Gods and Mythology of Ancient Egypt
Gods and Mythology of Ancient Egypt
Gods and Mythology of Ancient Egypt
Hathor
tree that she was thought to hand out good things to the deceased in the afterlife, and
so she was thought to be a friend to the dead.
Her name is translated as "House of Horus", which may be a reference to her
as the embodiment of the sky in her role of the Celestial Cow, being that
which surrounds the decidedly sky-oriented hawk-deity, Horus, when he takes
wing. If Horus was the god associated with the living king, Hathor was the
god associated with the living queen.
-- Hathor, Stephanie Cass
She was also known as the Mistress of Life, the Great Wild
Cow, the Golden One, the Mistress of Turquoise, Lady of Iunet
(Dendera) (her cult centre was located at Iunet), Mistress of
Qis, Lady to the Limit (of the Universe), Lady of Punt (perhaps
an area in present day Somalia - a famous expedition to this
land was commissioned by Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BC), of the
18th Dynasty), the Powerful One, the Mistress of the Desert,
Lady of the Southern Sycamore... and many other names,
besides. She was also the goddess of the third month of the
Egyptian calendars, know in Greek times as Hethara.
An interesting story involving Hathor - all the more interesting
because it is very similar to the Japanese tale of the sun goddess
who leaves the company of the gods to sulk - is the story of
Ra's temper tantrum. Baba a predynastic baboon god, taunted
Ra who stood for Set becoming ruler rather than Horus, "Your shrine is empty!" With
that, Ra stormed off to be alone - presumably this is a story about a solar eclipse - and
refused to join the other gods. Realising that they'd gone too far, the others sent Baba
away, but still Ra refused to stop sulking. Finally, Hathor decided on a plan. She went
into Ra's presence and stood before him and started to dance and strip, revealing her
nakedness and lewdly showing him her private parts. The dance caused Ra to laugh,
forget his hurt feelings and he once again rejoined the gods.
The reason that she has so many names, one would assume, is because she is an
ancient goddess - she seems to have been mentioned as early as the 2nd Dynasty. She
may even been associated with the Narmer palette - although the two human faced
bovines may also have been a representation of the king or of another ancient bovine
goddess, called Bat, who was eventually surplanted by Hathor.
It is interesting to note, though, that there is not a personal name of the goddess
mentioned in the list of names - they are all titles.
Hathor, Lady of Amenty, the Dweller in the Great Land, the Lady of TaTchesert, the Eye of Ra, the Dweller in his breast, the Beautiful Face in the
Boat of Millions of Years, the Seat of Peace of the doer of truth, Dweller in
the Boat of the favoured ones.....
-- The Chapter of Praise of Hathor, Lady of Amenty, The Book of the Dead
Ra answered: "Even now fear is falling upon them and they are fleeing into
the desert and hiding themselves in the mountains in terror at the sound of my
voice."
"Send against them the glance of your Eye in the form Sekhmet!" cried all the
other gods and goddesses, bowing before Ra until
their foreheads touched the ground.
So at the terrible glance from the Eye of Ra his
daughter Sekhmet came into being, the fiercest of all
goddesses. Like a lion she rushed upon her prey, and
her chief delight was in slaughter, and her pleasure
was in blood. At the bidding of Ra she came into
Upper and Lower Egypt to slay those who had
scorned and disobeyed him: she killed them among
the mountains which lie on either side of the Nile, and
down beside the river, and in the burning deserts. All
whom she saw she slew, rejoicing in slaughter and the Image April
McDevitt
taste of blood.
Presently Ra looked out over the land and saw what Sekhmet had done. Then
he called to her, saying: "Come, my daughter, and tell me how you have
obeyed my commands."
Sekhmet answered with the terrible voice of a
lioness as she tears her prey: "By the life which
you have given me, I have indeed done
vengeance on mankind, and my heart rejoices."
Now for many nights the Nile ran red with
blood, and Sekhmet's feet were red as she went
hither and thither through all the land of Egypt
slaying and slaying.
Presently Ra looked out over the earth once
more, and now his heart was stirred with pity
for men, even though they had rebelled against
him. But none could stop the cruel goddess Sekhmet, not even Ra himself: she
must cease from slaying of her own accord - and Ra saw that this could only
come about through cunning.
So he gave his command: "Bring before me swift messengers who will run
upon the earth as silently as shadows and with the speed of the storm winds."
When these were brought he said to them: "Go as fast as you can up the Nile
to where it flows fiercely over the rocks and among the islands of the First
Cataract; go to the isle that is called Abu (Elephantine) and bring from it a
great store of the red ochre which is to be found there."
The messengers sped on their way and returned with the blood-red ochre to
Iunu, the city of Ra where stand the stone obelisks with points of gold that are
like fingers pointing to the sun. It was night when they came to the city, but all
day the women of Iunu had been brewing beer as Ra bade them.
Ra came to where the beer stood waiting in seven thousand jars, and the gods
came with him to see how by his wisdom he would save mankind.
"Mingle the red ochre of Abu with the barley-beer," said Ra, and it was done,
so that the beer gleamed red in the moonlight like the blood of men.
"Now take it to the place where Sekhmet proposes to slay men when the sun
rises," said Ra. And while it was still night the seven thousand jars of beer
were taken and poured out over the fields so that the ground was covered to
the depth of nine inches -- three times the measure of the palm of a man's
hand-with the strong beer, whose other name is "sleep-maker".
When day came Sekhmet the terrible came also, licking her lips at the thought
of the men whom she would slay. She found the place flooded and no living
creature in sight; but she saw the beer which was the colour of blood, and she
thought it was blood indeed -- the blood of those whom she had slain.
Then she laughed with joy, and her laughter was like the roar of a lioness
hungry for the kill. Thinking that it was indeed blood, she stooped and drank.
Again and yet again she drank, laughing with delight; and the strength of the
beer mounted to her brain, so that she could no longer slay.
At last she came reeling back to where Ra was waiting; that
day she had not killed even a single man.
Then Ra said: "You come in peace, sweet one." And her name
was changed to Hathor, and her nature was changed also to the
sweetness of love and the strength of desire. And henceforth
Hathor laid low men and women only with the great power of
love. But for ever after her priestesses drank in her honour of
the beer of Iunu coloured with the red ochre of Abu when they
celebrated her festival each New Year.
Note that in the above tale, the goddess called 'Eye of Ra' was Hathor who became
'Sekhmet', then 'Hathor'. But afterwards, Sekhmet and Hathor were two separate
deities, both having claim to the title 'Eye of Ra'!
Hathor was a very clear example of the Egyptian idea of duality - Hathor was both the
'sweet one' of music, dance and pleasure as well as a goddess of destruction, an
ancient goddess who was loved by the people of Egypt.
by Caroline Seawright
March 5, 2001
Ammut (Ammit, Ahemait, Ammemet) was an Egyptian demoness. She was known as
the 'Eater of Hearts', 'The Devourer' and 'Great of Death' because she was a demoness
of punishment. She was a netherworld dweller who waited by the scales of judgement
to consume the heads of those who did evil during their lives. She was not worshiped,
and was never regarded as a goddess. Instead she embodied creatures that the
Egyptians feared, threatening to eat them if they did not follow the principals of
Ma'at.
She had the head of a crocodile, the body of a leopard and the backside of a
hippopotamus - all fierce creatures to the Egyptians. All man-eaters. It's no wonder
that she was depicted as one who consumed the unworthy dead!
Of Ammut, an Egyptian papyrus (No. 9901) states:
hat en emsuh; pehu-s em tebt her-ab-set em ma.
the fore-part of a crocodile; her hind-quarters are those
of a hippopotamus; her middle part [is that] of a lion.
-- The Book of the Dead, E. A. Wallis Budge
In The Book of the Dead, Ammut sat at the judgement of the dead in The Hall of
Double Ma'at (when the deceased's heart was weighed on the scales against Ma'at),
ready to devour the souls of the unworthy - the final death for an Egyptian! It has
even been suggested that she was also a protector of Osiris, because of her position at
the Judgement.
She was also known as the 'Dweller
in Amenty' or the 'Devourer of
Amenty', the place where the sun
sets. Amenty, as used by the
Egyptians, was applied to the west
bank of the Nile - Egyptian
cemeteries and funerary places
were all on the west. To the
Image Insecula
Egyptians, west was a direction linked to death. Amenty was also the name of the
underworld - the place where Ra travelled during the night. Ammut, therefore, was
not only a demoness of death, but a demoness of the underworld. In at least one
papyrus, Ammut was depicted as crouching beside the lake of fire in the infernal
regions of the underworld!
The Book of the Dead is a selection of spells, designed to assist the deceased through
the trials of the underworld. This also, of course, assists the dead to not get eaten by
Ammut. The papyrus of Ani, in a speech made by the gods to Thoth, says:
The Osiris [the scribe Ani], whose word is true, is holy and righteous. He has
not committed any sin, and he has done no evil against us. The devourer
Ammut shall not be permitted to prevail over him.
-- The Book of the Dead
In the form of Egyptian's fiercest man-eaters, Ammut was a terrifying demon who
was to eat those wrongdoers who had not followed ma'at. She stayed by the
judgement scales in the underworld, the one who lived in Amenty - the Land of the
West. She might have be fooled by spells, but what the Egyptians really wanted was
to be judged as worthy and holy, as one who was fit to stay with the gods in the Field
of Reeds.
She was also known as the Mistress of Life, the Great Wild Cow, the Golden One, the
Mistress of Turquoise, Lady of Dendera (her cult centre was located at Dendera), Mistress of
Qis, Lady to the Limit (of the Universe), Lady of Punt (perhaps an area in present day
Somalia - see Hatshepsut's Expedition to Punt), the Powerful One, the Mistress of the Desert,
Lady of the Southern Sycamore (she was depicted as handing out water to the deceased
from a sycamore tree, hence a goddess of moisture as well as of the dead, both relating to
the sycamore tree), Lady of Malachite (eye makeup from Sinai was made from green
malachite - Sinai was one of Hathor's domains)... and many other names, besides.
The reason that she has so many names, one would assume, is because she is an ancient
goddess - she seems to have been mentioned as early as the 2nd Dynasty. She may even
been associated with the Narmer palette - although the two human faced bovines may also
have been a representation of the king.
It is interesting to note, though, that there is not a personal name of the goddess mentioned in
the list of names - they are all titles.
Another interesting thing about Hathor is found in one particular Egyptian tale - when the hero
of the story was born, the 'Seven Hathors', disguised as seven young women, appeared and
announced his fate. They seemed to be linked with not only fortune telling, but to being
questioners of the soul on its way to the Land of the West. These goddesses were worshiped
in seven cities: Thebes, Heliopolis, Aphroditopolis, Sinai, Momemphis, Herakleopolis, and
Keset. They are linked to the Pleiades.
Generally, Hathor is pictured as a woman with cow's horns with the sun between them (Eye of
Ra, Golden One), or as a beautiful woman with cow's ears, or a cow wearing the sun disk
between her horns, or even as a lioness or a lion-headed woman (destruction and
drunkeness). She often is seen carrying a sistrum, an ancient musical instrument (hence a
goddess of music). The sycamore was sacred to her (Lady of the Southern Sycamore). She is
said to be the mother of the pharaoh, and is often depicted in a nurturing role, suckling the
pharaoh when he was a child (hence a goddess of motherhood).
The Eye of Ra
One of the tales of Hathor was how she was originally a goddess of destruction (HathorSekhmet), and how she came to be the goddess of happier things:
Then Ra took on the shape of a man and became the first Pharaoh, ruling over the
whole country for thousands and thousands of years, and giving such harvests that
for ever afterwards the Egyptians spoke of the good things "which happened in the
time of Ra".
But, being in the form of a man, Ra grew old. In time men no longer feared him or
obeyed his laws. They laughed at him, saying: "Look at Ra! His bones are like silver,
his flesh like gold, his hair is the colour of lapis lazuli!"
Ra was angry when he heard this, and he was more angry still at the evil deeds
which men were doing in disobedience to his laws. So he called together the gods
whom he had made - Shu and Tefnut and Geb and Nut - and he also summoned
Nun. Soon the gods gathered about Ra in his Secret Place, and the goddesses also.
But mankind knew nothing of what was happening, and continued to jeer at Ra and to
break his commandments. Then Ra spoke to Nun before the assembled gods:
"Eldest of the gods, you who made me; and you gods whom I have made: look upon
mankind who came into being at a glance of my Eye. See how men plot against me;
hear what they say of me; tell me what I should do to them. For I will not destroy
mankind until I have heard what you advise."
Then Nun said: "My son Ra, the god greater than he who made him and mightier than
those whom he has created, turn your mighty Eye upon them and send destruction
upon them in the form of your daughter, the goddess Sekhmet."
Ra answered: "Even now fear is falling upon them and they are fleeing into the desert
and hiding themselves in the mountains in terror at the sound of my voice."
"Send against them the glance of your Eye in the form Sekhmet!" cried all the other
gods and goddesses, bowing before Ra until their foreheads touched the ground.
So at the terrible glance from the Eye of Ra his daughter Sekhmet came into being,
the fiercest of all goddesses. Like a lion she rushed upon her prey, and her chief
delight was in slaughter, and her pleasure was in blood. At the bidding of Ra she
came into Upper and Lower Egypt to slay those who had scorned and disobeyed him:
she killed them among the mountains which lie on either side of the Nile, and down
beside the river, and in the burning deserts. All whom she saw she slew, rejoicing in
slaughter and the taste of blood.
Presently Ra looked out over the land and saw what Sekhmet had done. Then he
called to her, saying: "Come, my daughter, and tell me how you have obeyed my
commands."
Sekhmet answered with the terrible voice of a lioness as she tears her prey: "By the
life which you have given me, I have indeed done vengeance on mankind, and my
heart rejoices."
Now for many nights the Nile ran red with blood, and Sekhmet's feet were red as she
went hither and thither through all the land of Egypt slaying and slaying.
Presently Ra looked out over the earth once more, and now his heart was stirred with
pity for men, even though they had rebelled against him. But none could stop the
cruel goddess Sekhmet, not even Ra himself: she must cease from slaying of her
own accord -and Ra saw that this could only come about through cunning.
So he gave his command: "Bring before me swift messengers who will run upon the
earth as silently as shadows and with the speed of the storm winds." When these
were brought he said to them: "Go as fast as you can up the Nile to where it flows
fiercely over the rocks and among the islands of the First Cataract; go to the isle that
is called Elephantine and bring from it a great store of the red ochre which is to be
found there."
The messengers sped on their way and returned with the blood-red ochre to
Heliopolis, the city of Ra where stand the stone obelisks with points of gold that are
like fingers pointing to the sun. It was night when they came to the city, but all day the
women of Heliopolis had been brewing beer as Ra bade them.
Ra came to where the beer stood waiting in seven thousand jars, and the gods came
with him to see how by his wisdom he would save mankind.
"Mingle the red ochre of Elephantine with the barley-beer," said Ra, and it was done,
so that the beer gleamed red in the moonlight like the blood of men.
"Now take it to the place where Sekhmet proposes to slay men when the sun rises,"
said Ra. And while it was still night the seven thousand jars of beer were taken and
poured out over the fields so that the ground was covered to the depth of nine inches
-- three times the measure of the palm of a man's hand-with the strong beer, whose
other name is "sleep-maker".
When day came Sekhmet the terrible came also, licking her lips at the thought of the
men whom she would slay. She found the place flooded and no living creature in
sight; but she saw the beer which was the colour of blood, and she thought it was
blood indeed -- the blood of those whom she had slain.
Then she laughed with joy, and her laughter was like the roar of a lioness hungry for
the kill. Thinking that it was indeed blood, she stooped and drank. Again and yet
again she drank, laughing with delight; and the strength of the beer mounted to her
brain, so that she could no longer slay.
At last she came reeling back to where Ra was waiting; that day she had not killed
even a single man.
Then Ra said: "You come in peace, sweet one." And her name was changed to
Hathor, and her nature was changed also to the sweetness of love and the strength of
desire. And henceforth Hathor laid low men and women only with the great power of
love. But for ever after her priestesses drank in her honour of the beer of Heliopolis
coloured with the red ochre of Elephantine when they celebrated her festival each
New Year.
Note that in the above tale, the goddess called 'Eye of Ra' was Hathor who became
'Sekhmet', then 'Hathor'. But afterwards, Sekhmet and Hathor were two seperate deities, both
having claim to the title 'Eye of Ra'!
having to do with the female gender. Yet although she was intrinsically connected to
the female of the species, Hathor cannot be considered only a women's deity. She also
had a large and devoted following among men. As Lady of Malachite, Lady of
Turquoise, Hathor was also connected to metal. Holding spiritual dominion over the
Sinai Peninsula, she was responsible for the success and well being of the mines in
that area. Apparently Hathor was as intensely worshipped by male miners and soldiers,
as she was by women in childbirth or young girls desirous of husbands. Both genders
were able to recognize the sacred divine within her seductively vibrant joyous beauty.
Hathor may be occasionally fierce and terrible; she is never, however, unattractive.
Lest one think her imagery is limited, it is interesting to note that Hathor traditionally
takes more forms than perhaps any other ancient Egyptian deity, most of whom are
limited to only one or two shapes. In terms of imagery, she is perhaps the most fluid of
all of the Egyptian deities, rivaled only by the controversial Seth, among whose littleknown positive attributes include the providing of powerful love magic. Thus, Bastet
appears either as a
cat or as a woman
with a cat's head,
that's it. Hathor, the
Great One of Many
Names, seemingly
takes innumerable
shapes: woman,
goose, cat, lion,
malachite, sycamore
fig, to name only a
few.
Perhaps Hathor's
most famous
manifestation is as a
cow. This bovine
imagery remains
most consistent.
Even when
appearing as a
woman, she often
sports a cow's head
or at least a pair of cow ears, indicating perhaps that no matter how she appears, the
nourishing, generosity of the cow is always readily available under the surface. Hathor
embodies abundance in life, whether abundance of beauty, wealth, security or justice.
Prominent among common people and the royal state religion, Hathor is frequently
depicted suckling the pharaoh, whether in the guise of a cow or as a sycamore fig, a
tree that exudes a white milky substance. When she is depicted as entirely a cow, she
can be distinguished from run-of-the-mill bovines by her exquisitely made-up eyes.
Malachite, mined in
Hathor's province of
Sinai, was ground
into eye make up.
Thus one not only
worshipped Hathor
through the act of
embellishing the
eye, one also wore
her essence upon
one's body.
Although one
cannot draw
definitive parallels
as we lack definitive records, one can recognize a merging of physical and spiritual
goals, akin to the manner in which painting henna upon the body transcends mere
body art for a devout Hindu woman. The ritual ideally brings actual physical
connection with the divine presence of the good goddess Laksmi, embodied in henna.
Laksmi, quite similarly to Hathor, rules joyousness, abundance and the beauty and
vitality of women, the gracious acceptance of the pleasures of life. Thus Hathor was
very likely not merely an abstract religious concept but a vital living component of
everyday life. Eventually, Isis would borrow much of Hathor's iconography and her
functions, eventually even wearing her headdress. However, the two deities are not the
same nor are they interchangeable. Isis is a being of tremendous complexity: there is
tragedy inherent in her myth. Ultimately, Isis is the bereaved widow, the self-less,
devoted single mother. For all Isis' fame as the Mistress of Magic, she cannot avoid
pain, grief and desolation. Her legend embodies both the noblest and the most
hopeless aspects of human nature. Hathor, on the other hand, is the embodiment of
success. She lacks the ambivalence Isis sometimes possesses. Instead Hathor has an
absolute, laser-like focus. She may be joyous and benevolent or she may be singlemindedly vengeful towards spiritual transgressors, the enemies of her father.
Unhappiness, ugliness, failure: all these are foreign to her, not a part of her being.
Even in her most vengeful, dangerous aspect, Hathor takes the form of an elegant if
fearsome lioness or the searing but beautiful solar eye.
perhaps as role model and goal. This imagery was standard and ubiquitous, it also
commonly decorates architectural columns, however one is forced to ask, how would
one know it was Hathor? Usually by the cow ears but even more consistently by the
hair-do.
Hathor's hair is dressed in so characteristic a fashion that the style now bears her
name: archaeologists have dubbed it the "Hathor hair-do." This style is utterly
distinctive and perhaps surprisingly modern to our eyes. It is not the heavily
bejeweled, elaborately braided hair so commonly depicted in other ancient Egyptian
imagery. Rather it is simplicity in the extreme: a simple flip, often parted down the
middle. The 'do wouldn't have looked at all out of place on a French or English mod
girl pop singer of the early to mid '60's- a Marianne Faithfull perhaps or Francoise
Hardy. It is a simple hairstyle, a hairstyle one can conceivably maintain by oneself,
without extensive wigs, servants or leisure time. It is very much an equalizing
hairstyle. Ironically, then, it is a hairstyle most commonly seen in the depiction of
deities, especially beautiful love goddesses, perhaps demonstrating the intensity of
their self-confidence.
While other ancient Egyptian hairstyles are instantly recognizable even today as solely
Egyptian, the Hathor hair-do seems to have set an international style, in particular
traveling all over the Middle East. Other goddesses are depicted wearing this style, in
fact it seems to have become the goddess hairstyle, favored by all the most fashionable
deities. In Mesopotamia, the beautiful and stylish, ever youthful if fierce, Ishtar
dresses her hair this way. So do the beautiful Western Semitic love and war goddesses,
Anat and Astarte, who would eventually achieve great popularity in ancient Egypt,
perhaps the only foreign deities to do so. They would become incorporated into
Egyptian mythology, serving as the designated consolation prize brides for Seth, in the
face-saving compromise that concludes his loss to Horus. Anat and Astarte, the ancient
equivalent of hot foreign babes, of course wear only the most stylish of hairdos.
Technically, we have no way of actually knowing where this hair-do originated or with
whom. However, Hathor's influence remains so consistent that no matter where an
ancient goddess plaque is dug up, if she's wearing that flip, she is automatically
described as wearing the Hathor hair do. What the goddesses who wear this style have
in common with Hathor beyond celestial beauty is a willingness to boldly battle on
behalf of justice, their families and followers. Ishtar, Anat and Hathor: these images of
beauty are not passive or vain but action-oriented brave women, perhaps so confident
of their inherent beauty that elaborate adornment becomes only necessary for their
own pleasure, not as a needed demonstration.
Horus
See Also:
Other Names: Heru, Hor, Harendotes/Har-nedj-itef (Horus the Avenger), Har-PaNeb-Taui (Horus Lord of the Two Lands)
Patron of: the living Pharaoh, rulers, law, war, young men, light, the sun, many
others depending on the particular variant.
Appearance: His most common form is that of falcon-headed man, but he is also
shown as a falcon, a lion with the head of a falcon, or a sphinx. He is also shown as a
falcon resting on the neck of the pharaoh, spreading his wings to either side of the
pharaoh's head and whispering guidance in his ear.
Description: It is nearly impossible to distinguish a "true" Horus from all his many
forms. In fact, Horus is mostly a general term for a great number of falcon gods, some
of which were worshipped all over Egypt, others simply had local cults. Yet in all of
his forms he is regarded as the prince of the gods and the specific patron of the living
ruler.
The worship of Horus was brought from the outside by neighboring tribes who
invaded and then settled into Egypt. He was their god of war, but was quickly
absorbed into the state religion, first as a son of Ra, then changing to become the son
of Osiris. He was the protector and guide to the pharaoh and later pharaohs were
believed to be his avatar on earth. Horus was also the patron of young men and the
ideal of the dutiful son who grows up to become a just man.
The most popular story of Horus is the one in which he grows to manhood to avenge
the death of his father Osiris by battling against his cruel uncle Set. In many writings,
he is said to continue to battle Set daily to ensure the safety of the world.
Worship: Worshipped widely throughout all of Egypt, even his variant forms were
widespread.
Variants:
Harmakhet
God of the dawn and of the morning sun, he is also worshipped as a keeper of secret
wisdom. Harmakhet's form is that of a sphinx or a sphinx with the head of a ram,
often depicted as a companion to Khephri. It is thought that the Great Sphinx, staring
at the eastern horizon, represents him.
Har-Pa-Khered/Harpokrates
Rarely found depicted without his mother Isis. He is shown as a nursing infant with
the royal sidelock or sometimes even with a crown, thus demonstrating his right to
kingship from the moment of his birth. His worship became very popular in the New
Kingdom, spreading even into the Greek and Roman civilizations.
Har-Sa-Iset/Harsiesis
This is the form of Horus that is most familiar, the son of Osiris and Isis. He was
conceived magically after the death of Osiris, and Isis hid him away on an island to
protect him from Set. In this form he is worshipped as an infant and is beseeched to
gain his mother's protection for the worshipper.
Isis
Other Names: None.
Patron of: women, mothers, children, magic, medicine, and the Ritual of Life.
Appearance: A beautiful woman in magnificent clothing, sometimes shown wearing
the sun disk. She has almost no variant forms.
Description: Isis may be the oldest deity in Egypt, and certainly the oldest to survive
the ages in much the same form. She may also be the most important, for although the
other gods were worshipped widely, Isis was worshipped almost universally by all
Egyptians. The major goddess of the Egyptian pantheon, she had many of the same
attributes of other mother-goddesses found all over the world. She was revered as the
great protector, prayed to for guidance, and beseeched for peace in the world. Temples
to Isis are found everywhere in Egypt, some of them quite ancient, and many houses
had shrines to her devotion. Her worship was taken up by the Greeks and the Romans,
and indeed, Isis followers are still found today.
She was the daughter of Nut and Geb, the sister to Osiris, Set, and Nephthys, and the
mother of Horus. In earlier times she was not only the wife to Osiris, but his female
counterpart, equal in all ways and powers. In the Legend of Osiris it is she who travels
the world to find all the pieces of his body and it is she who brings him back to life
with the aid of Thoth. But that is not the only time she is associated with Thoth.
Together they taught man the secrets of magic, medicine, and agriculture. Her power
is spoken of much in the ancient stories, and she may have been even more powerful
than Ra and Osiris. She did after all trick Ra's secret name out of him to gain his
power. Yet she is never shown as selfish or cruel, except to those who would harm
those she loves. Power and compassion, crafty but merciful, Isis represents all the
qualities of women.
Worship: Worshipped widely not only throughout Egypt but also much of the known
world.
The worship surrounding Amun, and later, Amun-Re represented one of ancient
Egypt's most complex theologies. In his most mature form, Amun-Re became a
hidden, secret god. In fact, his name (Imn), or at lest the name by which the ancient
Egyptians called him, means "the hidden one" or "the secret one" (though there has
been speculation that his name is derived from the Libyan word for water, aman.
However, modern context seems to negate this possibility). In reality, however, and
according to mythology, both his name and physical appearance were unknown, thus
indicating his unknowable essence.
Stated differently, Amun was unknown because he
represented absolute holiness, and in this regard, he was
different then any other Egyptian deity. So holy was he
that he remained independent of the created universe. He
was associated with the air as an invisible force, which
facilitated his growth as a supreme deity. He was the
Egyptian creator deity par excellence, and according to
Egyptian myth, was self-created. It was believed that he
could regenerate himself by becoming a snake and
shedding his skin. At the same time, he remained apart
from creation, totally different from it, and fully
independent from it.
However, while hidden, the addition to his name of "Re"
revealed the god to humanity. Re was the common
Egyptian term for the sun, thus making him visible.
Hence, Amun-Re combined within himself the two
opposites of divinity, the hidden and the revealed. As
Amun, he was secret, hidden and mysterious, but as Re,
he was visible and revealed. In some respects, this even
relates to his association with Ma'at, the Egyptian concept
of order and balance, and reflects back upon the ancient
Ma'at, unlike Hathor and Nephthys, seemed to be more of a concept than an actual
goddess. Her name, literally, meant 'truth' in Egyptian. She was truth, order, balance
and justice personified. She was harmony, she was what was right, she was what
things should be. It was thought that if Ma'at didn't exist, the universe would become
chaos, once again!
For the Egyptian believed that the universe was above everything else an
ordered and rational place. It functioned with predictability and regularity; the
cycles of the universe always remained constant; in the moral sphere, purity
was rewarded and sin was punished. Both morally and physically, the universe
was in perfect balance.
-- Ma'at, Goddess of Truth; Truth and Order, Richard Hooker
Because of Ma'at, the Egyptians knew that the universe, that everything in the
universe, worked on a pattern, just as, later on, the Greeks called the underlying order
of the universe logos (meaning, order, pattern).
"In the beginning was the logos*, and the logos* was with God and the logos*
was God."
-- John 1:1
* Logos was the 'Word', another name for Jesus.
Egypt, then, was seen to be nothing without Ma'at.
Ma'at was reality, the solid grounding of reality that made the Sun rise, the
stars shine, the river flood and mankind think. The universe itself, all the
world around them, was sacred in the ancient view.
"Ethics" is an issue of human will and human permission. It is a function of
the human world of duality. What is "ethical" for one group is sin for another.
But Ma'at, the reality that made all groups what they are is transcendent of
ethics, just as a rock or a flower is amoral, a-ethical, without "truth or
falsehood." How can a flower be "false" or "ethical." It just is. How can the
universe be "ethical or moral, right or wrong"? It simply is. That is Ma'at.
-- Walk Like An Egyptian: A Modern Guide To The Religion and Philosophy
Of Ancient Egypt, Ramona Louise Wheeler
Despite being a winged goddess (like Nephthys), she was judge at the Egyptian
underworld at the Halls of Ma'ati or Halls of the Double Ma'at.
The dead person's heart was placed on a scale, balanced by Ma'at herself, or by the
Feather of Ma'at (her symbol that she wore on her head was an ostrich feather).
Thoth (god of writing and scribes) weighed the heart... if the deceased had been found
to not have followed the concept of ma'at during his life (if he had lied or cheated or
killed or done anything against ma'at) his heart was devoured by a demon (she was
called Ammut - Devouress of the Dead) and he died the final death. If the heart
weighed the same as Ma'at, the deceased was allowed to go on to the afterlife.
In life, it was the pharaohs' duty to uphold ma'at. "I have done Ma'at" has been spoken
by several pharaohs, as well as being called "beloved of Ma'at".
The ruler who forcibly emphasizes his adherence to Ma'at on his monuments
in Akhenaten - the very king whom later pharaohs considered to have deviated
immensely from her laws.
-- Ma'at/Maae't, Nebet Mirjam
Ma'at, as would be logical, was also was the justice meeted out in ancient Egyptial
law courts. It is likely that a "Priest of Ma'at" referred to people who were involved in
the justice system, as well as being priests of the goddess
herself.
There is a small temple dedicated by Hatshepsut (14731458 BC) to Ma'at (in ruins) at Ipet-Isut (Karnak). The
temple is inside Precinct of Montu, the smallest of three
enclosures at Ipet-Isut. The temple seems to have been
built by Hatshepsut, then reconstructed by Thothmose III.
There is a computer reconstruction of the temple of Ma'at by Gerard Homann.
Ma'at did not exist until Ra rose from the waters of Nun (the water where Nun and
various other gods and goddesses of Chaos lived). She was known as a Neter goddess,
and as such, was described as a daughter of Ra. But without Ma'at, Egyptians believed
that Nun would reclaim the universe. She was also thought to be the wife of Thoth,
moon god and god of the wisdom.
She was, really, the most important deity of them all.
Due to the young age of the Pharaoh, Hatshepsut became his regent. They
ruled together for a number of years until she proclaimed herself Pharaoh
(perhaps when Thothmose III was reaching manhood) - something almost
unheard of, despite the higher status of women in Egypt compared to
women in other cultures at the time. Women could own land, inherit from
family members, and even go to court to defend her rights. But before
Hatshepsut, there were queens who had ruled Egypt... but not a female
Pharaoh.
She managed to rule for about twenty years, before disappearing from history...
coinciding with Thothmose III's becoming Pharaoh in his own right.
But what happened in those twenty years?
Inscriptions on the Walls of Hatshepsut's Temple
Hatshepsut, with the backing of the temple of Amen, proclaimed that she was the
divine daughter of the god Amen:
Amen took the form of the noble King Thothmose and found the queen
sleeping in her room. When the pleasant odours that proceeded from him
announced his presence she woke. She smiled at his majest. He went to her,
his penis erect. He gave her his heart to her and showed himself in his godlike
splendour. When he approached the queen she wept for joy at his
strength and beauty. His love passed into her limbs. The palace
was flooded with the god's fragrance, and all his perfumes were
as from Punt.
On the walls of her temple, Hatshepsut describes how Thothmose I made
her his heir:
Then his majesty said to them: "This daughter of mine, KhnumetAmen Hatshepsut - may she live! - I have appointed as my
successor upon my throne...she shall direct the people in every sphere of the
palace; it is she indeed who shall lead you. Obey her words, unite yourselves
at her command." The royal nobles, the dignitaries, and the leaders of the
people heard this proclamation of the promotion of his daughter, the King of
Upper and Lower Egypt, Ma'at-ka-Ra - may she live eternally!
The Birth Colonnade depicts Queen Ahmose in subtle images with the words of
Hatshepsut's conception and birth. From an image of Queen Ahmose and Amen seated
together while the queen breaths in life from the god, to one of the rare examples of a
pregnant woman - Khnum and Heqet lead the queen to the birthing room. The
stomach of the queen is only slightly rounded, despite the fact that she is shown going
to the birthing room to give birth to Hatshepsut. Another scene shows a goddess
handing the baby girl to the queen, with the goddess Meskhenet, the goddess of the
birth bricks, kneeling behind the queen, and deities all around. Finally there is a scene
showing Hatshepsut being brought before the gods, and before her father, Amen.
Hatshepsut began to adopt several male attributes, after the Oracle of Amen
pronounced it Amen's will that Hatshepsut should be Pharaoh. She gradually took on
the new role, rather than appearing all at once as the Pharaoh. That would have been a
drastic step - she was rather cautious. She dropped her titles relating to those only a
woman could hold, and took on those of the Pharaoh, and slowly started the trend
towards appearing like a male, wearing the shendyt kilt, nemes headdress with its
uraeus, khat head cloth and false beard. She even, eventually, dropped the female
ending from her name ('t') and became His Majesty, Hatshepsu 'Foremost of Nobles'.
Hatshepsut's Daughters
On becoming Pharaoh, Hatshepsut had to give up her title - not just a title, but a
special job with specific duties - of "God's Wife". She granted her daughter Neferura
('Beauties of Ra'), Thothmose II's daughter, this title. Unfortunately Neferura died
young, but Hatshepsut apparently was grooming her daughter as a prince, rather than
a princess, despite the title. There is a beautiful block statue of Senmut, holding the
child Neferura enfolded in his arms. Neferura is wearing the royal false beard, and the
side lock of a youth.
One of Neferura's tutors was a soldier, Ahmose, who wrote:
Hatshepsut gave me repeated honours. I raised her eldest daughter, Princess
Neferura, while she was still a child at the breast.
Merira-Hatshepset ('Beloved of Ra'), Hatshepsut's who may or may not have been
second daughter (there are different schools of thought on this matter), became the
wife of Thothmose III, and married him just before or during his coronation after
Thothmose II died. Little else is known about her, other than she may have been the
mother of Amenhotep II.
Senmut and Other Officials
When Neferura was still a child, Senmut ('Brother of Mut') was her tutor. It is
unknown as to his relationship with Hatshepsut, but he was one of her strongest
supporters, probably even one of her top advisers... During his time, he gained over
40 titles, including chief architect. He disappeared some time before the end of
Hatshepsut's reign, and it is unknown what actually happened to him.
The backing of the priesthood of Amen was very important to raise and keep
Hatshepsut in power. Hapuseneb was the High Priest of Amen, and Hatshepsut also
put him in charge of her monuments at Ipet-Isut (Karnak). He may have even been
vizier to Hatshepsut, but she certainly gave him power.
Nehsy was one of her Chancellor, known for leading Hatshepsut's expedition to the
Land of Punt.
One inscription that Senmut himself left proclaimed of himself:
She recorded this on the walls of her temple at Deir el-Bahri, and many of the
scenes can still be seen today. (Unfortunately many were damaged or destroyed
when someone - most likely Thothmose III - tried to erase her name and image
from every monument that may have had her name.)
Though this seems a little drastic, there was obviously bitter feelings against
Hatshepsut. No-one knows if she was murdered, died or retired from politics to let
Thothmose III and her second daughter rule, but she disappeared when Thothmose III
became Pharaoh in his own right. Her body has not been positively identified, so it is
difficult to prove one way or another. There are a mummies that are a good candidates
to be the pharaoh herself, though. An elder woman found in the cache of Amenhotep
II; the second female mummy found in the tomb of Hatshepsut's nurse, Sitra-In; and a
female mummy found in a cache of mummies along with Hatshepsut's canopic chest
containing the remains of her liver.
But, despite all the damage, the people of today still know of Egypt's first female
Pharaoh - Hatshepsut.
It was from Nun (Nu) that Ra (or Amen, another of the Ogdoad who became
prominent Middle Kingdom onward, and joined with the sun god as Amen-Ra)
created himself, rising up on the first piece of land - the primeval mound
(Benben) out of the water lily (lotus) blossom, born from the world egg, or as a
bnw-bird who then found and landed on the mound. In another story, it was
Thoth who awoke from Nun and sang the unnamed four frog gods and snake
goddesses who then continued Thoth's song to keep the sun travelling through the sky.
The First Time then began and Ra was thought to have created the universe, including
his children - other gods. He brought Ma'at - order - to chaos. Nun was thought to be
the father of Ra, who was known as the father of the gods.
Your offering-cake belongs to you, Nun and Naunet,
Who protects the gods, who guards the gods with your shadows.
-- Pyramid Text 301
One story says that Ra's children, Shu and Tefnut, went to explore the waters of Nun.
After some time, Ra believed that they were lost, and sent the his Eye out into the
chaos to find them. When his children were returned to him, Ra wept, and his
tears were believed to have turned into the first humans. Nun then became the
protector of the twin deities, protecting them from the demons in his waters.
Later on, it was Nun who suggested that Ra sent out his Eye to destroy the
humans who were in contempt of the sun god. Finally, it was on Nun's orders that
Nut turned into a solar cow, and carried Ra up into the sky after the sun god had
grown old and wearied of life on earth.
Nun was thought to exist both outside the universe and as part of every body of
water from the Nile to temple pools. The Nile itself was thought to flow from Nun's
primordial waters. He was thought to play a part in the rituals involved in laying out
the foundation for new temples.
Nun was also thought to continue to exist as subsoil water beneath the earth
and as the source of the annual flooding of the Nile River.
-- Encyclopdia Britannica
The god was shown as either a frog-headed man, or as a bearded man, occasionally
shown as similar in appearance to Hapi. He was often shown rising up out of a body
of water, carrying the solar barque in his up stretched hands.
Though Nun was a being of chaos, he was thought to have a beneficial side, unlike the
water serpent of chaos, Apep, who was thought to be Ra's enemy. The Egyptians
believed that Apep had been created when the goddess Nit spat into Nun - her spittle
turned into the water serpent-demon.
The god of chaos didn't have a priesthood, nor any temples that have been found, and
was never worshiped as a personified god. Instead, he was represented at various
temples by the sacred lakes symbolising the chaotic waters before the First Time. At
Abtu (Abydos), he is represented by an underground water channel at the Osireion.
The Ogdoad were the original great gods of Iunu (On, Heliopolis) where they were
thought to have helped with creation, then died and retired to the land of the dead
where they continued to make the Nile flow and the sun rise every day. Iunu was
thought to have been the site of the primeval mound by the priests of the city, and they
had a sacred lake known as 'The Sea of Two Knives' and an island known as 'The Isle
of Flames'. The lake, attached to a temple, represented Nun's waters, and the island
was believed to be the primeval mound itself. Ra was thought to have come into the
world out of the giant water lily which grew on the mound:
Out of the water lily, created by the Eight, came forth
Ra, who created all things, divine and human.
In Mennefer (Hikuptah, Memphis), Nun was linked
to the creator god, Ptah, and known as Ptah-Nun.
Thus both Ptah and Nun were thought to be the father
of the sun god Atem, and also thought to be more
powerful than the god. He was the 'Heart and the
Tongue of the Ennead' (the one of intelligence who
had the power to command), and thus the one who
was in control, with the sun god being placed a step
below the creator god of Hikuptah.
Image April McDevitt
The priests of Waset (Thebes), on the other hand, declared that Waset was the site of
the Nun's water, and the rising of the primeval mound. Amen, the creator god of
Waset, was originally one of the Ogdoad and became the most powerful god of the
area. They believed that Amen changed from the invisible chaos deity into the
primeval mound. In this form, he created the other gods. He created the water lily,
which opened to reveal the child form of Amen-Ra, who then finished the creation of
the world. Nun, although he was a powerful force, was thought to have been inert
until Amen awoke him from torpor, and used his chaotic waters to create the universe.
Naunet
The wisest of the Egyptian gods was Thoth (Djhuty, Djehuty, Tehuty), the baboon and
ibis god of the moon. Thoth was the god who overcame the curse of Ra, allowing Nut
to give birth to her five children, with his skill at games. It was he who helped Isis
work the ritual to bring Osiris back from the dead, and who drove the magical poison
of Set from her son, Horus with the power of his magic. He was Horus' supporter
during the young god's deadly battle with his uncle Set, helping Horus with his
wisdom and magic. It was Thoth who brought Tefnut, who left Egypt for Nubia in a
sulk after an argument with her father, back to heaven to be reunited with
Ra.
