. The
changc in length of an unrestrained s t d pipe can be determined using:
Ai = c h g e in length (in.)
L = length (in.)
At = c h g e in tempature (OF)
-
..,..
1. -
.-
-4
he cqmsionor contraceion of an unrrsuaincd steci pip is about 3/4 in. per 100 ft of .
pipe for each 100F (56OC) change in ttmperam.
.
..,
'
:.-i>..:j
,
. .-...
.
'
91
PIPE J O i m S
Forces due to expansion and oontmction shodd not be dowed to reach vaives, pumps,
or other appurtenances that might be damaged by these forces. Appurtenances can be
protected by making the connection between pipe ami appurtenance withan expansion joint
or sleeve coupling, or by providing anchor rings and thnist bloclts of suff~cientsize and
weight to prevwt the forces from reaching the appurtenance to be protected.
-.*-'
Expansion and contraction of exposed lines must be pmvided for where individual pipe
sections are anchoredand sleeve couplings are used for field joints. The joints will ordinarily
aliow enough movement so that expansion or contraction is not cumulative over several
lengths.
On exposed field-welded lines, expansion joints m a y be lacated midway between the
anchors if the pipeline is laid ievel. On slopes, the joint is usually best placed adjacent to or
on the downhillside of the anchor point. Pipe ordinarilyoffers great resistance to movement
uphill; therefore, the strength of the pipe at the anchor block should be investigated to be
sure that it is adequate to resist the downhiU thnist. The coeficienfof s l i d i n g friction for
- bare pipe bearing on supports should be determined. Spacing and psitioning of expmsion
r joints should be governed by site and profde requirements. Expmsion joinrs in pipe on
bridges should be at points where the bridge structure itself contains expansion joints
T h e sMng-box type of expansion joint is sometimes used. These joints permit linear
movement of the slip pipe relative m the pachng. Details ofa stuffing-box type of expansion
joint (slip joint) are shown in Figure 8-5. The p d m g of expansion joints may consist of
.:. '2.
..
.
3
.
. ..
.-
'I-
.1.
. -,.
,
, . :+
..
,-.
-...
.-.-
- -.-:
- -
Expansion Joint
- ,
--
92
STEEL PIPE
The change in longitudinal stress in a pipe with fmd ends due to a temperature change
may bedetermined by: . -.
-- -
-i:',.
'
..
A temperature change of 30F (17OC) causes a theoretical smess of 5850 psi in the pipe
wall if ends are restrained. The stress in ail-welded buried steel pipe has been investigated?
with the resdt that some measured stresses were found to be higher md sorne lower than
theoretical. It was fomd in aU cases, however, that the soil restraint was sufkient to absorb
the longitudinal stress in a length of approximately 100 ft of pipe. Chapter 13 includes
discussion and design aid on frictional resistance between the pipe and ground.
. .,
. ,.
..
..,-.
.-
..
8.8&00D PRACICE .
. ..
The
requirements
of
installation
and
operation of a pipeline may dictate the use of more than
.., . .
.. .
.;--,
>A-;:
. .
,.
References
1. Field Welding of Steei Water Pipe.
AWWA Standard C206-82. AWWA,
..
..
.. .- .,
.,
Colo. (1978).
6. Pipe Flmges and Flanged Fittings. ANSI
Standard B16.5.ANSI, New York (1977).
Ohio.
4. BARNARD,
R.E. Design of Steel Ring
Flanges for Water Works Scrvice, A Pro. . -..:
I,.
gress Repon. Jour. AWWA, 42:10:931
(Oct.1950).
...
'
.
*,
,. -
AWWA MANUAL
CO
FittingS and
tenan
k y
T h e wide range of design made possible by the welding and fabriuition procases applicable
to steeI pipe provides the mems of solving almost any problem involving fittings and
specials. The design of pipe layouts, especidly intricate mes, ic greatly facilitaredby having
standardized dimensions for the center-to-face dismnce or the center-to-end dismce of
fittings. AWWA C208,Standard for Dimensions for Fabricated Steel Water Pipe Fimngs,'
provides dimensions for welded steel pipe fimngs in sizes 6 in. and larger. AWWA C200,
Standard for Steel Water Pipe 6 Inches and Larger; specifies the manufacturing
requirements for fittings and special joints.
The standard dimensions of fittings for screwed-joint pipe can be found in the catalogs
of many manufacturers. Manufacturers can also furnish the dimensions of compression
fittings for use on standard plain-end pipe in the smaiier sizes.
SNATION OF FI1
it
Tee
90" wye
'This dimension should be
adiusiid to su! condltions.
- ..
.,
+
:
80P Note
3::
, -Note
-, , 7.
--
Tangent-Type Outlet
NOTES: 3. "a" rnay be extendd beyond tangent line lf necessary to sult jolnt requirernents.
2. Refer to AWWA C208 for additional information.
,,
.:.?
.. <.- = . - - ,
. -.
- . ..
.
. ,. -
..
.
.,;
I , . . ' : ,
95
Tees and laterals are specified by giving the size of the largest opening of the run first, the
opposite opening of the run second, and the size of the outlet or branch last. (Example:
72-in. OD x 66-in. OD X 24411.OD tee.)
The size of side outlets on firtings should be specified last. When specifying side-outlet
tees in reducing elbows, particular care should be exercised to show whether they are right
or left hand. In addition to designating the size of the M n g , the purchser should give a
complete specifiation for the types of ends or flanges desired.
HOLE POSITION
5-;
It is standard practie to attach flanges to pipe lengths so that the bolt h o l a straddle the
vertical centerline. If W e- d pipe
- - is to be instailed at various angles to the vertical, this
standard practice should be m c d f ~ e dand the proper data shodd be given on drawings m d
in seecificationsso rhat thc flanfie
- wiil be attached as needed.
&SK
3;
C"
method, is covered in a paper prepared under the auspices of the Department of Water and
Power, City of Los ~ n ~ e l e The
s ? design using this nomograph method is presented in
Chapter 13. Examples are given for single-plate, two-plate, and three-plate design. Larger
wye branches (up to 144411.diameter and up to 150-psi pressure including safety factor)
may be designed by extraplation beyond the limits of the graphs and tables in the referente.
Other data on the subject also have been published?
AWWA ~ 2 0 provides
0 ~
for nondestructive testing of weld seams on fitting$ and special
sections. Special sections fabricated from previously hydrostatically tested straight pipe
require testing of only those welded seams that were not previously tested in the straight
pipe. Nondestructive testing methods include dye penetrant, magnetic particle, ultriisonic,
x-ray, or other methods as agreed on by the manufacturer and the purchaser.
AWWA C2002also permits hydrostatic testing ofspecials in lieu of other nondestructive
testing. Maximum test pressure should not exceed 1% times the design pressure. This
maximum should be observed in the interest of design economy because fitting tests are
costly. If higher test pressures are d e d for, it may be necessary to provide expensive
reidoremen1 for the fittings, even though the anticipated operating pressure may not
require reinforcement. This is particularly me in the case of flanged fittings, wbich would
be anchored in actual service, but which, if unresnained, would be subjected to much
greater mpturing forces when shop tested to higher pressure. Flanged joints should never
be tested in excess of 1l/4 times the rated fiange pressure if subsequent installation troubles
are to be avoided.
Piping systems are subject to unbalanced thrust forces resulting from staric and dynamic
fluid action on the pipe. These forces must be absorbed or b h c e d if the piping systems are
to maintain their integrity. Unbalanced thrust forces occur at changes in directions of flow,
such as elbows, tees, laterals, wyes, and at reducen, vdves, and dead ends. Reactive forces to
balance these thrust forces canbe provided by thrust blocks or by transmitting forces to the
pipe wall by restrained, harnessed, flanged, or welded joints. Forces in the pipe shell are
ultimately uansferred to the soil. In many cases it is desirabk to combine blocking and
- -
96
STEEL PlPE
transmitting forces to the pipe wdl. Methods of handling these thrust forces, together with
helpful data, are mentioned in Chapter 13.
If m unblocked fitting is tied to buried pipe such that movernent is prevented and tension is
placed on the pipe, it may be necessary to determine the length of the pipe on which the
earth friction will overcome the disjainting force. Chapter I3 includes discussion and design
'1
'.
'
9.8 NOZZLEOUTLETS
-. ' C%
- -.
- 7 .
' -.
'-,'-
-'
.>,.
i-
,
L.
Outlets from steel mains can be easily arranged in any desired location with regard to size,
shape, or position. Nozzles are welded to the main h e with reinforcing coiiars. This work
can be done in the shop during fabrication of the pipe, or at trenchside, or after the pipe is
instailed. Shop lining and coating of nozzles and pipe is satisfactory and more economical
than work done in the field. Al1 outlets should be checked to determine whether
reinforcement is required; however, outlets larger than about one third of the diameter of
the line need special consideration as to reinforcing, even for small size pipe.
If required for hydraulic efficiency, a reducer may be welded to the main pipe with the
outlet welded to the reducer. The reinforcing of the shell must be computed on the brger
diameter.
The end of the outlet nozzle should be prepared to receive the valve or fitting to be
attached. This may cal1 for a flange, a grwved or shouldered end for a mechanical coupiing,
a plain end for a flexible coupling joint, a grooved spigot end for a bell-and-spigot joint, or a
threaded end.
.. -
'
1
-
IANGED CONNECTIONS
:
2-
CONNECTiONS
FF CQNNECTiONS
S located on a slope. Short dips, such as may occur in practidy di pipelieies in
when a line must pass under a iarge drain or other mwturc, csn often be:
pmtice. Elliptical manholes with the cover on xbe pressure side are sometimes used, but
98
STEEL PIPE
- --
Long steel pipelines frequently become carriers of electric currents originating from
differencesin ground ptentials or stray currents. This phenomenon is expiahed in Chapter
10. Where tests indicate the necessity, a long h e is often separatedinto sections or insulated
from other parts of a system by insulating joints. These joinrs can be provided at any flanged
joint, but it is often necessary to make a joint at a particular place by instding a pair of
flanges for this purpose.
Special insuhting gaskets, sleeves, and washers are used to provide electrid insuhtion
at the flanged joint. These insuloithg sleeves and washers are made of fabric-reinforced
bakelte, micarta, teflon, or similar m a t e d s that have long Me and g w d mechanical
strength.
The bolts of the insuhted flanged joints must be carefdiy insulated by sleeva and
washers. It is recommended tbatinsulating washers be used at both ends of the bolts. Some
pipe usen specify flange holes h-in. larger in diameter than normal flange holes.
It isimpomnt that insulatinggaskets, sleeves, and washers be insealled carefuUy so that
the flanged joint will be insulating as intended. After the installationof the insuhted joint is
complete, an electrical resistance test should be performed. The electrical resistance should
be at least 10 000 ohms; if the resistance is less, the joint should be inspected for damage, the
damage repaired, and the joint retested.
.-
,.
Air valves are instaed with pipelines to admit or vent air. There are b a s i d y two types:
air-release valves md air-and-vacuum valves. In addition, a combination air valve is
available that combines the functions of an &-release vaive and m air-and-vacuum valve.
Air-release valves are used to release air entrained under pressure at high ponts of a
pipeline where the pipe slopes are tcio steep for the air to be carried through with the flow.
The accurnulation of air can become so hrge as to impair the pipe's fiow capacity.
Air-release valves are installed at the high ponts to provde for the continuous venting
of accumulated air. An air-release valve consists of a chamber in which a float opemtes
through leven to open a smdi air vent in the chamber top as aiF sccumulatesmd to close the
i vent as the water leve1rises. The float must operate against an air pressure equal to the water
pressure and must be able to sustain the maximum pipeline pressure.
Air-and-vacuum valves are used to admit air into a pipe to prevent the creation of a-.
vacuum that may be the resdt of a vdve operation, the rapid draining or failure of a pipe, a
column separation, or other causes. A vacuum c m cause the pipe to collapse6 from
atmospheric pressure.
--
.- , . J.,, . .-..
...
Air-and-vacuum valves also serve to vent air from the pipeline while it is filiing with
water. An air-and-vacuum valve consists of a chamber with a float t h a is generally cenar
guided. The float ogxms and closes against a large air vent. As the water kvel recedes in the
chamber, air is permitted to enter; as the water level riges, air is vented. The air-and-vanium
valve does not vent air under pmsure.
99
the pipeline. The connecting pipe should rise gradually ro the air vdve to permit flow of the
air to the valve for venting. T h e performance requirements of the valves are based on the
venting capacity (cubic feet of free air per second) and the pressure differentiai across the
HMRAULIC GRADIENT
WHEN DRAlNlNO LlNE
' CHANC
PARALLEL TO
'
HYDRAULIC GRAOIENf"
'
'
,'
L L O N G DESCENDING STRETCH
T SU
DOWNWARD GAD1ENT
UM WHEN DRAlNlNQ UNF
Types of Val-
'
Increasing Downgrade
Decreasing Upgrade
CamMmtbn A
k V h
Vdvt
Recmmendad
. m O DPRACTICE
..
--
100
STEEL PIPE
References
1. Dimensions for Fabriatcd Stael Water
Sael Pipe Wges for Watcrworks Service-Sizes 4 in.TBrough 144 in. AWWA
Standard C207-78. AWWA, Denver,
&lo. (1978).
TIMOSHEMRO,
S. S m g t h of M a t d s .
Part II. Van NosCompany, New
York (1944).
AWWA MANUAL
Principles of Corrosion
and Corrosion Control
.-
.--
ERAL THEORY
Al1meltmkisexposed to the elements e mW y chmge to the stateh t is most sable under
prevailing conditions. Most stnicniral me&, hving been converted from an ore, ttnd to
mmto it. This reversion is an electrochemid process-M is, both a chemical d o n
the flow of a direct electric cumnt m a r . Such a cumbimtlon is ter&
m
d Electrochemical ceiis fa11 mto three general &m:
galvanic &S, with ekctmda df.dissimilar mctafs in a homogeneous - 1 9 ,
concentrationceiis, with eZectrodes of similar material, but with a nonhomogeneous
.
electrolyte,
e l m l y t i c d s , which are s
W to gdvmic ceh, but which have, in addition, a
conductor plus oin outside source of electrid energy.
'
102
S T E E L PIPB
W a n i c Corrosion
Wvmic corrosion occurs when two electrodes uf dissimiiar materiais eire e l d d l y
umuected and ein an e-lyte.
An example is the common fiashiight cell (Figure
10-1). Whm the cell is comected in a circuit, m n t flows from the Pnc case (the anode)
into the electrolyte, carrying i o n i d atoms of zinc with it. As smn as the Uac ions are
dissolved in the clecu01ytc, they lose their ionic charge, passing it on by ionizing a m s of
hydrogea. Thc ionic charge (thee l d c current)flows throughthe electrolyte to the =boa
rod (tbt mhade). There, the hydrogen ions are r e d d to awms of hydrogen, which
combine to fom hydrogen gas. The current flow through the cjrcuit, therefore, is from the
zinc anode to the elecmolyte, to the carbon r d cathode, md back to the zinc anode through
the eiemicai conductor mmeahg &e ande m the cathode. As the current flows, the zinc
is destroyed but the a b o n is unhanned. In other words, the a n d e is destroyed but the
cadlde is protected.
Ifthe hydrogen gas formed in the galvanic ceii coikm on thc c a h d e , it wiii insdate
the athode from the electrolytemd stop the flow ofcurrent. As long ss tat hydrogm film is
maintained, corrosion wiii be prevented. Removal os destniction of the hydrogen film will
d o w corrosionto Sagain at it originairatc. Formationof tbe ais d e d polarkmdon;
its removd, d e p o b t i o n . Corrosion ceiis n o d y fonned in higbly comivt so& or
watersartsuchthatthehydrogenformedonthe~~~~pes~a~sndcombiatswitb
dissolvedoxygm in tht ekctrolytc, thusdtpolarizingthe cathode and d o w k g m m i o n m
p d .
In the Qashii&t battery, the zinc case is atraclred d the ah is not. However, zinc
or any othcr metal -y be amcked when in circuit with one meta&but not a m c k d when in
circuit witb another. A metal listed in Toible 10-1 will be amcked if comected in icircuit
with one listed beneath it in the table, if they are p M in a common elecmolytic
mvironment su& as w a m or moist soil.
Tht order in Table 10-1 is b w n as the gaivmic series; it g e n d y holds true for
neutralelectcoljrtts.C b q p in the compition or temmhire of the electrolyte, however,
may cause d
n rnetais listed to shitpositions or a m d i y reverse positim in the table.
Por example, zinc is lisred above iron in the tabk, and zinc wdi corrode when co-d
to
iron ia fresh water ar normal temperature. But when the temperature of the water is above
POROUS SEPARATOR
NONMETALLIC
Ci
+ -
+ ELECTROLYTE
C
4-
ZINC,
ELECTRODES SIMILAR IN
COMPOSITION AND SlZE
CORROSION
103
a-
....
zinc
.
Aluminum 2s
&--- w u m
Aluminum l7STt
-.
@$,
G
-,
&,S:6
$1-
.
-
.
.
.
-
..
Stecloriron
.- Cast irw
&L>
Chromium-imn (active)
Ni-Resise
184 Sminless s w i (active)?
18-8-3Stainlcss stctl (dvcH , !
....
,l. .
-..
?
-<.-.,
.
. !. - . . .. ... .
.. - -
--1,
TI
.-. b
Ni&l (active)
.2
3 = -
.- - . . - ...+. - . : . - :.
.,
. y-'
'
:';+
-.
.',. . .. . < - ; 2 y - , - y %
Platinum
a
'
;
,
,
w - -
-d3=.--:
.-h
.
-
dhas a SU-
104
STEEL PIPE
about 150F (66C), the iron will corrode and protect the zinc. Thus, the table cannot be
used to predict the performance of all metal combinations under all conditions.
In the flashlight battery, dissimilar metals and a single electrolyte cause the electric
current to flow. Similar metals in dissimilar electrolytes can also produce a current, as
illustrated in Figure 10-2. In corrosion underground, differential oxygen concentration in
soils is one of the chief reasons for dissimilarity in the electrolyte. Differential oxygen
concentration (or differential aeration) may be caused by unequal compactness of back fill,
unequal porosity of different soils or of one soil at different points, uneven distribution of
moisture, or restriction of air and moisture movement in the soil caused by the presence of
buildings, roadways, pavements, and vegetation.
The electrochemical cells described in the preceding paragraphs demonstrate the
fundamental principles of the many kinds of electrochemical cells found in practice. The
common forms of corrosion encountered on unprotected buried pipelines are shown in
Figures 10-3 through 10-11.
Moist earth is electrolyte; two areas on the pipe are anode and cathode; pipe wall takes place of wire in Figures 10-f
and 10-2. Pipe wall at anode will corrode like zinc battery case; pipe wall at cathode will not corrode but will tend to
be coated with hydrogen gas, which if not removed, willtend to build resistance to current flow and thereby check
corrosion of pipe wall at anode.
Figure 10-3
."""--.
. -.~
TUBERCLE
PIT
\ t~
PRODUCT
OF ~
CORROSION~.--""'"
HYDROGENION
~HYDROGEN
FILM
Detail of pipe wall at anode in Figure 10-3 is shown. As current leaves surface of anode, it carries with it small
particles of metal (ions). These ions go into solution in soil (electrolyte) and are immediately exchanged for
hydrogen ions, leaving metal behind as rusty scale or tubercle around pit area. In many soils, especially
comparatively dry ones, this barnacle-like scab will "seal off" pit so that ions (electric current) cannot get through
and cell becomes inactive as long as tubercle is not disturbed.
Figure 10-4
"'~
- .
is cathode (protected areii, steel pipe is anode iwrroding area). and gurrounding earth is electrolyte. As
ode s small in area relative M a n d e , corrosion is not ordinarily swere or rapid. If these area proportions
rsed, corroslon may be much more rapid.
ldom considered, galvanic cell is created by installing piece of new pipe in old line. New pipe always
&le and its rate of corrosion will dspend on type of sail and relative areas of anode and cathode.
areful protective measures are essential.
i; Acid leached frwn cinders contaminates soil and increases its activrty. No hydrogen wllectc
106
S m L PIPE
/ COUPUNG
'
THREADS
BRlGHT METAL
/BREAK IN FILM
SCRATCHES CAUSED
BY PlPE WRENCH
Brighf scars or scratches of threads becorne anode areas in buried pipe, and rest of the pipe is cathode area. In some
soils, these bright areas can be very active and destnictive because the small anode area and lar* cathde area
produoe the most unfavorabte ratios pssible.
PIPE
In this galvanie cell of dissimilar etectrolytes icompare Figure 1Cb2i. seaions of pipe in sandy loam are cathodes
( protected areas ), sections n clay are a n d e s I corrding areas), and soil is electrolyte. If resilance to electriccurrent flow is high in electrolyte, corrosion rate w i l be slow. If resistan= to current flow is Iow, corrosion rate will
be high. Thus. knowledge of soil resistan# to electric-current flow becomes rnportant in corrosion control studies.
CORROSION
107
GROUND UNE-
MOlS.
AFFi A T
ION
Uectrolytic Corrosion
motors driving it. To complete the circuit, the repath of the current is intendd m be
from the motors to the wheels of the cm,then through the A s to the generamr at the
.r rcsistmce to the flow ofthe electricity,what usually hppens is that a portion ofthe c u m t ,
11 satking an easier path to the substation, leaves the roiiIs, polsses intothe ground, md returns
to the substation through thc moist c h . If, in its journty through the ground, the current
p s e s mar buRed mctal pipe-which offers an e a s k path for returnthan dms the ground
& substation; there it will leave the pipe mi flow throughthe ground back to the mil, and fineilly
rehirn to the subsmtion genemor.