Tefnut, the Eye of Ra, became estranged from her father and fled into Nubia,
taking all of her precious water with her. In this land, she transformed herself
into a lioness. She raged through the countryside, emitting flames from her
eyes and nostrils. Viciously, she drank the blood and fed on the flesh of both
animals and humans. As time went on, Ra missed his Eye, and longed to see
her again - Egypt had dried, and the land was in chaos. He summoned Shu to
him, along with Thoth, who was the messenger of the gods and famous for his
eloquence. Ra issued the command that Shu and Thoth must go to Nubia and
bring back his recalcitrant daughter. Before they set off on their journey Shu
and Thoth disguised themselves as baboons. The baboon was an animal sacred
to Thoth. Eventually, Thoth and Shu found Tefnut in Begum. Thoth began at
once to try and persuade her to return to Egypt. Tefnut, however, wasn't
interested. She liked hunting in the desert and was perfectly happy where she
was. Thoth would not give up though, and wove stories to depict to her how
gloom had descended upon Egypt since she had left. The people of Egypt
would do anything for her if she'd just return home. Ultimately, wooed by
Thoth's promises, Tefnut relented and returned to Egypt accompanied by the
two baboons. All the way there, Thoth kept her entertained with stories.
Tefnut made a triumphant entry back into the homeland, accompanied by a
host of Nubian musicians, dancers and baboons. She went from city to city,
bringing back moisture and water (the inundation), amid great rejoicing, until
finally she was reunited with her father, and restored to her rightful position as
his Eye.
When Ra retired from the earth, he appointed Thoth and told him of his desire to
create a Light-soul in the Duat and in the Land of the Caves, and it was over this
region that the sun god appointed Thoth to rule, ordering him to keep a register of
those who were there, and to mete out just punishments to them. Thoth became the
representation of Ra in the afterlife, seen at the judgement of the dead in the 'Halls of
the Double Ma'at'.
The magical powers of Thoth were so great, that the Egyptians had tales of a 'Book of
Thoth', which would allow a person who read the sacred book to become the most
powerful magician in the world. The Book which "the god of wisdom wrote with his
own hand" was, though, a deadly book that brought nothing but pain and tragedy to
those that read it, despite finding out about the "secrets of the gods themselves" and
"all that is hidden in the stars".
He was one of the earlier Egyptian gods, thought to be scribe to the gods, who kept a
great library of scrolls, over which one of his wives, Seshat, the goddess of writing,
was thought to be mistress. The god born of this union was called Hornub. He was
associated by the Egyptians with speech, literature, arts, learning. He, too, was a
measurer and recorder of time, as was Seshat. Believed to be the author of the spells
in The Book of the Dead and a much later work, the Book of Breathings, he was a
helper (and punisher) of the deceased as they try to enter the underworld. In this role,
his wife was Ma'at, the personification of order, who was weighed against the heart of
the dead to see if they followed ma'at during their life. At Khmunu (Hermopolis) he
Caroline Seawright
January 31, 2001
...but by the word "house" we must understand that portion of the sky which
was supposed to form the abode of the Sun-god Horus; in fact "het" in the
name of Nebt-het is used in exactly the same sense as "het" in the name "HetHert," or Hathor, i.e., the "House of Horus."
-- Nephthys, TourEygpt
Despite being the wife of Set, she was seen as a loyal sister to her other siblings,
helping Isis to gather Osiris' scattered limbs (after Set cut him into pieces), and helped
her revive the dead god. She thus became associated with the dead, becoming a friend
of the deceased. She offered guidance to the newly dead, and comfort to the family of
the one who died. Along with Hapy - the baboon headed Son of Horus - she guarded
the
lungs in their canopic jar on the north cardinal point.
Nephthys saith unto the Osiris Ani, whose word is
truth:- I go round about thee to protect thee, O
brother Osiris. I have come to be a protector unto
thee. [My strength shall be near thee, my strength
shall be near thee, for ever. Ra hath heard thy cry,
and the gods have made thy word to be truth.
Thou art raised up. Thy word is truth in respect of
what hath been done unto thee. Ptah hath
overthrown thy foes, and thou art Horus, the son
of Hathor.]
-- Speech of Nephthys, The Book of the Dead
She
was depicted as a woman with the hieroglyph of her name
(a basket and a house on top of each other) on her head, though she was also
sometimes given wings or the form of a bird (the kite), making her a solar deity, as
well as a deity of the dead. In the later period, she became the mother of Anubis (the
god of the dead) through Osiris.
As comforter, she stood at the birth-bed to offer comfort and help with the birth of
new born children - Isis was seen as the midwife. The two sisters were often together,
only being able to be told apart by the hieroglyph on their heads. Also, like her sister,
she was thought to have great magical powers - she was the Mighty One of Words of
Power.
Yet, originally, where Isis was visible, birth, growth, development and vigour,
Nephthys was invisible, death, decay, diminution and immobility. She was the
darkness to Isis' light. Isis was the day, her twin sister the night.
The goddesses were personified by two priestesses who were virgins and who
were ceremonially pure; the hair of their limbs was to be shaved off, they
were to wear ram's wool garlands upon their heads, and to hold tambourines
in their hands; on the arm of one of them was to be a fillet inscribed "To Isis,"
and on the arm of the other was to be a fillet inscribed "To Nephthys." On five
days during the month of December these women took their places in the
temple of Abtu (Abydos) and, assisted by the Kher Heb, or precentor, they
sang a series of groups of verses to the god.
Here is an except from the 'Songs of Isis and Nephthys', sung to Osiris by the two
priestesses:
Hail, thou lord of the underworld, thou Bull of those who are therein, thou
Image of Ra-Harmachis, thou Babe of beautiful appearance, come thou to us
in peace. Thou didst repel thy disasters, thou didst drive away evil hap; Lord,
come to us in peace.
O Un-nefer, lord of food, thou chief, thou who art of terrible majesty, thou
God, president of the gods, when thou dost inundate the land [all] things are
engendered. Thou art gentler than the gods. The emanation of thy body make
the dead and the living to live, O thou lord of food, thou prince of green herbs,
thou mighty lord, thou staff of life, thou giver of offerings to the gods, and of
sepulchral meals to the blessed dead. Thy souls flieth after Ra, thou shinest at
dawn, thou settest at twilight, thou riseth every day; thou shalt rise on the left
hand of Atmu for ever and ever. Thou art the glorious one, the vicar of Ra; the
company of the gods cometh to thee invoking thy face, the flame whereof
reacheth unto thine enemies. We rejoice when thou gatherest together thy
bones, and when thou hast made whole thy body daily. Anubis cometh to thee,
and the two sisters (i.e., Isis and Nephthys) come to thee. They have obtained
beautiful things for thee, and they gather together thy limbs for thee, and they
seek to put together the mutilated members of thy body. Wipe thou the
impurities which are on them upon our hair and come thou to us having no
recollection of that which hath caused thee sorrow.
Come thou in thy attribute of "Prince of the Earth," lay aside thy trepidation
and be at peace with us, O Lord. Thou shalt be proclaimed heir of the world,
and the One god, and the fulfiller of the designs of the gods. All the gods
invoke thee, come therefore to thy temple and be not afraid. O Ra (i.e.,
Osiris), thou art beloved of Isis and Nephthys; rest thou in thy habitation for
ever.
One of the reasons, during the later period of Egyptian history, given as to why Set
and Osiris hate each other was because of Nephthys, Set's sister-wife. She was barren
(she represented the desert, as did Set), and she hit on the plan of disguising herself as
Isis and seducing Osiris. Getting Osiris drunk, Nephthys took Osiris to her bed, and
the two had drunken sex together. Osiris dropped his garland of melilot flowers in the
act of passion. Set found the adulterous goddess and the flowers, and knowing who
the flowers belonged to, he began to plan Osiris' death. The child of this union was
thought to be Anubis, god of mummification.
Now as the overflowings of the Nile are sometimes very great, and extend to
the boundaries of the land, this gave rise to the story of the secret intercourse
between Osiris and Nephthys, as the natural consequence of so great an
inundation would be the springing up of plants in those parts of the country
which were formerly barren.
-- Nephthys, TourEgypt
Among her titles, Nephthys was known as the Lady of the Body (of the Gods), the
Dweller within Senu, Lady of Heaven, Mistress of the Gods, the Great Goddess and
Lady of Life. Her major centres of worships were Senu, Hebet, (Behbit), Per-mert,
Re-nefert, Het-sekhem, Het-Khas, Ta-kehset, and Diospolites. Her principal sanctuary
was at Iunu (On, Heliopolis).
She was the darkness to Isis' light, the bareness to contrast her sister's fertility. Friend
to the dead, their protector, she was a beneficial deity who offered both guidance and
comfort. Although linked with death and decay, she was also a bringer of life into the
world, and rebirth into the land of the dead. Leaving her husband Set, she became a
follower of Osiris and a supporter of her sister. In Egyptian art, the twin sisters were
almost always shown together. Great of magic, Nephthys was seen as a good goddess
who would give them rebirth in the land of the dead, just as she had helped Osiris to
be reborn.
Exploring Isis
By Catherine C. Harris
The Egyptian goddess Isis is one of the most
important goddesses of ancient Egypt, and she
remains one of the most well known goddesses of
this age. Isis is most well known for her role as
devoted wife and mother. In the Osiris legend we
can see the reasoning behind this pattern of
thought.
Isis is one of the five children of Nut, the sky
goddess. When Isis was very young, she was
determined to increase her powers. In order to do
so, she would have to get the secret name out from
Ra. Isis was clever and used Ra's own saliva to
create an invisible snake that bit him. Thus Ra was
poisoned and could not heal himself because he
didn't know the nature of the wound. Ra was weak
and near the end of his reign, and Isis took
advantage of him. Isis offered to heal Ra if he
would tell her his secret name. Faced with death
from the unknown wound, Ra told Isis the name
and in doing so he transferred his knowledge and
power to her.
Isis later married Osiris, and together they ruled
over Egypt. Due to Set's jealousy over the throne, Osiris was tricked into climbing in
a box. Once he was inside the box, the lid was slammed closed and nailed shut. The
box was then covered with melted lead and thrown into the Nile. Isis was furious and
grieved for her husband.
Eventually, word reached Isis that Osiris was found in Byblos. Isis traveled to Byblos
where she used the magic taught to her by Thoth to bring her husband back to life
long enough to conceive a child by him. She hid on the island until she gave birth to
her son, Horus.
While Isis was away one day, Set found the body of Osiris. He had the body cut into
14 pieces and had them scattered throughout Egypt. Isis returned and was grief
stricken. Isis began her search for the body parts of her
beloved Osiris. She found all of the pieces except for his
manhood, which had been eaten by a crab. With help from
several other deities, Isis performed the needed magic to
rejoin the body parts of her departed husband, Osiris. Isis
performed the Rite of Rebirth in order to give Osiris
eternal life, at which time Osiris ascended to the immortal
world.
Isis stayed in hiding with Horus as he grew and trained.
She knew he would need to be strong to regain control of
the throne, which was rightfully his. Isis exposed Horus to
wild animals and scorpion bites in an effort to give him
strength. Each time he was attacked or poisoned he was
protected. Osiris, his father, came down to teach him
weaponry.
Eventually, Horus challenged Set for the throne of Egypt. Horus went before the elder
gods and petitioned for them to appoint him the rightful ruler. Set tried to convince
everyone that Horus was not strong enough to rule. Despite the World Mother's
declaration that Horus was indeed the rightful heir the tribunal sided with Set. Isis
struck fear into the tribunal by putting curses on everyone.
The tribunal was moved to an island that was thought to be out of the reach of Isis.
Isis would not be thwarted, however, and bribed the ferryman to take her to the island.
Once there she disguised herself as a young and beautiful maiden. She trapped Set
into saying that her son was the rightful heir to the throne. Once Set realized what he
had done he returned to tell the tribunal.
Set demanded that the matter be settled by combat between himself and Horus. The
two men dove into the Nile to see which one could hold his breath the longest. Isis
became so concerned for her son Horus that she threw a magical spear into the water.
It struck Horus by mistake, and he emerged for his mother to remove the spear. Isis
again threw the spear into the water, and this time it hit Set. Set emerged from the
water, as Horus had done, for Isis to remove the spear. Horus was so enraged at his
mother's interference that he lashed out at her with the spear and chopped her head
off. The god Thoth replaced Isis' head with that of a cow. In the end, after much
turmoil, Horus was named the rightful heir. Set would never accept it and continued to
be a thorn in their sides.
The Egyptian goddess Isis is one of the goddesses that stood the test of time. Isis is
the Greek form of more ancient Egyptian names, and the name Isis is associated with
the word for "throne." Originally, Isis was known as Aset, or Eset. Isis is worshipped
today, just as she has been for thousands of years, as the Lady of Heaven, The Great
Enchantress, Goddess of Magic, The Goddess of Love and War, the Giver of Life,
Queen of the Gods, and Goddess of Marriage and Protection.
Isis was able to give the gift of immortality. For this reason, she is often portrayed
wearing or carrying an Ankh. The Ankh is an ancient symbol for eternal life. The
symbol is similar to that of a cross, but it has a looped top. Isis is sometimes seen
wearing horns and a solar disk atop her head. She is sometimes pictured with wings.
Isis is occasionally shown with a cow's head or with the sign of a throne on her head.
Isis is one of the only winged deities in Egyptian myth. She is sometimes
representative of the wind, as in the legend of Osiris. One version of the legend tells
of Isis using her wings to fill Osiris' mouth and nose with air. For those people who
recognize Isis as a force at work in their life; the wind takes on a magical face. The
simple act of walking outside on a windy day brings about a refreshing of the soul.
Isis is viewed as the protector and patron of women. Isis guided women in childbirth,
marriage, and in the loss of loved ones. She has the qualities that endear her to women
of all ages. Isis is full of compassion, tenderness, love and devotion. Isis is the Great
Mother Goddess.
As a divine healer, Isis shared the secrets of healing and preparation of medical
potions to her priestesses. Isis is also credited for bringing us the secrets of law and
agriculture. If you ask anyone that esteems Isis to the role of goddess in this present
age; you will surely hear them proclaim that Isis holds life in here hands. Isis, with her
ability to breathe life into something once dead, is worshipped today as she has for
centuries.
There are ways to bring the goddess Isis into everyday life. Her colors are white, gold,
and cobalt blue. Many view these as the colors of royalty and comfort. The gems and
stones equated with Isis are pearl, coral, lapis, geodes, and moonstone. Wearing
jewelry with these stones embedded is just one way to bring the goddess near.
Fragrances of the goddess are myrrh, rose, iris, and eucalyptus. Candles and essential
oils are useful in bringing the fragrance of Isis into the home.
Isis is the Mistress of all elements, and she is a powerful wind that blows constant.
Isis is the Goddess of Countless Names, and she will continue to make her presence
known.
Seawright
Apep (Apepi, Aapep, Apophis) was a demon of the underworld, in the form of a giant
water snake. It was believed that he was created when Nit spat into the primeval
waters of Nun. He was the enemy of the sun god, trying to stop him as he travelled on
his barque through the underworld each night. He was so powerful that little could
defeat him, and even then, he was back again the following evening to threaten Ra.
He was a demon outside of ma'at, the opposite of order, a demon of darkness and
chaos.
Apep was first attested to during the Middle Kingdom, but the New Kingdom texts
provide the myths and legends of this demon. During Roman times, Apep's name was
thought to mean 'He who was Spat Out'. He was believed to have been created when
Nit spat into the waters of Nun, her spittle turning into the giant water snake. This was
thought to happen at the start of time, and that he lived in the primeval waters. His
name may mean 'Great Snake' (from
aah - in words such as 'be great', 'the
great', 'greatly'), but the reading is uncertain. (The sound aah was also the word for
donkey, animals that were believed to be followers of both Set and Apep. This may be
part of an ancient Egyptian pun.)
He was depicted as a giant water snake, almost always shown being pierced by knives
or other weapons or under the control of a deity, so his image would not give the
demon power. He was thought by the ancient Egyptians to be over 16m long, with
skin as hard as flint. His roar was so loud that it shook the underworld. He was called
'Evil Lizard', 'Opponent of Ra', 'Enemy of Ra', 'World Encircler' and 'Serpent of
Rebirth'.
It was believed that Apep waited at Bakhu - the mountain of the horizon - to swallow
the barque of Ra, or during in the seventh hour of the night. He also could swallow
the waters of the celestial river in the underworld, or use his coils as sandbanks, to
strand Ra's barque. Serqet also used her magic to protect the barque from Apep, as she
had power over snakes, reptiles and poisonous animals. She was also thought to be
able to hold Apep's tail. Maahes also protected Ra on
the barque, as he protected the pharaoh while in
battle. Shu was a defender of the barque, who used
spells and magic to protect Ra from the water snakedemon and his followers. He was also thought to be
caught or cut by other deities, including Isis, Nit,
Sekhmet, Geb and the Sons of Horus.
The Egyptians believed that Shu was the second divine pharaoh, ruling after Ra.
Apep's followers, though, plotted against him and attacked the god at his palace in At
Nub. Despite defeating them, Shu became diseased due to their corruption, and soon
even Shu's own followers revolted against him. Shu then abdicated the throne,
allowing his son Geb to rule, and Shu himself returned to the skies.
Neither Shu, Maahes nor Serqet were strong enough to kill Apep. Only a few could
kill him - Set boasts that "Every day I slay the enemy of Ra when I stand at the helm
of the Barque of Millions of Years, which no other god dare do." He was the only
deity who was strong enough to withstand the power of Apep, and to kill the water
serpent.
(Set resumes):
"Back, Fiend, from the onslaught of his light! If you speak, your face will be
overturned by the gods. Your heart will be seized by the lynx (Mafdet), your
reins will be bound by the scorpion (Hededet), you will be punished by Ma'at,
she will bring you to grief."
...
was the god Atem, a form of the sun god at sunset, who was
believed to condemn Apep to destruction. He was shown as
standing before the water snake demon, the demon awaiting
it's destruction. The deceased were also given spells to help
them get passed Apep - "Apep has fallen into the flame, a
knife is stuck into his head, his name no longer exists
anywhere on the earth ... I sever his vertebrae from his neck, cutting into his flesh
with a knife and stabbing through his skin." - the magic spells could bring the demon
to this place of destruction, where Apep would be chained, cut, burned and crushed.
Apep is also shown as being decapitated by Ra in the form of the 'The Great Cat of
Iunu (On, Heliopolis)', at the foot of the sacred ished or the sacred sycamore tree of
the horizon.
...the Book of Overthrowing Apep ... gives spells and other instructions for the
checkmating of the monster, which were recited daily in the temple of AmenRa at Waset (Thebes). In these Apep is referred to as a crocodile and a serpent,
and it is described how by the aid of sympathetic magic he is to be speared,
cut with knives, decapitated, roasted, and finally consumed by fire, and his
evil followers also. These magical acts were duly carried out at Waset day by
day, and it was supposed that they greatly assisted the journey of the sun-god.
-- Egypt, Myths and Legends, Lewis Spence
The Book of Overthrowing Apep had the following descriptive chapters:
Apep was never worshiped, but the ancient Egyptians protected themselves against
him - he was a threat not only against people and the gods, but against ma'at and
creation itself. As a demon of the unknown and related to frightening events such as
unexplained darkness (solar eclipses were interpreted as a victory of Apep over Ra as
he swallowed the solar barque), rituals were followed to ensure he could do no harm.
In this, he was linked to Set, who also had eclipses, thunderstorms and earthquakes
attributed to him. Despite this two Hyksos rulers of the 15th Dynasty - Apepi I and
Apepi II - may have named themselves after Apep (though the spelling is different these rulers used
). During the Late Period, a wax model of the
water serpent was cut into pieces and burned. A picture of Apep on papyrus, drawn in
green, was sealed in a box, spat on, and burned. Rituals such as these were thought to
give protection against Apep.
For example, think of the Roman Coliseum (in Rome). It is almost 2,000 years old,
and most of us would think of it as very ancient. Yet, when the Romans first came to
Egypt, they were awe struck by Egyptian temples, some of which at that time were
already more ancient to the Romans, then the Roman Coliseum is to us. So we must
consider the effect that these temples had on the ancient Egyptians. Imagine the
feelings of old tradition and holiness felt by a young priest when he first enters St.
Peter's Cathedral in Rome. How must a young Egyptian priest felt as he strolled the
courts of the much more temple of Heliopolis, which was much more ancient to him
then St. Peter's would be to a young priest of today.
Webster's New World Dictionary defines temple as "1. a building for the worship of
god or gods, and 2. A large building for some special purpose". For the second
definition, they provide the example, "a temple of art". Neither of these definitions fit
the ancient Egyptian temple very well, and yet, almost every religious structure in
Egypt outside of the various types of tombs are almost always referred to as temples.
Certainly some of these "temple" structures do embrace both of Webster's definitions.
In fact, it is difficult to imagine most any large, ancient building not falling under the
second definition, including palaces and governmental buildings. However, our
modern readers are more likely to think in terms of the first definition, that of a temple
being a place of worship. However, this definition is simply too limited to fit even the
structures that many modern Egyptologists better define as a "god's mansion". Even
these temples sometimes had many other functions, acting sometimes as fortresses,
administrative centers and even concrete expression of propaganda or royal retreats.
However, it is difficult to define some other religious structures that are called temples
as houses of worship or "god's mansions". They may have other political or all
together different purposes.
It was the ancient Egyptian temple that received endowments. It was the mortuary
temple and the cult of the dead king that funded the entire pyramid complex of the
early kings, for example. Temples owned land, livestock and received donations,
sometimes including the spoils of war, in order to support often large populations of
priests, workers, and sometimes even an entire support town.
The Temple of Karnak today remains the worlds largest religious structure, but what is
perhaps even more interesting is that it might not have been, or indeed was probably
not Egypt's largest temple. Certainly the Temple of Ptah in Memphis, though for the
most part completely gone today, may have been larger. It was older, and located in
what was often the capital of Egypt, and more often the administrative center of the
ancient country. Other temples in the Nile Delta might have been just as large as
Karnak, if not larger.
Sites such as Karnak, Dendera and
Kom Ombo would most likely fall
under the category of "god's
mansion". They were more then
religious "temples" however. While
the god may certainly have been
worshiped in these temples, it was
also his symbolic home, if not
considered his physical residence,
and the functions of the temple
were as much to serve his or her
symbolic physical needs as they
were for the god's worship. There
was probably little or no "preaching" as such, or carrying the message of the god to the
people by priests associated with these "temples". Rather the efforts were directed
inward, towards the care of the gods.
Also, though we often make a very specific distention between mortuary temples of
kings, for example, and temples such as Karnak, they were actually very similar.
Kings were considered gods, and after their death, they required a "mansion" and the
same attention as other
gods. Both regular and
mortuary temples
served to keep the name
of the king or god
alive.
Right: Temple of Dendera
within the "god's mansion" category at all. For example, Sed-festival Temples that
celebrated the king's jubilees seem to have had a completely different purpose than
"god's mansions", and ka Temples provided a residence not to the dead king, but for
his soul.
Nevertheless, for convenience, we will refer to most religious structures other then
tombs as temples in the remainder of this reference.
Dynastic era temples may be found throughout Egypt, though the ones that have
survived time are mostly in the south. They were built for many different forms of
worship, as well as other purposes. Some were major temples dedicated to major
deities, while others were dedicated to a number of different deities. Some were
mortuary temples, where the temple was dedicated to the deified dead king, and where
he was worshiped and cared for by his cult. There were also valley temples, which
were often no more then monumental gateways connected to the king's mortuary
chapel by a causeway. There were all manner of specialized temples, such as Sedfestival temples, ka temples, sun temples, coronation temples and others.
Many of Egypt's temples became complex systems of buildings, added to by
generations of pharaohs over sometimes thousands of years. Such temples include
those of Luxor and Karnak, but others long destroyed, such as the Temple of Ptah. In
fact, there are any
number of northern
temples, though long
gone, that would have
rivaled the southern
temples that we most
often visit today.
Left: Kom Ombo
that faces the pyramid, and before the door, an offering altar. Within the inner
sanctuary there might also be additional rooms, such as vestibules and antechambers.
Associated with both the outer and inner sections of the temple would be storage and
other annexes to one side or both of the main temple components.
Non-mortuary temples often also had
courtyards, chapels, offering halls,
vestibules, antechambers, just like the
mortuary temples. They tend to vary
considerably in their style and elements,
though temples built for specific gods
tended to be more uniform (though not
always). One of the major differences
between mortuary temples and others
was that the non-mortuary temples were
very often added to, built upon and even usurped by various kings. Though in rare
cases a mortuary temples, such as that of Djoser at Saqqara, became places of high
holiness, and were built upon by later kings, most mortuary temples were never added
to or usurped. They therefore most often were much more simple than major nonmortuary temples.
Latter temples took the form of fortresses, with massive entrance pylons and enclosure
walls, huge courtyards, columned or pillared halls and inner sanctuaries.
In the very earliest of Egyptian history, columns were often made from one large
monolithic block. However, in all later periods columns were usually built up in
sectional blocks that were then first shaped and then smoothed from the top down.
They were then normally painted, and afterwards, were difficult to tell that they were
not cut from a single piece of stone.
temples. Its use declined during the New Kingdom, but again found popularity during
the Graeco-Roman Period. This column usually has ribbed shafts representing the the
stems of the Lotus, and capitals in the form of a closed (bud) or open lotus flower.
Just as a side note, Lotus plants specifically are not present in the earlier times of
Egyptian antiquity. What we so often refer to as "Lotus" was in fact a type of water
lily.
Papyriform Columns
There are several variations in this type of column. Some
have circular shafts representing a single plant, while
others have ribbed shafts that represent a plants with
multiple stems. The capitals could be closed (buds) or open
in a wide, bell-shaped form. During the New Kingdom, the
shafts of most papyriform columns taper upwards from
bases decorated with triangular patterns representing
stylized stem sheaths. The earliest examples we know of
the circular shaft style columns can be found in Djoser's
Step Pyramid enclosure at Saqqara. However, these are not free standing columns, but
incorporated into other structures. Though the circular shaft form of the column seems
to have been used throughout Egyptian history, they saw widespread use during the
New Kingdom, along with both open and closed capital styles.
We first find the multi-stemmed form of this column employed during the 5th
Dynasty, but it was also frequently used during the New Kingdom. 18th Dynasty
columns are particularly fine, with considerable artistic detail. They became more
stylized by the 19th Dynasty.
Coniform Columns
This column style apparently quickly died out after their use in Djoser's Step Pyramid
enclosure wall. It has not been found in later temples. The style is characterized by a
fluted shaft surmounted by a capital representing the branches of a conifer tree.
Tent Pole Columns
Though we probably know of other applications of this style from
documentation, apparently the only surviving, known examples are
found in the Festival Temple of Tuthmosis III at Karnak. It is possible
that very early examples of the style were also constructed of brick.
There is little doubt that this type of column made of stone was rare. The
column is basically a representation in stone of the wooden "poles" used
to support light structures such as tents, and sometimes shrines, kiosks or
ships cabins.
Why this tent pole design was used is perhaps somewhat of a mystery, though they
certainly reflect back on the earliest of Egypt's structures and their wood counterparts.
It is sometimes believe that the specific columns in Tuthmosis III temple were
modeled after actual wooden poles of his military tent.
Campaniform Columns
Considerable variety existed in this style of columns. They sometimes
took the shape of a floral column or pillar. Some had circular, ribbed or
square shafts (pillars). They all had some form of flower shaped capital.
Two of the best known of these are located in the Hall of Annals of
Tuthmosis III at Karnak. At this temple, the, the structures take the shape
of a pillar. They including two style of column, with one representing the
heraldic plant of Lower (northern) Egypt, the Papyrus, and the other type
representing the symbolic plant of Upper (southern) Egypt, the Lotus.
They are positioned symbolically on the northern and southern sides of
the hall. Such placement was not unusual, and we see many examples of columns
positioned in the north and south of courtyards with northern and southern motifs.
This specific types of column is rare, but their more stylized forms appeared most
frequently in the Graeco-Roman Period.
Composite Columns
These columns were common during the Graeco-Roman Period.
Composite Columns were probably an evolutionary extension of the
campaniform columns with capitals decorations including floral designs
of any number of real, or even imagined plants. There variation could be
endless, and they became so utterly stylized that the original floral motifs
could hardly be recognized. In fact, this type of column continued to
evolve in Greece and Rome, becoming very different then the Egyptian
variety.
including the temple of Nekhebet at el Kab. Sistrum columns are also associated with
Hathor, but represent in the capitals and shafts the handles and rattles of the sistrum.
Osiride Pillars
All examples of this type of pillar are engaged, meaning that they are part of another
architectural element. They appear to also have originated in the Middle Kingdom,
and and take the form of a statue of the god Osiris on the pillar's front surface.
Lotiform Columns
molded with solid stones, copper or bronze tools. Courses of block work, column
bodies and crowns, beams and ceilings were hoisted to the required level over mud
and earth ramps up to the top of sand heaps adjacent to walls.
Lifting devices used consisted of wooden gliders, rollers, ropes and levers.
Well-trained teams of workers rowed stone-carrying boats across the Nile, then pulling
the huge boulders overland to their destination. The process demanded backbreaking
efforts and considerable endurance and patience on the part of huge numbers of
workers and other staff, working in harmony and unison. Undoubtedly this was a
significant success factor for ancient Egyptian architects.
At present, one can easily appreciate the aesthetic and
artistic value of ancient Egyptian temples and tombs
with their copious ornaments, mind-boggling artistic
elements carved out with exceptional creativity.
Ancient Egyptian buildings reflected builders
conception of things as well as the needs of the
society. In building their tombs and temples, ancient
Egyptians put to good use their wealth of knowledge
and creative genius; almost in the same way modern
nations focus their attention on improving their
technological and professional capabilities.
With ancient Egyptians, construction was an
unceasing practice. Under the reign of the one and
same king, and often several times, houses of deities
were rebuilt or expanded, with mural decorations refurbished or completed under
orders of the king, whose duty was to have temples erected or renovated.
Pharaonic Creativity
Using robust copper or bronze chisels, Ancient Egyptians not only carved out
limestone but also molded the hardest of rocks and stones and inscribed their fine
hieroglyphics on them. Long before circa 4000 BC, their ancestors of the Modern
Stone Age made beautiful utensils with only very simple tools. Before the Iron Age,
Ancient Egyptians had no steel tools to use in consummating such works that can not
be made at present without special tools such as power drills.
In this context, anthropologists argue that although working methods used by ancient
Egyptians were slower and harder, they were no less effective than ours today. Studies
of remaining ancient tools and illustrations of sculptors at work show that their
working modalities were as follows: The overall design was made, using a globalshaped hammer of more solid stone, then cut with a saw and sanded out. Stone was
carved with pointed-end tools and drilled with a tool counterpoised with a bag of
pebbles. Cutting devices were made of hammered copper sharpened with an abrasive
material like modern sandpaper.
It is worth mentioning that, trying to imitate ancient Egyptians, a young French artist
attempted to use hammered copper in carving granite, but failed. However, he
succeeded in creating precisely imitated pieces by using flint tools in granite sculpture.
This may be the starting point to get more precise knowledge of the ancient Egyptian
sculpture and to revive the ways of the great ancient Egyptians who showed the whole
world how the art of sculpture and building should be.
This was almost similar to the European castles of the Middle Ages, with the outer
walls fitted with arrow shooting ports and small towers. On the other hand, the gate of
the temple of Ramsis II in Habu was only a replica of the Asian-Syrian-style fortress.
Since time immemorial, Egyptian fortresses were totally invulnerable.
Edfu Temple
Edfu was the capital of the second region in Upper Egypt. It was a city of great
importance and prosperity during the Old Kingdom. It owes its fame to a spacious
Ptolemaic temple, one of the most famous religious monuments in Egypt.
The 137-m-long, 79-m-wide and 36-m-high temple is still exceptionally almost intact,
with its hall, columns, stairs and ceiling still maintaining their original state. In
addition, its colors and decorations still look fresh. It is not even hard to imagine how
all these looked like at the peak of their glory. At the entrance, there lie two obelisks in
front of the entrance with statues in the courtyard. The hall of columns look so live
that a visitor may think he will soon see priests with their immaculate robes strolling
around the place.
Karnak Temple
"All I have seen in Thebes and all I have strongly admired on the west bank of the
Nile was by no means comparable to the Karnak. No people, ancient or modern, had
thought of art or architecture in such a superb and extensive scale or with such
grandeur as the ancient Egyptians did. They made me think of people each 100-feettall," said Champillion. Al Karnak temple itself is a world where one may get totally
lost. In order to perceive the overall system of these mind-boggling buildings, one
should climb to the top of the first edifice built there. In front of the Temple, there lie
the grand court of the Ethiopians and Sheshanq Gate. At the back there lies the great
roofed hall built by Ramses, followed by Hetshepsut's obelisk and Thohomous' granite
temple and ceremonial hall.
In the background, there lie the eastern gate, with the
Sacred Lake, ruins of Osiris tomb, the temple of the
infant deity Khonso, faced by Eurgetes edifice and
Opit temple.
Obelisks
Sanctification of obelisks dates back to the predynasty period. The architectural use of obelisks all
over ancient Egypt took its origins in Heliopolis
especially during the Modern Kingdom. Ancient
Egyptians used to build two obelisks, one at each side
of the temple gate. In certain cases when the sun cult
was restored, a single obelisk was erected at the
center of the temple. An example of this design can be
Abu Simbel
By Marie Parsons
Perhaps after the Giza pyramids, or coincident with them, the great temple of Abu
Simbel presents the most familiar image of ancient Egypt to the modern traveler and
reader. When the conservation efforts to preserve the temple from the soon-to be built
High Aswan Dam and its rising waters were begun in the 1960s, images of the
colossal statues filled newspapers and books. The temples were dismantled and
relocated in 1968 on the desert plateau, 200 feet above and 600 feet west of their
original location.
Abu Simbel lies south of Aswan on the western bank of the Nile, 180 miles south of
the First Cataract in what was Nubia. The site was known as Meha in ancient times
and was first documented in the 18th Dynasty, when Ay and Horemheb had rock-cut
chapels hewn in the hills to the south.
Ramesses II, called "the Great," built seven rock-cut temples in Nubia. The rock-cut
temple of Ramesses II on the west bank of the Nile at Abu Simbel is the greatest of
these. This temple was not seen by Europeans until J.J. Burckhardt discovered them in
1813.
The temple, called Hwt Ramesses Meryamun, the "Temple of Ramesses, beloved of
Amun," was begun fairly early in Ramesses long reign, commissioned some time
after his fifth regnal year, but not completed until his 35th regnal year. The massive
facade of the main temple is dominated by the four seated colossal statues of
Ramesses. These familiar representations are of Ramesses II himself. Each statue, 67
feet high, is seated on a throne and wears the double crown of Upper and Lower
Egypt. Each is taller than the famed Memnon Colossus at Thebes, and all are sculpted
directly from the rock face. The thrones are decorated on their sides with Nile gods
symbolically uniting Egypt.
Burckhardt said of the first face on the left that it "was the most expressive, youthful
countenance, approaching nearer to the Grecian model of beauty than that of any
The axis of the temple is arranged so that on two days of the year, in February and
October, the rising sun shoots its rays through the entrance and halls until it finally
illuminates the sanctuary statues.
To the north of the main temple a smaller temple was built in honor of Ramesses great
wife, Nefertari, and the goddess Hathor. This temple should not be confused with the
beautiful Tomb to Nefertari in the Valley of Queens near Thebes.
As with Ramesses own temple, the cliff face was cut back to resemble sloping walls
of a pylon. Six colossal standing figures 33 feet high four of Ramesses and two of
Nefertari, were cut from the rock face, along with smaller figures of the royal family.
An inscription over the entrance reads "Ramesses II, he has made a temple, excavated
in the mountain, of eternal workmanship, for the chief queen Nefertari, beloved of Mu,
in Nubia, forever and ever, Nefertari for whose sake the very sun does shine."
Inside, Nefertaris temple has a single pillared hall, with carved Hathor heads atop the
pillars. On the sides facing the center of the hypostyle; Ramesses is shown smiting his
enemies and offering before various gods, while Nefertari is shown, graceful and
slender, with hands raised. Three doors lead to a vestibule with ancillary rooms at
either end.
The sanctuary is complete, though two spaces were left on its side walls for doors to
rooms, which were never cut. The inner chamber contains a number of images
interrelating the royal couple and the gods. On the rear wall, Hathor is depicted in high
relief as a cow emerging from the western mountain, with the king standing beneath
her chin. Nefertari is shown repeatedly participating in the divine rituals on an equal
footing with the king. On the left wall, Nefertari is seen worshipping before Mut and
Hathor, and on the right, Ramesses worships before images of his deified self and his
wife.
When Greek mercenaries passed by in the 6th century BCE, sand already reached the
knees of the statues. These ancient sight-see-ers left an inscription which reads "When
King Psammetichus <sic> came to Elephantine, this was written by those who sailed
with Psammetichus the son of Theolces, and they came beyond Kerkis as far as the
river permits."
)
Sopdet (Sepdet, Sothis) personified the 'dog star' Sirius. This star was
the most important of the stars to the ancient Egyptians, and the
heliacal rising of this star came at the time of inundation and the start
of the Egyptian New Year. As a goddess of the inundation, she was a
goddess of fertility. She also was linked to the pharaoh and his journey
in the afterlife.
Even as
early as the 1st Dynasty, she was known as
'the
bringer of the new year and the Nile flood'.
When Sirius appeared in the sky each year, the Nile generally started to
flood and bring fertility to the land. The ancient Egyptians connected the
two events, and so Sopdet took on the aspects of a goddess of not only the
star and of the inundation, but of the fertility that came to the land of Egypt
with the flood. The flood and the rising of Sirius also marked the ancient
Egyptian New Year, and so she also was thought of as a goddess of the
New Year.
Her aspect of being a fertility goddess was not just linked to the Nile. By the Middle
Kingdom, she was believed to be a mother goddess, and a nurse goddess, changing
her from a goddess of agriculture to a goddess of motherhood. This probably was due
to her strong connection with the mother-goddess Isis.
Not just a goddess of the waters of the inundation, Sopdet had another link with water
- she was believed to cleanse the pharaoh in the afterlife. It is interesting to note that
the embalming of the dead took seventy days - the same amount of time that Sirius
was not seen in the sky, before it's yearly rising. She was a goddess of fertility to both
the living and the dead.
In the Pyramid Texts, she is the goddess who prepares yearly sustenance for the
pharaoh, 'in this her name of "Year"'. She is also thought to be a guide in the afterlife
for the pharaoh, letting him fly into the sky to join the gods, showing him 'goodly
roads' in the Field of Reeds and helping him become one of the imperishable stars.
She was thought to be living on the horizon, encircled by the Duat.
In the Pyramid texts, parallelling the story of Osiris and Isis, the pharaoh was believed
to have had a child with Sopdet:
Your sister Isis comes to you rejoicing for love of you. You have placed her on
your phallus and your seed issues into her, she being ready as Sopdet, and
Horus-Soped has come forth from you as Horus who is in Sopdet.
-- Sopdet in the Pyramid Texts
Sopdet was believed to be wife of Sah (the star Orion) and the mother of Soped
(Sopdu). She was also thought to give birth to the Morning Star (Venus), the pharaoh
being described as the father in the Pyramid Texts. She was linked closely with Isis,
just as Sah and Soped were linked with Osiris and Horus. In 'The Lamentations of Isis
and Nephthys for Osiris', Isis calls herself Sopdet, saying that she will follow Osiris in
the heaven. Sopdet was also connected to the goddess Satet at Abu (Elephantine).
Sirius happens to travel the sky just ahead of the large constellation of Orion.
(His belt of three stars serves as an easy pointer towards Sirius, the
unmistakable bright star that is one of the few visible even in city lights'
glare). Orion was identified with the dying-and-resurrected god Osiris, in
Egyptian mythology, who was one of the most well-known gods of the
pantheon. His wife and sister Isis was Lady of Magic, who brought her
husband back to life, and the bright star his constellation followed naturally
came to be associated with her.
-- Inventing the Solar System: Early Greek Scientists Struggle to Explain How
the Heavens Move, Ellen N. Brundige
She was also given a masculine aspect, and linked with Horus as Sopdet-Horus during
the Middle Kingdom. She was also linked with Anubis during Greek Times as
Sopdet-Anubis, probably because of the iconography of her as a god, or riding on the
back of a dog. She was also linked with other goddesses such as Hathor, Bast and
Anqet.
She was venerated in Per-Soped (Saft al Hinna), in the 20th Nome of Lower Egypt.
She was the goddess who helped the pharaoh reach the realm of the gods, who
heralded the innundation, and the goddess of the ancient Egyptian new year. She was
the personification of the most important star of ancient Egypt, so important was she
that her worship lasted through Egyptian history, from predynastic times, through to
the Graeco-Roman period.
Abydos in Egypt
by Marie Parsons
>> Abydos
Abydos, or Abjdu, lies in the eight nome of Upper Egypt, about 300 miles south of
Cairo, on the western side of the Nile and about 9.5 miles from the river. It spreads
over 5 square miles and contains
archaeological remains from all
periods of ancient Egyptian history. It
was significant in historical times as
the main cult center of Osiris, the lord
of the netherworld. At the mouth of the
canyon at Abydos, which the
Egyptians believed to be the entrance
to the underworld, one of the tombs of
the 1st dynasty kings was mistaken for
the tomb of Osiris, a thousand years
later, and pilgrims would leave
offerings to the god for another thousand years. The area is thus now called Umm el
Qaab, "Mother of Pots."
Abydos was the burial place for the first kings of a unified Egypt. But it contains
remains from earlier, in the Predynastic period. In 1900 the Predynastic cemetery of
el-Amra was excavated with hundreds of graves from all Predynastic phases. Other
important cemeteries were found at Naga ed-Deir, el-Mahasna, Mesheikh, Beit Allam
and the various cemeteries at Abydos itself. In addition, settlements have been found,
most representing small farming villages. El-Mahasna had beer-brewing facilities.
The Predynasty/Early Dynastic cemetery is located in the low desert. It consists of
three parts: predynastic Cemetery U in the north, Cemetery B in the middle with royal
tombs from Dynasty 0 and the
early 1st Dynasty, and in the south
the tomb complexes of six kings
and one queen from the 1st dynasty
and two kings from the 2nd dynasty.
Most of the 1st dynasty tombs show
traces of immense fires. Many had
also been plundered many times.
In 1977 a tiny ivory label was
discovered bearing the "nar" name
of Narmer, and the king is seen
smiting an enemy in the Delta.
Cemetery U contains several hundred graves and offering pits. Ceramics are from the
Naqada culture. Of particular importance is the tomb named U-j, uncovered in 1988.
It is dated to 150 years before Aha and the beginning of the 1st dynasty.
The tomb is elaborate, brick-lined, with doors and windows. It has twelve chambers
and measures about 27 feet x 24 feet. It still contained much funerary equipment.
There were large amounts of different
kinds of Egyptian pottery, and more than
200 wine jars imported probably from
Palestine. There were also about 150 labels
of ivory or bone, many of which were
apparently attached to linen bolts.
Many of the inscriptions on the labels are
readable with clear glyphs and signs. The
most frequent sign was a scorpion,
sometimes together with a plant. It is speculated that either King Scorpion was buried
here or that he was a known figure. Hundreds of wine jars imported from Canaan
were also unearthed in one of the tombs store-rooms.
There were traces of a wooden shrine on the floor in the burial chamber, and in the
northeastern corner a complete crook-shaped scepter of ivory.
The Northern cemetery was the principal burial ground for non-royal individuals at
Abydos during the Middle Kingdom, and continued to be so used through the GraecoRoman period.
The tombs of the first
kings of unified Egypt
were deep brick-lined
structures topped with
mounds of sand, later
called mastabas, the
Arabic word for bench,
since their square or
rectangular shapes
resembled benches.
Later in the 1st Dynasty,
one structure was
placed underground,
supported by a
retaining wall, and the
second mastaba was
placed above ground
directly over the first,
to protect the lower
one.
The most striking
standing buildings are
the enclosure of King
Khasekhemwy from the
2nd Dynasty, the well-preserved New Kingdom temples of Seti I (temple) and
Ramesses II (temple) from the 19th Dynasty, and the walled enclosure now called the
Kom es-Sultan, the location of the early town and main temple dedicated to Osiris.
The 19th Dynasty Seti temple contains seven sanctuaries set in a row, each dedicated
to a different deity, Ptah, Ra-Harakhty, Amun-Ra, Osiris, Isis and Horus. Seti I
himself was included with his funerary shrine. The unusual L-shaped plan of the
temple is caused by a southeast wing appended to the main rectangular-shaped
temple. This wing contains rooms dedicated to Sokar and Nefertum and other
funerary deities. There is also a King list to the south of the sanctuaries. Since the
temple was unfinished when Seti died, his son and successor Ramesses II finished the
work.
Immediately behind the chambers dedicated to the Osiris cult is another structure,
subterranean, called the Osireion. It contains offering scenes and other scenes from
the Book of Gates and the Book of the Dead.
South Abydos was developed as a zone for royal cult complexes, two well-preserved
ones so far identified as belonging to Senusret II of the 12th Dynasty and Ahmose of
the 18th Dynasty, who built a small pyramid here. .
Relief fragments at the complex of King Ahmose, the founder of the New Kingdom
and conqueror of the Hyksos invaders, have been found near his pyramid and funerary
complex at Abydos. One fragment represents a group of three arcers, teams of bridled
chariot horses, ships with oars, and fallen warriors recognizable as Asiatics. Other
fragments bear the names of Apophis, the leader of the Hyksos, and that of Avaris, the
capital city of the Hyksos.
As work proceeds at ancient Abydos, a home of the dead for so many millennia, more
and more of the history and religious beliefs of the ancient Egyptians is returning to
life.
effort, probably employing the use of local artists of inferior skill. Of course,
Ramesses II also added a number of his own temples to the Nubian landscape during
his reign.
Due to the rising waters of Lake Nasser after the construction of the High Aswan
Dam, the temple was moved, together with the nearby Temple of Derr, to a new,
higher location some 2.5 kilometers from its original site between 1964 and 1975.
The temple, which does retain much of its painted relief work including polychrome
decorations, consists of a court with a brick wall with proto-Doric columns forming a
rear portico. Tuthmosis IV enlarged it transforming the court into a pillared hall
through the erection of twelve pillars in four transverse rows in front of the four
columns, with inter-columnar walls between the outer pillars. The temple proper,
which was built in sandstone, has a shallow transverse hall decorated with coronation
scenes, a deep offering hall connected on either side to a small cult statue shrine for
Re-Horakhty (south) and Amun-Re (north).
Beyond the original reliefs, there are some interesting graffiti, apparently inscribed
during the 19th Dynasty that include scenes of the viceroy of Nubia, Messuy, which
appear to show the royal uraeus added to the viceroy's brow. Other, more recent
graffiti visible on the very top of the temple facade are crude representations of camels
taht are though to have been either the work of Bedouins or travelers during the
Middle Ages.
Karnak is one of the premier sites in all of Egypt and one of the most visited. In fact, it
is perhaps one of, if not the largest religious complex ever constructed anywhere in the
world. This vast, ancient Egypt complex demonstrates the religious significance of the
area in ancient times. Though this complex is very complicated, by far the largest
system of temples is that of Amun, a local god of Thebes (modern Luxor) who rose to
national importance during Egypt's New Kingdom.
The Temple of Amun in Egypt, unusually, is built along two axis running both eastwest and north-south. It's construction took place over many centuries, and at the
command of many different Egyptian kings.
The original core of the temple was located near the center of the east-west axis on a
mound which was itself almost certainly a very ancient sacred site. This original core
was then expanded both towards the Nile in normal Egyptian fashion, but also in the
direction of the outlying Mut temple to the south.
Today, visitors normally approach the temple from the west by way of a quay built by
Ramesses II which gave access to the temple from a canal which, during ancient
times, was linked to the Nile. Just to the right stands a small barque chapel of Hakoris
(393-380 BC) which was used as a resting station on the processional journeys of the
gods to and from the Nile River. A short avenue of cryosphinxes leads from the quay
to the temple's first pylon. These cryosphinxes have ram's heads symbolizing the great
state god, Amun, and each holds a statue of the king protectively between their paws.
The huge entrance pylon is actually unfinished, as attested by the unequal height of its
upper regions, the uncut clocks which project from its undecorated surfaces and the
remains of the mud-brick construction ramp that is still present on its interior side.
Originally, it stood some 40 meters high (131 feet). This structure may have been built
as late as the 30th Dynasty by Nectanebo I, who at least constructed the temenos walls
to which the pylon is attached. However, this is uncertain and it is possible that an
earlier pylon once stood on the same spot. High upon this gate is an inscription left by
Napoleon's Expedition, which is still visible.
Passing through this pylon, the
first courtyard now encloses an
area that was originally outside of
the temple, as evidenced by a
number of cryosphinxes like
those outside that were displaced
from their original positions along
the processional route. Inside this
courtyard to the left is the granite
and sandstone triple barque
chapel of Seti II, which contains
three chambers for the barques of
Mut (left), Amun (center) and
Khonsu (right). Opposite this
shrine is a small sphinx with the
features of Tutankhamun.
Centered within the courtyard are
the remains of the kiosk of
Taharqa, which was later usurped
by Psammetichus II and later still,
restored during Egypt's Greek
Period. It originally consisted of ten huge papyrus columns linked by a low screening
wall and open at its eastern and western ends. Now there is only one great column and
a large, altar-like block of calcite (Egyptian alabaster). The function of this structure
has been assumed to be a barque shrine but, because it is open to the sky, it has been
suggested that the structure may have served another ritual purpose.
where offerings were made to the god, and an inner area which still contains the
pedestal upon which the god's barque rested. Here, the inner walls. are adorned with
scenes of offering rites, with Amun appearing in both his usual anthropomorphic and
his alternative ithyphallic forms. The outer walls still depict various festival scenes,
some still retaining much of their original brightly colored paint.
The chambers that surround the granite shrine, which are made of sandstone, were
built by Hatshepsut, but the walls closest to the structure were placed here by
Tuthmosis III. He decorated them with the "annals" of his military campaigns and
dedication to the temple, including a scene in which the king presents his two
obelisks.
These walls precede the so-called "central court", which is an open court where the
earliest temple on this site probably once stood, and which became the sanctuary of
the later temple. Unfortunately, the building was plundered for its stone during
antiquity, and there is now little left other than the large calcite slab on which a shrine
once stood.
The relatively complete Festival Temple
of Tuthmosis III lies beyond the central
court, which retains some of the most
interesting and unusual features to be
found at Karnak. This structure was
built as a sort of shrine to his ancestral
cult, including himself. Named the
"Most Splendid of Monuments", the
entrance located on the building's
southwest corner was originally flanked
by two statues of the king in festival
attire. It leads into an antechamber with
storage magazines and other rooms on
the right and left of the temple's great
columned hall. Around the perimeter,
the roof is supported by square pillars,
though in the central section there are
curiously shaped columns that imitate
ancient tent poles. They are probably
symbolic of those in his actual military
tents, though it is possible that they
recall similar structures from earlier
religious buildings. During the Coptic
Christian Period between the fall of the
ancient pagan religion and the Muslim invasion of Egypt, this building was reused as a
church, evidenced by haloed icons that may still be seen near the tops of several
columns. Other rooms within the building were dedicated to his ancestors, the god
Sokar, the sun god in his morning manifestation and to Amun. In the chapel of Amun,
there is a massive quartzite pedestal that once supported the shrine of that god. The
vestibule of this temple is also well known as the "Botanical Room" having depictions
of exotic flora and fauna that Tuthmosis III encountered on his military campaigns.
At the back of Tuthmosis
III's complex, the walls are
mostly destroyed, so it is
possible to exit there and to
examine the niche shrines
built against the temple's
back. It was here that the
ancient Egyptians brought
their petitions for Amun's
consideration. It was here,
on either side of the shrines,
that the two long lost
obelisks of Hatshepsut were
located. However, their
bases can still be seen. A little further to the east, beyond a reconstructed "horned"
altar of late date, are the remains of a small "temple of the hearing ear". Like the niche
shrines of Ramesses II, they allowed common Egyptians, not usually allowed within
the temple proper, access to their state god, Amun. This structure also once contained
a single obelisk on the central axis. Though not certain, this may have been the
Lateran Obelisk now in Rome. This temple once stretched almost to the rear gate of
the Karnak complex.
The rear gate is an imposing portal reaching some 20 meters (over 65 feet) in height. It
was constructed by Nectanebo I, and it terminates the main east-west axis of the
complex. However, to the north, just inside the ruined mud-brick wall, are the remains
of a small 22nd Dynasty temple built by Osorkon IV and dedicated to Osiris Hekadjet,
"Ruler of Eternity". There were also several other small shrines in this area.
From here, turning back to the south, one may walk back towards the sacred lake
which is now filled with ground water. It supplied water for the priests' ablutions as
well as for other temple requirements. There, seating for the temple's famous sound
and light show lies atop the excavated remains of the housing for priests. The lake is
lined with rough hewn stone and on its southern side is a stone tunnel through which
the domesticated geese of Amun were released into the lake from their yards further
south.
A chapel of Taharqa sits on the northwest corner of the lake. This is a strange little
building with underground chambers that contain descriptions of the sun-god's nightly
journey through the netherworld and his rebirth each day as a scarab beetle.
Apparently, this is the reason that the large scarab sculpture was brought here from the
west bank mortuary temple of Amenhotep III. Also on the northwest corner of the lake
rests the pyramidion of Hatshepsut's second obelisk.
Other Temples within the Precinct of Amun (within the enclosure walls):
erected. Today, nothing remains of the northern one except the pedestal, but the
southern obelisk, which is almost intact, is interesting
because it presents Seti II's complete titles, which reading
from top to bottom, include his Horus name, his "Two
Crowns" name, his Golden Horus name, his throne name
as the king of the South and the North, and his "Son of Ra"
name, repeated in four vertical columns. Also, a small
barque chapel of Hakoris stands to the right of the quay,
which once acted as a resting station on the gods'
processional journeys to and from the river.
The avenue of sphinxes consist of statues with lions'
bodies and the heads of rams, symbolizing Amun, each of
which protect between their front paws a royal effigy of
Ramesses II in the form of Osiris. Around each of their
pedestals is an extra inscription added during the 21st
Dynasty by the high priest Pinedjem, son of Piankh.
The first pylon, which is the current entranceway to the
great Temple of Amun, is composed of two massive blocks
framing a large portal. On the west face of each block, for
vertical grooves served to house the poles, made from
Lebanon cedar and stitched with copper. These poles were adorned with banners
(flags) at their tops.
The pylon may have been built by Nectanebo I, who raised the temenos walls to which
the pylon is attached, though this is by no means certain. Hence, it would have been a
relatively late addition built during Egypt's
30th Dynasty. However, it is also possible
that an earlier pylon may have stood on this
same spot. While the pylon is undecorated,
high up on its thickness is an inscription left
by Napoleon's Expedition, which remains
visible today.
The pylon remains unfinished. The north
wing has only thirty-two courses and
measures 21.70 meters high, while the
southern wing has fort-five courses and
measures 31.65 meters high. Its thickness at
the base is bout 14.5 meters. Though the
pylon's four faces remain unfinished, an
examination of its construction reveals the
extreme care taken in the precision with
which the slope of the monument is drawn
on each of the blocks. As an example, the
ten lower courses and the upper courses
marking he projection of the torus in the southwest corner bear a groove indicating its
exact slant.
the doorway of the pylon is rather odd. All of the blocks that constitute its jambs are
very carefully jointed, not only on the west facade and the interior of the passageway,
but also on their faces joined to the pylon, while the entire eastern facade has remained
in a state of construction. The doorway has an interior width of 7.4 meters and a height
of 19.36 meters. On the inside of the doorway, to the upper right, the French scholars
of the Bonaparte expedition carved the latitudes and longitudes of the principal
monuments they surveyed.
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See also:
Individual Sections of the Great Temple of Amun:
In the first courtyard of the Temple of Amun at Karnak, on the inside of the courtyard
abutted up against the inside of he first pylon is a construction platform built of brick
caissons enclosing packed earth between retaining walls perpendicular to the pylon,
which is evidence that the first pylon was still under construction when the work was
abandoned.
The first, western pylon of the Temple of Amun at Karnak (in modern Luxor, ancient
Thebes) forms the facade to a large, somewhat square courtyard measuring some
84.12 by 99.4 meters. It is bordered on two sides by a portico with columns built
during the 22nd Dynasty rule of Sheshonk I (Shoshenq I) , though he left the columns
here undecorated except for the five standard bands indicating constriction that
separate the column shafts from the
capitals. The capitals themselves or in the
form of closed buds.
About in the center of the northern
enclosure wall behind the columns is an
enigmatic, but interesting depiction. This is
the so called magic image of Amun. Here,
the pharaoh is referred to as per-aa in the
two cartouches, and he is making libation in
the presence of a very strange image. The
representation has the head of Amun,
wearing a crown topped by a solar disk
surmounted by two large feathers, which
emerge from a goatskin bottle embraced by
the extended wings of Ma'at. In turn, this
depiction surmounts a pedestal crowned by
a uraeus, in front of which is a lion whose
chest comes up to the level of the shafts. It
would seem that this "magic image of
Amun" was perhaps paraded during
processions. This scene then sits upon a table fronting a series of lotuses, each of
which is giving birth to a new lotus framed by two buds.
The first open courtyard in the Temple of Amun at Karnak was originally outside the
temple proper, so the row of Cryosphinxes outside the temple would have continued
unabated within. However, the statues that once occupied the space within the
courtyard (some were completely removed) had to be repositioned. They were placed
further to the side, just before the columns of the courtyard's flanking porticos. This
courtyard includes edifices dating over a thousand year period that extended from the
end of the 18th Dynasty to the Ptolemaic Period.
Barque Chapel of Seti II
As one passes through
the first pylon, to the
left is the quartzite and
sandstone triple Barque
Chapel of Seti II,
sometimes referred to
as the repository of Seti
II but known in ancient
times as "Castle of Seti
Merneptah in the Temple of Amun". Its facade, reaching some 7.1 meters above the
surrounding pavement, is marked by sloping walls that are capped by the standard
torus (a large convex molding, semicircular in cross section) and cornice. The central
doorway measures 4.5 meters high, while the side doorways are each 3.79 meters.
The foundation, the first
course of stone, and the
doorway are all made of
quartzite that probably
came from Gebel el-Ahmar
near Cario. The rest of the
building is made of more
ordinary sandstone,
probably from Gebel elSilsila. Hence, this edifice
is made of white blocks of
sandstone from the South
placed on red stones
coming from the north. The
quartzite blocks of the first
course of stone also have a
much more pronounced
slope than the rest of the
building.
In the eastern area of the northern facade of the building we find depictions in two
registers of tableaux presenting Seti II offering to the Theban gods. In the lower of
An Overview
It is difficult for one to think of Karnak in ancient
Thebes (modern Luxor), much less the section
known as the Temple of Amun, without picturing
the Great Hypostyle Hall. This is the large area just
behind the second pylon in the Temple of Amun,
which is a veritable forest in stone, and measures
some 99.4 by 51.82 meters.. At one point, it was
called "The Temple of Seti Merneptah is
Lumininous in the House of Amun" and was
described by the ancient Egyptians as "the resting
place of the Lord of gods, beautiful sojourn of the
Ennead" and "the beautiful sojourn of the Ennead,
where Amun rests, the place of appearance of the
Lord of the gods at his annual feast". It was also
designated as the "Hall of the two crowns", which
perhaps points to the ceremony of the coronation
being performed in it, a ritual which is depicted
upon its walls. It has been described as one of the
most monumental achievements in Egyptian
architecture and is the largest known example of a
typical hypostyle hall.
The 134 colossal papyrus columns surge into the
sky in an impressive array of ancient workmanship.
The center 12 columns are larger, standing some 21 meters tall, with open capitals,
while the remaining 122 columns outside of these stand 15 meters high and have
closed capitals. It is difficult to actually understand their size. Consider for example,
that a crowd of fifty people could easily stand atop the capital of the largest of the
mammoth structures.
The 12 larger columns were perhaps raised by Amenhotep III, but at the latest, by
Horemheb. The other columns surrounding these are a later addition.
Originally the abacuses above the capitals, supporting stone architraves supported a
massive roof, with only small clerestroy windows, of which a few survive.
Purposefully, this would have provided only muted illumination for the primeval
papyrus swamp which the
hall represented. The taller
columns represent papyrus
plants that are further
developed in their growth,
owing to their being nearer
to the daylight, while the
smaller once are less
developed due to their lack
of access to the light.
Amidst the columns stood
literally throngs of statues
depicting gods and kings, a
few of which have been
restored to this location in
recent times.
This hall was begun by Amenhotep III, though not until Seti I were the decorations
initiated. They were completed by his son, the great Ramesses II. The latter's work can
be differentiated from the earlier decorations by their more hurried and less subtle
sunk reliefs. The theme of these decorations include celebrated military exploits of
Seti I and Ramesses II in Syria and Palestine, including the Battle of Kadesh (See also
the Egyptian Account of the Battle of Kadesh), on their exterior, while inside are
depictions of rituals including processional scenes and mythical topics such as the
king interacting with various gods. This hall is terminated by the Temple of Amun's
Third Pylon.
Excavations have revealed a foundation wall under the first row of lower columns to
either side of the central nave in the Hypostyle Hall. This has lead archaeologists to
believe that a foundation wall once enclosed the central alley of columns, before the
hall was enlarged. Prior to this enlargement, this would have been a colonnade
forming the approach between second and third pylons.
The Exterior Walls
The exterior walls (consisting of the North and South walls, not the outer pylon walls)
of the Great Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Amun at Karnak mostly portray the
military actions of Ramesses II (the south wall) and of his father, Seti I (the north
wall), and in this respect, historically, are some of the most important areas of this
famous region at Karnak. In particular, the southern exterior wall portrays the famous
Battle of Kadesh.
Southern Wall
Chapollion recounted that
all the exterior southern
facade of the hypostyle hall
"was formerly adorned with
historical tableaux relative
to the conquests of
Ramesses the Great; but
they are almost entirely
effaced and one can hardly
recognize the subject of the
two registers still visible
above the heaped-up piles
of dirt and blocks".
Today, of course, these
walls have been cleared.
However, little of the reliefs
remain. In fact, it appears
that Ramesses II may have
usurped himself on these
walls. Originally, scenes
from Ramesses II's Battle for Kadesh were recorded upon the walls, but subsequently,
the battle scenes were recarved with new scenes of Palestinian conquests, even though
the textual record was largely left untouched. It almost seems as though his artists had
run out of temple real estate and had to record newly commissioned scenes over older
ones. After all, Ramesses II had this famous battle also recorded in the temple of
Luxor and the Ramesseum. However, some of the material from the Battle of Kadesh
with the Hittites and other enemies clearly remain.
There are only three
registers that are visible
today. The two lower
registers begin at the
western edge with acts
of conquest, after which
the king begins his
return journey home as
the scenes move toward
the temple entrance,
where he presents his
defeated enemies to
Amun. On each side of
the doorway the scenes expand in height so that they take up the first two registers,
and represent the "ritual massacre of the vanquished". At the east end of the southern
wall is carved the narration of the Battle of Kadesh in a long text of vertical columns
below a large scene in which the king and the princes are bringing a bound group of
prisoners before Amun.
In addition to the reliefs concerning the Battle of Kadesh, there is also, on the wall
protruding from the exterior southern wall of the Hypostyle hall, reliefs that depict the
surrender of the fortress of Askalon. This was a city about ten miles north of Gaza and
about 40 miles south of Joppa. This scene depicts the pharaoh's soldiers staving in the
doors of the fortress with axes, while others scale it by means of ladders. Also, on a
nearby hill, Egyptian soldiers are exterminating the fleeing enemy.
Northern Wall
This wall, divided by a doorway, depicts combat at both of its extremes, and then
converge toward the center doorway with the king's victorious return to the temple of
Amun.
On this obelisk, each side is inscribed with three columns of text. However, only the
central inscription on the east is from the reign of Tuthmosisi I. The later columns
were inscribed under Ramesses IV, and added to by Ramesses VI. The central
inscriptions of the north and south faces provides us with the complete list of
Tuthmosis I's titles. His dedication is inscribed on the east and west sides. Below the
name of Horus and the royal cartouche can be read:
"He has raised as a memorial to his father Amun-Re, chief of the Two Lands, two
great obelisks at the double doorways of the temple..."
As seen from the east, in the lateral columns of the text, the cartouches in the name of
of Ramesses IV have been added on to by Ramesses VI. The tableau on the base as
added by Ramesses II.
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granite, it weighs some 323 tons (note that various figures are given by different
sources for the obelisk's height and weight). The bottom part of the obelisk has a
slightly different tint than the top, because it had been walled up by her successor,
Tuthmosis III.
On its base are thirty-two horizontal lines of hieroglyphs, eight lines to each side, that
describe why she had constructed this obelisk. The inscription reads in part:
"I was sitting in the palace and I remembered the One who created me; my heart
directed me to make for him two obelisks of electrum [a natural alloy of gold and
silver], that their pyramidions might mingle with the sky amid the august pillared hall
between the great pylons of [Tuthmosis I].... My Majesty began to work on them in the
year 15, the second month of Winter, 1st day, continuing until Year 16, fourth month of
Summer, 30th day, spending 7 months in cutting it from the mountain.... I acted for
him with a straightforward heart, as a king does for any god... Let not anyone who
hears this say it is boasting which I have said, but rather say, 'How like her it is, she
who is truthful to her father.' The god knows it in me [namely] Amun, Lord of the
Thrones of the Two Lands.... I am his daughter in very truth, who glorifies him."
To a significant degree, historians owe what
little they know of obelisk raising from
archaic sources to this inscription.
All four sides of the obelisk are carved with
a central column of inscriptions and, on the
upper half, eight tableaux on which the king
(in Egypt, the female ruler was not termed a
queen, but a king), is directed toward Amun
going from the northwest corner towards the
southeast corner. On the north face, the
central inscription begins with Hatshepsut's
titles, including the Horus, the Two
Goddesses and the Golden Horus names:
"Horus 'Powerful of Kas', the Two Ladies
'Flourishing of Years', Golden Horus
'Divine of Appearances', King of Upper and
Lower Egypt and Lord of the Two Lands
'Maat-Ka-Ra'. Her father Amun had
established her great name 'Maat-Ka-Ra'
on the Ished tree, her annals are million of
years, duration and power, son of Ra
'Hatshepsut, unified with Amun', beloved of
Amun-Ra, King of the Gods, as [reward for this good, enduring and excellent
monument], that she had donated to him (at the occasion) of the first royal jubilee
( sed festival). May she live forever."
On the west side, after the same title, the text reads:
"Horus 'Powerful of Kas', the Two Ladies 'Flourishing of Years', Golden Horus
'Divine of Appearances', King of Upper and Lower Egypt and Lord of the Two Lands
'Maat-Ka-Ra'. She made (it) as her monument for her father Amun, Lord of the Throne
of the Two Lands, erecting for him two large obelisks at the great gate [Pylon) 'Amun
is Great in-Terror', wrought with very much electrum, which illuminates the Two
Lands like the sun. Never was the like made on earth since the beginning. It was done
for him (Amun) by the sun of Ra 'Hatshepsut, unified with Amun', may she live forever
like Ra.
Hence, Hatshepsut specifies that these obelisks were intended to be erected in front of
the fifth pylon. On the east facade of the obelisk, her title includes only the Horus
name and she affirms that the building of these obelisks was for her father:
"Horus 'Powerful of Kas', King of Upper and Lower Egypt 'Maat-Ka-Ra', beloved of
Amun-Ra. Her majesty has made the name of her father established on this enduring
monument, so that the King of Upper and Lower Egypt and Lord of the Two Lands
'Aa-kheper-ka-Ra' ( Thutmosis I) will be praised by the majesty of this god, when the
two great obelisks were erected by her majesty on the first time ( of her royal jubilee).
The King of Gods (Amun) said: 'Your (fem.) father, the King of Upper and Lower
Egypt "Aa-kheper-ka-Ra' had given the command to erect obelisks. Your (fem.)
majesty will repeat the monuments. (So that) you may live forever."
The Southern facade likewise provides only Hatshepsut Horus' name as well, and
reads:
"Horus 'Powerful of Kas', King of Upper and Lower Egypt 'Maat-Ka-Ra', brilliant
emanation of Amun, whom he has caused to appear as king upon the throne of Horus
'Holy of Holiest' of the Great House, whom the ennead of gods have brought up to be
mistress of the circuit of the sun. They have united her with life, power and joy of the
heart, the First of the Livings, son of Ra 'Hatshepsut, unified with Amun', beloved of
Amun-Ra, King of the
Gods, may he
(Hatshepsut) live
forever like Ra."
The upper part of the
southern obelisk,
broken into pieces, is
mounted on concrete
blocks in the proximity
of the sacred lake. The
base of Hatshepsut's
missing southern
obelisk is not without
inscriptions. Like the
northern standing obelisk, there are eight lines of inscriptions carved horizontally on
its four sides. The text starts with the top line of the southern facade of the base with
the titles of the queen and her recounting of the erection of two great obelisks made
from southern (Aswan) granite on the occasion of her first renewal (sed-festival). It
reads: "Two great obelisks of enduring granite of the South, (their) summits
[pyramidions] being of electrum of the best of every country."
On the west side of the base, the queen affirms that she has acted under the command
and supervision of Amun, recognizing his divinity. Hatshepsut implies that she has
conceived of nothing without following his laws (of proportion) because her "heart
was in sia (wisdom)". She affirms that "Karnak is the horizon on earth [the first
appearance], the August Ascent of the beginning, the sacred eye of the All-Lord, the
place of his heart". On the north side of the base, after a long oath of faith where the
queen affirms that her power over the earth is due to divine kindness and that she will
descend into the amenti and exist "in eternity as an "Undying One", she specifies that
these two obelisks were extracted from the mountains and erected in seven months,
during the fifteenth year of her reign.
On the east side of the base, the queen recounts how, following her desire to embellish
the obelisk, she measured the best electrum by the "hekat, more than the entire Two
Lands had (ever) seen. The ignorant, like the wise, knoweth it".
Interestingly, the pyramidian of the second obelisk suffered more at the hands of
Akhenaten than by Tuthmosis III. During the Amarna period, the electrum and the
relief on it were mostly destroyed, but restored after Akhenaten's death by Seti I.
The wall that was built by Tuthmosis III around the Hatshepsut's obelisk stood as high
as the third tableau. At the foot of this wall is a limestone column pedestal that is
presumed to have originally supported a cedar column. To each side papyriform
columns flank it. The rearmost of these two columns provides, above the floral
decoration, a ring of three interesting lines of text. Here, Tuthmosis III recounts:
"My Majesty had raised four columns in addition to the two columns of the north end,
a total of six columns wrought with electrum...in solid sandstone...[of which] the
height is 31 cubits (a little over 16 meters) on the two sides of the august doorway."
Hence, the two northernmost columns in this court preserve the name of Tuthmosis I,
while the four between them and the standing obelisk were erected by Tuthmosis III, if
indeed there were several cedar columns in the north.
This section of the Temple of Amun is relatively small, but its importance should not
be overlooked. While much of it is ruined, nevertheless it contains many fine reliefs
and as noted above, is distinguished as the original entrance to the Temple of Ipet-Sut
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The Peristyle Court of Tuthmosis III, The Naos of Philip Arrhidaeu and the
Sanctuary of Hateshpsut Beyond the Sixth Pylon
The Central Courtyard and the Festival Hall of Tuthmosis III
The Temple of the "Hearing Ear", The Eastern Temple of Ramesses II, the
Colonnade of Taharka and the Gate of Nectanebo I at Temple of Amun at
Karnak
The Courtyard of the Cachette
The Courtyard of the Cachette, Part I
The Courtyard of the Cachette, Part II
The Courtyard Between the Seventh and Eighth Southern Pylons
The Eighth, Ninth and Tenth Pylons and the Courtyards Between them
The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak
Originally, this whole space was a colonnade built by Tuthmosis I, but Tuthmosis III
divided the space with a wall made of granite blocks, pierced by a doorway with
sandstone doorposts. Hence, it forms a sort of vestibule, closed on the north and south,
that provides access to the
antechamber of the sixth pylon. This
antechamber opens to provide access
to the columned wings to the north and
south.
The "royal ascent" is depicted on the
two granite doorposts that frame the
vestibule door that provides access to
the antechamber. Normally, this scene
would show the king framed by Montu
and Atum, going towards Amun, but
here, the scene is separated into two
tableaux. On the north, the king,
wearing the red crown, is led by Atum
of Heliopolis, while on the south he
wears the white crown and is led to
Amun by Montu of Thebes. These two
half-scenes are directed toward the
south instead of being oriented to the
general axis of the temple.
Within the antechamber, on the west doorpost of the northern door is a scene upon
which the king can be seen wearing the
red crown. There is a granite statue in
the corner. On the eastern doorpost he
wears the white crown. When
Tuthmosis III built the vestibule and
antechamber here, he included within
the thickness of the walls two of
Tuthmosis I's portico columns. Here, a
sixteen sided polygonal column of the
northern sector can be seen. It carries
the titles of Tuthmosis I on the middle
of the east side.
The king, wearing the red and white
crowns, is repeated on the southern
door of the antechamber. The king is
holding in one hand the makes cane
and the white hedj club and is
extending his other hand toward the
entranceway.
The doorway gives access to the peristyle court of Tuthmosis I, where the remains of
the shafts for sixteen-sided polygonal columns can be seen. Within this courtyard, on
the northern wall is a curious representation of Amun carved in light relief. Actually,
the entire profile of the head is deeply carved, perhaps to receive the face and
headdress of precious gems and metals. On the extension of the throne's pedestal,
Queen Ahmose-Nefertari (the well known wife of Ahmose, founder of the 18th
Dynasty and hence, Egypt's New Kingdom), also sculpted in relief, presents the god
with a sistrum and the menat. Behind her, Ramesses III, who is carved in sunk relief,
offers Ma'at to the god. What is interesting about this depiction is that the outline of
Amun and the deified queen are very light, giving the god a phantom appearance in
comparison to the king, emphasizing the spiritual nature of Amun.
The granite doorposts of the sixth pylon is
adorned on both sides with sandstone
curbing upon which are carved five
horizontal lines of prisoners mentioning the
nineteen cities conquered during the course
of the famous military exploits of Tuthmosis
III. that are recounted in the "chamber of the
Annals". Those on the north wing are towns
conquered in Syria and Palestine, while
those on the south represent towns in Nubia.
Above, a scene of "ritual massacre" can be
discerned. In his "Text of the Youth",
Tuthmosis III says that he built for this
pylon:
A great panel fashioned from new cedar,
worked with gold mounted in true black
copper and ... copper. The great name above
it is in electrum, gold that has been twice
refined, and black copper".
The "great name" he refers to is the "August
gate Menkhe Perre beloved of Amun Mighty with prestige". The doorway of the Sixth
Pylon leads through to the Naos of Philip Arrhedaeus.
Floor plan of The Colonnade of Tuthmosis I and the Vestibule and Antechamber of Tuthmosis III
About in the center of the northern enclosure wall behind the columns is an enigmatic,
but interesting depiction. This is the so called magic image of Amun. Here, the
pharaoh is referred to as per-aa in the two cartouches, and he is making libation in the
presence of a very strange image. The representation has the head of Amun, wearing a
crown topped by a solar disk surmounted by two large feathers, which emerge from a
goatskin bottle embraced by the extended wings of Ma'at. In turn, this depiction
surmounts a pedestal crowned
by a uraeus, in front of which is
a lion whose chest comes up to
the level of the shafts. It would
seem that this "magic image of
Amun" was perhaps paraded
during processions. This scene
then sits upon a table fronting a
series of lotuses, each of which
is giving birth to a new lotus
framed by two buds.
The first open courtyard in the
Temple of Amun at Karnak was
originally outside the temple
proper, so the row of
Cryosphinxes outside the
temple would have continued
unabated within. However, the statues that once occupied the space within the
courtyard (some were completely removed) had to be repositioned. They were placed
further to the side, just before the columns of the courtyard's flanking porticos. This
courtyard includes edifices dating over a thousand year period that extended from the
end of the 18th Dynasty to the Ptolemaic Period.
Barque Chapel of Seti II
As one passes through
the first pylon, to the
left is the quartzite and
sandstone triple Barque
Chapel of Seti II,
sometimes referred to
as the repository of Seti
II but known in ancient
times as "Castle of Seti
Merneptah in the
Temple of Amun". Its facade, reaching some 7.1 meters above the surrounding
pavement, is marked by sloping walls that are capped by the standard torus (a large
convex molding, semicircular in cross section) and cornice. The central doorway
measures 4.5 meters high, while the side doorways are each 3.79 meters.
Thoth, who resides in Hermonthis preceded by Amun. In the chamber for the barque
of Khonsu, there are two niches on the rear wall, as well as three more on the east
wall. All of these niches probably at one time held statues. Also on the east wall of the
Khonsu chamber is a stairway that gives access to the roof of the structure.
Opposite this triple shrine is a small sphinx, we believe, with the features of
Tutankhamun.
The Kiosk of Tahraqa
Centered in the courtyard are the
the remains of a huge kiosk of
Tahraqa (Taharqa), which was
usurped by Psammetichus II
(Psamtik II), and the restored
during the Greek Period. It
originally consisted of ten, tall,
slim papyrus columns linked by a
low screening wall, though open
at its eastern and western ends.
This building now retains only
one great column and a large
block of Egyptian alabaster
(calcite) that resembles an altar
that perhaps was once surmounted
by a pedestal. However,
Champollion tells us that:
"Twleve (?) columns, or rather
twelve large scale imitations of
the wadj amulets that served as
props for the sacred tokens of
Amun and the king who inhabited this building, were once in the center of the large
courtyard of the palace. It should in fact be noted that these constructions posses in no
way the curve of a column but are lengthier and narrower below the bell of the
capital...
It becomes obvious in view of this decoration that the author of the pillars is the king
Taharqa, who, after the expulsion of the Ethiopians under Psamtik, the first of the
dynasty, has replaced the inscriptions left by the foreign king with those of the native
king. However, the proper name of the former, although hammered out, is still quite
visible on the second ring of the column of the first Babastite portico."
here undecorated except for the five standard bands indicating constriction that
separate the column shafts from the capitals. The capitals themselves or in the form of
closed buds.
About in the center of the northern enclosure wall behind the columns is an enigmatic,
but interesting depiction. This is the so called magic image of Amun. Here, the
pharaoh is referred to as per-aa in the two cartouches, and he is making libation in the
presence of a very strange image. The representation has the head of Amun, wearing a
crown topped by a solar disk surmounted by two large feathers, which emerge from a
goatskin bottle embraced by the extended wings of Ma'at. In turn, this depiction
surmounts a pedestal crowned
by a uraeus, in front of which is
a lion whose chest comes up to
the level of the shafts. It would
seem that this "magic image of
Amun" was perhaps paraded
during processions. This scene
then sits upon a table fronting a
series of lotuses, each of which
is giving birth to a new lotus
framed by two buds.
The first open courtyard in the
Temple of Amun at Karnak was
originally outside the temple
proper, so the row of
Cryosphinxes outside the
temple would have continued
unabated within. However, the statues that once occupied the space within the
courtyard (some were completely removed) had to be repositioned. They were placed
further to the side, just before the columns of the courtyard's flanking porticos. This
courtyard includes edifices dating over a thousand year period that extended from the
end of the 18th Dynasty to the Ptolemaic Period.
Barque Chapel of Seti II
As one passes through
the first pylon, to the
left is the quartzite and
sandstone triple Barque
Chapel of Seti II,
sometimes referred to
as the repository of Seti
II but known in ancient
times as "Castle of Seti
Merneptah in the
Temple of Amun". Its facade, reaching some 7.1 meters above the surrounding
pavement, is marked by sloping walls that are capped by the standard torus (a large
convex molding, semicircular in cross section) and cornice. The central doorway
measures 4.5 meters high, while the side doorways are each 3.79 meters.
The foundation, the first
course of stone, and the
doorway are all made of
quartzite that probably
came from Gebel el-Ahmar
near Cario. The rest of the
building is made of more
ordinary sandstone,
probably from Gebel elSilsila. Hence, this edifice
is made of white blocks of
sandstone from the South
placed on red stones
coming from the north. The
quartzite blocks of the first
course of stone also have a
much more pronounced
slope than the rest of the
building.
In the eastern area of the northern facade of the building we find depictions in two
registers of tableaux presenting Seti II offering to the Theban gods. In the lower of
these registers the gods are upright and walking, while in the upper they are seated on
a cubic throne and holding the was
scepter and the ankh (the key of
life). The west side of this facade is
divided lengthwise by a vertical
column of text. here, the king on the
left, facing west, claps Amun Re
Kamutef around the waist. On the
Right, the king is turned to the east,
and gives unction to his father, the
ithyphallic Amun Re.
It has three deep chambers for the
barques of Mut (left), Amun (center)
and Khonsu (right). These chambers
have no common entryways. The
sanctuary consecrated to Mut has
two niches in the back and on its
wall is a depiction of the barque of
of that god. The central chamber has
three niches in its rear wall, and
visible on the second ring of the column of the first Babastite portico."
Champollion believe that these columns were standard holders. Indeed, the columns
the average diameter of the shaft of these columns is round one-seventh the size of the
total height, whereas normally this proportion is hardly greater than one-sixth. Their
total height is 21 meters, with the aver diameter being 2.99 meters.
Traditionally, this building has been considered to be another barque chapel, yet, the
fact that it was an open structure suggests otherwise. Some Egyptologists today
believe that it may have had a function in ritual activities associated with a "uniting
with the sun" ceremony, as was practiced in later times at Dendera and elsewhere.
However, others maintain that this structure was not open at all, but roofed with timber
and was used as a way station for the sacred barques. Indeed, the columns appear to
have an abacus (though this is called a dado), usually used to support an architrave.
This area was later paved with irregular slabs of red granite.
First Barque Chapel of Ramesses III
In the Harris Papyrus written during the 20th Dynasty, Ramesses IV, recording on
behalf of his father Ramesses III, said:
"I made for thee a mysterious horizon in thy city of Thebes over against thy forecourt,
O lord of gods (named): 'House (pr) of Ramesses Ruler of Heliopolis, L.P.H., inn the
House of Amun", abiding like the heavens bearing the sun. I built it, I laid it in
sandstone, having great doors of fine gold. I filled its treasury with the things which
wearing the crown of the red crown of the south, while those on the east, the while
crown of the north. The Osirde statues on the west hold the hek scepter in the left and
and the nekhakha scepter in their right. The architrave surmounting the Osride pillars
(see also Osiris), which once supported a grooved cornice, provide the dedication
written by Ramesses III, in two lines, which states:
"He has made the house of Ramesses, sovereign of Heliopolis in the house of Amun, in
perfectly sound white stone"
The interior walls are decorated with various festival scenes and texts.
Beyond the court is a vestibule on a higher level that was also
fronted by similar Osiride pillars between which runs a parapet
1.83 meters high, except for the central area. The east face of the
pillar to the left of the entranceway provides an excellent example
of the royal name of Ramesses III, Usermaatre Meryamun, and
below that the name of Mut (the vulture) is carved. A row of bud
papyriform columns is set behind the Osiride pillars. Here, the
walls are adorned with scenes of sacred processions. The remains
of two large statues of Sekmet produced in black granite, similar
to those in the temple of Ptah, were found on each side of the
doorway that communicates with the next chamber (they
hypostyle hall). On the pedestal of the statue on the left was
written, "Beloved of Mut-Sekhmet, lady of Asheru", while on that
of the right, "Beloved of Sekhmet-Menhit".
A small, shallow hypostyle hall follows with two rows of four bud
columns each. The shafts of these columns emerge from eight
leaves that are carved above the pedestals. Two of the royal
cartouches, with a uraei crowned by the solar disk, are engraved in sunk relief,
alternate between each of these leaves. Surmounting these cartouches is a register of
tableaux carved in very light relief. Above the five constrictive bands of the shaft of
these columns, and just below the abacus, the two cartouches found at the bottom of
the shaft are repeated, though here only is flanked by uraei. These cartouches are
crowned by solar disks. Scenes within this hall portray the daily worship of Amun,
with the king entering the room followed by two gods, including Montu.
the vestiges of the tableaux carved in the name of Horemheb, but who's cartouches
were subsequently added on to by Ramesses I and II. On the south wall of the
vestibule is carved a relief of Amun, who is holding the scythe in his right and and the
was scepter in his left.