Areas ofthe pipe where the current is entering are not mrroded. Whex the current is
leaving the pipe, however, steel is destroyed at it rate of about 20 ib per ampe-year of
1[i8
STEEL PIPE
POSITIVE AREA
P'PEL'NE
NEGATlVE ARE4
STRUCTURE CATHODICALLY
PROTECTED
STRUCTURE CORRODING
GENERATOR
.,.' .
-
.',"
, -
.
. . .-
NEGATIVE AREA
+
.
.;
:
'
PIPE
. -.
:,-:-
Biochemical Corrosion
Certain soii bacteria create chemicals that may mult in comion. Bacteria1 wirrosion, or
anaembic-bacteria1oorrosion, is not so much a disthct typt of corrosion as it is mother
cause of electrochemical corrosion. The bacteria cause changes in the physical and chemical
propcrties ofthe soii to produce active pseudogdvanic cds.The bacterioiladon may be one
of removing the protective hydrogen fdm. Difftrcntial aeiaaon plays a major rok in this
activiv.
:- > *
,
The only d
n way of determining the pmence of anatrobic bacteria, the prticuhr
kind of microorganismresponsiblefor this type of comsion, is to secure a sample ofthe soil
in the immediate vicinity of the pipe and develop a bacteriat culture from that sample.
hs@m under a microwpc wiH determine definitely whether harmful bacteria are
p m t
CORROSION
Crevice corrosion
k v i c e currosion in a steel pipent is a& by a conaeatration citll formed where the
dissolved oxygen of the water varies from ont segnment of thc pipc memi m mother. In a
crevia area, rhe dissolved oxygen is h i n d e d fmm difhiionrm t h g an seodic d t i o n
h i atuses metal w go h t o soiution.
Severity of Corrosion
Severityofcorrosion in any given case will depend oa maay differentfactors, some of which
may be more impormt tiunothers.The f-rs
most W1y toaffmthe me ofcorrosion m
dative Wtiof18 of mecals in the gaivanic series,
~ i z e ~ f a n o d e ~ w i t h ~ p e c x t o ~ ~
la~8tioaof~~with~pectto~thode,
resistan= of mEeallic cimit,
tgpe mi oompition of e h l y t c ,
d u c t i v i t y or resistivity of eiextrolyte,
unifOfmityof~1~,
deplarizingd*.
Soll-Corrosion lnwstigations
The first organhd soil-corrosion investigati011 was begun by the NatiOnal Bureau of
Stadds(Nl3S)in 1911.Thtprpostatthoitti~wasmstudy
theeffectofsttaycumnts
from smet-railway lincs on b d d meallic stnichircs. In its inithi inm@awthe
bureau found that in many instanccs whcrc mther stvere amosion was anticipated, little
damage was observcd, whercas in o h , more amaion wm f d tban dm bc
indicated by tht t l & d data associatad with tbe corroded s m m a r e . These obserwtions
led to a second nwstigation, u n d c d m m 1921. O r i g i d y about 14 000 specimens were
buried at 47 test sites, but tbt numbcr was sukqumtly i n d to 36 500 qechm at
128 mt sites. The American Ptmiltum Lnstimtt and thc Anterican Gas hso&tion
c o h b o d in
the mults of the latter tests.
Buriai sita were sekctcd in typical soils representiaga sampling ofartas in whichpi@
was ar mighf k buried. Tbe p u r p x of tbe i n v e s m o n was m h. w k h r
- 0
5 2 0 ~ ~
TIME, YEARS
..
A Method o1 Deietminsng Wall Thickness of Steei Pipe for Uno'efgroundSewrce. Jour AWWA.
STEEL PIPE
i-
mbie. Induh:
1. Sandsorsandy h m ~
-2. Light, t e x t u d silt hm
3. Porous loams or &y loams thomughly o x i M to great depths.
-. . =
>. ;.'
.
.
Ewrrp II-Moahtdy CGWOSI'W Aeratim ami draimge fair. h a c m h d by slight r n o d h g ( y e M s h brown md yelhwish gray) in lower part of profIle
- . (depth 18-24 in.) and by low water mble. Soils would be considered well dmined in an agriculnual sense, as no a1~6cial
.<!*'.%
- -is raecessary fw m p raising. hcludes:
-.
...
- .,- ;.1. Sandy
-;:
.
.
. . :
2. Silt loams
.. ..
3. Clay loams
. .
. ,
. .
s.-:...
. .
Group III-Bdy C N '
h t i o n d h i m g e p r . ChactenZed by hcavy texture and moderate mottiing close to s u r f e (depth 6-8 in.)and with
water tabk 2-3 ftbelow surface. Soils u s d y occupy flat areas and would require arrifcid drainage for crop raising. Indudts:
l. Clay loams
2. Ciays
1
1,
,-
:->
:T..
'
Vroup I V - U d I y Cmosiw
Aeration and drainage very p o r . -rized
by bluish-gray mottling at %phs of 6-8 in.with wafer table at s u r f e , or by
.
extreaae impermeability -use
of colloidal material contained. Incl~des:: .
1.
M&
2. h t
3. T
i
d
a
lmmb
4. aayS and @soils
5. Adobe &y.
..
..
. -
Description
ohtn/cc
exceknt
good
fair
bad
10 coo4ml
6MW45(M
2
3
4
4500-2000
-*2
CORROSION
111
theefi~ofmter~~<w~o~kindsofpipe~.Al~wghsomeunlinedpipes
h v e been pitted through by some waters, the principai result of interior corrosion is a
reduction hflow capacity. This redudo11is causcd by a formati011of tubercles.offerric
hydroxidc, a conditim $nown as mhrmlation? It is primariiy to m h r a i n fiow capaciy
that pipt ihhgs h e becn developed. Whtre i n w d comion is a l 1 4 m persist, qualiy
of water deurioratts, pumping and transmission capacitp deefficitncy diminishes, and m t l y rtplaccment b m e s inevitable. Scrious accidents rrad h s of revmues h m
systtm shutdowns are aiso psible. The mxnmct of &ese problems. can be red& by
the use of quality p d v e linings.
ATMOSPHERiC CORROSION
Atmosphericcorrosion of exposed p i p e h s is u s d y insjgnificant, except in industrial and
Where siach owrcision is sigdhnt, the msUntmamc problem i n d is
si*
m that for bridge5 or other e x p d steel stnictures.
sea amt areas.
.. :.,
'
.
<,
,.
- --- .-
, :
CATHODIC PROTECnON
Cathodic protection systems reverse the electmckmicai corrosive force by creating an
externa1 circuit between the pipeline to be protected m d an auxiliary anode (sacrificid
memi) immersed in water or buried in the ground at a pdetermined distmce from the pipe.
D i current appiied to the circuit is dischmged from the anode surface md travels
Two methods are avdable for genmting a current of suffrcient magnitude to
F.:
current to flow from the anode to the pipe, retuming to the anode through a simple
connecting wire (Figure10-15). This system is generally used where it is desirable to apply
s m d i amounts ofcurrent at a number oflocations, most oftcn on coated pipelines in lightly
or moderabeiy corrosive soils.
112
STEEL PIPE
PROTECTED
STRUCTURE
/ GRADE
RECTlFlER UNlT
~ecnfierType
The second method of current generation is to energize the circuit with an externai DC
power supply, such as a rectifier. This technique, commonly referred to as the impressed
current method, uses relatively inert anodes (usuaily graphite or silicon cast iron) connected
to the positive terminal of a DC power suppiy, with the pipe connected to the negative
terminal (Figure 10-16). This system is generally used where large amounts of currents are
required at relatively few locations, and in many cases it is more economical than sacrificial
anodes.
Bonding of joints
Where a pipeline is to be cathodically protected, or where a pipeline is to be installed with
the possibility of future cathodic protection, the bonding of joints is required to make the
line electricaiiy continuous (Figures 10-17 and 10-18). It is usually desirable to bond al1
joints at the time of installation, because the cosr later wiii be many times greater. In
addition to bonding, the pipeline should have test leads conneaed to it at appropriate
intervals to permit monitoring of the activity of electrical currents within the pipeline,
whether under cathodic protection or not. Field-welded lines require no additional
bonding.
--
. - -.
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AWWA MANUAL
C.
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11
Chapter
..
Protecti
Linings
tir
and
L.;. ronsidered
Coatings for carrosion control are extremely effective when properly used. They are
ro be the primary h e of defense @nst corrosion of steel p i p e b systems,
4- ,,,
>--
G.
Coating costs are only a fractionof pipeline costs, yet coa* is the major means of ensusing
10%-term operation by preventing pipeline deterioration aad corrosion leaks.
F-
'
..
8 ".: The
~ mquirrmentg of a coating vary with the type of mnsmiaion, the aggmsiveneps of rhe
' y 'environment in which it will serve, and the system opemting conditiom. The effeaivemss
rr
i..
of a good prouaive pipeline coating depends on its permanente and the degree to whi& it
- possesstx physical resistance ro hazards of tmportation, installation, temperantre-e,
so9 stcess, and pressure; resistance to water penemtian or absorption; effective elecacal
5
insulative properties; and chemical inertness w soil, air, water, o@
acids, alkalies, and
k1
: bacteria1 action. Coatingeffectiveness&o depends on such g e d chmcteristics as ease of
e&xappiication, high adhesion, compatibility of use with Cathodic protection, and reasonable
%:-
,
,S,~
S'
STEEL PIW
Selection for a given use is a matter of assessing the magnitude of the corrosion, installation,
and service hazards. Testing pmcedures have been developed to aid the engineer in
evaluating and selecting the coating system that best meets a system's n e e d ~ . ~ - ~
Requirements for externd coating and interna1 lining are different, so each should be
considered separately with respect to tbe anticipated corrosion severity.
Coating Selection
The corrosion potential for the exterior of steel pipe is diff~cuitto judge because of the
variery of environments encountered. Resistivity of the soil (see Tabk 10-3, Chapter 10)is
the most important parameter for judging soil corrosivity. Soil chemical and physical
analyses, pH,moisture content, and existence of stray electrical currents are also important
factors that can aid in making the selection decision.
After the leve1 of soil cormsivity is assessed, the other conditions that &a the
long-term performance of p r o t d v e coatings should be considered.' Among hese are
distorting stresses exerted on the coating during compaction and sertling of the
backf'iI1;
medlanical stresses created by certain soils having very high expancion and
shrinkage during wet and dry cycles;
penetration by growing roots;
action of bacteria and fungus in soil surrounding the pipeline;
penetration by rocks, clods, or debris in the b&Ii;
attack by soil chemicals or industrid wastes, chemicals, and solvtnff that may be
present along the pipeline route.