This pylon was fronted by two striding
colossi of Ramesses II, of which only the feet
of one remain. Fronting these is a third,
standing statue of the king with the small
image of his daughter and queen, Bent'anta,
standing between his feet. The statue was
later usurped by both Ramesses VI of the
20th Dynasty, and Pinudjem I of the 21st
Dynasty. This pylon was begun during the
reign of Horemheb, but was not completed
until perhaps the reign of Seti I (though also
perhaps Ramesses I). Now removed, its core
was filled with many sandstone talatat blocks
of an earlier temple of Akhenaten. In the
southwest corner of the second pylon is an
unfinished Anta Pillar with a depiction of
Prince Osorkon I being breast fed by Hathor.
Like the first pylon, this one also has grooves
(four) for flagstaffs in each tower. A staircase
in the northern tower rises to the top of the
pylon. There are decorations on this pylon that were begun by Horemheb and
completed by several of his successors. The gateway of this pylon was called
"Illuminating Thebes". The Greeks entirely reworked this large doorway.
In the first courtyard of the Temple of Amun at Karnak, on the inside of the courtyard
abutted up against the inside of he first pylon is a construction platform built of brick
caissons enclosing packed earth between retaining walls perpendicular to the pylon,
which is evidence that the first pylon was still under construction when the work was
abandoned.
The first, western pylon of the Temple of Amun at Karnak (in modern Luxor, ancient
Thebes) forms the facade to a large, somewhat square courtyard measuring some
84.12 by 99.4 meters. It is bordered on two sides by a portico with columns built
during the 22nd Dynasty rule of Sheshonk I (Shoshenq I) , though he left the columns
here undecorated except for the five standard bands indicating constriction that
separate the column shafts from the capitals. The capitals themselves or in the form of
closed buds.
About in the center of the northern enclosure wall behind the columns is an enigmatic,
but interesting depiction. This is the so called magic image of Amun. Here, the
pharaoh is referred to as per-aa in the two cartouches, and he is making libation in the
presence of a very strange image. The representation has the head of Amun, wearing a
crown topped by a solar disk surmounted by two large feathers, which emerge from a
goatskin bottle embraced by the extended wings of Ma'at. In turn, this depiction
surmounts a pedestal crowned
by a uraeus, in front of which is
a lion whose chest comes up to
the level of the shafts. It would
seem that this "magic image of
Amun" was perhaps paraded
during processions. This scene
then sits upon a table fronting a
series of lotuses, each of which
is giving birth to a new lotus
framed by two buds.
The first open courtyard in the
Temple of Amun at Karnak was
originally outside the temple
proper, so the row of
Cryosphinxes outside the
temple would have continued
unabated within. However, the statues that once occupied the space within the
courtyard (some were completely removed) had to be repositioned. They were placed
further to the side, just before the columns of the courtyard's flanking porticos. This
courtyard includes edifices dating over a thousand year period that extended from the
end of the 18th Dynasty to the Ptolemaic Period.
Barque Chapel of Seti II
As one passes through
the first pylon, to the
left is the quartzite and
sandstone triple Barque
Chapel of Seti II,
sometimes referred to
as the repository of Seti
II but known in ancient
times as "Castle of Seti
Merneptah in the Temple of Amun". Its facade, reaching some 7.1 meters above the
surrounding pavement, is marked by sloping walls that are capped by the standard
torus (a large convex molding, semicircular in cross section) and cornice. The central
doorway measures 4.5 meters high, while the side doorways are each 3.79 meters.
The foundation, the first
course of stone, and the
doorway are all made of
See Also:
An Overview
It is difficult for one to think of Karnak in ancient
Thebes (modern Luxor), much less the section
known as the Temple of Amun, without picturing
the Great Hypostyle Hall. This is the large area just
behind the second pylon in the Temple of Amun,
which is a veritable forest in stone, and measures
some 99.4 by 51.82 meters.. At one point, it was
called "The Temple of Seti Merneptah is
Lumininous in the House of Amun" and was
described by the ancient Egyptians as "the resting
place of the Lord of gods, beautiful sojourn of the
Ennead" and "the beautiful sojourn of the Ennead,
where Amun rests, the place of appearance of the
Lord of the gods at his annual feast". It was also
designated as the "Hall of the two crowns", which
perhaps points to the ceremony of the coronation
being performed in it, a ritual which is depicted
upon its walls. It has been described as one of the
most monumental achievements in Egyptian
architecture and is the largest known example of a
typical hypostyle hall.
The 134 colossal papyrus columns surge into the
sky in an impressive array of ancient workmanship.
The center 12 columns are larger, standing some 21 meters tall, with open capitals,
while the remaining 122 columns outside of these stand 15 meters high and have
closed capitals. It is difficult to actually understand their size. Consider for example,
that a crowd of fifty people could easily stand atop the capital of the largest of the
mammoth structures.
The 12 larger columns were perhaps raised by Amenhotep III, but at the latest, by
Horemheb. The other columns surrounding these are a later addition.
Originally the abacuses above the capitals, supporting stone architraves supported a
massive roof, with only small clerestroy windows, of which a few survive.
Purposefully, this would have provided only muted illumination for the primeval
papyrus swamp which the
hall represented. The taller
columns represent papyrus
plants that are further
developed in their growth,
owing to their being nearer
to the daylight, while the
smaller once are less
developed due to their lack
of access to the light.
Amidst the columns stood
literally throngs of statues
depicting gods and kings, a
few of which have been
restored to this location in
recent times.
This hall was begun by Amenhotep III, though not until Seti I were the decorations
initiated. They were completed by his son, the great Ramesses II. The latter's work can
be differentiated from the earlier decorations by their more hurried and less subtle
sunk reliefs. The theme of these decorations include celebrated military exploits of
Seti I and Ramesses II in Syria and Palestine, including the Battle of Kadesh (See also
the Egyptian Account of the Battle of Kadesh), on their exterior, while inside are
depictions of rituals including processional scenes and mythical topics such as the
king interacting with various gods. This hall is terminated by the Temple of Amun's
Third Pylon.
Excavations have revealed a foundation wall under the first row of lower columns to
either side of the central nave in the Hypostyle Hall. This has lead archaeologists to
believe that a foundation wall once enclosed the central alley of columns, before the
hall was enlarged. Prior to this enlargement, this would have been a colonnade
forming the approach between second and third pylons.
The Exterior Walls
The exterior walls (consisting of the North and South walls, not the outer pylon walls)
of the Great Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Amun at Karnak mostly portray the
military actions of Ramesses II (the south wall) and of his father, Seti I (the north
wall), and in this respect, historically, are some of the most important areas of this
famous region at Karnak. In particular, the southern exterior wall portrays the famous
Battle of Kadesh.
Southern Wall
In addition to the reliefs concerning the Battle of Kadesh, there is also, on the wall
protruding from the exterior southern wall of the Hypostyle hall, reliefs that depict the
surrender of the fortress of Askalon. This was a city about ten miles north of Gaza and
about 40 miles south of Joppa. This scene depicts the pharaoh's soldiers staving in the
doors of the fortress with axes, while others scale it by means of ladders. Also, on a
nearby hill, Egyptian soldiers are exterminating the fleeing enemy.
Northern Wall
This wall, divided by a doorway, depicts combat at both of its extremes, and then
converge toward the center doorway with the king's victorious return to the temple of
Amun.
The southern exterior wall of the
Hypostyle hall, perhaps because it was
for the most part not reused as was its
northern counterpart, is perhaps
somewhat better in condition. It
records several military campaigns of
Set I into the Levant, as well as one
battle with the Libyans in the west.
In the lower half of the eastern section
of the wall, we see scenes depicting
the taking of the fortress of Pekanan.
They begin on the east edge of this
wall with the king's departure from
Raphia (now Rafah or Rafiah) for the
desert road. This is followed by the
Bedouin's ambush and scenes
depicting the waterholes along the
desert path. The next scene heading
west depicts return of Seti I to the
Egyptian boarder, followed by the
offering of booty to Amun. Beyond
this and next to the doorway is a
scene, taking up both upper and lower
registers, depicting the ritual massacre of the vanquished.
The upper part of the wall scenes on the eastern facade of the wall, beginning on the
eastern end, depict the "new version of the great chieftains of Lebanon". The eastern
most upper section depicts the capture of Yamoam, followed by the binding of the
vanquished. Next comes a scene showing the capturing of prisoners, followed by the
offering of booty to the Theban triad.
On the western half of the northern wall, the lowest of three registers on the western
end, begin by depicts an archery battle against the Kheta (Hittites), followed by the
return to Egypt with Khetan captives. Further east we find the offering of booty to the
gods, Amun, Sekhmet-Mut,
Khonsu and Ma'at. This in turn is
followed by another portrayal next
to the doorway, two registers high,
of the ritual massacre of the
prisoners before Amun, which
mirrors that on the western half of
the doorway.
The next level of scenes, beginning
on the far western edge of the wall
represent javelin combat against
the Libyans. This is followed by
the return to Egypt with Libyan
captives, and the offering of booty
to the Theban triad.
Above these scenes is another
register, which begins on the
western extreme of the western
part of the wall with archery
combat at Kadesh, the land of
Amor. Finally, above the scene
depicting the ritual slaughter of the
vanquished next to the western edge of the doorway is a scene depicting tribute that is
being presented to this temple.
In this final scene of slaughter, which is depicted on both sides of the northern
doorway, the king wears the red crown of the North, and holds a dozen prisoners tied
together by their hair. The king holds them secure with his right hand, while with his
left he brandishes the white hedj club. Before him stands the god Amun, presenting the
harpagon in his right hand while in his left holding the key of life and the bonds of the
prisoners with the escutcheons representing the conquered towns. Amun speaks the
words:
O my son of my body...
I bring to thee the chiefs of the southern countries...
(I turn) my face to the north, I work a wonder (for thee), snaring the rebels in their
nests...
I turn my face to the east, I work a wonder for thee,
I bind them all for thee, gathered in thy grasp...
I turn my face to the west, I work a wonder for thee,
consuming for thee every land of Tehenu...
I turn my face to heaven, I work a wonder for thee....The gods of the horizon of heaven
acclaim to thee when Ra is born every morning...
I turn my face to the earth, (I work a wonder for thee, I appoint for thee victories in
every country).
On the west door jamb of the northern entrance to the hypostyle hall, on the upper
register the king has removed his warrior attribute and is now clad in a triangular
apron and wears upon his forehead a diadem. Here, he offers the sacred lettuce to
Amun-Re, here the ithyphallic prince of Thebes, who is followed by Isis.
Below, on the lower register, the king is clad in a long linen robe and presents
bouquets of lotus flowers to Amun, who walks before Ptah. These sunk reliefs were
completed by Ramesses II.
On the door splay, the king wears the blue war helmet and is depicted as he enters the
doorway with the key of life in his left hand and his right hand extended towards
Amun. This carving has been reworked on several occasions.
Left: East end of the Grand North Colonnade showing the upper sections of the shafts and
capitals;
Right: The arris is visible to the right.
The shaft of these largest columns, which resemble a papyrus stalk in the Hypostyle
Hall, actually have three moldings that divide their cross section into three parts
spanning 120 degrees. The arris (seam) where these moldings meet runs the entire
length of shafts. While the axis of the temple itself is aligned bout 27 degrees north of
the true east-west line, the eastern arris of the northern colossi columns alights almost
exactly to the east, while the western arris of the southern columns aligns almost true
west. One arris on both the northern and southern center columns points across the
aisle to the other.
Left: The central "nave": the principal aisle with the Obelisk of Tuthmosis I in the background;
Right: The north central window and open bud columns clearly showing cartouches
The larger columns of the central avenue are first surmounted by an abacus, and then
architraves running own the longitudinal axes of the temple. The architrave of the
campaniform columns of the row south of the nave bear two lines of inscriptions in
relief dating from Seti I, who's cartouche
was, however, usurped by Ramesses II. On
the lower line he had inscribed the
dedication of this part of the temple, "He
has made a splendid sanctuary [akh]
Ramesses Meryamun in the house of Amun
before Ipet-sut". Underneath these
architrives, ankh symbols are often found
intermixed with royal cartouches.
Flanking the central avenue of huge
columns is one row of seven smaller
monostyle closed bud columns to either
side. These two rows of columns are cut
short by the antechamber of the third pylon,
while the six additional rows of monostyle
columns to either side of these have nine
columns each. All of these monostyle
columns are aligned with each other, but not with the central open bud columns. These
columns are split at the fourth row from the second pylon by a transverse aisle,
followed by five additional rows prior to the third pylon. At this split, recorded on the
underside of the architrive on the first and second rows of columns out from the
central open bud columns, is the ankh symbol flanked on both sides by a bulrush of
the south and a bee of the north. This marks the axis of the transverse way.
The ankh symbol flanked on both sides by a bulrush of the south and a bee of the north
The columns of the first bay have the cartouches of Ramesses II in sunk relief carved
upon their abacus and the architrave is also carved in this fashion. However, the upper
section of the capitals appear to have been somewhat reworked. They also have the
cartouches of Ramesses II carved in
horizontal sunk relief on a ring
about the base of their shafts.
On the second row of these
monostyle columns, the
inscriptions on the architrave, the
abacus and the top of the capital, in
light relief, are in the name of Seti
I, and his legend continues to be
engraved on the remaining rows of
monostyle columns.
However, it is easy to see that all
the capitals and the tops of the
shafts of the eastern columns have
received additional cartouches,
while those on the west have
retained their original decorations,
at least in the first bay.
Champollion tells us that:
"The decorations of the little columns on the right are of two kinds. Those of the first
four rows (going across) seen on entering the hypostyle hall have retained their
original decorations, which was that given to them under Ramesses the Great. The
colors have in large part survived. With these we have an example of the first stage of
all the little columns on the right and left of the hypostyle hall before the additions of
Ramesses (IV)".
Surmounting the architrave of the first bay of monostyle columns is a torus (a rounded
protrusion) and cornice. Along the cornice appear triglyphs separated by cartouches of
Ramesses II. Above this, running along the axis of the lower architrave but recessed
from the cornice are great pillars
joined by an upper architrave, which
rises to the height of the architrave
over the central open bud columns.
This arrangement allowed the central
section of the hall between the large
columns a higher ceiling then in the
remainder of the hall. Between these
upper pillars above the monostyle
columns were set two enormous stone
slabs which were cut with twelve bars
to allow light into the hall. Only the
central windows has kept it's grill of
recessed stone between the square
pillars, which correspond to each
column of the first bay.
On the interior side of these pillars
between these windows are carved
depictions of Ramesses II welcoming
and receiving life and other gifts from
Amun-Re. On the exterior side are
recorded the Horus name of Seti I, which faces Amun-Re. On the exterior of the
architrave above the window are carved falcons that overshadow the two cartouches of
Menmaatre Seti Meryenptah crowned by a disk and feathers placed above the nub
necklace which is symbolic of gold.
of the Hypostyle Hall. The main scene in these original decorations occupied the
entire length of the north wing and was at least as tall as the current second and third
registers.
In the first scene of the fourth register, which depicts Ramesses I offering fire and
water to Montu, Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris and Isis, the sky cuts the figures
of the previous decorations down to the waist. This original scene represented Amun's
great Barque towed by another large, barque. These boats push towards the central
doorway and the south, in the direction of Luxor.
Many of the original scenes depicted on this wall were simply modified at the time of
the enlargement of the Hypostyle Hall. For example, the colossal barque was replaced
by a smaller one that was no longer towed by oarsmen but rather by the king and three
gods. Legrain tells us of the new depiction:
"The Userhat (the royal barque) was towed by a fairy barque that moved forward by
itself over the waters of the Nile. No mast, no sail, no oars nor oarsman. Only the
rudder oars that no pilot steered could be seen on the prow."
However, the new barque scene does retain traces of the oars of the previous scene.
Champollion also describes the two barques of Seti I:
"A bari or barque. On the prow three standards are fixed [the Upwat, the falcon, the
royal cartouche]. On the bari following, Upper Egypt, supplicating hands extend from
the side of the prow [sic]. Four figures are pulling an immense bari with a rope
behind the first barque. The head of the first towing figure is broken. He was jackal
headed [Upwat]. The second is the king Meneptah I in normal attire, the third is ramheaded, the fourth is falcon-headed."
Legrain, in Les Temples de Karnak, goes on to tell us that:
"A fragment of text that is located in front of the God Aupuaitu in the towing barque
indicates that it and the barque of Amun are going to Apitu of the South, that is, the
temple of Luxor. That is why they are represented with their prows pointing south."
Champollion goes on to add that:
"Next comes the great bari of Ammon-Ra; on the prow and on the stern [a ram's head
bears the atef crown flanked by two uraei on the horns of Khnum]. In the middle
stands a kind of temple or palace supported by two columns. Above the cornice is the
anaglyph of the king's given name, which is repeated without variation for the entire
length of this cornice. This palace contains a naos, a cornice crowned by a uraeus
with a disk, a frieze [Isis knots and djed pillars] in which the bari of the god sits on a
pedestal with the customary adornments. On the door or veil that closes the kibotos
can be seen the anaglyph of the king's given name overshadowed by cherubs.
Behind the great kibotos [the palace] on the stern, the bari of khons and that of Muth
(destroyed)...
The great kibotos or palace, which encloses all the rest, is preceded by
On this obelisk, each side is inscribed with three columns of text. However, only the
central inscription on the east is from the reign of Tuthmosisi I. The later columns
were inscribed under Ramesses IV, and added to by Ramesses VI. The central
inscriptions of the north and south faces provides us with the complete list of
Tuthmosis I's titles. His dedication is inscribed on the east and west sides. Below the
name of Horus and the royal cartouche can be read:
"He has raised as a memorial to his father Amun-Re, chief of the Two Lands, two
great obelisks at the double doorways of the temple..."
As seen from the east, in the lateral columns of the text, the cartouches in the name of
of Ramesses IV have been added on to by Ramesses VI. The tableau on the base as
added by Ramesses II.
two great obelisks were erected by her majesty on the first time ( of her royal jubilee).
The King of Gods (Amun) said: 'Your (fem.) father, the King of Upper and Lower
Egypt "Aa-kheper-ka-Ra' had given the command to erect obelisks. Your (fem.)
majesty will repeat the monuments. (So that) you may live forever."
The Southern facade likewise provides only Hatshepsut Horus' name as well, and
reads:
"Horus 'Powerful of Kas', King of Upper and Lower Egypt 'Maat-Ka-Ra', brilliant
emanation of Amun, whom he has caused to appear as king upon the throne of Horus
'Holy of Holiest' of the Great House, whom the ennead of gods have brought up to be
mistress of the circuit of the sun. They have united her with life, power and joy of the
heart, the First of the Livings, son of Ra 'Hatshepsut, unified with Amun', beloved of
Amun-Ra, King of the Gods, may he (Hatshepsut) live forever like Ra."
The upper part of the
southern obelisk,
broken into pieces, is
mounted on concrete
blocks in the proximity
of the sacred lake. The
base of Hatshepsut's
missing southern
obelisk is not without
inscriptions. Like the
northern standing
obelisk, there are eight
lines of inscriptions
carved horizontally on
its four sides. The text
starts with the top line
of the southern facade of the base with the titles of the queen and her recounting of the
erection of two great obelisks made from southern (Aswan) granite on the occasion of
her first renewal (sed-festival). It reads: "Two great obelisks of enduring granite of the
South, (their) summits [pyramidions] being of electrum of the best of every country."
On the west side of the base, the queen affirms that she has acted under the command
and supervision of Amun, recognizing his divinity. Hatshepsut implies that she has
conceived of nothing without following his laws (of proportion) because her "heart
was in sia (wisdom)". She affirms that "Karnak is the horizon on earth [the first
appearance], the August Ascent of the beginning, the sacred eye of the All-Lord, the
place of his heart". On the north side of the base, after a long oath of faith where the
queen affirms that her power over the earth is due to divine kindness and that she will
descend into the amenti and exist "in eternity as an "Undying One", she specifies that
these two obelisks were extracted from the mountains and erected in seven months,
during the fifteenth year of her reign.
On the east side of the base, the queen recounts how, following her desire to embellish
the obelisk, she measured the best electrum by the "hekat, more than the entire Two
Lands had (ever) seen. The ignorant, like the wise, knoweth it".
Originally, this whole space was a colonnade built by Tuthmosis I, but Tuthmosis III
divided the space with a wall made of granite blocks, pierced by a doorway with
sandstone doorposts. Hence, it forms a sort of vestibule, closed on the north and south,
that provides access to the
antechamber of the sixth pylon. This
antechamber opens to provide access
to the columned wings to the north and
south.
The "royal ascent" is depicted on the
two granite doorposts that frame the
vestibule door that provides access to
the antechamber. Normally, this scene
would show the king framed by Montu
and Atum, going towards Amun, but
here, the scene is separated into two
tableaux. On the north, the king,
wearing the red crown, is led by Atum
of Heliopolis, while on the south he
wears the white crown and is led to
Amun by Montu of Thebes. These two
half-scenes are directed toward the
south instead of being oriented to the
general axis of the temple.
Within the antechamber, on the west doorpost of the northern door is a scene upon
which the king can be seen wearing the
red crown. There is a granite statue in
the corner. On the eastern doorpost he
wears the white crown. When
Tuthmosis III built the vestibule and
antechamber here, he included within
the thickness of the walls two of
Tuthmosis I's portico columns. Here, a
sixteen sided polygonal column of the
northern sector can be seen. It carries
the titles of Tuthmosis I on the middle
of the east side.
The king, wearing the red and white
crowns, is repeated on the southern
door of the antechamber. The king is
holding in one hand the makes cane
and the white hedj club and is
extending his other hand toward the
entranceway.
The doorway gives access to the peristyle court of Tuthmosis I, where the remains of
the shafts for sixteen-sided polygonal columns can be seen. Within this courtyard, on
the northern wall is a curious representation of Amun carved in light relief. Actually,
the entire profile of the head is deeply carved, perhaps to receive the face and
headdress of precious gems and metals. On the extension of the throne's pedestal,
Queen Ahmose-Nefertari (the well known wife of Ahmose, founder of the 18th
Dynasty and hence, Egypt's New Kingdom), also sculpted in relief, presents the god
with a sistrum and the menat. Behind her, Ramesses III, who is carved in sunk relief,
offers Ma'at to the god. What is interesting about this depiction is that the outline of
Amun and the deified queen are very light, giving the god a phantom appearance in
comparison to the king, emphasizing the spiritual nature of Amun.
The granite doorposts of the sixth pylon is
adorned on both sides with sandstone
curbing upon which are carved five
horizontal lines of prisoners mentioning the
nineteen cities conquered during the course
of the famous military exploits of Tuthmosis
III. that are recounted in the "chamber of the
Annals". Those on the north wing are towns
conquered in Syria and Palestine, while
those on the south represent towns in Nubia.
Above, a scene of "ritual massacre" can be
discerned. In his "Text of the Youth",
Tuthmosis III says that he built for this
pylon:
A great panel fashioned from new cedar,
worked with gold mounted in true black
copper and ... copper. The great name above
it is in electrum, gold that has been twice
refined, and black copper".
The "great name" he refers to is the "August
gate Menkhe Perre beloved of Amun Mighty with prestige". The doorway of the Sixth
Pylon leads through to the Naos of Philip Arrhedaeus.
Floor plan of The Colonnade of Tuthmosis I and the Vestibule and Antechamber of Tuthmosis III
In the southern wing of this chamber, on the interior (east side) of the Sixth Pylon, to
the right are the remains of the granite doorpost of the pylon's doorway. On the
sandstone revetment to the left we
find Amun introducing the king.
Behind Amun there is a line of
inscriptions recording Horemheb's
restoration in this part of the temple,
which is followed by the two last
lines of the famous text of the Annals
of Tuthmosis III on the walls of the
sanctuary where he recounts the
events related to the building of a
fortress in Lebanon. His Majesty
returned, disembarking at Thebes,
and celebrated the victory feast for
his first campaign of the year 23.
Then, "while the majesty of that
august neter [Amun] navigated his
way toward Ipet of the South
[Luxor]", the king deposited very
large offerings of all kinds at the
entrance to this temple.
In a long list of these gifts, which
consisted of slaves, livestock,
precious metals, gemstones as well as
territories, there is a record of three cities, including Yanoam, from which he received
"flocks of geese for the sacred pool", offerings for his new sed-festival temple, for his
obelisks, for his statues and for the feast of Min's emergence. Tuthmosis III also tells
us of the creation of a new garden "planted with all manner of pleasing trees" for the
daily plant offerings.
"Thus, My Majesty has created all monuments, all laws, all regulations...To my father
Amun...for great is my knowledge of his glory. I was instructed within his perfection,
resting within his body..."
The final two lines here provide additional offerings, including 318 white breads,
which were cakes in the shape of the pyramidian crowning an obelisk.
two granite pillars that bear four scenes on their east and west sides and symbolic
plants of the Two Lands on their north and south sides which show admirable detail.
These are the only examples of their type known, and their architectural role has been
the subject of some scholarly debate. On the southern pillar, the king wears the white
crown and in the top register he is embraced by Amunet, while below by Amun. On
the northern pillar, the king wears the red crown and is embraced by Hathor and then
Amun. On the southeast corner of the southern pillar, above the plants is the cartouche
of Tuthmosis Neferkhepru, and above this we see the king embraced by the Goddess,
Mut. Mut once again embraces the king in the upper section on the east side of the
northern pillar.
who presents him with the menat. She also holds the palm of the years. Hathor's son,
Ihy, who is completely nude, is in front of her, holding a sistrum toward the inscription
that provide the name of the chapel, House of Horus.
Above the lintel of one of the other northern chapels is a very curious depiction of a
small individual standing in the back of a papyrus boat behind a person of larger
proportions who is
probably the king.
The King in such a
boat is not
uncommon, and we
find similar
representations in
the temple of Luxor
and the tomb of Ay.
However, what is so
unusual about this
depiction is that the legs and feet of the smaller individual are completely formed of
duck heads. Thanks to an old photograph of a neighboring block which has now
disappeared, we know that the smaller figure is actually that of an obscure god named
Kheddw, an ancient fishing deity.
Beyond these pillars is the sanctuary and the granite barque naos of Philip Arrhidaeu
that replaced the more ancient repository build during the reign of Tuthmosis III. It is
divided into two halves, with an outer area where offerings were made to the gods, and
the inner where the god's barque reposed. Originally, a structure stood before it with
sandstone pillars that were bored with small holes at their bases, probably to hold
either electrum or gold plating. P. Barquet suggests that within the structure was
placed the two obelisks "of clear electrum" amounting to 2,500 talents that
Ashurbanipal was said to have brought away from Thebes in 656 BC, "where they had
been erected before the doorway of the sanctuary". Electrum is a blend of gold and
silver, and their weight, which would have been equivalent to 37,875 kilograms,
would have made their height an estimated 6.9 meters.
It is on the northern wall
of this sanctuary that the
annals of Tuthmosis III
begin, and it has been
said that this wall has in
fact caused more
commentary among
scholars than any other
area in the entire temple
of Karnak. Here,
Tuthmosis III holds the
makes cane and the white
hedj club in one hand
and the sekhem scepter
in the other, consecrating
the wealth of offering
before him on behalf of
Amun.
The offerings include
The "Central
Courtyard" and
the Festival Hall
of Tuthmosis III
in the Temple of
Amun at Karnak
by Jimmy Dunn
North Chapels of Tuthmosis III, consisting of a series of long chambers, are more
interesting, for here the king recorded the ritual of laying the foundation. On a stela he
provides specific details on the monuments he constructed on the site of an older one,
which he spoke of in his "Text of the Youth":
My majesty desired to make a monument to my father Amun Ra in Karnak [Ipet-sut],
erecting a dwelling [sanctuary], beautifying the horizon, adorning for him Khaftethir-nebes, the favorite place of my father from the beginning...I made it for him upon
this block of enduring stone, exalting and magnifying greatly [what was already at
this site?] to the shrine [naos] of Nun [the primordial waters]..."
left shoulder.
In back of the king are the two half-heavens that accompany the scene of the "great
stride". Before him are two small dancing figures surmounted by the name of a city,
and above that is a hammered-out hippopotamus with a brief caption recording the
"Feast of the White [Hippopotamus]. It should be noted that the red, male Sethien
hippopotamus, who was an enemy of Horus, must be distinguished from the white,
female hippopotamus that here is a symbol of Apet.
To the east of this scene is one depicting the erection of Min's Mast. In these scenes,
the king wears the white crown and holds a long cane and the once again the white
club in one hand, while in the other he carries the nehbit scepter, with which he makes
a gesture of consecration. In front of the
king are two rows of men stretching
ropes around a raised mast which is
supported by four poles. Little figures,
each with a feather on its head, climb
the poles. All of these scenes are related
to the temple foundation
Beyond the open court of the ruined
Middle Kingdom sanctuaries lies the
last section of the Temple of Amun on
the main axis, the relatively complete
Festival Temple of Tuthmosis III.
Tuthmosis III is said to have built this
structure on the site of the brick
enclosure of an older sanctuary for Nun.
It is one of the more interesting, as well
as one of the more unusual features at
Karnak. He built it as a sort of
memorial to himself and his ancestral
cult and named it the "Most Splendid of
Monuments". The entrance was
originally flanked by two statues of the
king wearing a festival costume. It is at
the building's southwest corner and leads into an antechamber with magazines and
other rooms to the right and left of the temple's great columned hall. The roof of this
hall is supported around its perimeter by thirty-two square pillars, while the central
portion contains his famous tent pole style columns. There were originally twenty of
these. They may recall ancient religious booths, but more likely symbolize the military
tent that was so familiar to the great warrior pharaoh. Irregardless, these columns with
cylindrical shafts, painted bright red that thicken slightly going from bottom to top and
then abruptly flare out above five bands painted yellow and blue, to support a king of
capital in the form of a flower adorned with large triangular leaflets, but reversed, are
unique. During the Christian era, the hall was reused as a church and here and there,
atop several of the columns, can be seen haloed icons. There are several ruined statues
Common ancient Egyptians frequently built within their houses small altars to worship
their gods, as well as small private temples for communal use. However, state temples
built for the benefit and worship of the gods were rare, and mostly consisted of small
structures attached to the rear, closest to the actual inner sanctuaries, of major temples.
Such temples never had access to the main temple to which they were attached, but
they must have played a significant role for religious worship by the common
Egyptians.
Today, this eastern sanctuary consists mostly of an enormous alabaster monolith of
Tuthmosis III which is flanked by lateral chambers. This huge, single piece of
alabaster is preceded by a large
hall that opens on the east side.
Each of the two outer walls of
this naos contained scenes in
which Tuthmosis III presented
offerings to fifteen figures of
Amun in sheaths. Each of the
images is seated upon a throne
and holding the was scepter
with both hands. On the north
wall, which is the best
preserved, the king holds the
cane and the club in his left
hand and consecrates the
offerings with his right, "To
Amun in each of his names."
This monument presses directly
against the back of the wall of
the principal temple, which has
been slightly hollowed out for
the structure. It contains two
engaged statues, both greatly
damaged. It is presumed that
the statue on the north represents Tuthmosis III, though the one on the right is difficult
to identify. It has been suggested that this second statue may be that of Mut
(Champollion), Hatshepsut (Steindorff), Amun (Borchardt) or perhaps Nekhebet
(Lubicz).
Tuthmosis IV also provides that, "He has made as his memorial for His Father AmunRa [the act] of erecting for him an obelisk of great size next to the upper gate of Ipetsut next to Thebes", which explains its location at the southern end of the temple.
The Eastern Temple of Ramesses II actually opens on the east, opposite to the main
complex. It is proceeded by a colonnade built by Taharka that consists of four rows of
five columns each linked together by small walls of intercolumniation on which are
represented the nomes and the characteristic scenes of the "royal ascent:" to the
temple. The central colonnade borders a red granite pavement.
Beyond this colonnade, set in what was once the enclosure wall of the Temple of
Amun, is the gate of Nectanebo I. This portal stood nearly 20 meters tall. It was set
into the outer enclosure wall that was itself constructed on a bed of bricks that are
alternately convex and concave, thus forming an undulation.
Champollion said of the gate of Nectanebo I:
"This immense gate, for which the upper portion is made of enormous blocks and the
doorposts from smaller stones but assembled with a great deal of care, provides
entrance into the great enclosure of Oph (Karnak) on the east side. The large
enclosure of baked bricks touches on both the left and right side of this propylon,
which has never been adorned with any sculpture, either on its top or jambs, on the
inside as well as outside of the enclosure, except that toward the back on the left side
(when exiting) there are t3wo tableaux of worshiping carved in the thickness of the
doorway."
On the west, the lintel is
formed of two
enormous monolithic
blocks, with a third
from which the mold of
the torus has been cut
out. On the stone
monolith of the
cornice's first course, a
large rectangle facing
the setting sun is
worked in relief, at the
site of the uraei-flanked
disk. On the east side,
the torus, the disk
facing the rising sun
and the uraei are
sculpted, rather than in
relief.
Much of the decoration of the gate was never completed. On the east facade of the
lintel, on the left, only the upper part of Ptolemy II Philadelphus offering Ma'at is
carved out, while Amun has only his feathers, his lower limbs and his throne. Behind
him the upper portion of Mut's body is carved in sunk relief, while the lower part is
simply marked out. Aside from her crown, Queen Arsinoe is entirely drawn out in
dots, while in the next figure only her forearms and her right hand are marked. On the
right, the king, Amun and Khonsu are sculpted down to the waist and cut in half by the
joint. The lower parts of their bodies are completely missing.
These structures terminate the Temple of Amun proper at Karnak on its southeastern
end.
from there it offers a nice overall view of the Sacred Lake and the Southern Pylons,
with the Temple of Khonsu and the Gate of Euergretes in the background. Actually,
within the court there are in fact several artifacts, including the remains of an alabaster
stela of Seti I, pillars built by Senusret I and a few others. On the north facade of the
Seventh Pylon there are also several statues. Of note are the colossus fronting the east
wing. The westernmost of these is a striding statue with the cartouche of Tuthmosis III
on its belt. On the left shoulder is the name of Ramesses, while on the right is that of
Heqamaatre (Ramesses IV). To the east is an Osirian colossus which bears the same
cartouches on its shoulders and the name of Usermaatre Setepenamun (Ramesses IV)
on the vertical band. Both statues were the white crown.
On the east wing of the north facade of the seventh pylon is a list of 119 Palestinian
towns that appear to have been conquered during the first campaigns of Tuthmosis III,
while the following 240 names refer to sites between Labanon and the Euphrates that
he overran in year 33 of his reign during his eighth campaign, in which he overthrew
Mitanni and Naharin.
Many of the statues and stela discovered.
These artifacts were discovered between
1903 and 1905 by Georges Legrain working
under the supervision of Gaston Maspero,
and represent the largest find of statuary
ever made in Egypt and perhaps anywhere in
the world. The extraction was messy, due to
the Nile flood, which resulted in a high
water table, but the work progressed anyway
in the oozing mud. Beneath the floor of this
courtyard, Legrain's workmen uncover on
December 26, 1903, a large alabaster slab
that proved to be a stela of Seti I. Some
centimeters below this, he found three
magnificent statues of considerable size,
including a figure of Amenemhet, carved
from an intensely greet stone, and below
them even more statues were revealed. By
the end of December in 1903 some forty
intact statues and another twenty that were
incomplete had been fished out of the mud,
along with numerous corroded bronze
figures and ritual fittings. Very soon, these
totals had risen to 751 statues and fragments
in stone, including a funerary figurine of Amenhotep III, some 17,000 bronzes,
"numerous wood statuettes, though impossible to preserve, a range of stale, obelisks
and offering tables, quantities of ram bones, the animal sacred to Amun, some vessels
in metal and stone, and a range of architectural elements.
This huge cache appears to have been deposited on a single occasion, probably during
or immediately after the Ptolemaic period. Most were clearly votive objects deposited
at Karnak by pious individuals who had visited the Karnak shrines As sacred objects,
they could not be destroyed, so the only option available to the priests, who must by
that time have been
drowning in a sea of
such objects, was burial
within the precinct.
However, it must be
noted that Egyptologists
speculate other reasons
for the burial of these
artifacts.
Legrain had to take
serious measures to
avoid being
overwhelmed by the
continuous stream of
objects that emerged each day from his work. Almost immediately after word of the
miraculous find spread, questionable characters began to crowd in from all directions,
just waiting for the moment they might move in to snatch some valuable tidbit. As
soon as objects were dug from the muck, they were speedily put under guard in
storehouses. Nevertheless, Legrain could not prevent thieves from carrying off from
the Antiquities Service House two
of the beautiful statues discovered
during the beginning of his
excavations. Luckily, and
investigation pursued and the
statues were soon recovered. The
guards themselves were found
guilty and four of them were
promptly sentenced to three years'
forced labor.
Apparently, at the end of his efforts,
the statues were sent to the Cairo
Museum. Hence, in 1905, ten
railway carriages left Luxor station
at five o'clock in the afternoon that
would reach Cairo the next
morning, In addition, two boats
belonging to the Antiquities Service
were also employed, each making
two or three trips.
Yet, all of the caution could not
prevent some of the finds from turning up missing. With certainty, some of the
statues, particularly those of medium size, mysteriously disappeared, either while
work was still underway, during transportation, and even after their arrival at the
Egyptian Museum. In fact, it has been said that practically no Egyptian collection of
any importance in either Europe or the United States does not possess some object
from the cachette. Certainly theft was the major cause for this dispersal, though in fact
some of the objects may have been disposed of in the Sales Hall of the Museum. At
that time, the museum would offer to sell objects that it already had in sufficient
numbers. Some objects were also probably mishandled and newly registered under
another inventory number.
Regrettably, only the most important of the sculptures were ever published, and very
few of the excavator's notes have survived, even though Legrain wrote that, "I have
studied each single one of them, I have copied and translated the inscriptions covering
it, prepared its file, its genealogy, and photographed it as soon as it was discovered." If
he really did complete this documentation, then its loss could be considered one of the
greatest calamities to have befallen Egyptology. However, he did publish some
objects, between 1906 and 1925, in three volumes of the Catalogue General du Musee
du Caire, which lists about two hundred and fifty statues, mostly from the cachette,
and arranged in Chronological order up to the end of the 25th Dynasty. Since then,
about fifty statues have been published by Egyptologists in specialized journals. Yet,
even now, only about half of the statues have been fully published, leaving much work
to be done.
Interestingly, the cache of objects was never exhausted. Legrain ceased work in midJuly, 1905 because of the dangers posed by the water-table, not because all of the
objects had been found. Hence, those walking in this area tread over what may still be
buried treasures.
Statue of Amenhotep
II with Meretseger
Head of a Statue of
Amenhotep III
Statue of Senenmut
with Neferure
Block Statue of
Senenmut with
Neferure
Head of a Statue
Colossal Statue
Standard-Bearer
Statue Usurped by
Sheshonq
Statue of the Vizier Hor Block Statue of Nakhtefmut Block Statue of Hor,
Son of Ankhkhonsu
Statue of Pakhnum
Statue of Montuemhet
Statue Group of
Statue of Petamenhotep as Block Statue of Ahmes,
Montuemhat and his Son,
a Scribe
Son of Pakharkhonsu
Nesptah
Statue of a Ptolemaic
Queen
Amenemhet III, very significant figures of the 12th Dynasty. Most of these were true
masterpieces. There are even objects from the Second Intermediary Period, though
limited and lacking originality.
During the 18th Dynasty, royal statuary from the cachette is well represented. The
reign of Tuthmosis III was a high point in this dynasty, and evidenced by no fewer
than nineteen statues of the king, some so masterful they are considered to be some of
the grandest works of Egyptian art history.
The Ramesside Period is less well represented than the 18th Dynasty, with a relatively
small number of true works of art. There were eight statues of Ramesses II, and
another two upright statues of Ramesses III, including one of colossal size.
Afterwards, only Ramesses VI is represented by two notable statues that are rather
stylized and conventional. Statue from the periods after the 18th Dynasty are often
executed in a rather cold manner, lacking sensibility.
The following statuary (click on a picture for a larger view), is as chronologically
ordered as possible.
Statue of Amenhotep
II with Meretseger
Head of a Statue of
Amenhotep III
Statue of Senenmut
with Neferure
Block Statue of
Senenmut with
Neferure
Head of a Statue
Colossal Statue
Standard-Bearer
Statue Usurped by
Sheshonq
Statue of the Vizier Hor Block Statue of Nakhtefmut Block Statue of Hor,
Son of Ankhkhonsu
Statue of Montuemhet
Statue of Pakhnum
Statue Group of
Statue of Petamenhotep as Block Statue of Ahmes,
Montuemhat and his Son,
a Scribe
Son of Pakharkhonsu
Nesptah
Statue of a Ptolemaic
Queen
material that is extremely hard and difficult to work. Interestingly, the sole tools
known for carving such stone are made of bronze, and this metal had to undergo
special preparation to be able to work this granite. However, the procedure remains
unknown at the present time. Under the left leg of the Colossus fronting the east
doorpost, Ramesses II is carved in sunk relief, standing and wearing the nemes
headdress, with the hek and nekhakha over his right shoulder.
Behind the colossus on the eastern wing of the
seventh pylon, to the left, is the southern facade
of the doorpost where "the doorway
Menkheperre-Amun-Ra-Great-in-appearance" is
horizontally inscribed on the uppermost of the
two bottom lines. The cartouche on the lower line
has been modified in the name of Heqamaatre
Meryamun Ramesses (Ramesses IV), who also
added his name to the statuary of the north facade
in the Courtyard of the Cachette.
The king above wears the white crown of the
South and holds the white club, and stands before
Amun-Ra. The vertical inscription is in the name
of Menmaatre (Seti I), who is said to have
"renewed" this monument. On the right is a
partially destroyed scene of the massacre of the
defeated that has a counterpart on the west wing
of this pylon. Here, the prisoners are from Nubia
and the Sudan.
On the western wing of the southern facade, the
king is depicted wearing the red crown of the North. He holds the white club "to strike
down he great of Retenu [from] all the mountains, [from] all the inaccessible
[mysterious] lands joined together under his fists. Here, the vanquished raise their
arms and kneel in three superimposed rows. They are Asian warriors as evidenced by
their recognizable beards and
countenances. The makes baton held in
the king's other hand separates them
into two groups facing the opposite
direction from each other. Under this
scene is text that reads, "prisoners with
escutcheons" indicating conquered
cities. This list includes only the
Palestinian cities that were captured.
Beyond the Seventh Pylon, on the
outside north wall of the courtyard is
the Alabaster Sanctuary of Tuthmosis
III. Upon the entrance of the sanctuary
we are told that each wall is made of a
single piece of alabaster. Each of these
On the western wing of the southern facade, the king is depicted wearing the red
crown of the North. He holds the white club "to strike down he great of Retenu [from]
all the mountains, [from] all the inaccessible [mysterious] lands joined together under
his fists. Here, the vanquished raise their arms and kneel in three superimposed rows.
They are Asian warriors as evidenced
by their recognizable beards and
countenances. The makes baton held in
the king's other hand separates them
into two groups facing the opposite
direction from each other. Under this
scene is text that reads, "prisoners with
escutcheons" indicating conquered
cities. This list includes only the
Palestinian cities that were captured.
Beyond the Seventh Pylon, on the
outside north wall of the courtyard is
the Alabaster Sanctuary of Tuthmosis
III. Upon the entrance of the sanctuary
we are told that each wall is made of a
single piece of alabaster. Each of these
monoliths is some eight meters long.
This naos may have been intended to
shelter the sacred barque. The
sanctuary was originally a simple
peripteral kiosk, built during the king's
first royal jubilee, and was
subsequently enlarged and adorned
with a second row of pillars. At one time, in front of its facade, which depicts a
miniature pylon, were two statues of in pink granite. On the outside north wall of the
sanctuary, the central tableau depicts the king making the "great stride", holding the
oar and rudder in his hands, in the presence of Amun. Amun wears a headdress
crowned by two feathers that are each divided into fourteen sections.
After the Alabaster Sanctuary of Tuthmosis III, on the east wall near the Eighth Pylon
is a doorway that connects this courtyard with the sacred lake. Here, an inscription
carved on the inside of the gateway is by Amenhotep, son of the high priest
Ramessesnakht, a contemporary of Ramesses II. The text recounts "that he
reconstructed the
dwellings of the
high priests
formerly raised by
Sesostris I (Senusret
I)"
in the domain of
Amun. These
building very
probably are the
same as the
remnants of the
ancient dwellings
unearthed east of
the
lake, near the
enclosure with
bastions attributed
to
Tuthmosis III. The deepest levels passing beneath the enclosure go back to the Middle
Kingdom, and objects dating back to the Old Kingdom have also been recovered.
On the exterior of this eastern wall connecting the Seventh and Eighth Pylons are two
tableaux that record
the gifts of gold,
sliver and all manner
of precious things,
made during the reign
of Ramesses IX as a
donation to the high
priest of Amun,
Amenhotep. To the
left, the high priest,
facing the king, raises
his arms and looks
toward the north. He
is framed by two
smaller officials,
resting their hands
upon his linen robe.
His name and title are
inscribe in front of his
face as, "The vizier,
great confidante of his
mater, first prophet of
Amunresonther,
Amenhotep,
maa'kheru [righteous of voice]". Other text tell us that the king credits him with acts of
bravery and countless good deeds.
To the right, the priest is turned to the south and the two minor officials are now
behind his robe. Here, texts records that:
"The king in person said to the great and to his companions that were at his sides,
'Give numerous tributes, countless rewards in fine gold and silver and thousands of
good things to the first prophet of Amunresonther, Amenhotep...because of the
numerous and perfect monuments that he has made in the house of Amunresonther
[inscribed] in the great name of neter-nefer."
Also on the outside of the court, on the lintel of the doorway that opens onto the
staircase of the east wing of the Eighth pylon, is depicted two kneeling priests facing
each other with their hands raised in gestures of adoration toward the now erased royal
cartouches. On the left
(south) the priest is
named Roy, while on
the right he is called
Rome. Actually, these
are both the same
individual. Rome-Roy
was a first prophet of
Amun near the end of
the reign of Ramesses
II, and he remained the
head of the Thebes'
clergy for about twentyfive years, until the
reign of Seti II.
In front of two priests
with shaved heads who
wear formal linen robes
who represent RomeRoy and his son,
Beknekhonsu, to the right of the doorway, is a long inscription dating to the reign of
Seti II. The first six lines of this inscription consist of an adoration by Amun's first
prophet, Rome:
"I come to you, master of the neter, Amun, who was at the beginning, neter of neters
(gods), creator of all that exists, master of neters and men, chief of Heliopolis, prince
of Thebes, great bearer of the crown in Het-Berber {the sun temple at Heliopolis];
when the eyes of men gaze upon you, the breath comes forth from your mouth towards
every nostril...
Thou didst grant me long life carrying thy image, while my eye beheld thy two uraei
every day, and my body was endowed with health, being without sorrow and free from
all fear, O powerful king of eternity, thy food is with me, thy favors come due, thy
name is protection for me."
Beginning with the seventh line, the text is now apparently in the name of Roy:
"Greatest of Ra-Atum's seers in Thebes, second prophet of Amun, first prophet of
Amun, Roy... he says, 'O wab priests, scribes of the house of Amun, excellent servants
of the divine offerings, bakers, mixers, confectioners, makers of loaves...performing
all their duties (?) for their lord, thou who enter this workshop each day that is within
the house of Amun, 9may all of you0 utter my name each day and remember me with
good thoughts...
I found this room in complete ruins, its walls falling, the woodwork rotted, the
doorposts of wood perishing (as well as) the paint of the bas-reliefs. I restored it in its
entirety, more vast than it had been, heightening, widening... excellently (?); and I
made its doorposts of sandstone, and mounted upon them doors of true pine; (I made)
a (comfortable) workshop (for) the bakers and mixers who are in it. I made it in work
that was better than before, for the protection (of the personnel?) of my neter Amun,
master of neters."
The Eighth Pylon, which
terminates this courtyard and is
one of the best preserved on the
secondary axis at Karnak, is
believed to have been
constructed during the reign of
Hatshepsut. On the bottom
register of the east wing's north
facade is a depiction of
Tuthmosis I, Hatshepsut's
father, and a twenty-line text
recorded by Hatshepsut that
pays homage to her father, as
well as confirming her as
"king". In the top register is the
sacred barque, carried on the
shoulders of priest towards the
east and preceded by the king
who is introduced by the great
lion-headed magician followed by Hathor. This is followed by the king who now
wears the white crown and presents himself before Amun in front of fifteen neters in
three rows. Tuthmosis II's titles are carved on the west doorpost, while on the east
doorpost is that of Tuthmosis III, but with a combination of his cartouche and that of
Queen Menkheperkare.
Within the passage of the Eighth Pylon that leads to the next courtyard, we also find
Ramesses II, who is holding the hek and nekhakha scepters over his shoulder,
receiving the panegyrics from a seated Amun. Here, the king is introduced by MontuRa and Mut, the great lady of Asheru (who replaces Tum here), before Amun, who
gives him the panegyrics. These tableaux are from Ramesses II, but the horizontal
legend is from Ramesses III. There are small, square and rectangular cavities which
were intended to hold ceramic plates, of which several were found intact and in place.
On the west doorpost of the eighth pylon's southern facade is the cartouches and titles
of Tuthmosis II, while on the east doorpost are those of Tuthmosis III. Next to the
cartouche of Tuthmosis II (his Son of Ra name) is a niche that has been hollowed out,
almost certainly by the early Coptic Christians, in which the upper section is in the
form of a seashell. On each wing of the eighth pylon between the niches for the
flagpoles is one lone tableau that depicts the massacre of the prisoners Here,
Amenhotep II, with a curly hairstyle brandishes the white club fitted with a curved
blade to strike down the defeated prisoners who, unusually, are standing.
Fronting these scenes are seated colossi made from several materials. There are two
made of limestone and one of quartzite
on the west, and only one, made from
white limestone, which remains on the
east wing. On the west wing, the white
limestone colossus, representing
Amenhotep I, is carved from a single
block. The king is seated with his right
hand closed and his left hand open,
resting on his knees. Note the emphasis
that has been placed on the carving of
the breasts. To his left is a small statue of
a seated female figure. The colossus to
the west of the Eighth Pylon doorway is
made out of red quartzite from Gebel elAhmar. On the belt and side of the
throne are the cartouches of Tuthmosis
II, who is believed to have had this
statue carved. The finely sculpted feet
of the colossus are engaged with the
pedestal on which they rest. On the
east facade of the pedestal is a delicate,
unfinished image of Amun, whose
headdress is cut short. The scepter that
he holds is barely outlined, and the
only legend states, "Words spoken by
Amun-Ra, master of Heaven, master of
Earth".
There is also a doorway on the western
end of the west wing of the eighth
pylon. Here, three registers can be
found that depict the presentation of
fattened cows, crowned and bedecked
with ribbons similar to scenes in the
Court of Ramesses II at the Temple of
Luxor. They are part of a procession of
priests carrying flowers towards the
eighth pylon.
There is little to be seen in the courtyard between the Eighth and Ninth pylons. The
Ninth pylon is built on an axis of and perpendicular to the avenue of sphinxes that
leads to the temple of Mut. The fact that the temple of Mut was constructed by
Amenhotep III suggests that the ninth pylon, which was build during the reign of
Horemheb, might have replaced an older pylon made from brick, and probably built
by Amenhotep III. Like the Second Pylon in the Temple of Amun, the Ninth Pylon is
hollow. It measures some 66 meters, with a Width of about 11.5 meters. The
construction of the Ninth Pylon consists of exterior stone facings formed from a single
tier of blocks of varying thickness. All the
rest of the construct is hollow, with the
exception of the stairway passage. The
staircase climbs from the east entrance up to
the level of the doorway's lintel and from
their a second staircase crosses the west
wing and leads to the terrace. The upper
section of the pylon is held in place only by
the enormous weight of the cap that works
much like a keystone in an arch.
Unfortunately, if this cap is compromised,
than the structure will collapse, which is
what has happened to the two hollow pylons
at Karnak.
On the west wing of the Ninth Pylons
northern facade, the bottom was covered by
two registers in which the king is proceeding
from east to west (therefore entering the
temple). However, the barques carried by the
priests on the top register are going in the
opposite direction out of the temple. On the
east wing of the pylon are bas-reliefs of Ramesses IV.
Within the last courtyard of the secondary north-south axis on the west wing of the
Ninth Pylon to the left of the large flagpole niche is an almost obliterated scene that is
framed by a sort of bas-relief false door. Flat inlaid stones mark out the site of the
cornice, providing the sole protrusion beneath a frieze of uraei. This scene is said to
the the counterpart of the inscription that recounts the marriage of Ramesses II with
the eldest daughter of the king of the Hittites, which is represented on the southern
face of the east wing, which in turn is said to be a replica of the famous "marriage
stela" of Abu Simbel.
After signing a peace treaty the two ancient foes met in friendship when the Kheta
leader came to Egypt, in the middle of winter, accompanied by his eldest daughter and
a large escort laden with rich presents. Ramesses II married the daughter and have her
the titles of "Great royal wife", "Mistress of the Two Lands" an Maatneferure {she
who sees the beauty of Ra}". To the right is an offering scene that has been reworked
at least several times. The style is that of Horemheb, but the cartouches are in the
name of Ramesses II. A great colossus of Ramesses II once stood before the Ninth
Pylon's southern facade, but now all that is left is a piece of the foot on the pedestal.
Within the last
courtyard, on the
eastern wall, is a
monument built by
Amenhotep II.
Borchardt believed
that this small
building was a sedfestival kiosk of
Amenhotep II,
which had been
destroyed by
Akhenaten. He
believed that it was
restored in its
original site by Seti
I, with the addition of several blocks of Akhenaten. However, Charles Van Siclen III,
an American Egyptologist who recently reconstructed the building thinks that the
structure once stood in the area before the Eighth Pylon and that it was removed, stone
by stone, during the reign of Horemheb, to be rebuilt in its current location. The
building was constructed entirely upon a stylobate (a flat surface upon which columns
are normally constructed), and consists of a large square room with a roof supported
by pillars, and two small lateral sanctuaries that were fronted on the west by a portico
of twelve square pillars. The building is nearly symmetrical in plan and very shallow
and broad. A ramp ascends to the portico. The large square hall has four row of five
square pillars each that form a central nave bordered on either side by two aisles. In
the passage along the inner face of the wall an architrave with cornice crowns the
pillars. There was once probably a back doorway to the hall which was replaced with a
false door.
The temple's central hall contains some
finely carved reliefs that retain much of
their original color, though the figures of
Amun were desecrated by the agents of
Akhenaten. Seti I is known to have at
least repaired these images. In the
southeast corner of the large, central
chamber, the square-sectioned pillars rest
on a small pedestal and are topped by a
capital in the form of a grooved cornice
with a torus at the base and an abacus
under the architrave. While this
architecturally is rare, it can be found
however in the tomb paints of the 18th
Dynasty. Various scenes which include
the king are depicted on these columns.
The king, wearing different crowns in
succession, is proceeding Amun in a west
to east direction. The two horizontal lines
of text under the scenes specify that the
king is celebrating his sed festival. On
some of the pillars, the king is depicted in
light relief, striding to the south and wearing the white crown, while on others, he is
depicted in sunk relief, proceeding to the north, and wearing the Red Crown.
Beyond the Amenhotep II monument, on the wall between it and the Tenth and last
pylon, we find the king presenting Amun with the presents brought by the high chiefs
of Punt. He wears the characteristic wig with five rows of curls. Behind him are two
rows of chiefs from the land of Punt with twisted goatees. They carry sacks of gold,
skins, feathers and cloth. Here, text proclaim them as friends of Egypt:
"The great chiefs of the land of Punt say: 'Glory to thee, king of Egypt, sun of the Nine
Bows. As truly as thou art in life we have not known of the black land [Egypt] and our
fathers have not trampled it down."
Further along this wall, after an opening, we find a scene depicting the presentation of
Aegean and Syrian tributes. With his right hand, the king presents the delicately
wrought vessels, the horns and the sacks of precious materials that are arranged before
the naos of the seated Amun. He holds in his left hand the hek scepter, together with
the coiled ropes that bind three rows of prisoners behind him. Here, text tells us that
they are, "The miserable lords of Hannebu [Aegeans], the vile chiefs of Retenu
[Syria]... terror is in their hearts". Here, the king's cartouche is in the name of
Horemheb, but some scholars believe that this scene is attributable to the reign of
Tutankhamun.
Before the Tenth Pylon's
northern facade are several
colossal statues that frame its
great gate. On the pedestal of the
while limestone colossus to the
east, decorating three sides, are
"the prisoners with the
escutcheons", who symbolize the
Nine Bows who are the
vanquished enemies. Upon the
pedestal is also a smaller statue
of the Queen, Mut-Nefertari,
who is clad in a finely pleated
linen robe held by a belt that is
knotted under her chest. She
wears a wig that is encased by
the Mut vulture and capped by
the double feathers. The queen
rests her hand on the king's calf
at the level of the ham. On the
pedestal of the colossus on the
western side of the gate we find
Asian warriors, who are also bound.
It was Horemheb who built the last, Tenth Pylon, reusing many blocks from the temple
of Akhenaten. The gate of this pylon measures 15.60 meters under the lintel and the
double lintel adds another 2.47 meters, which gives the gate a height of 18.07 meters,
not including the cornice. On the gate are four registers of scenes in the name of King
Horemheb. From bottom to top, these scenes depict the offering of wine to Amun-Ra,
water to Amun-Ra Kamutef, censing to Amun-Ra and on the top, the worshiping of
Mut, then Khonsu, repeated four times.
had been done before. I fashioned for him a mountain of gritstone, for he is the heir of
Atum...I conducted the work of his statue, immense in width, taller than his column, its
beauty marred the pylon. Its length was 40 cubits in the august mountain of
gritstone..."
The statue was carved in a monolith of quartzite sandstone and represented the
standing and crowned Amenhotep III, with one foot forward. Both of his feet rested on
the pedestal made from a separate block of the same quartzite, which in turn rested on
a second pedestal of red Aswan granite. The measurements provided plus the size of
the feat indicate that the statue would have once stood 20.95 meters tall.
interesting scenes. Here, the king is purified by a double stream made up of the ankh
and the was (Life and Power) that falls in a dome around him. His two open hands
show the palm of one and the back side of the other. Two falcons cross their wings
over the king's chest under his three-row user necklace. As is the Nubian style, the
musculature of the kings legs is prominent. Here, the cartouche of Taharqa has been
etched out and replaced by that of Psamtik II.
To the left of this scene is
another where the king is
clad in a pleated loincloth
with a triangular front panel.
He offers incense to his
father Atum. He holds a
"cubit of incense" which he
sprinkles into a fire.
Within the structure are
additional support walls that
rise about 1.5 meters that
contain a large number of
reused stones from the
Nubian period, of which
several still retain the
cartouche and the two uraei,
not hammered out, of
Shabaka. This whole area,
with the exception of the
several rooms in the
northwest corner of the
building, is thought to have
been filled with dirt or
debris.
Within the structure, in the corner northwest room, on its southern wall is a depiction
of the king and behind him are six baboons, They face the east, and are called "the
eastern souls who worship Ra" when he rises. There may have originally been two
groups of four baboons each
facing east. The classic tests,
according to A. Piankoff, states:
"To worship the sun and cause it
to rise, by the spirits of the east.
The sprits of the east are the four
neters (gods) who worship the
sun. It is they who make the sun to
rise and who open the doors of
the four gates of the sky's eastern
horison"
The Egyptians chose the baboon
for this symbolism because the
animal seems to greet the morning
sun, and is said to give a howl at
every hour and urinate twelve
times during the day and twelve at
night during the equinox.
On the interior north wall of this
chamber is a scene depicting the
solar barque. The surface on
which this bas-relief is sculpted has been flattened out, removing the base of a dozen
columns of hieroglyphs from which the cartouches have been visibly removed or cut
away. The solar barque is proceeding from east to west, in the direction of the sun's
daily path. In the middle is Atum in his naos, who is surmounted by the single word
"iuf", which means flesh.
To the southeast of this chamber is another that in turn leads into an inner chapel.
Here, carved on the lintel to the doorway into the chapel is a very strange and
extremely rare representation. On one side, a female figure draws a bow with her left
arm pulled behind her back, while on the other side, a male figure, who holds a club in
his left hand, is making the "great stride". This is Taharqa and his mother. In the center
is depicted a tree which juts up from a hemispheric mound drawn within a rectangle.
Text here describes this as the shndt tree (spiny acacia of the chest). The name of
Osiris is on the mound. A similar representation on a Saite sarcophagus explains that
"This is the mound that hides what it holds; this is the hill of Osiris"
Taharqa and his mother on the lintel of the door leading to the inner chapel
Along the northwest wall of this structure on the inside runs the staircase leading to
the terrace. On the wall next to the staircase are representations of androcephalic
figures and mummified baboons, each of which correspond to a stair, climbing from
north to south above a solar disk. In the Royal Tombs of the West Bank, when present,
the Book of the Night is usually found on the western walls, while the Book of the
Day is on the east. The ascension of the figures here very probably correspond to the
last hours of the night.
During excavations conducted between 1949 and 1950, two additional walls of
unbaked brick were unearthed that lead off of the north and south ends of the east wall
of the main structure. Apparently this was a sort of courtyard that preceded the "pure
wells" from which the water for purifications of the daily ritual were drawn. The
southern brick wall is interrupted at its easternmost end by the opening of a staircase
that descends to the sacred lake, perpendicular to its border wall.
However, the appearances of the mysterious boat are becoming more and more rare;
for more than thirty years no one can boast of truly seeing it... It is not, alas! soon to
reappear, for my storyteller added that it would not be seen again until there was no
longer a liar or a thief within the country."
At the northern corner
of the lake between it
and the Osirian Temple
of Taharqa was located
a huge granite statue of
a scarab dedicated by
Amenhotep III and,
according to A. Varille,
brought from his West
Bank mortuary temple.
However, others believe
that it actually came
from Kom el-Heitan,
where another funerary
temple of Amenhotep III was built. The front face of the cylindrical pedestal on which
the scarab rests has been flattened to form a stela, and is carved entirely in sunk relief.
On it, the kneeling king makes an offering of two nu vessels to Atum of Heliopolis.
The solar disk set between the two extended wings that crown the text forms part of
the name of Nebmaatre that is inscribed in the vertical axis of this stela. The text
carved on the side of the stela explicitly states that it concerns "Khepri who rises from
the earth".
Among the most significant restoration projects, and being achieved totally by
Egyptian restorers, is the consolidation and removal of Amenhotep III's red granite
scarab, which has now been relocated to the lake's western side in order to make more
space for the influx of tourists inside the temple. Before the removal comprehensive
consolidation and cleaning took place. As a side note to this structure, the local guides
tell tourists that if one walks around the scarab seven times, he or she will never again
have love problems. So it is common to see the tourists making laps around the
scarab.
lake directly, because its waters were not pure enough for this purpose. Rather, the
water was probably itself purified before being used by the priests.
made by local officials, and at various times during Egyptian history, priestly offices
could be inherited.
Priests were usually divided into four groups that were
called "gangs of the service", to which the Greeks gave
the name, phyles. Each group served one lunar month
in rotation, so that during the year each one served for
three months with three months off between months of
service. This actually allowed some priests to hold
priesthoods in several temples. In the mature ancient
Egyptian cult, there were two main classes of priests.
Those of the highest class were called hm-ntr, meaning
"god's servant". They functioned in the presences of
the god's statue, and the Greeks translated hm-ntr as
"prophet", because it was these priests who interpreted
the oracles of the gods. The chief priests of a temple
were designated by ordinal numbers and so the high
priest of a temple was called hm-ntr tpy, or "first
prophet". In some temple cults, the high priest
received special titles. For example, the high priest of
Ptah was called "he who is great at directing the crafts,
while the high priest of Re was "he who is great at
seeing. The high priest of Thoth was "the arbitrator
between the two" and that of Khnum was "the modeler
of limbs".
The lower class of priests were called the "pure ones".
They served such functions such as carrying the god's bark, pouring water for libations
during temple services, as overseers of craftsmen, artisans or scribes, or as craftsmen
themselves, producing sacred objects for the cult. There was also a third class of priest
known as it-ntr, or "god's father". It has been suggested that these priests were senior
members of the lower class priesthood who had perhaps reached the level of prophet,
but who were not yet formally inducted into that office. At least one of their functions
seems to have been to walk in front of the god's image in processions and sprinkle
water to purify the path.
Some priests were also specialists. For example, the hry-hb who "he who carries the
festival roll", and it was his responsibility for reading the hymns and spells which
accompanied many rituals.
The "scribe of the house of
life" was given the duty of
copying the papyri used in
temple and funerary rituals.
During the Old Kingdom,
women could hold the
office of priestess (hmt-ntr)
of Hathor or Neith.
However, they rarely served
as priestess in the cult of a
male god. Before the New
Kingdom, the office of
priest was not considered a
full-time position, but with
the later introduction of the
professional priest, women
could no longer hold
priestly titles. Mainly, they
served as musicians, singers
and dancers of the cult.
Later, however, they could hold a vary prestigious title at Thebes, known as the Divine
Adoratress, which was a prominent position indeed.
The continued existence and prosperity of Egypt was
considered to depend on the successful performance of
cult activities, carried out by the priesthood in the
temple. At the very point of creation, the ancient
Egyptians believed that there was a small space of order
that appeared in the midst of chaos. Only within the
space of this order was life possible, and in order to
keep chaos from engulfing the created world, it was
necessary to perform the cult of the gods. These cult
activities primarily consisted of rituals that were
conducted on a daily basis, and those carried out
periodically during specific festivals.
The focus of all the cult activity was usually a statue of
the god known as an "image". These were usually small
objects, averaging about 50 centimeters (22 inches) in
height, that resided in a naos or bark shrine in the chapel
of the temple's inner sanctuary. Made of wood, stone, or
sometimes precious metals, since most temples housed
more than god, they also contained more than one cult
statue. However, these statues were usually produced with only the most permanent or
symbolically significant materials. The skin of the gods was considered to be pure
gold, so divine images were often gilded or made entirely with this precious metal.
The hair of the gods was said to be like lapis lazuli, so this was the semi precious stone
that was often inset into statues of deities to signify their hair and eyebrows.
Like the mummies of the deceased, once these statues were completed by the
craftsmen, they underwent a ritual called the "Opening of the Mouth", which
transformed the statue, allowing it to be used by the god to manifest itself and in
which the divine ka and ba could take up residence. However, it should be noted that
the statue itself was not the subject of worship. They were simply one means by which
the gods could receive worship.
At any particular point in time, the daily temple ritual took essentially the same form
in every temple in Egypt. This ritual evolved from that for the sun god Re at
Heliopolis, which evolved around the rebirth of the sun each morning. Elements of the
Osirian belief were later incorporated into this daily ritual, symbolizing the restoration
and revivification of the dismembered body of Osiris. For the purpose of the ritual, the
cult-statue became to be identified as both Re and Osiris.
Our understanding of these rituals comes basically from two main sources, which
include the temple reliefs that depict the king performing the various tasks of the
ceremony, and papyri that list the rituals and the hymns which accompany them.
Though these sources have allowed scholars to reconstruct the various events of the
daily ritual, they do not provide the sequence of activities.
However, we might suppose that
before dawn, two priests may have
been responsible for filling
containers with water from the
sacred well of the temple and
replenishing all of the libation
vessels. In the kitchens, priests
would have been busy preparing
offerings for the gods. The main
officiating priest, a hm-ntr, would
then go to the "house of the
morning" where he would be
ceremonially purified, dressed, given
a light meal, and prepare to conduct
the morning ceremony.
As the sun rose, the bolt was drawn
back and the door opened to the
shrine that contained the god's
image. Since only the king was
considered to be able to confront the
god, as the officiating priest approached the statue, he would declare that "it is the king
who has sent me to see the god". Now the priest prostrated himself before the image,
and the chapel was ritually purified with water and incense before a small figure of the
goddess Ma'at was presented to the god, symbolizing the proper order established for
the world at creation.
Next, the image of the god was probably removed from its shrine, and the clothing and
ointment provided the statue the previous day were removed. We believe that the
statue was placed on a pile of clean sand and the shrine was then purified with water
and incense. The image of the god would then be adorned with green and black eye
paint, as well as anointed with several oils. The statue was then dressed in clothes that
were colored white, green, blue and red. The white and red cloths would protect the
god from his enemies, while the blue hid his face and the green ensured his health.
The god's image was then presented with his regalia, such as crowns, scepter, crook,
flail and wsh-collar.
Finally, the face of the statue would be anointed, sand scattered around the chapel and
the statue replaced in its shrine, before the door was once more bolted and sealed. As
the priest performed the final purifications and left the sanctuary, he would drag
behind him a broom in order to obliterate his own footsteps.
Though at what point it took
place is unclear, at some time
during the morning ritual, the
offering would take place. This
provided the god with his
"breakfast, and may have
occurred before the final
purification of the chapel in
preparation for placing the statue
in the shrine. Other scholars
believe it may have taken place
before the undressing and
dressing of the statue. Though an
enormous meal consisting of
meat, bread, cakes, beer, milk,
honey, vegetables and fruit was
prepared for this purpose, only a
small, symbolic portion of it was
actually placed before the statue.
There was an offering formula
listing the various items that was
recited by the priest, and incense
was burned and libations made in order to purify and sanctify the offerings. Of course,
the god did not actually consume the offerings, but rather took from them their
essence, so they could be shared with the other deities of the temple.
In fact, the offerings were also used in the ritual of the royal ancestors, where they
were provided to the king's royal predecessors, often depicted in the form of a list of
their names. Next, the offerings were finally provided to the statues of other
individuals found in the temple, before ultimately becoming the property of the
priests. The priests received a share of the offerings based on their rank, and this was
one manner in which the priests were compensated for their service.
Though the morning ritual was the primary ceremony of the day, there were also less
elaborate ceremonies that took place at noon and in the evening. However, during
these services, the doors of the god's chapel were not opened. They consisted mainly
of pouring water libations and burning incense before the shrines of the gods.
There were other rituals that
were performed throughout
the night and day,
consisting mostly of
apotropaic dramatic rituals
meant to repel threats
against the gods.
Frequently, these threats
originated in the form of
Seth, the murderer of
Osiris, or Apophis, the
serpent who tried to stop the
daily voyage of Re thereby
bringing an end to creation.
On Re's behalf, hymns were
sung during the twelve
hours of the day and the
twelve hours of the night to
protect Re on his journey.
Images of these enemies were created from wax or clay and then destroyed, thereby
bringing about the enemies destruction through magic.
There were also a number of festivals (hbw) that were celebrated throughout the year,
though their nature could vary considerably over Egyptian history. Workers, as
evidenced by records at Deir el-Medina, were given days off for festivals. During the
reign of Tuthmosis III, we know that in the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak, some fiftyfour festivals were held, and at Ramesses III's temple at Medinet Habu, sixty festival
days were celebrated. Some of these festivals were small, but others could last as
many as twenty-seven days and require large expenditures of food and beverages for
participants. Records recording one festival related to Sokar record that 3,694 loaves
of bread, 410 cakes and 905 jars of beer were distributed.
Some of the more important of these festivals include the celebrations for New Year's
Day, the festival of Osiris at Abydos, during which the "mysteries" of this god were
celebrated, the festival of Hathor, when her statue was bought before the royal cult
complex and the festival of the Coronation of the Sacred Falcon of Edfu. There was
also the Beautiful Festival of the Valley during which the statue of Amun-Re was
taken from Karnak to the temple at Deir el-Bahri, as well as other royal cult
complexes on the west bank of the Nile River (particularly that of the reigning king).
This was also a celebration for the people, who would visit the tombs of their relatives
and observe an all-night vigil where they shared a feat with their deceased relatives.
During the festivals, the focus
remained on the statue image of
the god, but the statue would
now be housed in bark shrines.
The Egyptian gods always
traveled in boats. Sometimes
the boat was real, when the god
traveled on water, but at other
times the bark was a symbolic
boat carried over land on the
shoulders of priests. During
these festivals, the journey
could be as short as a
procession through the temple,
or the god could leave the
temple to visit another deity some distance away. The bark shrine was carried along
processional avenues which were often lined with sphinxes. Along the way, essentially
open-ended buildings were placed as stations on which the priests could rest the bark.
At these points, the priests would perform fumigations and provide libations and
hymns to the god's image.
These festivals and processions provided the general population with access to the
gods, which was otherwise not available, since the farthest most people were admitted
into the temples was the open forecourt. Though most scholars believe that the bark
shrine was closed during these processions, hiding the image from the onlookers, Dirk
van der Plass argued that numerous texts describe the desire of people so see the
image of the god, and therefore believes that the shrine was left open. The ancient
Egyptians believed that individuals could be healed of various illness by beholding the
god's image.
People could also approach the gods during festivals in order to seek an oracle, though
the first clear evidence for oracles only occurs as early as the New Kingdom.
However, John Baines has suggested that evidence for the existence of oracles may
exist as early as the First Intermediate Period, and that even earlier examples may
exist. This practice consisted of placing questions with simple yes or no answers
written out on small flakes of limestone or ostraca before the gods. These were often
questions regarding relatively everyday matters. The movement of the bark-shrine
carried on the shoulders of the priests indicated affirmative, if moved forward, nor
negative if the priests moved the shrine back.
example was the Opet festival that was held each year at the temple of Amun-Re at
Karnak during the fourth month of the inundation. There, the king had his union with
the royal ka renewed and therefore his right to rule reconfirmed. After (almost always)
thirty years, the king also celebrated his first sed-festival, which served to reconfirm
his relationship to the royal ka as well as to restore his vitality.
The practice of the king receiving a royal cult during his lifetime became especially
prominent during the New Kingdom, beginning with the reign of Amenhotep III. This
cult followed very closely the pattern of the daily temple rituals of other gods, and
kings erected for themselves statues, sometimes colossal, so that offerings could be
received. There are depictions of the king making offerings to his deified self. These
statue represented the royal ka of the living king, and when he or she worships their
own statue, they are actually worshipping the concept of deified kingship as
represented in the royal ka, which the king embodies.
Cults associated with the living pharaoh were more significant during certain periods,
and may have been linked with various political, economic and religious trends. For
example, this type of cult may have been emphasized during periods of coregency.
Evidence suggests that, during the Middle and New Kingdoms, some successors could
have been coronated prior to the death of the elder king. In these cases, the elder ruler
may have been projected into a fully divine role, perhaps conceptualized as a living
Osiris.
However, clearly the most important development in the cult of the living king
occurred during the New
Kingdom, focusing on his
or her divine birth. The key
here is that the pharaoh was
engendered not by the seed
of his actual paternal father,
but rather by that of Amun
himself. Cults focused on
the divinity of the ruling
monarch could have been
linked to a need to
legitimize the king's claim
to the throne by rulers such
as Hatshepsut, the Early
18th Dynasty female ruler.
Yet, the expanded role of
the cult of the living
pharaoh persisted through
the New Kingdom. It's
strength perhaps may be
seen as a means of
contributing to royal power
and legitimacy over an increasingly complex governmental and religious system. The
cult of the living king probably had it's greatest emphasis during the Amarna period,
when Akhenaten focused the state religion on the supreme power of the sun disk
known as Aten. His religious program emphasized the indispensable role of the king
as the sole intermediary between mankind and the life giving force of the sun disk.
Direct worship of the Aten was actually limited to Akhenaten himself, while the king
and his royal family were intended to be the object of worship by the population at
large. There have been unearthed offering stelae depicting the royal family belonging
to private households, and such veneration of the king within domestic spheres
represents an emphasis on kingly divinity not seen in other periods. However, after the
Amarna period, royal cult buildings continued to be erected, such as that of Ramesses
II at Abu Simbel, that presented the royal cult as an inseparable part of the divine
order.
The Temple of Luxor may be seen as the greatest surviving monument relating to the
divine, living king. Though the building was begun during the Middle Kingdom, it
underwent major additions and restorations during the reign of Amenhotep III and
later during the Ramessid period. This building can best be understood as a cult place
of the living king and his divine association with the Theban triad. It was the focal
point of the great Opet festival, when the image of Amun journeyed from his sanctuary
at Karnak and the living king celebrated his divine origins.
Of course, the worship of the divine king continued after his or her death, and from the
very beginning of Egyptian history, the royal burials included a place where the dead
ruler's spirit could receive offerings of food and drink. Early evidence for the
development of the royal funerary cult occurs in the mortuary structures built by the
Early Dynastic kings at Abydos. The burial places of the 1st and 2nd Dynasty kings
have associated "valley enclosures" and there is evidence for long term presentation of
offerings in a few of these.
The famous Step
Pyramid of Djoser
at Saqqara is the
first known fully
articulated funerary
monument. It
includes various
architectural
elements that were
designed to
perpetuate the role
of the king in the
afterlife, including
symbolic components of the royal palace, both above ground as well as below the
pyramid where the king could rule for eternity. An integrated element of this
architecture was a full offering cult, which was housed in a mortuary temple
positioned on the north side of the pyramid.
As early as the 4th Dynasty, kings erected for themselves a mortuary temple complex
situated on the east side of their larger pyramids for their funerary cult. The colossal
size and investment that went into these pyramid complexes of the 4th Dynasty attests
to the central importance of the pharaoh and his cult during this period of very early
Egyptian history. In fact, considering the resources that went into these structures,
much of the central government during the Old Kingdom must have been focused on
the construction of these funerary complexes, and so the royal cult became a driving
force in the political and economic of the Old Kingdom state.
Royal pyramid complexes from the 4th, 5th and 6th dynasties typically had two main
cult buildings, including the mortuary temple on the pyramid's east side, and a valley
temple at the edge of the Nile River floodplain. Like normal divine cults, the mortuary
temples were manned by rotating teams of priests in order to receive offerings and
carry on the cult rituals. The valley temple, on the other hand, was adorned with
scenes and statuary expressing the king's association with a wide variety of deities.
Specifically, the valley temples seems to have been a structure used particularly to link
the royal cult with other temples through periodic festivals and processions.
Beginning with the
pyramid of King
Userkaf, the first
king of Egypt's 5th
Dynasty, there was
a false door in the
mortuary temple
that became the
focal point for
offerings to the
king's spirit.
However, beginning
with the pyramid of
Unas, the last ruler
of the 5th Dynasty,
a major source of
information on
royal funerary cults
is the Pyramid Texts, where were inscribed on the walls of the burial chambers. These
texts provide a complex series of magical spells and religious statements intended to
aid the king during the afterlife. They record embalming and burial rituals, as well as
written versions of he offering formulae and of the offering ritual itself.
During the Middle Kingdom, the construction of pyramid complexes continued, but
there were some basic theological shifts. For example, the first royal mortuary
complex build during the eleventh dynasty, belonging to Montuhotep, represents a
departure from the complexes of the Old Kingdom in its emphasis on venerating the
newly important state god of Thebes, Amun-Re. Now, the king's legitimacy is
provided through his or her association with that deity. Hence, the complex of
Montuhotep focuses on the Thebian triad, consisting of Amun, Mut and Khonsu, but
integrates a cult statue for the king.
The association
between the the
deified king and
other gods was
emphasized during
this period, and later
with the ritual
known as the
"Beautiful Festival
of the Valley",
which was held
annually. During
this ceremony, the
image (statue) of Amun was carried on his sacred bark to the west where he visited the
king's funerary temple.
Later, during the Middle Kingdom, there were at times efforts to return to Old
Kingdom cult practices, but there were nevertheless significant changes in conceptions
of kingship that effectively restructured ideas on the nature of the king's role. Changes
reflected in the design and decoration of royal cult buildings of the later Middle
Kingdom and afterwards emphasis the veneration of the gods, with the king's cult
appended and legitimized through his association with important gods. By late in the
12th Dynasty, the term "mansion of millions of years" appears in some records
referencing the funerary temple of Amenemhet III at Hawara. This term can be
understood to apply to royal cult complexes where the king's cult was important, but
nevertheless subordinate to the cult of major deities.
This late 12th Dynasty practice ushered
in the New Kingdom, when the
mansion of millions of years became
the standard type of royal cult building.
They were built on the West bank of
the Nile at Thebes, and the best
remaining examples are the
Ramesseum of Ramesses II of the 19th
Dynasty and Medinet Habu built by
Ramesses III. who ruled during the
20th Dynasty. These temple complexes
were built some distance from the
actual tombs of these rulers, who were
buried further in on the West Bank in
the Valley of the Kings.
Now, rather being independent, these temples were considered a part of the domain of
Amun and so were connected administratively with the great temple of Amun at
Karnak. They were surrounded by various precincts that included storerooms and
housing for priests and officials who ran the economic foundations that sustained their
cults.
These complexes, usually referred to as mortuary temples, were actually built and
dedicated to Amun-Re. The cult of the king was mediated by his or her divine
association with that deity. The "Beautiful Festival of the Valley" survived the Middle
Kingdom and continued as one of the most important ritual links during the New
Kingdom between the royal funerary temples and the temple of Amun at Karnak.
However, there were mansions of
millions of years built elsewhere.
One important example is that of
Seti I at Abydos, where the royal
cult was linked to one of Egypt's
other principal gods, Osiris. The
ancient Egyptians believed that
Osiris was a deceased king of
Egypt who was reborn to rule in the
netherworld. Thus, Seti I's temple
was also a monument dedicated to
the institution of kingship itself as
embodied in Osiris.
Seti I's temple also illustrates
another type of cult, which venerates the royal ancestors through cult activity
mandated by the living king. Known as the Cult of the Royal Ancestors to modern
Egyptologists, this type of worship is known from as early as the Old and Middle
Kingdoms, but became particularly visible during the New Kingdom. This type of cult
activity could be established through patronage of existing temples, such as at Karnak,
or the dedications of Senusret III within the mortuary temple of Montuhotep.
However, it could also be articulated within a newly founded building such as that of
Seti I at Abydos.
There was also a place for the royal cult within the temples of more normal gods.
Kings from the earliest dynasties expressed their association with the gods by
dedicating statuary and other religious objects, and in many of the large state temples,
the cults of the gods and king became well linked. We find in the temples such as
those of Horus at Heirakonpolis and Montu at Medamud considerable remains of royal
dedicatory material, and there is no doubt that such temples also maintained a
substantial royal cult.
Those in such divine state temples, the king's cult may have been represented by his
statue that received a portion of the daily offerings, in other instances and particularly
in large state temples, entire ancillary buildings were built to link the royal cult with
the divine god's cult. There are often referred to as ka-chapels, and can be found in
instead thought of as manifestations of the gods. Like cult statues, they were actually
one vehicle through which the gods could make their will manifest, and through which
the faithful could demonstrate their devotion to the gods. Therefore, individual
animals were cot considered gods, but the god could take up his abode in them and
they become become an image of the god and a vessel for him.
In fact, the keeping of sacred
animals seems a very logical
extension of early many cult
statues. Horus, for example,
was frequently depicted in
statuary and on temple walls
in his manifestation as a fully
formed falcon, so it is
understandable that the
ancient Egyptians might also
venerate the living, breathing
animal.
We may categorize three
different types of sacred
animals that were honored by
the ancient Egyptians. The
temple animals, one type,
functioned very similarly to
the cult statues in temples.