Coating performance depends on putting the pipeline into service with the lem
amount of coating damage. The coating system selected must not only rneet the corrosioncontrol needs, but must also allow economical transportation, handling, storage, and
pipeline construction with minimal coathg damage or repair. To ensure precise control d
coating application and quality, many types of coatings are applied in a plant or shop. The
coating manufacturer can provide a guide m the proper protection during transportation,
handling, and storage of pipe that has been coated with such a system. General guidelinea
are given in a later section of this chapter. There are several recognized resting procedureg
that are used in evaluating coating system characteristics related to transportation, storage,
and ~onstniaion.~~
Among the characteristics to be considered are
'
Lining Selection
- -.
-.-
.
-
117
protecr steel water lines by electridly insulating the coared pipe surfaces from the
environment. When reinforced, the coatingc provide additiod resistauce to physid
rial ~Iected,consideratiw should be given to the effects of
D COATINGSAND LININGS
- C m n tAWWA standards list coatings and linings for steel water pipe that are beliwed to
be the most reliable, as proved in prmice. The A W W A Steel Pipe Commirtee is alert,
however, to the possibilities of new developments, and dditions to and modifications of
existing standards will be m d e as deemed advisable. The current list of AWWA coating and
lining standard$ for pipe protection is as follows:
AWWA CB3, Standard for Goal-Tar Protective Coatings and LinIngs for
Steel Water Pipeiines-Enamel and Tape-Hot-Applied.
AWWA ~ 2 0 3describes
'~
ments for shop-applied mal-tar protective mtingsand
n o r d conditions when the
WF (3ZC).The standard covers
of pipe, s pecial sectians, connections, and
oal-tar tape applied to the exterior of special sections,
Coal-tar enarael is applied over a crial-tar or synthetic primer. Externa1coal-tar enamel
ded asbestos-felt and fibrous-giass mat to reinforce and shield the mal-tar
lied e x t e d coating is usually finished with either a coat of whitewash or a
"'!single wrap of kraft pper.
reinforcement or shielding. The hot
a smooth interna lining having low hydraulic
The standard provides a rigidyet reasonabk mdacmrer's @de for the productiw of
the coating, calls for t e s ~of material and its behavior ro ensure the purchaser t h t tht
product has the desired qualities,and furnishes directionsfor the effective applicationof the
..
*i
><
'
'
--
-,
,-
2-
--'
-.
,..?
..
mortar.
--*? '::
:r.
119
- surfaces for coating, inapplying the coating, and in handlingthe pipe &r coa-.
AWWA
standards provide the requirements for ob-g
g d coating work. T h e atwiting
manufa~urer,the applicator, and the &eer
should d cooperateto see that the work is of
the prescribed quality. M m y e x d h f sources of Informatim have k n published deahg
with the protedon of steel pipe, the pitfalls of mting mrk, and the mems ofavoiding hese
The AWWA standards for protective coatings have been a r e f d y prepared by experienced
individds and me based on the best current pmcaice. They should be used by incorporating
them in the job smcation
by direct referente. Modification should be made only by
experienced coaspecialists.
For AWWA Standards C203,C205, C209, C214 W 13, C214, and ~ 6 0 2 'l4I9
~ ) to be
complete for bidding purposes, the pirrchaseis job spafi(#~tions must provide the
suppkmenteiry h i l s required h each standard.
120
STEEL PIPE
AWWA MANUAL
CO
Transportation,
Installation, and Testing
.
5-b:
>-.<T-
-.
J.* - Y
& < u
p7
chpfer, the importmce ofthe engirneeringpropertiesofthe soil being excawtedand the mil
that will be used for b d i shodd be k p t in d.
The principies of soil mechanics
pruperly appliedto exawtion md baclcfiil p d c e s lead to safer w o r h g conditi- and to
better md more economical pipeline i n s t d a t i m . l ~
Modes of Transportation
Requirements for packagitig, stowing, and restroiining pipe during transit depend 0x1thc
mode ofmnqmrtation.
RaiL Flrit ~~cars can be l d e d to approximttly 17 ft iabove the top of tbt mil
.sind 20 widths of 10 ft. Cars are normally a d a b l e for shipping 40-,m-, or 8 0 4 lengths of
:pipe. Pipe can be resmhed on the a r s through use ofs& pockcts or made inoofl121
e.
mating.
12.2 TRENCHING
... -
kpth
Trenches should be dug to grade as shown in the profile. Where no profile is provided, the
minimum cover should be generally s e l d to protect the pipe d e l y from mnsient loads
where the dimate is d d eind should be determined by the depth of the frost line in freezing
climate. The profie should be sekaed to m b i m h high points where oiir may be trap@.
Depth of tren& in u t y streets may be governed by existing utilities or other conditions.
Wdth
..
. .
..
Where the sides of the trench will afford reasonableside support, the trench
be maintaincd at the top of the pipe, regardless of the depth of excavation,
practica1 width that wili d o w pmper densificatim of pipe-me beddiig an
materiais. If the sides of the trench remain vertical after excavation, and if beddmg
123
backfill are to be consolidaitedby hydraulic methods, then the minimum trench width at the
top of the pipe should be pipe OD plus 20 in. If the pipe-zone bedding md b&i require
dinsification by compacti&, the width of the trench at the bottom of the pipe should be
determind by the spsce required for the proper and effective use of tamping equipment,
but it should ncvcr be l e s than pipe OD plus 20 h.
When mechanical joiacg are assembled on pipe in the tren&, beil hola must be
provided at each joint and hola excavated to permit removal of the slings without dimuge to
the pipe coating. In order to avoid i m p i n g excessivee x t e d f d s on the pipe, the trench
width should be kept to the minimum width consisten1 with the baMdampaction
equipment and the type of joint used.
Bottom Preparation
--
.
.-
-'
Regulations
ti
.-
All applicable local, state, ami federai laws and reguiations shodd be a r e f d y ob&
i n c l u k g those relating to the proteaion of excavations, the safety of persons working
-herein, and provision of the required barriers, signs, and lights.
Coated pipe shouki not be strung on rough ground when stored at the trench site, nor
huidit be roiled on such a surface. Rolling of mted pipe should be permitted only when
joint ends are bare and rails are provided on which to roU the expostd sted.
/""
124
STEEL PIPE
It
EMBANKMENT
TRENCH
WELL-DENSIFIED BACKFILL
MINIMUM
(SEE NOTE 5)
~INIMUM
(SEE NOTE 3)
~4
(SEE NOTE 5)
1\
Ht (SEE NOTE 4)
III
3/4
2 IN. LOOSE
Figure 12-1
ITII"~//'i'
TRENCH WIDTH
(SEE SEC. 12.2)
MATERIAL
'
It
E;MBANKMENT
TRENCH
WELL-DENSIFIEDBACKFILL
(SEE NOTE 3)
MINIMUM
(SEE NOTE 5)
.JJ M~IMUM
(SEE NOTE 5)
3/4
Ht (SEE NOTE 4)
3/4
Figure 12-2
-6-IN.
MINIMUM
Dry Density
95%
90%
85%
For free-draining soils, the relative density shall be at least 70 percent as determined by ASTM
D2049-695 (withdrawn, replaced by ASTM D4253-836 and ASTM 4254-837). Comparative soil density
tests are shown in Table 12-1.
4. Pipe zone backfill height over top of pipe (Ht) shall be 12 in. minimum for pipe diameter larger than
24 in. and 6 in. minimum for pipe diameter 24 in. or less.
5. Side slopes shall be a minimum of %:1 or as required by OSHA, other safety orders, or by the soils
engineer.
6. Figures 12-1 and 12-2 represent Class C bedding as shown in ASCE Manual No. 378 (WPCF Manual
of Practice 9, see reference 8).
I!'-
125
While handling and placing pipe in the rrench, fabric slings should be used. The pipe
shouid not be dmgged along the bottom of the trench or burnped. It should be supported by
the sling while preparing to make the joint. T h e coatingon the underside of thc pipe should
i.
.
:L:
trench should be kept free from water that could impair the integrity of bedding and joining
operations. On grades exceding 10 pemmt, h e pipe should be iaid uphill or otherwise held
in place by methods approved by the engineer.
Specid means ofsupportiagthe pipe may be provided, but under noconditions should
Slight deflections for horizontal and vertical angk poiuts, lwg radius
shouid furnich data to the engineer and the conrractor i n d i d n g maximum j
deflections for each type of joint fumished.
Assembly of PTpe
Trestle and ring-girder consmcrion is often used for highway, river, and similar
Bows or bends in the pipe caused by direct rays from the sun are preventsd. (Thiscan
be achieved by providing a sun shield over tht pipe.)
126
STEEL PIPE
bridge contains an expansion joint in its mnstmctiou. Steel pipe is also oftcn suspended
from or a-ed
to the underside of existing highway bridges, with appropriste attention
given to the flexibiliry of the bridge's structurc. Exposed pipelinec in any iocation should be
protected againsf freezkg in are85 where such a psibility egisfs.
Field-Welded joints
,.
complete the lining, proper vendation must be provided. Jointcin pipe smaiier than 24 m;
sufiaent distance to absorb the force through skin friction provided by the bacgFi11
against the pipe. In such ases, accuratemmputationofthe thrust and strengthof
must be made, partiahly for iarger pipe under high pressures,to determine if the weld.
~ ~ c i e n tstrong
l y to transmit the force from one pipe seaion to the next.
Except during the construction period when an open trench exists, pipe with
joints wili usualfy have no problems witb excesiv~t h e m d expansion and contr
adjusted so thc tension on the rubber is uniform around the circumference of ihe
Foiiowing assembly, the pipe joint should be &&ed with a thin metal feekr
ensure that proper gasket placement exists in the spigot g m v e and tha~the proper
of joint lap has been achieved.
127
i'
'
Where pipe is laid on piers, antifriction material should separate the pipe from the
supporting snucture. Satisfmory p d c e is for 90-120 degrees of the pipe surface to be
made to bear on the pier. For pipe on piers, the thrust resuiting from an elbow or bend tends
to overturn the anchof pier.
Pipelines laid on slopes, d c u l a r l y a b v e ground, always havt a tendency to creep
downhill. Ir is necessary to provide anchor blocks placed agahst undisturbed earth at
ent intervals on a long, steep slope to reduce the weight of pipe supported
at each mchorage to a safe figure.Where pipe is lacated in a posirion where disturbance of
ly, concrete thrust blocks may be used to resist the lateral thrust. Vertical.
angies with resultant tbrust in a downward direction require no special rreatxuent ifthe pipe
m f u l l y trimmed rrench bottom, but vertical @es with a resultant
tbrust upward should be properly anchored.
Soil resistame to thrust. A force caused by thrust against soil, whether applied
horimntally or vertically downward, may cause consolidation and shear strains in the mil,
aiiowing a thrust block10 move. T h e safe load that a thrust block can transfer to a @vensoil
lidation characferistics and the passive resismnce (shear smength) of
block movement permissible, the areaof the block, and the distance
of force application below ground line. Methods of calculating passive resistan- are
available. l5 For al1 linec, detail dculations are neasary. Data on prmissible soil grip for
13. Some data for the calculation of thrust at
STEEL PIPE
Pipe-zone bedding and backfill may be classified as Class C1, C2, or C3 (Figure 12oras otherwise defined by the engineer. Bedding and baclbill should be densified around t
pipe to the specified height over the top of the pipe. In the absence of a specific height, t
backfill shou1d be densified to not less than that called for in Note 4 of Figures 12-1 an
12-2.