These animals lived in or near
a temple and were
distinguished by special
markings. The Apis bull of
Memphis, for example, had to
be a black bull with a white
triangle on its forehead, a crescent moon on its chest and another on its flanks, as well
as having black and white in its tail. It was though to be the ka manifestation of Ptah,
and like cult statues, these animals could visit other deities in their temples as well as
give oracles. At certain times of the day, the bull would be released into a courtyard
where worshippers would gather to see him and receive oracles. Oracles were
questions that had either a yes or no answer, and this answer was received when the
bull entered into one of two stables. Upon the death of the Apis bull, it was elaborately
embalmed and there was a time of general mourning. It was then buried in an
enormous stone sarcophagus in the Serapeum at Saqqara, after which a search would
be made for its replacement.
There were a number of other bulls that were worshipped in this manner, including the
Mnevis bull at Heliopolis, which was the manifestation of Atum-Re and the Buchis
bull at Hermonthis, which represented Montu and was particularly important during
the reign of Nectanebo II. Other animals included the ram of Mendes, which was
considered the manifestation of Osiris-Re, and the ram of Elephantine which was
associated with Khnum.
A second class of sacred animals were those kept in large numbers near a temple. In
animal cults, we encounter the ability of Egyptian gods to extend their existence
almost endlessly so that they could be manifest not just in one ibis or crocodile, but in
all ibises or all crocodiles. At Saqqara, for example, there was an extensive complex of
buildings dedicated to the priestly care of large flocks of ibises, considered to be the
manifestation of Thoth, and of falcons, who represented Horus. These flocks provided
the enormous number of animal burials found in Egypt, which included literally
millions of mummified animals in necropolises throughout the country. Besides the
ibis necropolis at Saqqara, there are necropolises for cats at Bubastis, rams at
Elephantine, crocodiles, snakes, falcons and ibises at Kom Ombo and ibises and
falcons at Abydos.
The burial of sacred animals
were frequently paid for by
pilgrims during visits to the
temples at festivals or when
seeking divine blessings, and
this must have created a
considerable priestly industry
for animal mummification.
The mummified animal
corpse served as a votive
offering for the god, and the
devotee obviously expected
to earn the goodwill of the
deity by providing for the
burial of one of its sacred animals. For example, one inscription preserved on a jar
containing an ibis mummy is a prayer asking Thoth to be benevolent toward the
woman who had embalmed his sacred animal. One wonders whether these animals
were kept for this specific reason, and to profit the temple, for while only one temple
animal was kept at any one time, which received a cult, this second class of sacred
animal was kept in large numbers and really received no cult. Obviously the burial of
the temple animals was also much more elaborate.
A third type of sacred animal were those kept in private homes as representative of the
gods. They included snakes, cats, dogs and other animals, which were kept in cages
and buried upon their death. This practice is analogous to the construction of
household shrines to allow for domestic worship. However, one must wonder how
Egyptologists distinguish between animals kept in private homes for spiritual reasons,
and those that were simply kept as pets.
Abydos in Egypt
by Marie Parsons
>> Abydos
Abydos, or Abjdu, lies in the eight nome of Upper Egypt, about 300 miles south of
Cairo, on the western side of the Nile and about 9.5 miles from the river. It spreads
over 5 square miles and contains
archaeological remains from all
periods of ancient Egyptian history. It
was significant in historical times as
the main cult center of Osiris, the lord
of the netherworld. At the mouth of the
canyon at Abydos, which the
Egyptians believed to be the entrance
to the underworld, one of the tombs of
the 1st dynasty kings was mistaken for
the tomb of Osiris, a thousand years
later, and pilgrims would leave
offerings to the god for another
thousand years. The area is thus now
called Umm el Qaab, "Mother of
Pots."
Abydos was the burial place for the
first kings of a unified Egypt. But it contains remains from earlier, in the Predynastic
period. In 1900 the Predynastic cemetery of el-Amra was excavated with hundreds of
graves from all Predynastic phases. Other important cemeteries were found at Naga
ed-Deir, el-Mahasna, Mesheikh, Beit Allam and the various cemeteries at Abydos
itself. In addition, settlements have been found, most representing small farming
villages. El-Mahasna had beer-brewing facilities.
The Predynasty/Early Dynastic cemetery is located in the low desert. It consists of
three parts: predynastic Cemetery U in the north, Cemetery B in the middle with royal
tombs from Dynasty 0 and the
early 1st Dynasty, and in the south
the tomb complexes of six kings
and one queen from the 1st dynasty
and two kings from the 2nd dynasty.
Most of the 1st dynasty tombs show
traces of immense fires. Many had
also been plundered many times.
In 1977 a tiny ivory label was
discovered bearing the "nar" name
of Narmer, and the king is seen
smiting an enemy in the Delta.
Cemetery U contains several hundred graves and offering pits. Ceramics are from the
Naqada culture. Of particular importance is the tomb named U-j, uncovered in 1988.
It is dated to 150 years before Aha and the beginning of the 1st dynasty.
The tomb is elaborate, brick-lined, with doors and windows. It has twelve chambers
and measures about 27 feet x 24 feet. It still contained much funerary equipment.
There were large amounts of different
kinds of Egyptian pottery, and more than
200 wine jars imported probably from
Palestine. There were also about 150 labels
of ivory or bone, many of which were
apparently attached to linen bolts.
Many of the inscriptions on the labels are
readable with clear glyphs and signs. The
most frequent sign was a scorpion,
sometimes together with a plant. It is speculated that either King Scorpion was buried
here or that he was a known figure. Hundreds of wine jars imported from Canaan
were also unearthed in one of the tombs store-rooms.
There were traces of a wooden shrine on the floor in the burial chamber, and in the
northeastern corner a complete crook-shaped scepter of ivory.
Many of the earliest tombs are in the
location known as Umm el Ga'ab. Ten
royal enclosures in total must have been
built; but only eight have been located.
Some of the royal owners have been
identified: Djer, Djet (Tomb), Queenmother Merneith (Tomb), of the 1st
Dynasty, Den (tomb) and Peribsen
(Tomb) and Khasekhemwy (Tomb)of
the 2nd Dynasty. At least some of these
burials were surrounded by subsidiary
graves for attendants killed and buried
along with the royal funeral.
Cemetery B contains three double-chamber tombs, currently attributed to King Aha
(Tomb), and his Dynasty 0 predecessors of Narmer (tomb), Ka (tomb) and possibly
another King named Iry-Hor (tomb). Pottery shards have been found here which are
inscribed with the name-signs of these kings.
Royal graves at Abydos became more elaborate, until the last and largest royal tomb
built there for Khasekhemwy, last king of the 2nd Dynasty. His tomb, called Shunet
es-Zebib, the Storehouse of the Flies, measures about 230 feet long and varying
between 56 and 33 feet
in width. Near
Khentyamentius
temple, a mile north of
the Umm el Gaab
(Qa'ab) cemetery and
nested among the
enclosures were
fourteen (found to-date)
large boat graves The
remains of the ancient
ships, dating to the 1st
Dynasty, were
uncovered in the desert.
Each averages 75 feet
in length and had been
encased in a structure
two-feet thick with
whitewashed mudbrick walls. Whether
they were meant to
represent solar barques,
anticipating the ship
built by Khufu and
found within his
Pyramid at Giza, is not
yet known.
North Abydos contains an ancient settlement and also the remains of a large stone
temple from the 30th Dynasty, along with a portal structure of Ramesses II, and a
fairly recently discovered temple built by Tuthmosis III. Most of the early town lies
beneath modern groundwater and the remains of later settlements. Another temple,
that of Khentyamentiu which was later identified with Osiris as his temple, dates from
the later third millennium BCE. Royal cult buildings or ka chapels were built here by
kings from the Old Kingdom through the New Kingdom. Buildings to the west and
southwest of the cult buildings proved to be houses spanning the period from late
Predynastic to the 2nd Dynasty.
A residential and industrial section have also been found to the southeast of those
excavations, dating to the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period. A number of
mudbrick houses, consisting of between 7 and 10 small rooms, courtyards and a
narrow street have been found. A workshop, the earliest and most complete faience
workshop in Egypt, was also uncovered, complete with kilns.
The Northern cemetery was the principal burial ground for non-royal individuals at
Abydos during the Middle Kingdom, and continued to be so used through the GraecoRoman period.
The tombs of the first kings of unified Egypt were deep brick-lined structures topped
with mounds of sand, later called mastabas, the Arabic word for bench, since their
square or rectangular shapes resembled benches. Later in the 1st Dynasty, one
structure was placed underground, supported by a retaining wall, and the second
mastaba was placed above ground directly over the first, to protect the lower one.
The most striking standing buildings are the enclosure of King Khasekhemwy from
the 2nd Dynasty, the well-preserved New Kingdom temples of Seti I (temple) and
Ramesses II (temple) from the 19th Dynasty, and the walled enclosure now called the
Kom es-Sultan, the location of the early town and main temple dedicated to Osiris.
The 19th Dynasty Seti temple contains seven sanctuaries set in a row, each dedicated
to a different deity, Ptah, Ra-Harakhty, Amun-Ra, Osiris, Isis and Horus. Seti I
himself was included with his funerary shrine. The unusual L-shaped plan of the
temple is caused by a southeast wing appended to the main rectangular-shaped
temple. This wing contains rooms dedicated to Sokar and Nefertum and other
funerary deities. There is also a King list to the south of the sanctuaries. Since the
temple was unfinished when Seti died, his son and successor Ramesses II finished the
work.
Immediately behind the chambers dedicated to the Osiris cult is another structure,
subterranean, called the Osireion. It contains offering scenes and other scenes from
the Book of Gates and the Book of the Dead.
South Abydos was developed as a zone for royal cult complexes, two well-preserved
ones so far identified as belonging to Senusret II of the 12th Dynasty and Ahmose of
the 18th Dynasty, who built a small pyramid here. .
Relief fragments at the complex of King Ahmose, the founder of the New Kingdom
and conqueror of the Hyksos invaders, have been found near his pyramid and funerary
complex at Abydos. One fragment represents a group of three arcers, teams of bridled
chariot horses, ships with oars, and fallen warriors recognizable as Asiatics. Other
fragments bear the names of Apophis, the leader of the Hyksos, and that of Avaris, the
capital city of the Hyksos.
As work proceeds at ancient Abydos, a home of the dead for so many millennia, more
and more of the history and religious beliefs of the ancient Egyptians is returning to
life.
The Temple of Ain el-Muftella may have once served as the city center of El Qasr
which is today the modern town of Bawiti in the Bahariya Oasis. It was most likely
built around the time of the 26th Dynasty, though some sections of the temple may
date from earlier in the New Kingdom. The temple was probably added to by both the
Greeks, and later the Romans.
We know that parts of the temple were built by a high priest named Zed-Khonsuefankh who's brother, Sheben-Khonsu was governor of the district during the reign of
Ahmose II. After the death of Sheben-Khonsu, Zed-Khonsu-efankh also took on his
brother's role as governor.
Fakhry investigated the site in 1939 leading to his mistaken opinion that the structures
were four separate chapels. However, when the site was again examined in 1977, it
was determined that
the these structures
were in fact one
temple.
The temple center
does in fact consist
of four chapels that
are decorated with
painted, sunk relief
and are of a style
similar to what
might be found in other Egyptian temples of this period. The first chapel, which has
two large halls,
once had vaulted
ceilings painted
with geometrical
designs. Each of the
halls were adjoined
by small storage
rooms.
Rural temples such
as this one in Egypt
may have been
required to be serve
as a general purpose place of worship for a number of different gods. Scenes in the
first hall depict Zed-Khonsu-efankh, and sometimes his brother Sheben-Khonsu, along
with Ahmose II, who wears the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, standing
side by side making offerings to thirteen gods, who include Mahesa, Bastet, Amun,
Mut, Khonsu, Harsaphis (Herishef or Arshaphes), Hathor, Thoth, Nehem-awa (the
consort of Thoth), Amun (ram headed), Anubis and Isis. Occasionally, the god Ha (a
god of the Western Desert) is also included in the procession.
Another set of reliefs in the side entrance depict Ahmose II standing with an ankh in
his right hand along side the hippopotamus goddess, Taweret, Horus and the cow
goddess, Hathor. Behind them is another scene depicting a child, several
unrecognizable gods and goddesses, and the goddess Ma'at with her feather, who are
all facing the gods Montu, Horus and Sekhmet.
In the second chapel, which was also probably built by Zed-Khonsu-efankh, we find a
scene portraying the high priest with a shaved head worshipping Osiris. Another scene
shows Zed-Khonsu-efankh, Sheben-Khonsu And Ahmose II before a similar
procession of gods
as in the first
chapel, but with the
addition of Seshat,
the goddess of
writing. Other
scenes in this chapel
show the sisters of
Osiris mourning his
death, along with a
list of the names of
various deities.
The wall to the right of the entrance to the second chapel displays a scene depicting an
unknown priest making offerings to Osiris, and then the king standing before Thoth.
On the west wall we find a mummified Osiris.
The third chapel was probably dedicated almost exclusively to the goddess Bes. It has
two entrances at either end of the chapel that are built of dolerite and sandstone, and
one wall within this chapel id devoted exclusively to a large figure of that deity,
though only the bottom half remains.
The fourth chapel, probably also built by Zed-Khonsu-efankh, is perhaps more simple,
made of brick and stone, but probably never painted. The only notable scene in this
chapel depicts Ahmose II in the presence of Khnum and Horus.
A number of artifacts have been recovered from this temple over the years.
Discoveries in the first chapel consist of a statue of the goddess Bastet, a stone
emblem of a head of Hathor, a statuette of an unknown king, another statuette of
Akhmim (Ipu)
by Alan Winston
Akhmim, is an area on the east bank of the Nile opposite modern Sohag. The ancient
Egyptians called it Ipu or Khent-min. To the Coptics it was Khmin or Shmin, and so
the Greeks called it Khemmis. It was once a great center in Egypt, and the capital of
the 9th Upper Egyptian nome. Regrettably, very little of its monuments remain today,
as most building material was dismantled and used in nearby villages during the
Middle Ages. Its ancient necropolis has never been systematically excavated.
Northeast of Akmin there is a rock chapel at el-Salamuni
that was dedicated to the local god Min. The Greek god
Pan was associated with Min, so the town was also called
Panopolis. The chapel was probably build during the
reign of Tuthmosis III. The chapel was probably
decorated by the "First Prophet of Min, Nakhtmin during
the reign of Aya. These reliefs show Aya and his wife,
Teye worshipping local gods. Some one thousand years
later, the "Chief Priest of Min, Harma'kheru, also
decorated the tomb with representations of Ptolemy II
Philadelphus also worshipping local gods. We also know
that Psammuthis was an active builder in the area.
Left: Lid of the outer coffin of Espamai, A priest at Akhmim in
the 26th and 27th Dynasties.
There are also ruins of two temple that once stood west of
the modern town of Akhmim. They were built for Min
and the goddess Repyt (Triphis), who was regarded as
Min's companion. We believe they date from the Greek
and Roman periods, although some building material is
older. It is not clear whether these blocks were part of an
older construct of the temples, are were reused from other
locations.
There are also a number of rock-cut tombs of various dates in the area, particularly at
el-Hawawish, northeast of Akhmim and at el-Salamuni. Some are decorated with
painted circular zodiacs, and belong to officials of the nome from the late Old
Kingdom and early Middle Kingdom. Apparently, these local rulers were able to
acquire a great deal of wealth and some power. Amenhotep III, and 18th Dynasty
Pharaoh, even married the daughter (Tiy) of Yuya, who was
an official at Akhmim. Tiy became a very important Queen
during this period, and is believed to have been the mother
of Akhenaten, the heretic King. The tombs in this area were
first excavated by Percy Newberry in 1912, but
unfortunately had been largely plundered during the 1880s.
The tombs were more recently re-examined and recorded
by Naguib Kanawati.
Right: Colossal Statue of Meryetamun, which measures 21 feet (6.5
meters) tall. She was the principal consort of Rameses II after the
death of Nefertari.
Coffin of a woman named Tamin from the Roman period cemetery at Akmin
Al-Minya is a beautiful city that has had little tourist traffic over the past decade, so
you wont find the usual kiosks so prevalent at traditional tourist sites. Quiet and easygoing, Al-Minya offers a serene example of traditional life along the Nile. Here, you
will feel life away from
the hustle and bustle of
the big city and away
from the tourist centers
visited my most guests
to Egypt. Al-Minya has
one of the loveliest
green areas along the
river you will find
anywhere in Egypt.
Take time to sit and
view river traffic or
take a short stroll along
the rivers edge. You
can also find places to
get traditional Egyptian
food in the city proper.
To get to Bani Hasan from Al-Minya, you will need to take a car, taxi, or bus for
approximately 20 km to Abu Qurqas where you will get a ferry for the East Bank and
Bani Hasan (this is why you need to make prior arrangements through a travel agent).
The ferry takes about 20-30 minutes to cross from the landing on the west bank to the
east. The landing site is located not too far from the Rest House where you will start
your climb to the tombs overlooking the valley. Dont forget to take some water with
you and to wear good walking shoes. The vertical climb from the rest house is listed as
being about 80 meters. Broad, deep limestone steps lead you to the distant tombs on
the cliff face (probably only about on-half mile away, but it looks further).
The area is named for the Bani Hasan Arabs who settled here during the 18th century.
In ancient times, it was the Necropolis of the Governors of the Oryx Nome. All of the
tombs of Bani Hasan are Middle Kingdom, 11 and 12 Dynasties. The short version of
Middle Kingdom history is as follows. The Middle Kingdom follows the First
Intermediate Period, a time of disunity throughout Egypt. Dynasty 11 is generally
listed as beginning in the First Intermediate Period. The Middle Kingdom, hallmarked
by the reunification of Egypt, occurred in the 11th Dynasty under the rule of
Mentuhotep I (sometimes these kings are shifted, with Mentuhotep I referred to as
Mentuhotep II, and so on), who was the first king of that dynasty. After a series of
battles with northern rulers, Mentuhotep I gained control of the whole of Egypt by the
39th year of his reign. Apparently, the 12th Dynasty began when Mentuhotep III
(Mentuhotep IV) was overthrown by Amenemhet I, (probably the formers vizier),
who ruled for 29 years. Under Amenemhet, the Theban god Amun began a rise to
prominence. Prior to his murder, Amenemhet shared his rule with his son Senusret I
for the last ten years of his reign. Later in the 12th Dynasty, Amenemhet III pushed
south beyond Egypts boundaries to protect the southern border and safeguard access
to trade routes and the gold in Nubia. The Middle Kingdom is characterized by being a
highpoint in Egyptian literature and a revival in the quality of art.
Bani Hasan has some 39 tomb-chapels. Most are not decorated, so you dont go to
these. In front of the tombs are the shaft graves of officials and servants, referred to as
chapels rather than tombs since the burials were in the shafts in the rock-cut chambers.
The tombs of Bani Hasan fall into three types.
Most numerous are tombs of the 11th Dynasty with un-columned single rooms
and a false door on the inner wall.
Second, are the tombs with the delicately carved lotus bud fluted columns.
Many of the columns were cut away sometime in the past, so there is only the
top part "hanging" from the ceiling.
Third, the 12th Dynasty tombs consist of an ant-chamber with two columns and
an inner room with burial shafts in the floor.
Originally, a pathway along both inside walls of the deep hall was roofed over with a
vault, while the central portion of the this hall was left open to the sky. Here, the low
reliefs are of considerable historic value because they provide depictions of the Syrian,
Libyan (right wall), and Ramesses II's triumph over the Nubians (left wall). The
scenes of the Nubian
campaigns also depict
several sons of Ramesses II
engaged in battle, including
Amunhershepeshef, the
original crown prince, and
Khaemwese, later famous
as a High Priest of Ptah in
Memphis near modern
Cairo. However, at this time
the older could not have
been much older than eight,
while Khaemwese was
probably only about five, so
in reality, while they may
have accompanied their
father on the Nubian
campaigns, they could not
have actually been evolved
as warriors in the battles.
There are also records of the tribute paid to the king by the Nubians. Interestingly, the
style of these reliefs shows a certain freedom in their rendering. They feature some
slight forms of perspective, and there sometimes even appears to be humor. While
their execution is rather simple and even sketchy, their artistic value is considerable.
The wall at the end of the hall is well worn and battered. Here, there is a central
doorway, to which to lateral ones were later added, that communicates with a
transverse antechamber measuring some 4.15 by 10.4 meters and somewhat over three
meters high. Its rock ceiling
is supported by two
architrave oriented northsouth, in turn supported by
two sturdy fluted columns.
The columns are rather
unusual, being a type
known as "proto-Doric",
with four vertical plane
sides, inscribed, having
entasis, a blank horizontal
fillet at the top, and a square
abacus.
At each end of this
transverse hall in the rear wall is a niche containing a statuary group consisting of
Ramesses II between two deities. Behind the plinth are low-relief scenes depicting
religious motifs. Here, paint inside a red outline has been applied on a thin stucco
layer. A frieze of Kheker elements crowns the walls, just below the ceiling. In the
middle, the ceiling is decorated with a series of vultures with outstretched wings.
Interior of the two columned vestibule showing a statue niche and the two, massive pillars
From the rear wall of the antechamber, a single doorway gives way to the single
sanctuary, which measures 2.8 meters by 3.6 meters and with a ceiling about 1.7
meters high. In the rear wall of this chamber, a niche with three statues representing
Ramesses II between two deities, is cut into the wall.
Archaeologists have suggested that there were as many as four stages of construction
resulting in this small temple, and perhaps as many as three artists who's hands
sculpted the walls. During the early Coptic era, the temple was transformed into a
church. The deep hall became a basilica with three aisles that was roofed over with
three brick vaults on supports. At that time, the niche in the sanctuary was further
hewn into an altar.
the Oasis. The entrance communicated with a long hall that was probably a public area
for worshipping Bes. On the stucco floor of this hall a statue of Bes was discovered in
three pieces. It is probably the best preserved statue of this god ever found in Egypt,
measuring about four feet in height with features that are finely carved and still show
traces of the original paint used to adorn the figure.
Here, there was also discovered copper vessels that may have originally held offerings
to Bes (undoubtedly including some of the best wine produced in the Oasis). There is
a small door that leads off this hallway down a sort ramp to a water shaft that was
apparently used for cult purposes.
Behind the main entrance hall was an inner sanctuary surrounded by private rooms
and annexes. However, there is evidence that suggests that this inner section of the
temple originally took the form of two main halls that were converted into nine
smaller rooms at the end of the Roman period.
A number of artifacts were discovered in the inner sanctuary. They included a faience
figure, presumed to be a shabi, but wearing a tight dress and adorned with a royal false
beard. This figure was carved with his hands across his chest and a tight fist holding a
tool in the shape of the hieroglyph for a pyramid. An amulet made of red copper was
also found in the form of a seated cat, along with a miniature statuette of Horus. In
addition, a round game board made of sandstone was discovered with two concentric
circles. Within these circles were small depressions that most likely held game pieces.
Along with the game, a die with faces numbered one through six was also found.
A view of both the Temple of Thoth (Dakka) and the small Maharraka temple
Above Left: One of the Capitals that fron the Temple of Thoth pronaos
Above Right: A depiction of Anqet, the Goddess of the Nile at Aswan
Below Left: The pharaoh offers the goddess Ma'at, a personification of universal order
Below Center: An old photograph showing the axis of the temple through the pylon
Below Right: The god, Khnoum, one of the decorations provided by Augustus
Today, Dakka sits dramatically on a small bluff. This is the only Nubian temple with a
facade that faces to the north and oriented north-south to parallel the course of the
Nile. The pylon of the temple is now separated from the remainder of the temple due
to the missing enclosure walls of the open court. Above the entrance in the pylon, a
solar disk with a uraeus extends its wings. On the southern side of the temple, a small
entrance leads into the interior of the pylon and to a stairway that communicates with
several internal rooms.
When the temple was moved, it was discovered to contain a number of reused blocks
from an earlier structure dedicated to Horus of Baki (Quban) that was built by
Hatshepsut and Tuthmosisi III, though this earlier New Kingdom temple may have
been constructed on the opposing shore of the Nile. However, unlike many New
Kingdom temples built in Nubia that seem to have been constructed more as symbols
of power, but isolated and having perhaps no
real public worship functions and limited
priesthood, this temple was apparently built in
an urban center were an active cult was more
likely.
It should also be noted that at the modern site
of the el-Dakka temple, not only do we find the
temple of el-Sebua, but also the small
Maharraka temple, dating from Roman times and dedicated to Serapis and Isis.
Interestingly, this small temple contains the only spiral staircase in any Nubian temple.
However, this temple's decorative theme was never competed. It to was moved to this
location from its original site about 81 kilometers to the north.
Left: Agustus wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt and presenting three ostrich feathers to,
perhaps Osiris and Isis or Hathor; Right: A relief of the Lioness Sekhmet as she angrily faces a
baboon from a small chamber within the temple
Deir el-Bahri
By Marie Parsons
and is often listed as I or II on modern dynastic king-lists. The Theban kings of the
family Inyotef came to power as Egypt was once again unified
after the First Intermediate Period. The Inyotef Kings have left
almost no remains of temples associated with their cults.
Nebhepetre continued his predecessors practice of combining
cult structures with tomb.
The temple is called Akh Sut Nebhepetra, "Splendid are the
places of Nehepetre". It was the first to be built in the great bay
of Deir el-Bahri, just south of the tombs of his ancestors. The
temple was discovered in the 1860s and was excavated after the
turn of the century. It continued to be studied later on.
The temple is smaller and not so well-preserved as is the later temple built by
Hatshepsut. Unlike the later mortuary temples it also functioned as a tomb, and
differed from them in its multi-level construction and plan. A processional causeway
led up from a small valley temple to a great tree-lined court beneath which a deep
shaft was cut. This shaft led to unfinished rooms believed to have originally been
intended as the kings tomb. Howard Carter found a wrapped statue of the king there.
The front part of the temple was made of limestone and was dedicated to Montu-Ra,
local deity of Thebes before Amun. The rear of the temple was made of sandstone and
was the cult center for the king.
The sides of the ramp leading to the upper terrace were colonnaded, and the upper
terrace itself was given a colonnade on three sides. Octagonal columns surround a
large squire structure, a funerary chapel. The enclosure also contained six chapels and
shaft tombs for his wives and family members.
The inner part of the temple consists of a columned courtyard, beneath which was the
entrance to the kings tomb cut into the rock. At the level of the terrace, the hypostyle
hall contained the sanctuary of the royal cult. A statue of the king stood in the niche
carved into the rock face.
Temple of Tutmosis III
Tutmosis III, the successor to Hatshepsut, built a temple complex here. It was only
discovered in 1961, when restoration and cleaning work between the monuments of
Mentuhotep and Hatshepsut was underway. The complex, perched on the rising rock
of the cliffs, was built to Amun, as was a chapel to Hathor. The structure was probably
intended to receive the barque of Amun during the Feast of the Valley, and thus would
have replaced the temple of Hatshepsut.
After a landslide seriously damaged the temple at the end of the 20th Dynasty, it was
apparently abandoned. It then became a quarry, and later, a cemetery for the nearby
Coptic monastery.
Temple of Hatshepsut
The temple of Hatshepsut is
the best-preserved of the
three complexes. Called by
the people Djeser-djeseru,
"sacred of sacreds",
Hatshepsuts terraced and
rock-cut temple is one of
the most impressive
monuments of the west
bank.
Situated directly against the rock face of Deir el-Bahris great rock bay, the temple not
only echoed the lines of the surrounding cliffs in its design, but it seems a natural
extension of the rock faces.
The temple was little more than a ruin when first excavated in 1891, but it has led to a
great deal of successful reconstruction. The temple took 15 years to build and was
modified throughout that time. The approach to the temple was along a 121-foot wide,
causeway, sphinx-lined, that led from the valley to the pylons. These pylons have now
disappeared
century etched there names, including Edmondstone, Houghton, Hyde and Cailliaud,
as well as the entire Rohlf expedition. Edmondstone recorded the date of his visit as
February 1819, at Aim Amur as
evidence of his departure from the
Dakhla Oasis. This demonstrates
that he visited the Oasis prior to
Drovetti. Drovetti, in his diary,
maintained that he visited the
temple "toward the end of 1818,
which would have made him the
first. He only recorded his name at
Deir al-Hagar, but an ex-Napoleon
solder who deserted in 1801 and
remained in Egypt accompanied
Drovetti on his journey to Dakhla.
He recorded the date of the visit as
26 F. 1819. It was almost 100 years
before another foreign traveler
passed by, found the inscriptions at
Deir al-Hagar and Ain Amur, and
offered proof that Edmondstone had
actually discovered Deir al-Hagar.
Edmondstone found the temple half filled in with sand and he tried to clear it, though
he soon abandoned the project and simply measured the structure. At that time, the
sanctuary still had a roof and parts of three front columns were standing. Rohlfs
related that Remele removed the sanctuary roof to clear the sand.
There is an interesting
legend surrounding the visit
of Gerhard Rohlf to the
temple. Local residents
believe that he came to the
oasis, with a treasure book
in hand, to find a buried
treasure. When he was
unsuccessful, they believe
he sacrificed one of the
workers of his group to the
afrit, a spirit, who was
guarding the entrance to the
treasury. Then he took the
treasure and departed.
In 1995, restoration efforts
on the temple were carried out by the Dakhla Oasis Project under the direction of the
Supreme Council of Antiquities. The restoration was done entirely with the technology
and materials used by the original craftsmen. Many stones were replaced, as were the
doors, and a fence of palm branches
was erected to protect the temple
grounds from encroaching sands. A
visitors' center was also erected,
which includes photographs
depicting the restoration efforts.
Today, the temple of Deir el-Hagar
represents one of the most complete
Roman monuments in this Oasis.
The temple building measures 7.3
by 16.2 meters and has a well
preserved outer mudbrick enclosure
wall where some remains of
painted plaster can still be seen.
The main gate is situated in the
eastern side of the enclosure wall,
though there is another gateway on
the south side, in the temenos wall
of the sanctuary. This is where most
of the early travelers recorded their
names, but there are also later Greek inscriptions. There is a processional way that
leads from the main gate up to the temple entrance, and along it are the remains of
round, mudbrick columns which would have been part of pillared halls flanking the
entrance. A few small sphinxes found in this area can now be seen in the Kharga
Heritage Museum.
Entrance into the temple was gained through a
screen wall that led into a wide pronaos, which
contains two columns. From there, a doorway
leads to a small hypostyle hall with four
columns, which in turn gives way into a hall of
offerings before reaching the central sanctuary.
The sanctuary is flanked by two side chambers.
The one to the south contains the stairway that
would have given access to the roof. To the
north, the second chamber was a storage annex.
The sanctuary was decorated with a magnificent
astronomical ceiling, dating to the rule of
Hadrian (117-138 AD), which had pained reliefs
including an arching figure of the goddess Nut,
representing the sky and the god Geb, who
symbolized the earth. In the center of the ceiling,
the god Osiris is represented by the constellation
of Orion, while other astronomical features are
represented by various deities whose task was to maintain the universe. It is on the
west wall at the rear of the sanctuary where the main Theban gods, Amun-Re and Mut
are depicted, while on the south wall the Triad of Amun-Re, Mut and Khonsu are
represented, along with Seth, Nephthys, Re-Horakhty, Osiris, Isis and Min-Re. The
north wall includes the Theban Triad alongside
the Heliopolitan creator gods, consisting of Geb,
Nut, Shu and Tefnut.
Also on the northern wall is an important
representation of the Dakhla god, Amun-Nakht,
and an inscription in the sanctuary records his
earliest known visit to the oasis. This desert god,
who appears to have characteristics of both
Amun-Re and Horus, is shown with his consort,
Hathor. Thoth, who is frequently depicted
elsewhere in the Oasis, is also represented with
his consort, Nehmetaway.
All about the temple are the other ancient
remains, much of it evidencing the Roman
farms that surrounded the temple. Many of these
are pigeon houses in various stages of ruin.
There is a field containing cut, stone blocks to the west of the enclosure, and about
800 meters to the northwest of the temple is a Roman Period cemetery with about 250
tombs. Here, very crude, human headed terracotta coffins of the roman period were
unearthed. When Rahlfs excavated the cemetery, he found a complete terracotta coffin
in one tomb, and seven mummies covered with a mat in another.
details, such as the exact number of bread loaves, cakes, beer containers, meat, fowl,
incense, cultic charcoal and such, which is listed beside each event. Even the amount
of grain that went into making a certain type of loaf, or a specific type of beer can be
determined by a specific integer that refers tot he cooking or brewing that was
undertaken. This is called the "cooking ratio".
Frequently in the introduction of segments of the temple calendars, or placed next to
the respective religious celebrations, are details of the provenance of such offerings,
together with the amount of grain that went into producing a certain number of beer
jugs or loaves of bread. In conjunction with the cooking ratio, we can therefore
determine the exact amount of grain that was needed for these festivals. Hence, we can
add up the total amount of grain that was needed for the subsistence of a cult, at least
for the major ceremonies.
From this data, scholars have been able to determine quantitatively how wealthy a
specific major temple was and approximately how many priests were necessary for the
preservation of the .
Most of the festivals that we know of from ancient Egypt are cultic, rather than civil.
There were probably plenty of civil celebrations, but our sources are mostly religious.
For example we know that an annual celebration was established by Ramesses III to
honor his victory over the Libyans (Meshwesh), who had unsuccessfully invaded
Egypt, and another secular occasion was the coronation of kings, the date of which
was frequently included in religious calendars. Since Sothis had no specific cult, the
heliacal Rising of Sothis (the star Sirius) might be considered a secular celebration.
This event was recognized as being very important because the reappearance of Sothis
after a period of seventy days' invisibility originally marked the emergence of the New
Year and later was thought of as the ideal rebirth of the land.
Most of the festivals took place were fixed within the civil calendar. They either took
place on a specific date, or were spread out through a number of days. Such festivals
are typically called "annual festivals" by scholars.
Although festivals were a very important part of the lives of the ancient people
throughout Upper and Lower Egypt (many nomes or districts had their own local
festivals), there were a few festivals that were known throughout the land.
New Year's Day (Wep-renpet)
The first celebration of the year was, of course, the New Year's festival. For the
ancient Egyptians, this was not only the first day of the year, but also the time when
rejuvenation and rebirth ideally took place.
Feast of Wagy
Seventeen days after New Year's day, there was also the more somber feast of Wagy,
which eventually became associated with the festival of Thoth on the nineteenth day
of the year. This event was connected with the mortuary rituals of ancient Egypt and
was celebrated by private individuals outside of official religious circles as well as
within the precincts of the major temples in Egypt. Our first evidence of this
celebration is from the 4th Dynasty, making it one of the oldest in ancient Egypt. The
original date of the festival was set according to the lunar basis and this was never
discarded. Hence, during the historical period, there were actually two separate Wagy
feasts, one set according to the cycle of the moon and a later one firmly placed at day
eighteen of the first civil month.
The Festival of Opet
Centered in Thebes, this boisterous festival, known as the Beautiful Feast of the Opet,
held in the second civil month and was set according to a lunar calendar. It was
perhaps not as old a celebration as some of the other feasts, though during the New
Kingdom particularly, the celebration of Opet was predominate. Its duration of twentyseven days in the 20th Dynasty shows how significant the celebration became.
However, we know virtually nothing about the celebration prior to the 18th Dynasty
and the rise of Thebes.
Theban citizens and their guests from afar celebrated the fruitful link between their
pharaoh and the almighty god, Amun, who in the New Kingdom became a state god.
During the celebration it was thought that the might and power of Amun were ritually
bequeathed to his living son, the king. Therefore, the celebration belonged to the
official royal ideology of the state and, not surprisingly, witnessed the personal
involvement of the pharaoh.
Because of the flooding, work was temporarily suspended in fields. The people joined
in a dramatic procession honoring Amun that began at the Temple of Amun in Karnak
and ended at Luxor Temple one and a half miles away at the south end of the city.
At Karnak, the people watched the high priests disappear in the temple. Inside, the
priests bathed the image of the god and dressed him in colorful linen and adorned him
with jewelry from the temple treasury including magnificent necklaces, bracelets,
scepters, amulets and trinkets of gold or silver encrusted with lapis lazuli, enamel,
glass and semi-precious gems. The priests then enclosed the god in a shrine and then
placed the shrine on top of a ceremonial barque or boat, often supported by poles for
carrying.
When the priests emerged from the temple, they carried the barque on their shoulders
throughout the pillared halls and courtyards of Karnak. Then they moved into the
crowded streets where people elbowed each other to catch a glimpse of the sacred
vessel. Many a small Egyptian child was lucky to be placed on his or her parents
shoulder to be able to see.
In Hatshepsuts time, the complete journey was accomplished on foot, while stopping
at different resting stations. Later, the boat was carried to the Nile and then towed
upriver to Luxor Temple by high government officials who vied for the enviable
honor.
The pharaoh himself was there to greet Amun and escort him to Luxor Temple. The
people heard the steady beat of soldiers drums and watched as men from Nubia
danced to songs of devotion sung by the priests.
After reaching Luxor, the pharaoh and priests left the crowd behind and maneuvered
the boat into the dark recesses of the temple. Incense filled the air. There was a
ceremony communing with another holy image of Amun, Amun-Min, who
inseminated the earth, according to the ancient beliefs of creation, and brought about
plentiful harvests.
Now the pharaoh emerged from the sanctuary. The citizens greeted him wildly and
praised his accomplishments; any wrongs he had committed were automatically
forgiven. "He was once more the embodiment of divine strength and generosity, the
source of bounty and well-being for Egypt."
During the Festival of Opet, Thebans could ask the god questions (oracles) that could
be answered by a simple yes or no. A man might ask if his brother in another town was
in good health, If the barge dipped forward, the answer was yes; if it backed away, the
reply was no. Commoners were also allowed to put questions to a god in his temple.
For these exceptional times, the fortunate citizens who were allowed into the temple
were escorted to special audience rooms. The priests would convey the answers either
through a concealed window high up in the wall or from inside a hollow statue.
More than anything, the ancient Egyptian population enjoyed the generosity of the
gods during these festivals. During one Opet festival in the 12th century BC, it is
recorded that temple officials distributed 11,341 loaves of bread and 385 jars of beer to
the citizens.
The Festival of Choiak or Sokar
The festival of Choiak or Sokar rivaled that of Opet during the New Kingdom, but was
a much older celebration. It was celebrated in the fourth month of the Egyptian civil
calendar, lasting for six days during the interval of days 25 through 30, though by the
Late Period, the festival grew to be much longer. Its importance is derived from its
connection with the ancient importance of the god of the underworld, Osiris, and his
link with the archaic powers of Memphis.
This festival is known from the Old Kingdom and it grew in importance due to the
establishment of Egypt's capital at Memphis during the dawn of Egyptian history. We
find it first mentioned in private feast lists of the Old Kingdom. However, it is also
clear that the deity, Sokar predates the unification of Egypt and thus, Egyptian history
itself.
The Sokar festival was indeed a somber celebration, completing the first season. The
last days of the feast were in fact observed with no small amount of agony and
sadness. This part of the festival soon came to be associated with Osiris, who was
considered to be dead by the central date of the Sokar feast (day 26).
The Rebirth Celebration of Nehebkau
After the Festival of Sokar, it is not surprising that day one of month five had its own
New Year's day of rebirth, occurring just five days after the death of Osiris. The
intervening days were left for the eventual rebirth of the god and later connected to the
rebirth of the king as the living Horus. Hence, the celebration of Nehebkau paralleled
the New Year of the first day of month one, and evidently almost the same rituals and
performances took place on both occasions.
Another annual event for Egyptians to look forward to was again centered in Thebes,
allowed the living to commune with their loved ones in the afterworld. It was held in
the tenth civil month. Though the celebration can be traced back to the Middle
Kingdom, it became important during the New Kingdom.
The festivities began at Karnak temple on the east bank where the sacred image of the
god Amun was placed atop a ceremonial boat and carried down to the Nile by the
priests, very similarly to how it occurred in the Opet Festival. Eventually, the image of
the god Amun was accompanied by the images of his wife Mut and their child,
Khonsu.
At the riverside, the shrines were loaded onto barges and towed across the Nile to the
west to visit the pharaohs mortuary temple and the temples of other gods. This
journey was attended by a very joyous and colorful procession of Egypts citizens.
Acrobats and musicians entertained the masses of people who participated, while
women played sistrumsa kind of rattle instrument that made a soft jangling sound
like the breeze blowing through papyrus reeds. This sound was said to soothe the gods
and goddesses.
The procession ended at the necropolis that was filled with tomb chapels where the
ancient people honored their dead relatives by performing various rituals for them.
Every family wealthy enough to afford a chapel entered the sanctuary and made
offerings of food and drink for their dead. (Archaeologists have uncovered many
offering tables and bowls that you can see in any major museum collection.) The
celebrants themselves ate heartily and drank a lot of wine until they entered what was
believed to be an altered state (including intoxication) that made them feel closer to
their departed loved ones.
Though certainly different in many ways, these private affairs parallel some present
customs of modern Egypt and other cultures in which people celebrate a holiday on
the grass of cemeteries in which their dead ancestors are buried.
Heb-Sed Festival
One of the most significant aspects of this festival is that it was probably witnessed by
citizens only once in a lifetime. The Heb-Sed Festival was usually celebrated 30 years
after a kings rule and thereafter, every three years. This very important ritual
symbolized regeneration and was meant to assure a long reign in the pharaohs
afterlife. The rituals were meant to bring back the harmony between the king and the
universe and in the case of illness or just old age of the king. The official rituals were
supposed to be performed after 30 years of a kings reign, but there is evidence that the
festival was sometimes scheduled earlier. It usually began on New Years Dayday
one of the peret seasonand started with an imposing procession, as did all ancient
Egyptian festivals.
Many of the Sed ceremonies, dating from predynastic times, were performed in front
of officials and commoners who were lucky enough to be a part of the festival. For
this purpose, special courtyards were often built or reconstructed for the Sed Festival,
with the throne at one end and the audience at the other end. The open court of the
Step Pyramid at Saqqara seems to have been used for the function of Djosers HebSed Festival. Sculptors also reproduced shrines of local deities for the Sed Festival to
show the extent of the kings power over all of Egypt.
Those who were privy to participate in this festival of the kings revitalization
witnessed several different rituals. One was the king giving offerings to the goddess
Sechat-Hor, who had fed Horus (the king) with her holy milkthe drink of
immortality. After that the nobles would come before the king and offer their services
and rededicate their devotion to him.
What followed next was the most famous and important ritual to show the kings
continued potency, according to La Civilisation de LEgypte Pharonique: the king
would run around the field (or within the Sed courtyard) while carrying several ritual
articles in his handsthe imyt-pera list of possessions that basically gave the king
the right to possess Egypt.
In the course of the festival, priests led the king into two pavilions where he received
the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt, symbolically renewing the crowning
ceremony. In later times the king shot four arrows into the four directions to frighten
off evil powers and to enforce the right of Egypt to rule over the world.
We can imagine that this most significant festival was accompanied by the usual feasts
including lavish food, drink, music and dance. For now matter how serious the
meaning or the nature of the festival, the ancient Egyptians knew how to celebrate
with gusto.
Abu Simbel
(The Temple of Ramesses II)
(The Temple of Nefertari dedicated to Hathor)
See Also Feature Article by Marie Parsons on Abu Simbel
Not only are the two temples at Abu Simbel among the most magnificent monuments
in the world but their removal and reconstruction was an historic event in itself. When
the temples (280 km from Aswan) were threatened by submersion in Lake Nasser, due
to the construction of the High Dam, the Egyptian Government secured the support of
UNESCO and launched a world wide appeal. During the salvage operation which
began in 1964 and continued until 1968, the two temples were dismantled and raised
over 60 meters up the sandstone cliff where they had been built more than 3,000 years
before. Here they were reassembled, in the exact same relationship to each other and
the sun, and covered with an artificial mountain. Most of the joins in the stone have
now been filled by antiquity experts, but inside the temples it is still possible to see
where the blocks were cut. You can also go inside the man made dome and see an
exhibition of photographs showing the different stages of the massive removal
project.
Abu Simbel was first reported by J. L. Burckhardt in 1813, when he came over the
mountain and only saw the facade of the great temple as he was preparing to leave
that area via the Nile. The two temples, that of Ramesses II primarily dedicated to ReHarakhte, and that of his wife, Nefertari dedicated to Hathor, became a must see for
Victorians visiting Egypt, even though it required a trip up the Nile, and often they
were covered deeply in sand, as they were when Burckhardt found them.
The main temple was dedicated to Ramesses II and to the four universal gods Ptah,
Re-Harakhte, Amun-Re, and to Ramesses II himself. Of the seven temples he built,
Abu Simbel is considered to be the most impressive.
The facade of the main temple
is 108 feet high and 125 feet
wide with four colossal seated
statues about 65 feet high
wearing the double crown and
having the cartouches of
Ramesses II. They are taller
than the colossi of Memnon at
Thebes and are carved out of
solid rock. At the feet of the
calossus, beginning on the left
are Queen Nofretari, Prince
Amenhirkhopshef, the Kings
mother Muttuya, Princess
Bent'anta, unnamed, but
probably Esenofre, Princess
Nebettawy, Queen Muttuya, Princess Nofretari, Princess Merytamun, Princess
Beketmut, Prince Ri'amsese, and Queen Nofretari, who where all members of
Ramesses II's family. (Editor's Note: We wonder if Ramesses II bribed his kids to
make good grades. Bring home an A and I'll put you in my new Colossus.)
Above the doorway in a niche stands the sun god, a falcon headed representation of
Ramesses, holding a war-scepter which shows the head and neck of an animal which
is read as user, in his right and a figure of Ma'at in his left. This cleverly creates the
Kings throne name of User-Ma'at-Re. At the top of the facade is a row of baboons
which are thought to be greeting the morning sun and indeed the monument looks best
at that time. The sides of the thrones next to the entrance are decorated with Nile gods
symbolically uniting Egypt, while below are prisoners, representing conquered
nations, to the left, African and to the right, Asian.
The entrance leads into a Grand Hall which is 57 feet high and 52 feet wide and was
cut from the rock. It is supported with eight pillars with statues of Ramesses. The
statues on the north side of the hall wear the double crown, while those on the south
the white crown of upper Egypt. Just as other temples in Egypt, the floor and ceiling
taper off to draw focus to the sanctuaries in the back of the temple. The reliefs on the
north wall of the Grand Hall show scenes from the Battle of Kadesh. Other walls
depict the king slaughtering captives in front of the gods Amun-Re and Re-Harakhte,
and storming a fortress with his three sons.
To either side of the Grand Hall are smaller rooms, two to the South and four to the
North. Most suggest that these rooms were for storage (treasure rooms) but elsewhere
it is suggested that they were used for festivals related to the Kings Jubilee.
Beyond the Grand Hall is the second hypostyle hall with its
flowered pillars. Scenes in this hall show the King and his
wife, Nefertari making offerings to Amun and Re-Harakhte
(the Sun God), and beyond that is the three chapels, the
central one containing the four deities worshipped in the
temple (including Ramesses II). A Solstices occurs twice a
year on or about February 20-22nd and October 20-22nd
when the rays from the sun enter the front of the temple and
bathe the statues of the Gods 200 feet inside the temple with light. Interestingly
enough, all but Ptah, the source of Chthonian life.
On either side of the Facade are two small chapels. At the Southeast corner of the
facade there are three stelae. One of these is called the Marriage Stela and documents
the marriage of Ramesses II to the daughter of the King of the Hittites. (Editors Note:
The question is, what did she look like? Did Ramesses consider this a heroic deed?)
On the other side of the Facade is the Sun Chapel, an open court dedicated to the sun.
Here, there are pillars with cavetto cornices. The one with steps held four praying
baboons, the other a chapel with images of Khepri and Baboon-Thoth. The latter is
now in the Antiquities Museum in Cairo.
the Third Intermediate Period have been found at the site, as well as an elite cemetery
of about the same time period.
In front of the ruins is the base of the colossus of Ramesses that once stood 17m
(about 69 feet) high. The statue would have weighed more than 1,000 tons and was
bought from Aswan in one piece. On the granite colossus's shoulder is an inscription
describing Ramesses as the "sun of Princes". The statue fell into the Second Court and
the head and torso remain there, but the other broken pieces are in museums all over
the world. It is this statue that Shelly's poem, though completely incorrect, alludes to:
I met a traveller from an antique land
Who Said: Two vast and trunkless legs of stone
Stand in the desert, Near them, on the sand,
Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown,
And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command,
Tell that its sculptor well those passions read
Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,
The hand that mocked them, and the heart that fed.
And on the pedestal these words appear:
"My name is Ozymandias, king of kings;
Look on my work, ye Might, and despair!?
Nothing beside remains, Round the decay
Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare,
The lone and leve sand stretch far away.
Colossi of Memnon
Amenhotep III (18th Dynasty) built a mortuary temple in Thebes that was guarded by
two gigantic statues on the outer gates. All that remains now are the 23 meter (75 ft)
high, one thousand ton statues of Amenhotep III. Though damaged by nature and
ancient tourists, the statues are still impressive.
Ancient Egyptians called the southern of the two statues "Ruler of Rulers". Later
travelers called them "Shammy and "Tammy", which may have been a corruption of
the Arabic words for "left" and "right". Today they are known locally as "el-Colossat",
or "es-Salamat". The statues are made from carved blocks of quartzite quarried either
at Giza or Gebel es-Silsila. The Northern statue depicts Amenhotep III with his
mother, Mutemwia, while the southern statue is of Amenhotep III with his wife, Tiy
and one of his daughters. On the sides of the statues are reliefs depicting Nile gods
joining together plants symbolizing Upper and Lower Egypt.
Due to an earthquake in 27 BC, these statues became known for a bell like tone that
usually occurred in the morning due to rising temperatures and humidity. Thus they
were equated by the early Greek travelers with the figure of Memnon, the son of
Aurora who's mother, Eos, was the goddess of dawn. To be granted a song meant that
you were very much in favor of the gods. Visitors came from miles around to hear the
music, including Emperor Hadrian, in 130 A.D. The Roman emperor Septimius
Severus, seeking to repair the statues in 199 AD, inadvertently silenced them forever.
The Battle of Kadesh is one of the most well known military campaigns of history
because it is the earliest battle that can be reliably reconstructed in detail from various
records on both sides of the conflict. Fought between Ramesses II, one of Egypt's best
known pharaohs, and the Hittites under Muwatallish (along with a number of allies),
this battle over control of Syrian territory has received considerable attention by many
analysts over the years.
However, in order to completely understand this historical event, it is necessary to
examine the history that led up to this famous battle, for it was very literally hundreds
of years in the making.
From almost the beginning of recorded
history, Egypt was active in the Levant
region of southern Syria, particularly at
the port of Byblos, where the earliest
inspirational evidence of an Egyptian
king was that of Khasekhemwy of
Egypt's 2nd Dynasty. From that time
onward, Egypt had some involvement in
the region, if only in the realms of
diplomacy and trade.
However, over an extended period of
time, the great powers of the Ancient
Near East sought to control Syria in
order to exploit the economic resources
and trade of the region. Syria was the
cross roads of world commerce during
Egypt's New Kingdom, where goods
from the Aegean and beyond entered the
Near East by way of ports such as
Ugarit. The ships that docked in these
ports dominated maritime trade in the
eastern Mediterranean. They carried a
rich variety of goods, including copper,
tin, chemicals, tools, glass ingots, ivory, faience, jewelry, luxury goods, timber, textiles
foodstuff together with other products that were then distributed throughout the Near
East and beyond over a network of extensive trade routes. In turn, these same land
routes were used by traders who brought raw material such as precious metals, tin,
copper, lapis lazuli and other merchandise from as far away as Iran and Afghanistan to
sell in the Syrian markets.
Overseeing the battle and observing the fate of his original chariot attack, the Hittite
king ordered a further 1,000 chariots into the battle arena. However, just as these
additional warriors reached the battle front, Ramesses II was saved by the arrival of
the Ne'arin. This was a second body of troops that Ramesses II had detached from the
main campaign and ordered to approach Kadesh from the north. With the aid of these
troops, Ramesses II was able to fend off the Hittite attack and win the battle, leaving
many of the enemy
dead on the battle field
and the survivors faced
with the humiliation of
having to swim back
across the Orontes
River to escape the
wrath of the Pharaoh.
Some accounts of the
battle have the two
warring parties facing off once again the next day, but the ultimate results of the
contest was a truce, after which the Egyptians and Hittites withdrew to their respective
homelands (Ramesses II, having crushed his enemies).
The above is basically the Egyptian account of the Battle of Kadesh, and it probably
does provide a framework for the overall action, though over the years, hardly any
detail has escaped the attention of analysts. Though the battle may indeed be the
earliest military action recorded in detail, there are many specifics that are either
missing or are subject to considerable debate. In fact, Ramesses II certainly presented
the battle with an obvious prejudice, particularly towards his own actions and deeds,
but indeed, even the main three sources that we have of the battle, consisting of a
poem, bulletin and reliefs, even disagree on some of the facts, and the scattered
information derived from Hittite sources only confuse the matter additionally.
Prelude to the Battle of Kadesh
The Battle of Kadesh fought by Ramesses II was a long time in the making, and not
the first to be fought between the Hattities and Egyptians over this small, but
strategically located vassal state. Ramesses II had probably accompanied his father,
Seti I on one similar campaign prior to his ascending the throne of Egypt. However,
though Seti I may have taken Kadesh, by the time of Ramesses II's reign, it was back
in the hands of the Hattities.
From the onset of Ramesses II's reign, it is apparent that he intended to renew the
struggle for domination in southern Syria, and so almost immediately he began
preparing for the coming hostilities. He added a fourth field army to his military
establishment, and expanded the eastern Delta city of Pi-Ramasses, his new capital, to
act as a staging point for operations in the Levant.
In his fourth year, during the spring of 1301 BC, Ramesses led his army into southern
Syria for the first time as king, reaching as far as Simyra and succeeding in returning
the Amurru kingdom to the Egyptian fold.
It soon became evident to the Hittite king, Muwatallish, that in order to protect his
holdings in Syria, he would have to confront the Egyptians in a major military
campaign. The venue of this coming battle was never in doubt by either party. They
would meet beneath the walls of Kadesh in order to settle once and for all the future of
their respective empires in Syria.
In fact, it is likely that the Hittites and the Egyptians agreed on the site, as well as the
time of battle in advance. Certainly, there is an inference of this considering that the
two sides arrived on the scene of Kadesh at about the same time during the month of
May, 1300 BC. It should be noted however that this was not an ideal battleground for
the Egyptians. The Hittites were operating in a region that was under their control
where their supply lines were short. They probably staged their campaign out of
Carchemish, not far from Kadesh at all. Furthermore, the city of Kadesh, currently
under their command, was large enough to accommodate the Hittite army should
matters go awry. It provided a good defensive position, surrounded by both a mote
and the Orontes River itself.
the battle, and many military analysts believe that the following events may have
occurred over a broader length of time than what the fluid accounts of the battle might
lead us to believe.
First Encounters with the Enemy
Ramesses II and the Army of Amun began to strike camp on the ninth day in order to
cross the Orontes probably by the ford at Shabtuna (or nearby). It must have taken
some considerable period of time for this to have been effected. Five thousand men,
perhaps along with additional (and probably, considering the retinue that followed the
King, substantial) support personnel, their equipment, including chariots, had to move
down the ridge through the Labwi
(Robawi) forest and ponderously cross
the Orontes. This all probably took a
great deal of time and even if the Army
of Amun broke camp (a major
undertaking in itself) early on the ninth
day, they probably did not complete the
crossing until at least mid-afternoon.
Shortly after the crossing, two Shasu
Bedouin were encountered and brought
before the pharaoh. It has been generally
assumed that they were a deliberate
plant by the Hittite king to misinform
Ramesses II, and indeed, they informed
him that the Hittite army was some
distance to the north in the land of
Aleppo.
In bronze age encounters, this would
have given Ramesses II considerable
advantage. One of the most important
aspects of such a battle, after a long march by opposing armies, was a period of rest
and reorganization for battle readiness. Ramesses obviously took considerable
assurance that he was in a superior position to the Hittite forces, and even the Egyptian
accounts of the campaign do not attempt to hide his gullibility on this matter.
However, historians may be too quick to lay blame on Ramesses II. The king clearly
followed normal army operating procedures, and it was common for a screening force
of chariots or horsemen to move ahead of the marching army. This advanced element
was either absent, or may have shared the overconfidence of the pharaoh, but in any
event, it would not have been the task of the king to oversee every operation of his
army, for he had senior officers for that purpose.
At any rate, the Army of Amun arrived in a somewhat casual manner at their campsite
on the plains of Kadesh, northwest of the city, perhaps late on the ninth day, not
realizing that the entire Hittite army was camped on the opposite side of the Kadesh
mound. While we do not know the precise location of his camp, it is likely that he
used the same site as that of Seti I some years before. The Egyptian's no doubt set up
camp with the
expectations of an
extended stay, for at the
center of the camp they
erected a shrine to the
god Amun, together with
the great tent of the
pharaoh where Ramesses
II "took his seat on a
throne of gold".
Certainly it seems that if
reconnaissance of any manner was ordered previously it was ineffectual, but now the
Egyptian scouts made good by returning with two prisoners found lurking near the
Egyptian camp. Refusing at first to talk, they were beaten before being dragged before
Rameses II. The historical documents record that:
"Then said His Majesty, 'What are you'? They replied, 'We belong to the ruler of Hatti!
He sent us out to see where Your Majesty was.' Said His Majesty to them, 'Where is he,
the Ruler of Hatti? See, I heard it said that he was in the land of Aleppo, north of
Tunip.' They replied, 'Behold, the Ruler of Hatti has already come, together with many
foreign lands that he brought as allies...See, they are poised armed and ready to fight
behind Old Kadesh?'"
It must have been a great shock to Ramesses II, who, only moments before, had
figured he held an advantage to his adversary, having arrived on the plain of Kadesh
first. As the full implications of this new information sank in, Ramesses must have
understood that he and his army stared absolute disaster in the face. Not only was the
Hittite army rested and ready for battle, but he had arrived at Kadesh with only a small
part of his overall forces.
A conference was quickly called with his senior staff, where the king revealed to them
their dire predicament. This resulted in the realization that all would be lost unless
their forces could be quickly consolidated, and therefore, the king's vizier was quickly
sent south in order to implement a rapid advance by Egypt's other forces. However, at
this point the events that follow become somewhat difficult to recount.
If indeed the Egyptian Army left their camp and crossed the Orontes River on the
ninth day, then it must have been somewhat late that day that the Hittite scouts were
discovered, and even later by the time they were handed over to Ramesses after being
tortured. Some authorities believe therefore that the vizier would not have reached the
closest forces to Ramesses, the Army of Re, until the morning of the tenth day.
However, that army had probably advanced northward just as the Army of Amun had,
camping perhaps in the same location that the Ramesses II had occupied previous to
his crossing of the Orontes. Hence, it is very possible that the vizier did in fact reach
small tributary.
Certainly the Hittite chariots scattered the Army of Re, but probably did not actually
decimate it. After crashing through the ranks of the Egyptian column, they wheeled to
the north following the vanguard of this division as they rushed to the perceived safety
of the Amun lines. The army of Amun
had little time to secure a combat stance,
but given the alarming information
provided by the Hittite scouts, they must
have been in a state of readiness to some
extent. It is doubtful that the column of
Re, which probably stretched on for
some two and one half miles, was
completely overcome by the Hittite
attack. As the remnants of the Army of
Re approached the camp of Amun,
followed in hot pursuit by the Hittite
chariotry, lookouts should have seen the
advancing storm, signaled by the dust
plume created by such a disturbance,
and alerted at least some of the camp to
the impending battle.
Nevertheless, the Hittite chariots very
quickly crashed through the front lines
of Ramesses II's camp, but were quickly
slowed by the impending obstacles of
such a large camp. Even so, they created widespread panic amongst these troops as
well, scattering the forces as they had evidently done with the army of Re. Yet,
pharaoh had been alerted by this time to the attack, and in what seems to have been a
rather cool, collected effort on his part, first instructed his court, which probably
included a few princes, on their defense, and then proceeded to dress himself in armor
and prepare his immediate guard for a battle which he would heroically lead.
By this time, the Hittite chariotry forces were concentrated within the camp and
perhaps at a point where they had become somewhat disorganized. They were
probably also in a position where maneuverability of their much larger chariots was
difficult because of obstacles within the camp. Further, after attacking the Re column
and wheeling northward for the camp of Amun, their horses must have surely been
exhausted. Doubtless, they had even lost a few of their kind in the running battle that
was even now continuing.
Now, it was Ramesses II who:
":...appeared in glory like his father Montu, he assumed the accoutrements of battle,
and he girded himself with his corslet"
However, before engaging in the battle, he sought safety for his family members that
traveled with him, but thereafter, in a fit of valor, Ramesses II's, together with his
personal guard, attacked the charging Hittite forces and, with the superior
maneuverability of their chariots, wheeled about in successive attacks on the slower
forces of the Hittites.
We are told by Ramesses II that:
"I found the 2,500 chariots, in whose midst I was, sprawling before my horse. Not one
of them found his hand to fight...and they were unable to shoot. They found not their
hearts to seize their javelins."
The results were that the Egyptians began to pick off the overextended Hittite
chariotry. Of course, the fact that the Hittite forces could be dealt with at this point by
what was apparently only a fairly small force of Egyptians is another reason why
historians believe that there were less then 2,500 chariots in the Hittite
attack. However, Ramesses II tells us that he:
"caused them to plunge into the water (of the River Orontes), even as crocodiles
plunge, fallen upon their faces. I killed among them according as I willed".
However, there may have also been a
somewhat larger number of Egyptian
forces who stood against the Hittite
forces rather than running in the
cowardly manner that the reliefs depict.
It is difficult to imagine, having been
warned of their dire circumstances by
the Hittite scouts, that the Amun camp
was not highly alert and that the five
thousand troops of that division were
not in a state of battle readiness. It is
more than somewhat likely, given his
vanity on such matters, that Ramesses
II empathized his own heroism on the
walls of his temples at the expense of
his armed forces.
Irregardless, the Hittite forces began to
lose their initial advantage.
Overlooking the battle scene along with
the nobles and high officials who had
accompanied the Hittite army,
Muwatallish monarch appears to have been shaken by the Egyptian recovery that he
witnessed within the running battle at Ramesses II's camp. In order to save his
dwindling forces, he ordered another thousand chariots to the attack. This force
appears to have consisted of the high nobles who surrounded the king. However,
inheritance. Do not rob yourself of your property, powerful king. glorious in battle,
give us breath in our nostrils."
Of course, this text obviously offers a view by the Egyptians. It may be that both
parties to the truce realized that additional battles might have decimated both armies to
the extent that they may ver well have become vulnerable to other powers within the
region. Furthermore, Ramesses II was obviously facing a crises within the ranks, so
we are told that:
"His Majesty turned back in peace to Egypt, together with his infantry and his
chariotry being with him"
Ramesses II later signed a peace treaty with the Hittites which would forever place
Kadesh out of Egyptian hands. From this, it is evident that no real victory took place,
or at least not one that gave Ramesses II an obvious edge over his enemies. In fact, it
would seem that the Hittites army even shadowed the Egyptian forces as they headed
home.
A drawing of the reliefs at the Temple of Luxor depicting the Battle of Kadesh.
The bottom register shows Ramesses II single-handedly charging the enemey
for later, Ramesses II would take perhaps several of Hattusilis III's (successor to
Muwatallish) daughters as his queens and there would be much correspondence
between the two courts.
sand, being three people to each span. Now, they had made their combinations thus:
among every three youths was one man of the vanquished of Kheta, equipped with all
the weapons of battle. Lo, they had stationed them in battle array, concealed northwest
of the city of Kadesh.
They came forth from the southern side of Kadesh, and they cut through the division
of Re in its middle, while they were marching without knowing and without being
drawn up for battle. The infantry and chariotry of his majesty retreated before them.
Now, his majesty had halted on the north of the city of Kadesh, on the western side of
the Orontes. Then came one to tell it to his majesty
His majesty shone like his father Montu, when he took the adornments of war; as he
seized his coat of mail, he was like Baal in his hour. The great span which bore his
majesty called: "Victory-in-Tebes," from the great stables of Ramses II, was in the
midst of the leaders. His majesty halted in the rout; then he charged into the foe, the
vanquished of Kheta, being alone by himself and none other with him. When his
majesty went to look behind him, he found 2,500 chariotry surrounding him, in his
way out, being all the youth of the wretched Kheta, together with its numerous allied
countries: from Arvad, from Mesa, from Pedes, from Keshkesh, from Erwenet, from
Kezweden, from Aleppo, Eketeri, Kadesh, and Luka, being three men to a span,
acting in unison.
Year 5, third month of the third season, day 9; under the majesty of Horus: Mighty
Bull, Beloved of Truth; King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Usermare-Setepnere; Son of
Re; Ramses-Meriamon, given life forever.
Lo, his majesty was in Zahi on his second victorious campaign. The goodly watch in
life, prosperity and health, in the tent of his majesty, was on the highland south of
Kadesh.
When his majesty appeared like the rising of Re, he assumed the adornments of his
father, Montu. When the king proceeded northward, and his majesty had arrived at the
locality south of the town of Shabtuna, there came two Shasu, to speak to his majesty
as follows: "Our brethren, who belong to the greatest of the families with the
vanquished chief of Kheta, have made us come to his majesty, to say: 'We will be
subjects of Pharaoh and we will flee from the vanquished chief of Kheta; for the
vanquished chief of Kheta sits in the land of Aleppo, on the north of Tunip. He fears
because of Pharaoh to come southward.'" Now, these Shasu spake these words, which
they spake to his majesty, falsely, for the vanquished chief of Kheta made them come
to spy where his majesty was, in order to cause the army of his majesty not to draw up
for fighting him, to battle with the vanquished chief of Kheta.
Lo, the vanquished chief of Kheta came with every chief of every country, their
infantry and their chariotry, which he had brought with him by force, and stood,
equipped, drawn up in line of battle behind Kadesh the Deceitful, while his majesty
knew it not. Then his majesty proceeded northward and arrived on the northwest of
Kadesh; and the army of his majesty made camp there.
Then, as his majesty sat upon a throne of gold, there arrived a scout who was in the
following of his majesty, and he brought two scouts of the vanquished chief of Kheta.
They were conducted into the presence, and his majesty said to them: "What are ye?"
They said: "As for us, the vanquished chief of the Kheta has caused that we should
come to spy out where his majesty is." Said his majesty to them: "He! Where is he,
the vanquished chief of Kheta? Behold, I have heard, saying: 'He is in the land of
Aleppo,'" Said they: "See, the vanquished chief of Kheta is stationed, together with
many countries, which he has brought with him by force, being every country which
is in the districts of the land of Kheta, the land of Naharin, and all Kode. They are
equipped with infantry and chariotry, bearing their weapons; more numerous are they
than the sand of the shore. See, they are standing, drawn up for battle, behind Kadesh
the Deceitful."
Then his majesty had the princes called into the presence, and had them hear every
word which the two scouts of the vanquished chief of Kheta, who were in the
presence, had spoken. Said his majesty to them: "See ye the manner wherewith the
chiefs of the peasantry and the officials under whom is the land of Pharaoh have
stood, daily, saying to the Pharaoh: 'The vanquished chief of Kheta is in the land of
Aleppo; he has fled before his majesty, since hearing that, behold, he came.' So spake
they to his majesty daily. But see, I have held a hearing in this very hour, with the two
scouts of the vanquished chief of Kheta, to the effect that the vanquished chief of
Kheta is coming, together with the numerous countries that are with him, being
people and horses, like the multitudes of the sand. They are stationed behind Kadesh
the Deceitful. But the governors of the countries and the officials under whose
authority is the land of Pharaoh were not able to tell it to us."
Said the princes who were in the presence of his majesty: "It is a great fault, which the
governors of the countries and the officials of Pharaoh have committed in not
informing that the vanquished chief of Kheta was near the king; and in that they told
his report to his majesty daily."
Then the vizier was ordered to hasten the army of his majesty, while they were
marching on the south of Shabtuna, in order to bring them to the place where his
majesty was.
Lo, while his majesty sat talking with the princes, the vanquished chief of Kheta
came, and the numerous countries, which were with him. They crossed over the
channel on the south of Kadesh, and charged into the army of his majesty while they
were marching, and not expecting it. Then the infantry and chariotry of his majesty
retreated before them, northward to the place where his majesty was. Lo, the foes of
the vanquished chief of Kheta surrounded the bodyguard of his majesty, who were by
his side.
When his majesty saw them, he was enraged against them, like his father, Montu, lord
of Thebes. He seized the adornments of battle, and arrayed himself in his coat of mail.
He was like Baal in his hour. Then he betook himself to his horses, and led quickly
on, being alone by himself. He charged into the foes of the vanquished chief of Kheta,
and the numerous countries which were with him. His majesty was like Sutekh, the
great in strength, smiting and slaying among them; his majesty hurled them headlong,
one upon another into the water of the Orontes.
"I charged all countries, while I was alone, my infantry and my chariotry having
forsaken me. Not one among them stood to turn about. I swear, as Re loves me, as my
father, Atum, favors me, that, as for every matter which his majesty has stated, I did it
in truth, in the presence of my infantry and my chariotry."
Look, the children of Reamasesa, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt,
they will be forever in state of peace and of fraternity with the children of Hattusili,
the great king, the king of the country of Hatti. They will remain in the line of our
bond of fraternity and of peace; the country of Egypt and the country of Hatti will be
forever be in a state of peace and of fraternity as it is with us.
Reamasesa-mai-Amana, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt, shall never
attack the country of Hatti to take possession of a part (of this country). And Hattusili,
the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, shall never attack the country of Egypt
to take possession of a part (of that country).
Look, the order fixed for eternity which the Sun God and the God of the Tempest have
created for the country of Egypt and the country of Hatti, (that is) peace and fraternity
without leaving place among them to any enmity. Look, Reamasesa-mai-Amana, the
great king, the king of the country of Egypt, has established peace starting from this
day.
Look, the country of Egypt and the country of Hatti live forever in peace and
fraternity.
If a foreign enemy marches against the country of Hatti and if Hattusili, the king of
the country of Hatti, sends me this message: "Come to my help against him",
Reamasesa-mai_Amana, the great king, the king of the Egyptian country, has to send
his troops and his chariots to kill this enemy and to give satisfaction to the country of
Hatti.
If Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, rises in anger against his
citizens after they have committed a crime against him and if, for this reason, you
send to Reamasesa the great king, the king of the country of Egypt, then Reamasesamai-Amana has to send his troops and his chariots and these should exterminate all
those that he has risen in anger against.
If a foreigner marches against the country of Egypt and if Reamasesa-mai-Amana, the
great king, the king of the country of Egypt, your brother, sends to Hattusili, the king
of the country of Hatti, his brother, the following message: "Come to my help against
him", then Hattusili, king of the country of Hatti, shall send his troops and his chariots
and kill my enemy.
If Reamasesa, king of the country of Egypt, rises in anger against his citizens after
they have committed a wrong against him and by reason of this he sends (a message)
to Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, my brother, has to send
his troops and his chariots and they have to exterminate all those against, and I
shall ....
Look, the son of Hattusili, king of the country of Hatti, has to assure his sovereignty
of the country of Hatti instead of Hattusili, his father, after the numerous years of
Hattusili, king of the country of Hatti. If the children of the country of Hatti transgress
against him, then Reamasesa has to send to his help troops and chariots and to give
him support.
If a great person flees from the country of Hatti and if he comes to Reamasesa, the
great king, king of the country of Egypt, then Reamasesa, the great king, the king of
the country of Egypt, has to take hold of him and deliver him into hands of Hattusili,
the great king, the king of the country of Hatti.
If a man or two men who are unknown flee, and if they come to Reamasesa, to serve
him, then Reamasesa has to take hold of them and deliver them into the hands of
Hattusili, king of the country of Hatti.
If a great person flees from the country of Egypt and he escapes to the country of
Amurru or a city and he comes to the king of Amurru, then Benteshina, king of the
country of Amurru, has to take hold of him and take him to the king of the country of
Hatti ; and Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, shall have him to
be taken to Reamasesa, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt.
If a man or two men who are unknown flee, and if they escape from the country of
Egypt and if they don't want to serve him, then Hattusili, the great king, the king of
the country of Hatti, has to deliver them into his brother's hands and he shall not allow
them to inhabit the country of Hatti.
If a nobleman flees from the country of Hatti, or two men, and if they don't want to
serve the king of Hatti, and if they flee from the Great King's country, the king of the
land of Hatti, in order not to serve him, then Reamasesa has to take hold of them and
order them be taken to Hattusili, the Great King, king of the land of Hatti, his brother,
and he shall not allow them to reside in the country of Egypt.
If a nobleman or two flee from the country of Egypt and if they leave for the Land of
Hatti, then Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, has to take hold
of them and make them be taken to Reamasesa, the Great King, the king of the
country of Egypt, his brother.
If a man flees from the country of Hatti, or two men, or three men, and if they come to
Reamasesa, the Great King, the king of the country of Egypt, his brother, then
Reamasesa, the Great King, the king of the country of Egypt, has to take hold of them
and to order them to be taken to Hattusili, his brother, since they are brothers. As for
their crime, it should not be imputed; their language and their eyes are not to be pulled
out; their ears and their feet are not to be cut off; their houses with their wives and
their children are not to be destroyed.
If a (man flees from the country of Reamasesa, the Great King, king of the country of
Egypt), or two men, or three men, and if they come (to Hattusili, the Great King), the
king of the country of Hatti, my brother, then Hattusili, the Great King, king of the
country of Hatti, my brother, has to take hold of them and to order them to be taken to
Reamasesa, the Great King, the king of the country of Egypt, because Reamasesa, the
Great King, king of the country of Egypt, and Hattusili are brothers. As for their
crime, it should not be imputed; their language and their eyes are not to be pulled out;
their ears and their feet are not to cut off; their houses with their wives and their
children are not to be destroyed.
If a man flees from the country of Hatti, or two people, and if they flee from the
country of Hatti, and if they come to the country of Egypt, and if a nobleman flees
from the country of Hatti or of a city and they flee from the country of Hatti to go to
the country of Egypt, then Reamasesa has to order them to be taken to his brother.
Look, the sons of the country of Hatti and the children of the country of Egypt are at
peace.
If some people flee from the country of Egypt to go to the country of Hatti, then
Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, has to order them to be taken
to his brother. Look, Hattusili the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, and
Reamasesa, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt, your brother, are at
peace.
If Reamasesa and the children of the country of Egypt don't observe this treaty, then
the gods and the goddesses of the country of Egypt and the gods and goddesses of the
country of Hatti shall exterminate the descendants of Reamasesa, the Great King, the
king of the country of Egypt.
If Reamasesa and the children of the country of Egypt observe this treaty, then the
gods of the oath shall protect them and their [...]
They who observe the words that are in the silver tablet the great gods of the country
of Egypt and the great gods of the country of Hatti shall allow them to live and
prosper in their houses, their country and with their servants.
They who do not observe the words that are in this silver tablet , the great gods of the
country of Egypt as well as the great gods of the country of Hatti will exterminate
their houses, their country and their servants.
Nefertari
The Tomb of Nefertari (Tomb 66): One of five wives of Ramesses II, Nefertari was
his favorite and the tomb here has been is said to be one of the most beautiful in
Egypt. The tomb is completely painted with scenes though out. In most of these,
Nefertari, known as 'the most beautiful of them', is accompanied by gods. She is
usually wearing a golden crown with two feathers extended from the back of a vulture
and clothed in a white, gossamer gown. Be sure not to miss the side room where one
scene depicts the queen worshipping the mummified body of Osiris. Near the stairs to
the burial chamber is another wonderful scene with Nefertarti offering milk to the
goddess Hathor.
Nefertari
The Tomb of Nefertari (Tomb 66): One of five wives of Ramesses II, Nefertari was
his favorite and the tomb here has been is said to be one of the most beautiful in
Egypt. The tomb is completely painted with scenes though out. In most of these,
Nefertari, known as 'the most beautiful of them', is accompanied by gods. She is
usually wearing a golden crown with two feathers extended from the back of a vulture
and clothed in a white, gossamer gown. Be sure not to miss the side room where one
scene depicts the queen worshipping the mummified body of Osiris. Near the stairs to
the burial chamber is another wonderful scene with Nefertarti offering milk to the
goddess Hathor.
Mut
Patron of: the sky, mothers.
Appearance: A vulture-headed woman or a woman wearing a vulture for a crown.
Description: The very word Mut means "mother" and Mut was the great mother
goddess of Egypt, even outranking Isis. Often Mut was believed to be a sort of
grandmother figure, as Isis was the mother figure for the world. She was said to be the
consort of Amun, and their son was the moon-god Khonsu.
The three formed a sort of heavenly family for their people. Each year a festival
would be held celebrating the marriage of Amun and Mut. The high priest of Amun
would lead a procession from Karnak to the temple at Luxor.
Worshipped: Amun, Mut and Khonsu were worshipped as a trinity in Luxor.
Khenmu
Other Names: Chem, Kemu, Khem, Khnum
Patron of: the creation of people and animals.
Appearance: a man with the head of a ram.
Description: Khenmu formed a triad with Anuket and Satis, and was possibly a
Nubian god originally. The worship of Khenmu dates to the earliest of times in Egypt,
the Unas Pyramid Text indicates that his cult was already old when that ancient
document was written. Called "the Great Potter," Khenmu was the creator of people.
He sculpted them out of clay from the Nile, held them up so that Ra could shine his
life-giving rays upon them, and then placed them in the womb. His wife was the
lioness-goddess Menhit, and their son was Hike. Originally a primal force deity of
creation like Ptah, his role was later modified to fit him into the pantheon of the state
religion.
Worship: Worshipped throughout Nubia and Egypt, his cult centers were
Elephantine, Sunnu, Abu, and Semnut.
Thoth
Other Names: Tehuty, Djehuty
\\
The wisest of the Egyptian gods was Thoth (Djhuty, Djehuty, Tehuty), the baboon and
ibis god of the moon. Thoth was the god who overcame the curse of Ra, allowing Nut
to give birth to her five children, with his skill at games. It was he who helped Isis
work the ritual to bring Osiris back from the dead, and who drove the magical poison
of Set from her son, Horus with the power of his magic. He was Horus' supporter
during the young god's deadly battle with his uncle
Set, helping Horus with his wisdom and magic. It
was Thoth who brought Tefnut, who left Egypt for
Nubia in a sulk after an argument with her father,
back to heaven to be reuinted with Ra.
Tefnut, the Eye of Ra, became estranged
from her father and fled into Nubia, taking
all of her precious water with her. In this land, she transformed herself into a
lioness. She raged through the countryside, emitting flames from her eyes and
nostrils. Viciously, she drank the blood and fed on the flesh of both animals
and humans. As time went on, Ra missed his Eye, and longed to see her again Egypt had dried, and the land was in chaos. He summoned Shu to him, along
with Thoth, who was the messenger of the gods and famous for his eloquence.
Ra issued the command that Shu and Thoth must go to Nubia and bring back
his recalcitrant daughter. Before they set off on their journey Shu and Thoth
disguised themselves as baboons. The baboon is an animal sacred to Thoth.
Eventually, Thoth and Shu found Tefnut in Begum. Thoth began
at once to try and persuade her to return to Egypt. Tefnut,
however, wasn't interested. She liked hunting in the desert and
was perfectly happy where she was. Thoth would not give up
though, and wove stories to depict to her how gloom had
descended upon Egypt since she had left. The people of Egypt
would do anything for her if she'd just return home. Ultimately,
wooed by Thoth's promises, Tefnut relented and returned to
Egypt accompanied by the two baboons. All the way there,
Thoth kept her entertained with stories. Tefnut made a
triumphant entry back into the homeland, accompanied by a host of Nubian
musicians, dancers and baboons. She went from city to city, bringing back
moisture and water, amid great rejoicing, until finally she was reunited with
her father, and restored to her rightful position as his Eye.
When Ra retired from the earth, he appointed Thoth and told him of his desire to
create a Light-soul in the Duat and in the Land of the Caves, and it was over this
region that the sun god appointed Thoth to rule, ordering him to keep a register of
those who were there, and to mete out just punishments to them. Thoth became the
representation of Ra in the afterlife, seen at the judgement of the dead in the 'Halls of
the Double Ma'at'.
The magical powers of Thoth were so great, that the Egyptians had tales of a 'Book of
Thoth', which would allow a person who read the sacred book to become the most
powerful magician in the world. The Book which "the god of wisdom wrote with his
own hand" was, though, a deadly book that brought nothing but pain and tragedy to
those that read it, despite finding out about the "secrets of the gods themselves" and
"all that is hidden in the stars".
He was one of the earlier Egyptian gods, thought to be scribe to the gods, who kept a
great library of scrolls, over which one of his wives, Seshat (the goddess of writing)
was thought to be mistress. He was associated by the Egyptians with speech,
literature, arts, learning. He, too, was a measurer and recorder of time, as was Seshat.
Believed to be the author of the spells in the Book of the Dead, he was a helper (and
punisher) of the deceased as they try to enter the underworld. In this role, his wife was
Ma'at, the personification of order, who was weighed against the heart of the dead to
see if they followed ma'at during their life.
Thoth was usually depicted as an ibis headed man or as a full ibis, or with the face of a
dog-headed baboon and the body of a man or, again, as a full dog-headed baboon. The
ibis, it is thought, had a crescent shaped beak, linking the bird to the moon. The dog-
headed baboon, on the other hand, was a night animal that was seen by the Egyptians
who would greet the sun with chattering noises each morning just as Thoth, the moon
god, would greet Ra, the sun god, as he rose.
In keeping with his many attributes, he was depicted with a variety of symbols.
As a god of Egypt, he carried the ankh, the symbol of life, in one hand, and in
the other he held a scepter, the symbol of power. In the 'Book of the Dead', he
was shown holding a writing palette and reed pen to record the deeds of the
dead. As voice of the sun-god Ra, he carried the utchat, or Eye of Ra, the
symbol of Ra's ubiquitous power. Thoth was variously depicted wearing a
crescent moon on his headdress, or wearing the Atef crown, or sometimes, the
crown of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Originally, Thoth was a god of creation, but was later thought to be the one who
civilized men, teaching them civic and religious practices, writing, medicine, music
and magic. He took on many of the roles of Seshat, until she became a dual, female
version of Thoth.
The god of learning was also reputed to have been a god of measuring the passage of
time, and thus the god of the Egyptian calendar. It is interesting to note that although
he is related to the solar calendar in myth (where he won five extra days a year from
Khonsu, the moon god), but that as a moon god himself, he was very probably closely
related to Egypt's original lunar calendar:
"...Researchers of the ancient Egyptian calendar agree that the solar calendar of
360 + 5 days was not the first prehistoric calendar of that land. This 'civil' or
secular calendar was introduced only after the start of dynastic rule in Egypt,
i.e., after 3100 BC; according to Richard A. Parker (The Calendars of the
Ancient Egyptians) it took place circa 2800 BC 'probably for administrative
and fiscal purposes'. This civil calendar supplanted, or perhaps supplemented
at first, the 'sacred' calendar of old. In the words of the Encyclopaedia
Brittanica, 'the ancient Egyptians originally employed a calendar based on the
Moon'. According to R. A. Parker (Ancient Egyptian Astronomy) that earlier
calendar was, 'like that of all ancient peoples', a calendar of twelve lunar
months plus a thirteenth intercalary month that kept the seasons in place."
- Zecharia Sitchin, When Time Began
Thoth's centre of worshiped was at Khmunu (Hermopolis) in Upper Egypt, where he
was the creator god, in Ibis form, who laid the World Egg. The sound of his song was
thought to have created four frog gods and snake goddesses who continued Thoth's
song, helping the sun journey across the sky.