The dry density of compacted cohesive soil for each ciass of bedding and backfdl,
shown in Figure 12-1, shouid not be less than the following:
D y Density
Class CI
Class C2
Class C3
-,
'
Densification
Regardless of the method of densification used, rnateriais must be brought up at
substantially the same rate on both sides of the pipe. Care also should be taken so that the
pipe is not floated or displaced before backfilling is complete.
l.-?
Mechanical Compaction
Cohesive soils should be densified by compaction using mechanical or hand tamping. Car%
must be taken not to damage coatings during compaction. Equipment with suirably shaped
mmping feet for compacting the material will generaity ensure that the specified soik
density is obtained under the lower quadrant of the pipe. At the time of placement, tht
backfill material should contain the optimum moisture content required for compaction.
The moisture content should be uniform throughout each layer. EacWiii should be placed in
layers of not more than 6 in. in thickness after compaction.
1
Hydraulic Consolidation
1%-in. screen, with not more than 10 percent passing a 200-mesh sieve. The thi
by jetting and interna1 vibration.
-.
. ..
Native backfill material above thr pipe zone up to the required backfill surface should
placed to the density required in the contract specifications. Trench backfill should n
placed until confirmation that compaction of pipe-zone bedding and backfill
the specified compaction. Cohesive materials should always be compacted w
129
rolling equipment. To preven1 excessive line loa& on the pipe, sufficient densified b M d l
shouid be placed over the pipe before power-operated hauling or roiiing equipment is
allowed over the pipe.
The purpose of the hydrostatic field test is primarily to determine if the field joints are
watertight. The hydrostatic test is usually conducted after bacldilling is complete. It is
xed pressure above the des@ working pressure of the h e . If tbrust
resistance is provided by concrete thnist b l o h , a reasonable time for the curing of the
bloclMg must be dowed before the test is made.
Y----
.-1
-.
lf rhe pipeline is to be tested in segments and valves are not p v i d e d to isolate the en
- ends must be provided with bukheads for r e s t a . A conventiod bdkheadusuallyconsiss
. pf a section of pipe 2-3 ft long, on the endof which a flat phte or dished plate bukhead has
been weided containing the necessary outlets for accommodating incorning
1.
Jbe pipeline should be filled slowly to prevmt possible water hamrner, and care should be
exercised to allow al1of the air to escape during the filling operation. Afrer filling the h e , it
may be necessary to use a pump to raise snd m a h i n the desired pressure.
test pressure is usually applied for a period of 24 hours before the test is
med to begin, principdly to allow for the lining material to absorb as much water as is
should be carefully inspected for evidence of leakage. The
be permitted depends on the kind of joints used in the
he test, the water pressure should be raised (based on the elevation at the
line under test) to a leve1 such that the test section is
ed to not more than 125percent of the actual (or design) operaring pressure or pipe
t pressure should be maintained for at least 2 hours.
e in an aH-welded pipeline or one tim has been joined
ralled mechanical couplings. On pipe joined with O-ring rubber gaskets, a
130
STEEL PIPE
small tolerance for leakage should be allowed. A leakage of 25 gal per in. of diameter per mile
per 24 hours is usually permitted. Pinhole leaks that develop in welded joints should not be
stopped by peening; instead, they should be marked for proper repair by welding. Such
welding frequently can be accomplished without emptying the pipeline, providing pressure
can be relieved.
If a section fails to pass the hydrostatic field test, it will be necessary to locate, uncover,
and repair or replace any defective pipe, valve, joint, or fitting. The pipeline must then be
retested.
References
1. SOWERS,G.F. Trench Excavation and
Backfilling.Jour. A WW A, 48:7:854 (July
1956).
2. REITZ, H.M. Soil Mechanics and Backfilling Practices.Jour. A WW A, 48:12:1497
(Dec. 1956).
3. The Moisture-Density Relations of Soils
Using a 5.5-lb (2.5 kg) Rammer and a
12-in. (305 mm) Drop. AASHTO Standard T99-8LAASHTO, Washington, D.e.
(1981).
4. Tests for Moisture-Density Relations of
Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures, Using
5.5-lb (2.5-kg) Rammer and 12-in.
(304.8-mm) Drop. ASTM Standard
D698-78. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa.
(1978).
5. Relative Density of Cohesionless Soils.
ASTM Standard D2049-69. ASTM,
Philadelphia, Pa. (withdrawn).
6. Test Methods for Maximum Index Density of Soils Using Vibratory Table.
ASTM Standard D4253-83. ASTM,
Philadelphia, Pa. (1983).
7. Test Methods for Minimum Index Density of Soils and Calculation of Relative
Density. ASTM Standard D4254-83.
ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa. (1983).
8. Design and Construction of Sanitary and
Storm Sewers. ASCE Manual No. 37.
ASCE, New York (1969).
9. Moisture-Density Relations of Soils Using
...
AWWA MANUAL
Supplementary Design
Data and Details
UT OF PIPELINES
The problernsinvolved in swvegringmd hying out a pipeline are affectedby both the si= o
the line md its location. More detd d c k are necessary as the size increases and as a line
passes from rural o urban areas.
Ingeneral, a p h and profile, tQgether with certain other dmtik, are necessary for any
water pipehe. These shodd show:
1. Horizontal and vertical distances, eitfierdirectly or by s w e y station and elevation (if
slope distances are given, this fact should be stated);
2, Location of angles or bends, both horizontal md vertical (point af intersection
132
STEEL PWE
7. Tie-ins with property lines, curb hes, d or smet cenferLines, and other pertinent
feanecessary to defrne right-of-wriy and locate pipe centerline clearly;
8. Details or descriptions of al1 specials, together with other data required to supplement
AWWA smdards (Figure 13-1) (see the "Information Regarding Use of This
Standard" seaion of the relevant standard);
9. Details, dimensiws, and class designation or other description of al1 m e s and
mechanical field joints;
10. Any special requirements affeaing the manufacture of the pipe or the instdlation
procedures.
'
PLAN
133
--
e.g :
L
.!i%+:%
s3#7
><
<>e?< +::
nn
:+
r,+;
CORR. DRdSS SR
COU-
PC.
D;ISCiZIPTIOI
10.
FiTPINGS
( D i r a c t i o n of
St a t i o n i n g )
WK. RSQ.
CU
PLIBGS
Begin
S e t t l i a g Basin
a t P t l t a r Plant
330+53.2
329+98.9
with Flaagi
5 0 1 Lengfh
Flanged P i e c e
Pc bfl (Vertical)
Add
1' 9-3/4"
Por
Slope
This
J* Conn.
Dist.
329+75
Bigia l i v e r Croaiing
- + ,
?$-??
*a
<
- T.-*
.<
u<A
h d River Croising
1'8"
5 Pc.
E11 ~HOIIZONTAL)
w i t h 3" Conn.
zii
SOtLangth
3 Pc K l l A(Vurtical)
.. ..- . . . . - ..
..
.
..-.
- ..
...
-'
...-.
.- .- -
e bend) must be fmown. Although approximate angks are often used, uniess the exact
tionship is known, ir is impsibk to teli how dose the approximatiws are.
A simple relationshipis iiiustrated in Figure 13-2. If fl increases the slope angle relative
o y, it beaw a plus value. For the general case:
cos = s i n y s i n ( y + p ) + c o sycos
&e speciai case when
:qu& zero:
cosB=cos/3cosai
(y+fl)cosa
134
STEEL PiPE
Tees, crosscs, lateral$, wyes, headers, or other fittings that provide means of dividing or
uaiting fiow in pipelims do not havt as high a resistatlce to internal pressure as do similar
sizes of straight pipe of the same wail t h i c h s . This is because a portion of the side waiiof
the pipe in these fittings is removed to aiiow for the b m c h g pipe. Also, there are
longitudid stressesin the k
t of uarestraid elbows, owhg to distortion or unhimced
hydrostatic pressure.
For o d h r y mtemorks insmiiatiom, the d thickaess of tht pipt ~ ~ n m o nused
l y is
much greater thm pressure conditions require. Consequently, the lowered safety factor of
fittjngs having the same waii thickwss as the srraight pipe still leaves adequate strength in
most cases, and reinforcing may be UIUieOeSsary. Ifthe pipe is oparing at or near magimum
design pressure, however, the strength of the fittingsshould be investigated and the proper
reinforcemcnt or e m wall thickness provided.
Fittings may be reinforced in various ways for resismce to internd prcssure. T y p i d
fitting reinforcements are collars, wrappers, and crotch phtes. The design stress in the
reinforcement should not Be greatter h n the hmp stress used in the design of the pipe.
The type of reinforcement* c m be determined by the magnitude of the pressurediameter d u e PDV and the mtio of rhe bmch diameter to the main pipe diameter d/D
T h e press-iameter
value is cdcuiated as:
where:
PDV =
p'f2
D sin2 A
..
DETAILS
SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN
135
d
ty
!13-3
Recommended ReinforcementTyp&
M F m
>m
all
'3006000
c4000
>O.?
>O.?
mMOiM
<4000
10.7
S0.7
- .
, -
d/D
PDV
0.00025 PDV
1.0
0.00025 PDV
1.0
..
--..S_
Reinforcemmt T m
CmtChPlrrte
Wrnvmr
,
- ,
wf~pper GUar
Collar
-7
--.;*.= L.
:
--
- =-I--.
. .
- y;2-;,-&.
- ...<=--
...
.e-,-
.
+
.
-
>
.
.<
M.::
7
>
A
$
2
?
.
or wrapper (2.5tY). Weld areas should not be considered in the design. Overall width of the
m h or m p p e r should not be l a s than f .67d/sin A and should not exceed 2.0d/sin A. This
widtb range produces a minimum edge width of 0.3Wsin A. Collar edge widths in the
ckumferential diredon should not be kss than the longinidinal edge width.
Cohw may be oval in shape, or they may be rectangular with rounded comers. The
sadii at corners shodd not be kss thm 4 in. or 20 times the collar thickness, whichwer is
greater (except for collars with a length or width less than 8 in.). Longitudinal seams should
- be placed at 90' or more from the center of the removed section.
On the bmch outlet centerline, the limit line of the branch reinforcement occurs at a
listance 2.5 times the thickness of the branch from the surface of the main pipe run or from
h e rop of the collar or wrapper reinforcement.
In Figure 13-3, the area Tdd-Zr,)/sin A represents thc senion of the mainlinc pipe
:ylinder removed by the opening for the bmch. The hoop tension due to pressure wirhin
*e pipe that would be d e n by the removed section were it present must be arried by the
:otalareas represented by 2wT and 5ry (r, - ir), or 2.Sty (t, - t,) on each side of outlet.
--:*:'
-2::
STEEL
COI
Criteria-data examph-2hin.
x 84~.
tee
Main-pipe size (nominal diameter)
Main-pipe cylinder OD
Main-pipe cylinder thickness
Bmchsutlet size (nominal diameter)
Branchsutlct cylinder OD
. .
.>*
Branch-outlet thicknegs
Deflection angk
Design press&c
Reinforcement stecl allowablc stress (Tbt ailowable
stress, based on a design stress rcsdting from
working pmsure, shaIi no1 exceed % tbt rninimum
yield of the steel used for the pipe cylinder or in the
reinforcement, wbichever is less.)
'
24 in.
D 25 3/4 in.
T, 0.135in.(lOgauge)
d
t,
A
P
f,
8 in.
8 H in.
'A h.
90
150psi
16 500 psi
Therefort, for PDV <4000 and d / D 10.7, use collar unless wrapper is provided.
Collar &si@
:
'
?d
= 1.0 [0.117(
8.625 210.25)
sin PO0
= 0.951 in.2
Area available = A,
A,
(d - 2ryl
sin A (T,- T,)+ 5ty (i, - t t )
= 8m625 2'0.25)(~.135
sin w0
= 0.410 i a 2
13.4.3.4 R e i n f o r m t area.
Reinforcement area = A,
= 0.105in.
137
w = 2 w + - =d
14.375
2(2.875) + sine
= in.
sin A
Use: T = 0.105 h.
W =1Min.
Branchoudetsize
Branch-outlet cylinder OD
Branch-outlet thickmss
Defkdon angle
Design pmsure
Reinforcementsteel d m b l e stress (Theallowablestress
s h d i mt e x d % the mhimum lyieid of the sote1 used
for tht pipe cylinderor in thc rnfomment, whichever
PDV =
pd
- (100) (49.87~)~
= 4M9
D sin2 A - (61.875) sin2 75'
M =
1
iI
$
Wrapper design
13.5.3.1
PD
T, = -=
2fJ
(100) (61.875)
a16
= 0.188 in.
60 in.
61Inin.
Ty
Y~'isXn.
48 in.
49%in.
t,
%sin.
75O
P
f.
16 500 psi
IOopsi
Pd
2fs
f r = -=
(100) f,49.8?5)
2(16 500)
= 0.151 in.
Area available = A,
49.875 Z(0.188)
(0.188 - 0.188) + (5 X 0.188) (0.188 0.151)
sin 7 5 O
m = = d
. 49.875 =.25.317 h.
2sin A
2 sin 75O
139
140
STEEL PIPE
w(min.) = -=
3 sin A
49m875
= 17.211 h.
3 sin 75'
:.
w = 20.740 in.
&y)+--
49m875
H
= 93.1 14 in.
- 2(20'740) +
sin A
sin 750
WYe-
141
142
STEEL PIPE
.-
with defiection angles from 30" to 909 the Nfactow obtalned from the above c u m s are
plate depth d , found from the nomograph (Figure 13-71. in accordanee with the equations
ithe
A,:
+ ;
-:
-2..
ches for S ~ W I
-- &T3.f;L:,:
,.;-f.
u.
-.,
.:-
. .
.t
-'
144
STEEL PIPE
10
50
40
50
80 70 80 9
l 100 110 120 130 140 150 180
BASE DEPTH, dh OR d'h !N.
Source: Swanson, H,8 ET AL 5estgn of Wye Branches for Steel Ppe. jour. AWWA. 47.58l (Jum 1W).
d't and d'e are om+@ate design dmensions; 4 and Q are two-plate design dimensiwis.
shape.
The im-t
depths of &e reinforcement plates, rd, and d, (F
found from &e nomgraph. Ifa w e d exterior is dcsired, a d u s equd to
mdius plus ti,can be used, both for tlx outside curveof the wye d o n oind
m e of the base d o n .
S t G I IUN
TOP SECTION
145
,di
,i;
-d:AsE
SECTION
RE= 3Oh
R~ = 21 m.
A = 4s0
Working pressure, 230 psi
Design pressure, 230 (1.5) = 350 psi
Sep 2. Using the deiectionangle 45O, find the ktors on &e N-factor mmc W will
convert the depth found in step 1 to apply to a 4 5 O wye branch ( t = 1 in.):
Saep 3. With the ratio of tht s d e r pipt radius divided by the larger pipe radiw,
(Rs/Rs)= {21/30) = 0.70 and the dtfxaceion angle (A = 4S0), use Figure 13-9 to find the Q
factor5 that give the crotch dtpths for a single-plate pipe wye stiffener (t = 1 h.):
= 0.52
Qa = 0.66
d& = 0.52(122) = 63.4 in.
d i = 0.66(61.5) = 4U.5 in.
Qm
Step 4. Because the depth d&is greater than 30 times the thichess t, rhc conversim
equation should be used:
STEEL E'IPE
d'-=
(0.725)
d& = 63.q0.725) = 46 h.
d i = 40.5 (0.725) = 29 in.
<
Step 5. Find the top depth d: from the curve for one-phte design in Figure 13-10:
Dephof
mof
Depbd
Outsider
e
dusof~s~pipEd;+R,=I8+2l=Bh.
.1
-5
Ibratmrk*--P-d-hP
RB = &=36in.
A = 53O
.-
si, .i*n
,:a3
Three-Ptate D e g n
-.
.
.
- -
f 47
~he-preoedingaAqpphsstian
has C o v c d rhe da*
of one- sndm**
wye
itp~~pQm&atbitwf~ma~~desigii.TbetidditinalpbMb
mamd'd*[email protected]
htb*-theimseofatBirdphe~ofpipedia~pm~.~tf-
~is~rthen60in.IDdtbehtemat~k~ter~~@,a
pEatecoinbeadwn@ems. I f e i t h e r o f t I i ~ ~ i s b e b w t h e l i m i t , t B e d a ~ ~ k
&uwedtu&meathirdphte.
I f a M phteisdesiredas a n M m totheawo-phte des*, itssizesbuhik
d i ~ b y t b t - t o p d e p t h ~ . ~ ~ o t h e r ~ p l a t e s ~ f l u s h ~ &
the pipe, however, thesidpieite thirkness plus ciemnceshodd b e s i r i ~ , & i j i & W p p
m.This dhensiw s h d & c w s t a n t throughout, and the $ h e shoumdlb p&-a
right angles to the axk of the pipt, giving it a M-ring shape. ~ tus s s should
s&r
of t h e l m i n p b .
ThttfiirdplateMdbt~tothtothtr~rct~iatntplatesd~~at~~opd'
bm,beingMfrtefromthepiptsbellso&rtapI:d~~W~~&
-to the ring phte.
-. e
9..
+
-,-
~ b n2wam
m Aor.&-ugionisismderi
n
pmsure, un- foroes-devebpat -p&sand
c l h d m in the pipeline, T&appb to bends, tees,
rrduan,.&m,b-'&.
(Figure 13-12). ?he magniaideofthne thrust foroes for !
and-b
is<equalmthe p u c t of the i n t e d pressure md the cross-sectiod
amofahepipe,m
e:
1
T=PA
k.
(13-3)
Where:
148
STEEL P I E
Where:
A = the deflection @e
There are also s d mbalanced forces at bends caused by the velocity of water flow
withinthe pipeline. Ingeneral, this v e k i t y is so low in mansmissionor distribution s y s m
that its effect on thnist is insignificant, and thmst forces caused by velocity can, therefore,
be neglected.
Methods to resmin the thrust forces may be provided by a concretet h t b l d , or by
the development of friction forces between the pipe and the soil through restrained or
hamessed joints, or by a combinatiun of these two'methods.
Whcn thrust blocks are used at eelbom or bends, the W i n g a r a of h e block is
determined by the bearing capacity of the so3 against which the thrust force will act, or:
The value for safe horizontal bearing a p i t y of the native soil should be detecminedfrom
field tests by qualified mil engineers.
Restrajned or harnessed joints may &o be used to resist thrust forces through &e
development of friction forces between the pipe and the soil surromding it. When this
method is d,
~ ~ c i e lengths
n t of pipe must be restraid by w e d g or haniessing to
counter the u n b h o e d forces. These unbalanced forces are e q d to PA at bdkheads and
tees (Table 134). As shown in F i 13-14~,the f r i a i d force developed becwten the
p i ~ 1 i n eand the surrounding soil to restrain this unbalanced force of ZPA sin M 2 is
assumed to be distributed uniformly dong the restrained length of the pipehe. Properly
compxted backf~iladjacent m bends will provide l a t d restraiint and eliminare any
tendency for movement in'the bend due to u n b b c e d transverse forces. Figure 13-14~
shows a force dhgam, wherein axid b t s are equal to PA cos A. F
i 13-14c shows
axial thrusfs versus defkction &s.
The length of pipeline required to be restrained on
each side of the bend is then:
1 9
STEEL PIPE
Pipe D h m e r
Un.
Lnad*
lb
m of In-
-re
M*
8%
- .
i@ ANCHOR RINGS
Anchor rings for use in cbqmgte anchor bl& or concrete walls are Uusmfed in Figure
13-16. ~ o ~ ~ e s ~ ~ & o n c d t h n i s t o r ~ ~ ~ a r e g i v e n i13-5.
n ~ -are
able
p r o p r t i o d to
dead-end pull or zhnist imgosed by 150 psi and 250 psi h e d
-
pressures.
laformatiion fbr joint k i m s tie b l t s or stucfs to be "sed for @ven pipe diarrieters and
~ u r e ss shom in Tabie 134. Hamm des@ data appGab1e EO s k
coiiphgs are s
bom ia Tabk 157s sad Figure 13-17.
Data src W on rEEG f o l i d q d ~ f l M
~
bola
:
C O d f o to
~ ASTM A193,
SpeQficsthu for Alhyr%dea aad S t a h b s Steel Bolririg Mawiafs for High-Tempermre
=ce,
Grade B7 or equ& nuts ennfmnhg m ASTM A194, S~~
for C a r h
and Alloy SteeI U m for .&ts
for HQh~Msuremd High-Tempemure Service, Giade
lug m a f d d a m h g to ASTM A283, SpecSdons for Low and Tntemdbe
Tensile Strength ~ h
Steel '
Phtes, Shapes md h,
& d e c5or ASTM A36,
S@Eation Eor Smtcmrd steer? or e q d . Stud bolts %-h.
through %-h.
diameter have
UNC threads; m d bol& 1-in. b e t e r and Largtr have eight UP6 k a d s per inch.
h h h u m bolt stress aliowable is 40 U1psi, basad on:
&um
~essl~are~y~equallyaroundthepipe.In~~thtarraess,
the nuts shoill be tightened g r a d d y
cquay at diammically o p p i t t sides
snw
to w e n t misalignnieat and to ensure that dl studs carry e q d Ioads. The thta&,of.the
studs shall protrude a mnimum of !4 in.from_the n m .
6
-
L
F
F:
rm
&e
daigapmsutt.
Special mmmions are shownin Figufe 13-10 (wihTabla 13-8 md 13-9), Figures 13- 19
through 13-22 (MTabk 13- 101, md Figure 13-23(with Tabk 13-1 1). Some examph of
vault and m d d e d
e are sbwn in Figures 13-24 through 13-26. Figures 13-27 md
13-28 iiiusPrate blowsff connectim. Tire 13-29 shows a mlief-&e manifold layout.
andhave been i;sed for
S*
tapping machines for m a b mder pressure are
many y-.
Figure f S30 iliuszraxes rhe m e r h d The reidkcing pad is eii*
unkss
pressure requires h. The o m b is ordinarily a p k e d exta-kwy, standard-weight pipe
with 8n AWWA s W d phte f h g e atmhed. The tapping valve is sgecial and oillows
pmper &armefor rhe cuw
on the ddhg d n e . -
152
STEEL PIPE
0,758
154
STEEL PIPE
Number
. .
Maximum
155
u3
EQ a-S
Back Plate
FRONT PLATE
CONTINUOUS
RlMG AROUND
-
..
PLAN
G u m t Plate
156
STEEL PIPE
Y,
%
1
I
1%
1%
1%
1%
fi
'A
P
P
RR
RR
RR
RR
1/2
RR
iN
17h
2
RR
RR
RR
RR
RR
RR
5
5
5%
5
5
5%
5
7
7%
8%
10
10%
12
13
RR
RR
14
15%
'm
'Ig
2%
Ft
3%
3%
%
K
%
1
1
1%
1Y2
1%
5
5
m
3
Ring
Ring
Ring
~ing
3%
5
5
4%
4%
3
3%
3%
2
2
3%
2
2
2%
7/9
1
1%
,
14
!
1%
1X
1%
Ring
Ring
R~w
Ring
Ring
Eng
2
2H
mng
Ring
2%
2'/a
2%
Z1/2
2%
3
Rhg
Ring
4N
4fi
4%
Ring
Ring
Ring
5%
SE
m
a%
Ring
RinS
3%
3%
3%
3%
1%
1%
1%
1%
2%
3%
2L/i
2%
5%
3%
2%
5%
6
2%
6%
4%
4x6
2%
2%
2%
6%
1%
1%
2%
r
NOTES:
;3y,
:S
-.
Table f 3-7A
m
li
.- . -&
.
.
:
.
L
157
..-.
AS POSSt BLE
F~ure
13-19 Nipple Wth Cap
FORM
OASKET
HERE ONL
Souree: amard, R.. Design Standards Tw Sieel- Water Wpe. Jwr. AWWA, 40:1:24 (Jan. 1848).
.:
WELD HEFlE
S F L PIPE
SiztofPipcTap
m.
A-
.,, -*
-.
~ i o a ofsPlate
r Size of Drill
for Pipe Tap
in.
in.
it1.
6%
8%
itl.
.-
10Y4
12 Y4
14
16
18
20
..
Pipe SiZt
.
z .
u
1 v4
1 Y2
2
2 V2
3
3 Y2
3 Y2
4
un.
,-,
<
PrtdS(SeeFigure13-18)
33
D*
n shown in
.{
51
-
FT. 3 IN.
159
.lP-f.z
15 FT. 3 IN.
'E C
'INC
Plan
DES
-IN. DIAM.)
SECTION A-A
(Jan. 1849).
--
160
STEEL PIPE
LADDER FlUNGS
.?.
BLlND F W G E
L
ALL 'h-IN.PLAT
6 IN.
'/4-IN. DIAM. BAR
8 IN. 8 IN.
'-
Bolted-Corer Typa
-. ..
. -.
..
ILET MANIFOLD
162
STEEL PIPE
.-
.-=.
3
4
*;+:
g>:..,
L ,- -*&
y:?:
. y
%;,=
r.;
.
..
-.:
k-
...
The Ereezing of water ia buried pipes is usually dw to the cooling of the surroundingsoil to a
point below 32OF (OC). Soil-temperature variations are related to flow of heat in SO*. Air
tempefature is the most impormt fctor aecting soil temperamre and frost penetration.
The most common method of expressing the seasonal effect of air tempemtures on
water is the freezing index? Thc index is the cumulative total of de.gree4ays below the
freezing point in any winter. In this mtext, a degreehy is a unit representing 1 degree (F)
of difference behw 32OF in the mem outdoor temperature for one day. Values for
midwinter days hving tempemhires above freezh-that is, ne@ve degree-days-are
subtreicted from the total.
Temperature data for many I d t i e s are av&ble.8 A des@ a m e rehting fmt-dcpth
penetration to the freezing index is shown in Figure 13-3 1. The curve wm devdopsd by the
US Amiy Corps of Engineersgs 'O from an andysis of frost penetration records of the
northern United Sutes. The data on the severai soils in Figure 13-31are from observations
made at Ottawa, Ont?
Exptrimencal work on the subject of frost penemtion7 indicates that:
.- ,
h3=
-
-.-'
163
Theoretical equations for computation of frost depth are not free from error. Thc
Corps of Engineers design cucye (Figure 13-31) is the best aid currently available for
estimating frost penetration.
Fmt penetration is signifbntly greater in distiirbed soil than in undisturbed soil.
Water pipes may safely be placed at less depth in clay so& than in sandy soiis. Frost
penemtion 'has been found about 1% times as deep in smd as in clay.
Maximum frost penetration may occur several f ~ e e k before
s
or dter the frtezing index
for a winter reaches a maximum. Water rnains have fmzen as late as Junein Winaipcg,
-.
i
. .
Man.
Frost penetrates deeperin soils on hiilsides with northerne x p u r e than in those with
southern expure.
Undisturbed continuous snow mver has reduced fmt penetration in the Uttawa
c h t e by m m u n t equoil to or greater than the snow-cover ttiickness.
., c.-.,.
200
I ~ m r c eL-t.:
400
fOOO
2OMl
FREUING INDEX, DEGREE OAYS
4MW1
R F & Crswford, C.B.So/ Tempratures >o Water Works P r a c t h . Jovr AWWA, U:IO:#
BOM)
(Oct. 1952).
Measurements were made in Ottawa, Ont., $947-51. Right end of each horizontal line indicates rnaximum frost depth at
maximumf reezing index; let end indicatesfreezing index at time of maximumfrost depth. mrefers to measurements made in
sand (Inierpolated): Olnclay {interpolatedl: Xin aand (by excavation):and +inclay (byexcavation).
- ,
,
.*.-
-.
-:..
.
. ,
164
STEEL PIPE
-<
At
1+L+Lt+ 1
rif k 'k &+hm
Source: RIWick, T.M. ET AL Freezing of Water in Exposed PipIims. Jour. A W A . 42:f f :TU35 ( N o v .
1950).
11.0
(Nw.1950).
165
166
STEEL PIPE
A*
Assumd Thickntss
k.
Heat T m f t r Value
0.75
515
1.1
Pa$e mar&
Steel
Cast iron
Concrete
Wmd stave
385
5.3
~hmin~m
Askm cement
I d a m
Dry air
5.0
2.0
1.O
1410
4.5
Water
Ice
0.5
5w
4.5
0.25
1.o
0.17
4.0
15.6
0.08
2.0
7.8
85% magnesia
'4Foamgh"t
*Btu per square fwt p u hour pu de= Fahrcnhtit diffmntial ptr inch thlclmess of' material.
?A product of Pittsburgh Corning Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa.
Sosrrce: Riddkk, T.M.; Lindsay, N.L.;& Tomassi, Antonio. Freezing of Water in h m s d
42: 11: 1035 (Nov. 1950).
rl
Table t 3-15
E m i s s ~ t yFactors
Emissivity Factor
w d (u)
Asbestos ement
0.9
0.9
Aluminum
Brass or mpper (with p i n a )
O. 1
0.5
. - - - - - -
. . .
. .
--
Smw: Riddick, T.M.; Lindsay, N.L.; & Tomassi, Antonio. Fieezing of Water in Expsed Pipelines.jw. A W ~
-<
(Nov. I950).
167
'-.
?.
. -..
+
;.;*:;:.
..
7-
= 143.5 ~ t u / f t ~ h .
-
168
STEEL PIPE
169
Therefore, the stress in the line is the carne as h t which wodd exist if it were stretched by
the same amom that it wodd shorten if it were free to do so. This is a conservative
assumption. Few p i w e s are p e r f d y straight between anchor pints, md kmperature
chmges are usudly gradual, so most lines acnidiy can c h g e their iength by a s d
amount, relievhg the thermal s t m s somewhat. To dcuiate t h d stress:
~T=L(AT)(K)
Hongation due to lorgitudind tension AL, is found as:
(2)
AL,=ALT
E = 30 x 1O6 psi
S, = AT(6.33 x l e ) (U)x
STEEL PIPE
The weld metal is as strong as the parent metal,so consider the aiiowable stress to be 15 000
psi (% yield) in the pipe 4.
thens, = 15 000 psi
for A T = 40F
S, = 75% psi
13.14
SUBMAWNE PlPEliNES
The type of constnicti& used has a great influcnce on design and on total costs ofa systwn,
A britf discussion of different available construction tdmiques wiii illusuatc their effcct,
Thm are basicaiiy two systems for coastructing submarine pipelints: pipe-laying systems
and pipt-pulling systems.
Pipe Laying
In a pipe-laying system, the pipe is mansported by water to the laying platform,
barge equipped primady with a heavy crane and horse. The horse is a
moving on skid beams in two directions with cables extending vertidy downwar
water. On arrival at the job site, the crane picks up the pipe segment and
horse is centered above it. T h e pipe, once attached to the horse, is Iowered t
Divers report the position of the segment in rehtion to the completed section
the horse is moved up and down, forward and badward, md sideways
..
lines up with the beil end of the completed section.
. ,.2:-{---..,
'
Rpe Pulling
.,
,- ,
Pipe puliing has been evolved by the oii industry through rivers, bays, mdopen
pipe-pulling method requires pipe apable of withstandhg the tensile stresses
during the puiiing operation. The method is usually used with steel pipe b u s
high tensiie stresses.
A steel-pipe pulling operation begins on assembly ways establishedashore, o
the pipe is coated and wrapped. To p t n t fioating, the pipe may be allowed
"-a
- -.
- *-%
7
water as it leaves the assembly way. Alternatively, the pipe may be apped to exclude water,
then concrete weighted or coated to overcome its bouyancy.The pipe ltagths are welded in
aontinuous strings. The mmpleted pipe string is transferredto launchways (Figure 13-34),
which lead to the sea. Once shore sssembly is complete, the reinforced head of the pipe
strhg is attached to a pull barge by wire rope and pukd along ttie bortom by a winch until it
is in position ( F i i 13-35).
A variation of the bortom-puU method is the flmting-string method of pipe
instalhtion. The line is initially assembkd in long segments and transferred to the
Iaunchways. It is then pulled off the launchweiy by a tug, floated out to locoition, and sunk
(Figure 13-36). Individual strings are connected by divers, as in the pipe hying method, or
strings are joikd by picking up the end of the iast piece installed and putting it on a deck ofa
special tie-in phtorm, where the connection to the beginaiag of the mxt string is made.
-------- - - - - m -
LAUNCHWAY
TIE-IN STATION
CONTROL HOUSE
PlPE SUPPORTS
.72.
-5
. -,
>: !,.
__1
.9
- . -1
.
172
STEEL PIPE
. .-+ - . ,
PONTOONSSYSTEMATICALLY
RELEASED TO LOWER PIPE
h .m e ; _ .
...P.
<A,
..
~matler~~ipefitaesaresometinm
bw-bmrd~forweidingpipe
ofthcbargeasis-bargemovesaiong~-mmeofrhepi@me, taddiagpiptasitgcits. he
pipe mdggcxx b d i n g stresses as it is kid, so the barge should include quality-srpl
faciiitits fur checaing the somdness of.the cipcumferential wdds.
Referentes
l. ASME UdUed Pressure Vessel Cede.
2. SWANSON,H.S. ET a.
Dwign of Wyc
B m h e s for Steel Pipc. Qwir. A WWA,
47:6:581 Uune 1955).
3. Spccificatiws for Alioy-Swei and S&less Stel Bolting Matcriais for HighTemperatufe Sewice. ASTM S m W
A193-80. ASTM, FWadeIphia, Pa. (1980).
4. S-m
for Carbon and Aiioy Steel
Nuts for Bolts for H i g h - h u r e and
Higb-T~mmturtSm?a.ASTM Standard Al-.
ASTM, Phhdelphih, h.
(1=).
9. Repwt
on F m t
(1
F m t PmetfatiOfl
11. RIDDICK, T.M.; LINDSAY,
th texr.
lndex
-
. .
-..-...,...
, ,
..
,:
-.
.. ,
.
,- ..
I . .
>
.-<.
BacEu
.
.f
..
-'?y
See Pipe-zone bedding and backfill
Bedding
See Pipe-zonebedding and backfill
Bell-and-spigot joints, 86, 126
Bending stress of steel, 8
Biochemid corrosion, 108
Blowoff connecrions, 97
Bolt hole p i t i o n , 95
Bouquet Canyon pipeline, 4
Boussinesq equation, 62-63
Brittie fracrure, 12- 13
Brittle material, 4
Buckling, 61-62
Bulkheads, 129
,
blowoff, 97
hnged, 97
special, 151
to other pipe material, %
Gmosion
. .>..
allowance, 38-39 . '-' atmospheric, 111
bimhemical, 108
bonding of joints, 112
cathodic protection, 111-12
control methods, 111
aevice, 109
electrolytic, 107
- -'
galvanic, 102, lk"
internal. of steel pipe, I 11
overview, 101
severity of, 109
mil investigations, 109- 110
s t r a s and fatigue, 108
survey, 113
theory, 101
Couplings
grooved-and-Shouldered, 89-90
sleeve, 88-89
Crevice corrosioi?, 109
Densification, 128 "Design
. .,....
See Pipe design "'1'" ;
Distribution system '"
economical diameter of pipe, 32-33
D u d e material, 3
Ductility of steel, 3-4
ductility in design, 10
effects of aold working on, 10, 12
'-
q'
"
.-
:.
Calculations
angle of fabrimted pipe bend, 132-33
collar design, 136-38
definition of symhls, 33,35
entrance head l a s , 26
flow through fittings, 27-28,32
flowthrough pipe, 26
freezing in exposed pipes, 167
loss of head duough friction, 26
losses due to-elbows, fittings, and valves, 26-27
nomograph, 141,14447
pressure rise, 55-56
velocity he& loss, 26
wrapper design, 138-40
Cathodic protection, 11 1- 13
Charpy V-notch impact test, 13-14
Check analysis, 20
Coatings and linings
application of, 119
A W W A standards, 117-19
overview, 115
recommendations, 119
-'
-4
..
..-. ..:..
-
'- .
.-.
.:.
,'
. ..r3. . ..
-..,.--.
.
'.
.. .
:.: .>=
?-.
.---
o..
- 7 .
2>cL..
,-
T..
.
.-
=:
.
.?
L...
,....,T
- ..
-
. -
.:
-.
-.
.-, i
-: .
?.;
--- S ,.*-Y
-.
..- - =--s. . .,._
- .. -- ,::s._.-.. +
,-
.:.. -- >d~:
;:;.
.-.:
-:,2
:-:
-.
- - > - -
. --
-:.<.y-;*-++:
-- . . . .
,
T
.
-.
- -:.->$
.+;:=
'Y
.. -..
...-.. .
-..
L
:
.
--
-..
,>--- -.y.,!
.
---.. . .,--
- Y.
.?
:- c.
. .<-.
- ..
.>
.
:
.<>..-- <-.- -.. y
-,:-.--.
- ".C.,-<:---. *
;:,-<.
:
...
- - , -=.- . :'.
. - - - - . - -:,? . ---:
-
--
,
..:
.
.e<-,
---
..
-.. .
>-
-.:
\.
174
STEEL PIPE
Installation
anchors and thrust blocks, 127
assembly of pipe, 125-26
bell-and-spigot rubber-gasket joints, 126
field coating of joints, 127
field-welded joints, 126
handling and laying, 123, 125
hydrostatic field test, 129-30
overview, 121
pipe-zone bedding and backfill, 127-29
Insulating joints, 98
Interior prism, 57
Iowa deflection formula, 58-62
Joints
abovegrouml conditions, 91
bell-and-spigot, 86, 126
bonding of, 112
expansion and contraction, 90-91
field coating, 127
field-welded, 126
ground friction and line tension, 91-92
insulating, 98
overview, 86
recommendations, 92
slip, 87
stuffing-box expansion, 91
underground conditions, 90
welded, 87-88
Ladle analysis, 19-20
Lay barge, 172
Linings
See Coatings and linings
Live-load effect, 60
Load
See External load
Lock-Bar pipe, 1-2
Manholes, 97-98
Manning formula, 22
Manufacture of steel pipe
electric fusion welding, 16, 19
electric resistance welding, 16
Marston theory, 57-58
Mechanical compaction, 128
Modulus of elasticity of steel, 6
Modulus of soil reaction, 60-61
Nozzle outlets, 96
Penstocks, 37
economical diameter of pipe, 32-33
Pipe deflection as beam, 70
calculation methods, 70-71
Pipe design
anchor rings, 151
angle of fabricated pipe bend, 132-33
circumferential fillet welds, 168-70
crotch-plate, f 40-41
fittings reinforcement, 134-35
freezing in pipeiines, 162-64,167-68
joint harnesscs, 15 1
nomogmph, 141,14447
pipeline layout, 131-32
S@
connections, 151
submarine pipelines, 170-72
thrust restraint, 147-49
Pipe joints
See Joints
Pipe wall thickness
corrosion allowance, 38-39
extenid prcssure, 39-40
i n m d pressure, 36-37
minimum, 40
overview, 36
pressure limits, 38
recommendations, 40
vs. stiffening rings, 67-68
worlcing tension stress in steel, 37-38
Pipe-zone bedding and backfill
densifiation, 128
hydraulic consolidation, 128
interior braang of pipc, 129
mechanical compaction, f 28
o v e ~ e w 127-28
,
trench b d ~ i &ve
i
pipe mne, 12&29
Pocketing, 71
Pressure lirnh, 38
Ressure surge
See Water hamrner
Fressure wave veldty, 53
jng-girder construction
assembiing pipe, 80
concrete footings, 80
continuous pipelines, 76-77
design factors, 74
expmsion joints, 80
Hermau Schorer design, 71-72
nstaIlation of spans, 78
low-prwsure pipe, 77
pipe hal full, 74,76
stress in-pipeskll, 72-73
smess in ring girder, 73-74
Riveted pipe, 1
Rubber gaskets, 86,89
Saddle supports
equal l d , 67
hmp suess, 66
maxirnum saddlc, 68-69
spans, 66
4 1 thickness vs. stiffening rings, 67-68
Scobey formula, 22
Shear stress, 12-13
..
SIeeve couplings, 88
pipe layout, 88-89
Slip joints, 87
Soil-pipe frictional resistance, %
SteeI pipe
design stresses, 1
ductility and yield saength, 3-4, 1412
history, 1-2
interna1 w m i o n of, 111
Lwk-Bar, 1-2
physid charamristics, 3
reuimmendatiofls, 15
riveted, 1
stecl sciection, 14-15
saength, 14 12
s m s and srran, 4-9
structud design, 12- 15
tension strcss and yield srrength, 37-38
-, 2
welded, 2
S t e m formuia, 39
Strength of steel
effeas of coid working on, 10, 12
Stress and fatigue corrosion, 108
Stress and strain of steel, 4-7
analysis based on smin, 8-9
bending stress, 8
. hoop stress, 66
.
pipe shefl, 72-73
.2~i:t
ring girder, 73-74
.. shear stress, 12-13
- strain in design, 7-8
tension stress, 37-38
Stringing of steel pipe, 122
Stuffing-box expansion joint, 91
Submarine pipelines
lay barge, 172
overview, 170
pipe laying, 170
pipe pulIing, 170-71 . .- '
Supprts
girtdiait to prevent pocketing, 7 1
overview, 66
pipe deflection as beam, 70
ring-girder construction, 7 1-74,7&7&, 80
saddle, 66-69
Surge-wave theory, 5 1-54
,
-,
176
STEEL PIPE
Thrust forces
soil resistance 10, 127
unbdanced, 95-96
Thnist restraint, 147-49
Transpomtion
air, 122
handling, 122
loading and unloading, 122
modes, 121-22
overview, 121
rail, 121-22
stlillghq, 122
tnick, 122
water, 122
Trenching
bottom preparation, 123
depth, 122
werexcavation, 123
regdationc, 123
width, 122-23
Wdl thickness
See Pipe wall thickness
Warming water in ex@
pipelines, 168
Water hamrner
aUowance for, 55
checldist for purnping &,54
effect of conduit, 53
effect of friction, 53
overview, 51
pressure rise calcuiations, 55-56
sudies for, 54-55
surge-wave theory relationships, 5 1-54
Welded joints, 87-88, 126
Welded pipe, 2
Wrappcrs, 134-35
design, 1 3 8 4
Wye branch design, 95, 140-4 1
nomograph use in, 14 1,14447
one-phte, 145-46
three-phtt, 147
two-pIate, 146-47
Yield strength of steel, 3-4, 37-38
Young's rnodulus, 54
AWWA Mll-88
Third Edition
June 1988
SUPERSEDING
AWWA M1 1-87
Semnd Edition
14 JuIy 1988
E.
&---
>-.
A d o e Third Editio
-
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.
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.
,
.
,
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>=
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--A
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