He was the 'One who Made Calculations Concerning the Heavens, the Stars and the
Earth', the 'Reckoner of Times and of Seasons', the one who 'Measured out the
Heavens and Planned the Earth'. He was 'He who Balances', the 'God of the
Equilibrium' and 'Master of the Balance'. 'The Lord of the Divine Body', 'Scribe of the
Company of the Gods', the 'Voice of Ra', the 'Author of Every Work on Every Branch
of Knowledge, Both Human and Divine', he who understood 'all that is hidden under
the heavenly vault'. Thoth was not just a scribe and friend to the gods, but central to
order - ma'at - both in Egypt and in the Duat. He was 'He who Reckons the Heavens,
the Counter of the Stars and the Measurer of the Earth'.
When an ancient Egyptian died, he was not buried into the ground, mourned and then
forgotten. Nor was his grave simply visited at certain times and some token words
spoken over it, so that once again he is forgotten until next visit. The ancient
Egyptians believed that ritual existed which would bring sensory life back to the
deceaseds form, enabling it to see, smell, breathe, hear, and eat, and thus partake of
the offering foods and drinks brought to the tomb each day.
Priests would recite hymns such as this one, for Pa-nefer:
"Awake!..May you be alert as a living one, rejuvenated every day, healthy in millions
of occasions of god sleep, while the gods protect you, protection being around you
every day."
Once the deceased was rejuvenated back with all his senses, he could also interact and
watch over the family members, affecting their lives. Letters have been found attesting
to the continued contact, or at least, belief in the continued contact, between deceased
and living. Letters such as this one, from the scribe Butehamun to his deceased wife
Ikhtay, where he asks her to intercede with the Lords of Eternity on his behalf. "If you
can hear me in the place where you areit is you who will speak with a good speech
in the necropolis. Indeed I did not commit an abomination against you while you were
on earth, and I hold to my behavior."
The ritual that would re-animate the deceased was called The Opening of the Mouth
ceremony. It was an important ritual in both funerary and in temple practice. The
Opening of the Mouth originated as
a ritual to endow statues with the
capacity to support the living ka,
and to receive offerings. It was
performed on cult statues of gods,
kings, and private individuals, as
well as on the mummies of both
humans and Apis bulls. It was even
performed on the individual rooms
of temples and on the entire temple
structure.
The effect of the ritual was to
animate the recipient (or, in the case of a deceased individual, to re-animate it). The
ritual allowed the mummy, statue, or temple, to eat, breathe, see, hear and enjoy the
offerings and provisions performed by the priests and officiants, thus to sustain the ka.
. The Egyptian terms for the ceremony are wpt-r and wn-r, both translating literally to
"opening of the mouth." The verb wpi denotes an opening that entails splitting,
dividing or separating, and is used to describe the separation of two combatants, the
dividing of time or even a determination of the truth. The verb wn emphasizes
accessibility and exposure, used in contexts such as wn-hr, literally "open the face",
but more correctly meaning "see" or "be seen".
The earliest Old Kingdom textual references to the ceremony date to the early 4th
dynasty, to the Palermo stone and the decoration of the tomb of the royal official
Metjen. At this time, the ritual seems to have been performed solely to animate statues,
rather than to re-animate the deceased. The Palermo stone states that the ritual takes
place in the hwt nbw, in the goldsmiths quarter, sometimes translated as "Castle of
Gold, (or perhaps referring to the quarry of Hatnub). The textual formula for the ritual
reference is written as "the fashioning and opening of the mouth of (a statue of god X)
in the goldsmiths quarter/Hatnub."
The captions of the scenes in Metjens tomb mention that the ritual is performed four
times, in conjunction with censing and transforming the deceased into an akh. In the
Pyramid Texts and later funerary texts and captions, the rites are also said to be
performed four times. The spells are repeated four times, for Horus, Set, Thoth, and
Dwn-anwy.
It was probably not until the sixth dynasty that the statue ritual was incorporated into
an Opening of the Mouth ceremony already developed independently as part of the
funerary ritual. This ritual itself may have been a symbolic re-enactment of the
clearing of a babys mouth at birth. The earliest implements used were probably the
priests fingers, later replaced by finger-shaped iron blades. In many texts, reference is
texts associate the bonds obstructing the mouth with Set. But the adze, the dw3-wr, the
fingers and psh-kf are all included with other older elements.
The earliest complete account of the Opening of the Mouth ceremony dates to the 19th
dynasty, embodied in a long ceremony performed at funerals in or before the tomb.
King Seti I had such scenes depicted on his tomb, and so did the vizier Rekhmire. He
held office under both Tuthmosis III and Amenhotep II. The scenes are among the best
sources on the subject. The stm and lector-priests played central roles, the former
representing the son who was closest to the father, the latter making the correct
recitations.
The ceremony should be carried out in the House of Gold. Once the deceased had
arrived at his tomb, the akhu rituals were performed to bring about his transfiguration
The rite consisted of many acts, the opening of the mouth being just one, but central.
The first part was the lustration or washing. The deceaseds mummy was first set up
on a clean mound of sand, facing south. He should be purified with water poured from
nmst and dshrt jars, and his mouth especially purified with balls of natron from Upper
and Lower Egypt.
The deceased should then be fumigated by incense. This part of the purification harks
back to the Pyramid Texts, such as spells 16-29, where perfume is used. The stm priest
should be awakened. After he is dressed in his panther-skin garb. The stm-priest
identifies himself with Horus and opens the mouth of the statue with his fingers rather
than with the adze.
The ox/bull is butchered and the heart presented to the deceased, its foreleg is severed
and pointed towards the deceased. The hieroglyph for foreleg denoted strength, and
perhaps it was considered that the foreleg transferred the life-force of the bull to the
recipient of the Opening of the mouth (alternately, the bull may have had to do with
reviving sexual powers).
Then the mouth is opened with the ntjrwy tool, and the mummy is presented to the son
"who loves him." More scenes depict the son coming to the House of Gold, opening
the mouth with the mdjdft-tool, and touching the mummys mouth with the little finger
again.
An ostrich feather is presented, the psh-kef knife is presented, and more aromatics are
burned. Grapes and other foods are offered. Then the newly animated mummy is
brought to his place. The ceremony is done.
Khaibit - The shadow of a man, it could partake of funerary offerings and was
able to detach itself from the body and travel at will, though it always was
thought to stay near the Ba.
Akhu (Akh, Khu, Ikhu) - This was the immortal part, the radiant and shining
being that lived on in the Sahu, the intellect, will and intentions of the
deceased that transfigured death and ascended to the heavens to live with the
gods or the imperishable stars.
Sahu - The incorruptible spiritual body of man that could dwell in the
heavens, appearing from the physical body after the judgement of the dead
was passed (if successful) with all of the mental and spiritual abilities of a
living body.
Sekhem - This was the incorporeal personification of the life force of man,
which lived in heaven with the Akhu, after death.
Ab (Ib) - The heart, this was the source of good and evil within a
person, the moral awareness and centre of thought that could leave the
body at will, and live with the gods after death, or be eaten by Ammut as
the final death if it failed to weigh equally against Ma'at.
Ren - The true name, a vital part to man on his journey through life and the
afterlife, a magical part that could destroy a man if his name was obliterated or
could give power of the man if someone knew his Ren - naming ceremonies in
Egypt were secret, and a child lived his whole life with a nickname to avoid
anyone from learning his true name!
Death was a complex affair. Originally this was only for the pharaoh, but the rich
soon believed that they could take part in the afterlife, and eventually the poor
believed they could join the ranks of the blessed dead. Other reasons for the
complexity of life after death came from the Egyptian way of clinging to ideas, rather
than discarding them when new ideas came along. The intermingling of peoples, the
different religious ideas and cults all were incorporated into the Egyptian belief
system, giving rise to this elaborate belief system.
From the monuments and papyrus scrolls and tombs left
today, it's no wonder that Egyptians were thought to have
focused their lives around death! But the Egyptians, like
any other people, enjoyed life, and did not look forward
to death. They followed the maxim "live life not that
thou shalt die" - partying and generally trying to enjoy
life. But death, to the Egyptians, was a somewhat better
version of their current life. They would eat, drink and
share good companionship in the stars or in the Land of
the West. They would have servants to do their chores for them. Life, after death,
would be ideal.
The only problem was that there was no guarantee that they would actually get to the
afterlife, and there was always the threat of their names, physical bodies or images
being destroyed, killing their multiple parts in the process. Spells, prayers, tomb
paintings and statues could help, but if everything was obliterated, then they died, too.
No wonder the Egyptians lived their lives to the fullest!
Maat
Other Names: Ma'at
Patron of: truth, law and universal order.
Appearance: A woman wearing a crown surmounted by a huge ostrich feather. Her
totem symbol is a stone platform or foundation, representing the stable base on which
order is built.
Description: Maat was the personification of the fundamental order of the universe,
without which all of creation would perish. The primary duty of the pharaoh was to
uphold this order by maintaining the law and administering justice. To reflect this,
many pharaohs took the title "Beloved of Maat," emphasizing their focus on justice
and truth.
At any event in which something would be judged, Maat was said to be present, and
her name would be invoked so that the judge involved would rule correctly and
impartially. In the underworld, the heart of the deceased was weighed by Anubis
against Maat's feather. If the heart was heavy with wicked deeds, it would outweigh
the feather, and the soul would be fed to Ammit. But if the scales were balanced,
indicating that the deceased was a just and honorable person in life, he would be
welcomed by Osiris into the Blessed Land. Maat's presence in all worlds was
universal, and all the gods deferred to her.
Worship: Worshipped and revered widely throughout all of Egypt. Even the gods are
shown praising Maat.
falsehood." How can a flower be "false" or "ethical." It just is. How can the universe
be "ethical or moral, right or wrong"? It simply is. That is Ma'at.
Despite being a winged goddess (like Nephthys), she was judge at the Egyptian underworld
at the Halls of Ma'ati or Halls of the Double Ma'at.
The dead person's heart was placed on a scale, balanced by Ma'at herself, or by the Feather
of Ma'at (her symbol that she wore on her head was an ostrich feather).
Thoth (god of writing and scribes) weighed the heart... if the deceased had been found to not
have followed the concept of ma'at during his life (if he had lied or cheated or killed or done
anything against ma'at) his heart was devoured by a demon (she was called Ammut Devouress of the Dead) and he died the final death. If the heart weighed the same as Ma'at,
the deceased was allowed to go on to the afterlife.
In life, it was the pharaohs' duty to uphold ma'at. "I have done Ma'at" has been spoken by
several pharaohs, as well as being called "beloved of Ma'at".
The ruler who forcibly emphasizes his adherence to Maat on his monuments in
Akhenaten the very king whom later pharaohs considered to have deviated
immensely from her laws.
Ma'at, as would be logical, was also was the justice meeted out in ancient Egyptial law courts.
It is likely that a "Priest of Ma'at" referred to people who were involved in the justice system,
as well as being priests of the goddess herself.
There is a small temple dedicated to Ma'at (in ruins) at Karnak.
The temple is inside Precinct of Montu, the smallest of three
enclosures at Karnak. The temple seems to have been built by
Hatshepsut, then reconstructed by Thuthmose III. You can see a
computer reconstruction of Ma'at's temple at
http://www.ifrance.com/homann/t3maatec.jpg.
Ma'at did not exist until Ra rose from the waters of Nun (various gods and goddesses of
Chaos). She was known as a Neter goddess, and as such, was described as a daughter of
Ra. But without Ma'at, Egyptians believed that Nun would reclaim the universe. She was also
thought to be the wife of Thoth, moon god and god of the wisdom.
She was, really, the most important deity of them all.
Caroline Seawright is a full time worker, part time traveler, anime and manga lover
and HTML programmer! She writes many articles on or about Egypt.
Walk through a cemetery today and take note that on this grave or that,
flowers, cards, and other tokens of memory lie placed by some loving
hand. In some places, some graves might even have food or drink offerings lovingly
placed thereon.
If this is our custom, then we are truly akin to the ancient Egyptians. In the premummification days of the predynastic period, the deceased members of the
community were carefully placed in pits in the hot dry desert sand. The bodies would
desiccate but would otherwise be reasonably preserved. Somehow, in someway, the
ancient Egyptians conceived the idea that, as the body was preserved, so too would be
the style of living, and the need for sustenance, just as in life.
Flinders Petrie discovered such funerary goods. He wrote down his observations: "In
the prehistoric graves there is a full supply for the requirements of the dead. The food
offerings were burnt to ashes at a burning place in the mouth of the cemetery valley; a
dozen or sometimes fifty large jars of the ashes were deposited in the grave. Jars of
beer and of water were also placed, a lesser jar of ointment, cakes of bread and other
food. Toilet objects were providedas a palette for eye paint, a stock of malachite,
combs and hairpins. There were weapons such as large knives, forked flint lances,
copper or flint daggers, stone maces and flaying knives.
The simplest form of offering was found in position at one site: it was a reed mat laid
before the false door of the tomb, with a conical dish on it to hold a pile of flour. The
coloring of the hetep sign in the earliest glyphs at Meidum shows the rush mat and
binding strings and pot exactly like what is found. On the top of a large 6th Dynasty
mastaba at Dendera, the pottery offering dishes and jars were still in place, lying
undisturbed after thousands of years."
It should be noted that what Petrie referred to by the hetep hieroglyph is represented as
a loaf of bread placed as an offering on such a mat, and this sign was used in words
such as "offering" or "altar". Even when the simple mat was replaced by more
permanent stone altars at the beginning of the Old Kingdom, the altar often had the
offering hieroglyph carved on the top, or was made in the form of the offering sign.
The upper surfaces of the tables were often carved with images of loaves, trussed
ducks, and libation or other vessels required. These images would then serve as
magical substitutes for the real food offerings, backed-up by the offering formula and
lists of specific offerings. Often, there were cups, grooves or channels cut into the
surface so that beer, water or wine could be poured onto the table.
The ancient Egyptians believed early on that to obtain eternal life, the individual must
join the gods after death. Since to ancient Egyptians, death was thus merely a
continuation on a different plane of existence of the life they had known, shelter and
material goods were considered necessary for the deceaseds well-being. A tomb
equipped with clothing and everyday utensils as well as food and drink would supply
those needs. Just as offerings were also presented to the images of gods in order to
nourish and sustain them, so also were food and other offerings made to the deceaseds
ka (soul) to nourish and sustain it. The food was brought into the tomb-chapel, where
it was offered to the deceased at the false door, from which his ka would emerge to
partake of the items spiritually.
From predynastic times as Petrie discovered, and probably earlier still, offerings were
made to the gods and to deceased person on small rats of woven reeds. This
sustenance might be supplied for a dead person by the family, generation after
generation, or an officiant might be paid to maintain the necessary daily care. In the
latter case, tomb owners and the priesthood of the local temple contracted to ensure
future sustenance be made as offerings to the deceased individuals ka during the
generations to come.
Yet family lines could come to an end, economic and other situations change. To
safeguard against the cessation of sustenance within the tomb, the magical power of
the written and spoken word was also employed, to ensure a continual supply of
offerings. So hieroglyphs and canonical art were used to substitute for the actual
offerings by providing a ritual guarantee of eternal sustenance, texts and images
creating directly and perfectly the necessary food and drink for the dead forever.
Despite the overabundance of offerings, the material offering was not the essential
thing. The act of devotion was more important than the material gift, as was attested
by the substitute offerings. If actual food offerings stopped for any reason, the offering
formula would guarantee an eternal supply of food and enable the deceased to
dispense with the assistance of the funerary priests for his continued sustenance.
Reciting the offering formula was an adequate substitute for the actual offering. Tombowners often are depicted in text as addressing themselves to passers-by demanding
that the offering formula be read on their behalf. As the owners name is read in the
formula, the author, the tomb-owner, is made to leave on in the memory of posterity.
The hetep-di-nisu, or "a gift which the king gives", is the offering formula or prayer
asking for offerings to be given to the deceased. It first appears as the principal
inscription on the False Door stelae of the Early Dynastic period, which formed the
focus of food offerings in early
private tombs, but it continued
to be used on funerary stelae ad
coffins through to the GraecoRoman period. From at least the
4th dynasty, the deceased was
often depicted sitting or
standing before an offering
table, beside which was an
inscription enumerating all that
was offered. Later on, in the
18th Dynasty, the tombs of the
Theban necropolis portrayed
the offerings as a banquet scene
with guests, servants and
entertaining musicians. As
shown below, the offering
formula was still used far into
the Late Period.
Hetep also means to be pleased,
happy, gracious, to be peaceful,
to become calm, to satisfy, to
pacify. Hetep had to do with
gifts in a perspective of
communication between the
worlds, given in gratitude,
received in happiness and
grace, and leading to
contentment, graciousness, mercy and peace. Because the word hetep could signify the
concept of rest, peace or satisfaction, the sign also appears in the design of jewelry and
other small items made to convey such messages such as "The heart of the gods is
satisfied."
One early example of the "gift [or boon] which the king gives" comes from the Old
Kingdom period, specifically an Inscription in the Giza Mastaba of Princess NiSedjer-Kai, early 5th Dynasty:
"An offering which the king gives and Anubis, lord of the necropolis, first of the gods
hall: May she be buried in the western necropolis at great old age. May she travel on
the good ways on which a revered one travels well. May offerings be given to her on
New Years feast, the Thoth feast, the First of the Year feast, the wag-feast, the Sokar
feast, the Great Flame feast, the Brazier feast, the Procession-of-Min feast, the
monthly sadj-feast, the Beginning of the Month feast, the Beginning of the Half-Month
feast, every feast, every day, to the royal daughter, the royal ornament, priestess of
Hathor, priestess of Khufu, Ni-Sedjer-Kai".
So the offering formula employed in the funerary cult and often inscribed on offering
tables usually began with the phrase "Hetep di nisu:" an "offering which the king
grants"denoting the concept of requisite royal license. The formulae then continue
to name deities such as Osiris and Anubis, through whom the kings grant would be
administered, and to list choice offerings such as beer, bread, oxen, fowl, incense and
clothing, a list of the various quantities of items of food and drink that the ka of the
deceased requires, which were supplied magically by the ritual inscription even if not
actually present.
Typically the first line of the offering formula asks for the king to make gifts to the
gods Osiris or Anubis. But why is the king named herein? After all, arent the
offerings being made by the family in many cases, as said above? This has to do with
the religious practice and procedure of the Egyptian people. The text of the formula
indicates that the sustenance of the ka of the deceased was not simply the
responsibility of the surviving relatives, but that it was necessary for the king, seen as
THE priest or intermediary between the Gods and the people, to intercede on behalf of
the deceased.
Since the king was the main priest, the only actual priest in Egypt, it was only the king
who was evershown making offerings to the gods in the temples. This idea was carried
over into the giving of offerings in the tombs, where the king was also named as the
giver. The formula begins: "An offering that the king gives". The essential role of the
king as intermediary between the gods and mankind required that he should strike a
bargain with the gods, whereby he offered goods to them in exchange for prosperity
and harmony in the land, and also, he would intercede on behalf of the dead to ensure
them a prosperous afterlife. The dead were given offerings on the occasion of the
burial, and their offerings were to be renewed forever, on principle, at certain named
festivals such as the New Year festival, the Thoth festival, the Wag festival, the Sokar
festival and others.
The reason for this was that offerings went from the temple to the necropolis. Since
the Old Kingdom, the practice was that offerings presented to the main god of the
temple were carried out of the sanctuary, presented to gods having subsidiary cults in
the temple, then to statues of kings and private persons placed in the temple courts,
and finally to the necropolis. The offerings were then distributed to the priests and all
the staff involved in the rituals as a reward, or salary, for their work.
The Pyramid Texts contain examples of the hetep di nisu as well:
Utterance 172: A boon which the king and Geb grant to this King; there is given to
you every offering and every oblation which you can desire, whereby It will be well
with you before the god for ever and ever.
Utterance 437: A boon which the King grants, a boon which Anubis grants, your
thousand of bread, your thousand of beer, your thousand of t-wr-bread which came
forth from the Broad Hall, your thousand of all sweet things, your thousand of oxen,
your thousand of everything which you eat and on which you set your heart.
Utterance 599: A boon which the King grants and Geb grants of these choice joints,
invocation offerings for all gods who shall bring into being all good things for the
King and who shall cause to endure this construction and this pyramid of the King, in
accordance with what the King wishes in the matter, for ever and ever. O all you gods
who shall cause this pyramid and this construction of the King to be fair and endure:
You shall be effective, you shall be strong, you shall have your souls, you shall have
power, you shall have given to you a boon which the king grants of bread and beer,
oxen and fowl, clothing and alabaster; you shall receive your gods-offerings, you
shall choose for yourselves your choice joints, you shall have your oblations made to
you, you shall take possession of the Wrrt-crown in the midst of the Two Enneads.
On stelae, the formula phrase is usually accompanied by a depiction of the deceased
sitting in front of an offering table heaped with food. Some tomb paintings also show
Horus, son and heir of Osiris, as the donor, standing with arm upraised in the attitude
of invocation before the shrine, statue or stela of the god, or deceased, and he
pronounces the offering formula. The table was generally physically placed in the
tomb chapel or other accessible place so that physical offerings could be brought in by
the funerary priests, if it was a royal mortuary offering, or by relatives of the deceased.
The earliest examples come from the fourth dynasty at Meidum. These do not mention
the king, but only Anubis. The opening phrases in the Old Kingdom read "An offering
which the king gives and an offering that Osiris gives" introducing the kind and the
god as equal donors. The gifts are not limited to food offerings, but include a good
burial, admission to the realm of the spirits, and even a list of festivals at which the
offerings are to be made. The recitation of the formula is illustrated in tombs by a man
with his right arm outstretched, and in fact the hieroglyph for "to offer" is the
outstretched arm with the hand holding out a loaf. Other men are often also shown
offering poured water, burning incense, kneeling at the offering table and reading the
ritual from a scroll.
By the First Intermediate Period the phrase read "An offering that the king gives TO
Osiris, that he may in turn give invocation offerings." An example of this development
comes from the Stela of Sahathor, whose career began under Amenemhat II in the 12th
Dynasty. He and his wife are shown on the funerary stela beside a pile of offerings.
Captions on either side of the statue-niche describe how many expeditions Sahathor
undertook for the king, and how he supervised work on sixteen statues for the royal
funerary complex.
The offering formula from this stela is translated thus:
An offering-which-the-king-gives to Osiris, lord of Busiris, the great god, lord of
Abydos, an invocation offering of bread and beer, flesh and fowl, alabaster and linen,
incense and unguent, at the Wag festival, at the festival of Thoth, at the procession of
Min(?), at the Burnt Offerings. O you living who are upon earth, who shall pass by
this chapel in the necropolis, going north, going south, may you say "It is pure! A
thousand of bread, a thousand of beer, a thousand of flesh and fowl, oryx and gazelle,
and everything on which a god lives, for the spirit of the blessed one, the assistant
treasurer Sahathor, true of voice."
As time went on, other gods would also be named in the offering formula. An example
of the offering formula from the New Kingdom period comes from Tomb of Paheri at
el-Kab:
An offering given by the King to Amun, Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands, King of
eternity, lord of everlastingness.and Nekhbet, the White one of Nekhenand Osiris
Khentamentiu, Lord of Thinis, great in Abydos, and Hathor, mistress of the
desert.and Ptah-Sokar, lord of Shetyt, Anubis, lord of Rostau, and the Enneads great
and small, May they give a thousand of bread, beer, beef and fowl, a thousand of foodofferings, a thousand of drink-offerings, all the plants that sprout from earth, a
thousand of all things good and pure, that are offered to the eternal lord.
And from the Late Period comes an example from the Statue Inscription of Harwa:
An offering that the King gives to Montu, lord of Thebes, that he may give provisions
of bread, beer, cakes, oxen, fowl, alabaster and clothing, incense and unguent, all
things good and pure whereon a god lives, which heaven gives, earth produces, and
Hapy brings forth, from the table of the Lord of Eternity, on the monthly feast, the
half-monthly feast, on the Thoth feast, and on every feast, every day, to the ka of the
one honored by Montu, Lord of Thebes, the true, beloved Kings friend, Harwa.
May we today treat our honored dead with at least the same constant memorials that
the Egyptians did.
Apep
Other Names: Apophis, the Destroyer.
Patron of: evil and darkness.
Appearance: a great serpent or crocodile.
Description: Apep was the ancient spirit of evil and destruction who dwelled in
eternal darkness. Every day he would attempt to devour the Sun Boat of Ra as it
sailed the heavens. Set's original role was to battle Apep and keep him from
destroying the boat. Occasionally, Apep would succeed, and the world would be
plunged into darkness (a solar eclipse?). But Set and his companion Mehen would cut
a hole in Apep's belly to allow the Sun Boat to escape.
Apep commanded an army of demons that plagued mankind. Only by putting faith in
the gods of light could people defeat the demons.
Every year, a ritual called the "Banishing of Apep" would be held by the priests of Ra.
They would take an effigy of Apep and in the center of the temple they would pray
that all the wickedness in Egypt would go into the effigy. Then they would trample
the effigy, crush it, beat it with sticks, pour mud on it, and eventually burn and destroy
it. In this way, the power of Apep would be curtailed for another year.
deadly stare and repulsed him with the thrust of a great spear.
However, in other accounts, Re's companions and even the dead themselves, who
could transform themselves into a form of the god, Shu, were involved in this cyclical
battle for the survival of creation and order. Most notably, in the Book of Gates, Isis,
Neith and Serket, together with other minor deities and some forms of monkey helped
capture the monster with magical nets. Afterwards, he was restrained by deities
including the earth god Geb and the sons of Horus, who cut his body into pieces,
though each night he is revived to attack once more. In fact, in some myths, the sun
god is encircled or swallowed by the serpent who later disgorges him as a metaphor of
rebirth and renewal.
Apophis, like Seth, was also associated with various frightening natural events such as
unexplained darkness such as solar eclipse, storms and earthquakes. Hence, he was
always an underlying threat to the very stability of the cosmos.
Apophis is usually depicted in funerary texts and other settings as a great serpent,
sometimes with tightly compressed, spring-like coils to emphasize his vast size. He is
sometimes described as being over sixteen meters in length, with the first section of
his body made of flint. He is usually shown being restrained, dismembered or in the
process of being destroyed, often by multiple knives. In the tomb of Ramesses VI in
the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Thebes (modern Luxor), Apophis is
shown with twelve heads above its back representing those he has swallowed who are
freed, if only briefly, when he is vanquished. Once Re has passed by the snake, the
heads are destined to return into the body of Apophis until freed again, only briefly,
the next night. In the private tombs and funerary papyri, and other scene of a different
type is found where Re or Hathor appear in feline form in order to slay the serpent by
cutting it up with a knife. The serpent is also symbolically portrayed in some temple
scenes (at Dendera, Deir el-Bahri, Luxor and Philae). There, the king strikes a circular
See also:
General Topics
General Areas
Asasif Necropolis
Nobles, Tombs of the
Valley of the Kings, Area of
Valley of the Kings (by Marie Parsons)
The Valley of the Queens
Tombs
Temples
Other Miscellaneous
The mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut is one of the most dramatically situated in
the world. The queen's architect, Senenmut, designed it and set it at the head of a
valley overshadowed by the Peak of the Thebes, the "Lover of Silence," where lived
the goddess who presided over the necropolis. A tree lined avenue of sphinxes led up
to the temple, and ramps led from terrace to terrace. The porticoes on the lowest
terrace are out of proportion and coloring with the rest of the building. They were
restored in 1906 to protect the celebrated reliefs depicting the transport of obelisks by
barge to Karnak and the miraculous birth of Queen Hatshepsut. Reliefs on the south
side of the middle terrace show the queen's expedition by way of the Red Sea to Punt,
the land of incense. Along the front of the upper terrace, a line of large, gently smiling
Osirid statues of the queen looked out over the valley. In the shade of the colonnade
behind, brightly painted reliefs decorated the walls. Throughout the temple, statues
and sphinxes of the queen proliferated. Many of them have been reconstructed, with
patience and ingenuity, from the thousands of smashed fragments found by the
excavators; some are now in the Cairo Museum, and others the Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York.
Deir el-Bahri
By Marie Parsons
The front part of the temple was made of limestone and was dedicated to Montu-Ra,
local deity of Thebes before Amun. The rear of the temple was made of sandstone and
was the cult center for the king.
The sides of the ramp leading to the upper terrace were colonnaded, and the upper
terrace itself was given a colonnade on three sides. Octagonal columns surround a
large squire structure, a funerary chapel. The enclosure also contained six chapels and
shaft tombs for his wives and family members.
The inner part of the temple consists of a columned courtyard, beneath which was the
entrance to the kings tomb cut into the rock. At the level of the terrace, the hypostyle
hall contained the sanctuary of the royal cult. A statue of the king stood in the niche
carved into the rock face.
Temple of Tutmosis III
Tutmosis III, the successor to Hatshepsut, built a temple complex here. It was only
discovered in 1961, when restoration and cleaning work between the monuments of
Mentuhotep and Hatshepsut was underway. The complex, perched on the rising rock
of the cliffs, was built to Amun, as was a chapel to Hathor. The structure was probably
intended to receive the barque of Amun during the Feast of the Valley, and thus would
have replaced the temple of Hatshepsut.
After a landslide seriously damaged the temple at the end of the 20th Dynasty, it was
apparently abandoned. It then became a quarry, and later, a cemetery for the nearby
Coptic monastery.
Temple of Hatshepsut
The temple of Hatshepsut is
the best-preserved of the
three complexes. Called by
the people Djeser-djeseru,
"sacred of sacreds",
Hatshepsuts terraced and
rock-cut temple is one of
the most impressive
monuments of the west
bank.
Situated directly against the rock face of Deir el-Bahris great rock bay, the temple not
only echoed the lines of the surrounding cliffs in its design, but it seems a natural
extension of the rock faces.
The temple was little more than a ruin when first excavated in 1891, but it has led to a
great deal of successful reconstruction. The temple took 15 years to build and was
modified throughout that time. The approach to the temple was along a 121-foot wide,
causeway, sphinx-lined, that led from the valley to the pylons. These pylons have now
disappeared
Eighteen cult niches, nine on each side, flank the rock sanctuary of Amun, which was
the focus of the entire complex. During the Amarna period, many of the images of
Amun were destroyed
During the Ptolemaic time the sanctuary was expanded to include the cults of
architects Amenhotep son of Hapu, who oversaw works for Amenhotep III, and
Imhotep, who designed the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara. In the 7th century ACE,
the temple area became the site of a Coptic monastery, from which the Arabic name
Deir el-Bahri is derived.
When men live by water, whether marsh, river, or sea, they eventually discover ways
to build vehicles to move across that water. Egypts life has always turned around its
River, the Nile, and its marshes in the Delta.
The cheapest form of primitive boat was the pot boat, simply a clay container large
enough to accommodate a passenger. It was meant for places free of rocks and was
ideal for getting around the marshy areas of the Nile delta. Egypt was fairly treeless
and it would be difficult to find other means of
building boats. The Egyptians did find enough
wood to make planked boats. There is evidence
that the Old Kingdom of Egypt had the first
planked boats ever made. These were used even
in burial rituals. Fourteen have recently been
found buried in the region of Abydos.
The boat made out of planks was an
improvement on the dugout which was
hollowed out of a single log. In southern Egypt, archaeologists have found a multitude
of pictures of boats that, shortly before 3100 BCE, were drawn on rock outcrops or
were included as part of the decoration on pottery. Among them, are some that show a
mast with a broad square sail hung from it. The tombs of Egypt have yielded pictures
and even models of a variety of river craft, from tiny rowboats through swift yachts
and dispatch boats to enormous barges large enough to carry huge obelisks weighing
hundreds of tons from the quarries.
The earliest surviving example of a sewn boat, one which had the side planking sewn
together with fibers, cords, or thongs, was found beside the great pyramid of Giza. It
is most probably a descendant of boats going back into Egypts predynastic times.
The Nile River was the catalyst for these
and more early boats. It is a perfect
waterway, running some 500 miles from
the beginning of the delta near Cairo to the
First Cataract at Aswan (Elephantine).
Since the prevailing wind blows against the
flow of the water, boatmen could drift
downstream (or with the current), and
when returning they could raise sail and be
gently driven back home. The Egyptians were also the first recorded people to use
sails on their craft.
If wood was scarce in Egypt, reeds were not. For their first water transport, the
Egyptians turned to these bulrushes. By the middle of the fourth millennium BCE they
were building rafts of bundles of reeds tied together, eventually learning to shape
them, making them long and narrow and gracefully bowed. They fashioned paddles to
propel the rafts and mounted paddles to serve as rudders. They built craft large enough
to accommodate two deck cabins and require a long line of rowers to move them.
The first sail was probably a large leafy frond set up in the bow. This method was
actually still being used in some places in Africa by the 19th century ACE. By about
3500 BCE the Egyptians had replaced this leaf frond with a true sail, made of woven
reeds or leaves set on a vertical mast, shaped square.
By the Old Kingdom, reed ships were now taking on a more boat-like shape, with a
spoonlike form and a prow and stern that came together into a point, often finished off
with an ornament shaped like a lotus bud. But with the new pyramid-building
program, stone was requiredstone which could only be obtained from quarries on
the other side of the river or upstream at Aswan. Riverboats were needed that could
transport huge limestone blocks. Boats now had to be made of wood.
These first wooden boats were more or less
replicas of the earlier reed boats. They were
built square at each end, more barge than boat.
Since Egypt lacked good timber, the
shipwrights devised a special technique. They
used the acacia tree, with brittle wood which
only comes in short lengths. But they cut planks
three feet long, put together like brick, building
up the hull from a central plank laid for the
bottom. They would join the three foot planks
together edge to edge by means of long closeset dowels, and when the hull was built up they
stretched crossbeams over it. They made no ribs or frames, and caulked on the inside,
much shorter mast. Trade with Punt was steady and enriching.
Also, obelisks for her temple needed to be transported from Aswan quarries. These
obelisks were each almost 100 feet high, and the barge built to ferry them was some
200 feet long with a beam of 70 feet. The barge had three rows of crossbeams instead
of just one. It required almost 30 oar-driven tugs, each with 30 rowers, to tow that
barge.
During the reign of Tuthmosis III, Hatshepsuts successor, Egypts trade increased still
more. Punt provided incense, ivory, and rare woods. Copper was brought from Cyprus
and silver from Asia Minor. One king of Cyprus in turn requested horses, chariots, a
wooden gold plated bed, jars of oil. In another letter he requests a sorcerer who is
expert with eagles. These things all could only be shipped by sea. A record of such
trade activity stands as a painting on the wall of the tomb chamber of Kenamun,
official under Amenhotep III.
The decades just before and after 1200 BCE were politically troubled for Egypt. A
wave of invading peoples came out of the eastern Mediterranean right to their very
shores. Ramesses III repelled this invasion, celebrating his victory by carving on the
temple wall an account accompanied by reliefs describing the sea battle. The
description of the Egyptian ships shows that their warships at least have become
shorter and heavier in the hull, the anti-sagging truss has disappeared, indicating that
some other method of inner strength had been utilized. The elegant curved stern, too
delicate for war, was replaced by an undecorated sloping stern and the sternpost
replaced by a simple projection ending in a lions head. Egypt had joined the rest of
the Mediterranean in building its watercraft for war.
El Amarna
by Jimmy Dunn
Mertseger
Other Names: Mert-sekert
Patron of: the Valley of the Kings.
Appearance: a woman with the head of cobra, or a scorpion with a woman's head.
Description: Mertseger was the protector and guardian of the Valley of the Kings,
where she lived on a nearby mountain. Her wrath would descend on anyone who
disturbed the tombs there, usually by sending poisonous animals against the
transgressor.
She also protected the valley against unscrupulous workers who might try to steal
treasure, or carve out a secret entrance. Yet for all her ferocity, she was merciful.
Should a person repent of his crimes against the valley or the tombs, she would heal
the wounds he had suffered.
Worshipped: Worshipped by the the workers of Deir el-Medina, the people who built
many of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings.
repentant. Her reach did not extend beyond the necropolis, so she was not worshiped
throughout Egypt. She was revered mostly by the people who worked in the
necropolis, building and decorating the tombs of the New Kingdom pharaohs.
Meretseger was generally shown as a coiled cobra, or as a cobra with a woman's head.
Sometimes she was shown in cobra form with head and arm projecting from the hood
of the cobra. At other times she was shown as a snake, with three heads - that of a
woman, that of a cobra and that of a
vulture. On occasion she was also shown as
a cobra headed woman or as a full woman,
though this is very infrequent. Her name,
'She Who Loves Silence', comes from mr
'love' (with the feminine t
ending) and sgr
'quiet'.
been justly stricken with illness for his sins. Afterwards he proclaims that he
has been cured by the 'Peak of the West', having first repented and ardently
besought her forgiveness."
-- Egyptian Mythology, Paul Hamlyn
Her worship was centered around the city of Waset, and the village of workmen of
Deir el Medina, during the New Kingdom. When the royal tombs there were
abandoned during the 21st Dynasty, the worship of Meretseger died out. The goddess
was one with the mountain, so when nobody visited the area, the people of Waset
forgot about her. She was often associated with Ptah, due to the workmen at Deir el
Medina. Ptah was the patron of craftsmen, and the workmen were craftsmen, cutting
and decorating the royal tombs. The two main deities of these workmen were,
naturally, shown together - the protectress of the men, and the deity who guided their
hands while the men worked on the tombs. A small temple to these two deities was
built near the Valley of the Queens.
Renenutet
Other Names: Termuthis, Ernutet, Renenet
Patron of: fertility and children
Appearance: a cobra.
Description: Renenutet was a goddess of great power. Her gaze, it was said, could
wither her enemies, but it could also grant great abundance to crops and livestock.
During the harvest festivals were held in her honor and offerings of the best yields
were dedicated to her. She was also the protector of children, turning her dread eyes to
creatures that might put a curse on them.
In the New Kingdom her role expanded to include the granting of magical powers to
mummification wrappings. During the Ptolemaic Era she was known as "The Lady of
the Robes."
Worship: Cult center at Terenuthis, in the Nile Delta. Worshipped in the surrounding
area.
Renenutet, Goddess of
Suckling, the Name and Protection
by Caroline Seawright
to instill fear in his enemies. Because of this, she was also linked to mummy bandages,
offering them to the dead. In Ptolemaic times, she was called "Lady of the Robes" due
to her association with clothing.
O Osiris-Pepi, I bring you the Eye of Horus which is in Tait, this Renenutetgarment of which the gods respect, so that the gods may respect you like they
respect Horus.
-- Utterance 635, Pyramid of Pepi II
In her role of fertility goddess, Renenutet was known as the
"Lady of Fertile Fields" and "Lady of Granaries". She was
thought to be responsible for looking after the harvest (this was
probably because the Egyptians saw snakes hiding in the fields
at harvest time), especially in the city of Dja (Modern Medinet
Madi, Greek Narmouthis) where an annual festival was
dedicated to her where she was offered the best yields of the
crops. There was also often a shrine dedicated to her near a
wine press or vat, so she could receive the offerings of the wine
makers. She was both linked to Sobek and Osiris, and thought
to be linked with Isis in her role as mother of Horus. She was believed to be the
mother of Nepri, god of grain. She was also linked to the coming of the inundation and
to Hapi, the god of the Nile:
I will make the Nile swell for you, without there being a year of lack and
exhaustion in the whole land, so the plants will flourish, bending under their
fruit. Renenutet is in all things - everything will be brought forth by the million
and everybody ...... in whose granary there had been dearth. The land of Egypt
is beginning to stir again, the shores are shining wonderfully, and wealth and
well-being dwell with them, as it had been before.
-- Famine Stele on the Island of Sehel
As her name might suggest, she was also though to be the goddess who gave a child
his or her 'true name'. The Egyptian for name - rn - are the same hieroglyphs used at
the start of Renenutet, and so she could also be called "She who is in the Name". To
the Egyptians, as shown by the story of Ra's secret name (which Isis manages to find
out, through trickery), if someone knew the true name of a person, then that person has
power over the other - a name was very important to the ancient Egyptians.
It was believed that if both the image of the dead and the name of the dead was
obliterated, then the deceased's souls would also be destroyed. It was because of this
that she also became a goddess of fortune. Her name, and the name of the god of
destiny, Shai, were often found together in the Book of the Dead. Ramsses II even
called himself "Lord of Shai and Creator of Renenutet". She was also seen in the Book
of the Dead at the judgement of the deceased together with Meskhenet, a goddess of
childbirth. Where Meskhenet presided over the actual birth itself, Renenutet looked
after the newborn child; She offered her protection, nurtured the child and gave the
Sobek
Other Names: Sebek
Patron of: the strength of the pharaoh
Appearance: a crocodile-headed man with a feathered crown, rarely as a full
crocodile (which was also used as the representation of Apep).
Description: The son of Neith, Sobek was a sort of bodyguard to various gods,
especially Ra and Set (in his original form), and was seen as having a similar function
for the pharaoh. In times of need, he gives the pharaoh strength and fortitude so that
he may overcome all obstacles. He also protects the pharaoh from all harm, especially
evil magic.
Worship: Worshipped throughout Egypt, his cult center was in the Faiyoum.
nearby City of the Dead. Step back in time as you walk the path of those ancient
Egyptians who worshiped and feared the crocodile in honor of the crocodile god,
Sobek.
The crocodile's power to snatch and destroy it's prey was thought to be symbolic of the
might of the pharaoh - the strength and energy of the reptile was a manifestation of the
pharaoh's own power. The word 'sovereign' was written as
yt. This way,
the crocodile - and thus Sobek - was linked to the pharaoh, the sovereign of Egypt.
In times of need, he gives
the pharaoh strength and
fortitude so that he may
overcome all obstacles. He
also protects the pharaoh
from all harm, especially
evil magic.
-- Sobek, TourEgypt
Originally, Sobek was
probably a dark god who
had to be appeased to give
the people his protection
against crocodiles. Sobek
had a dark streak that stayed
with him for the time he
was worshiped. In The
Book of the Dead, he was
showed as four crocodiles
who were believed to attack
the deceased in the underworld. This dark side sometimes put him in the camp of Set.
In one version of the tale of Osiris, Isis had to place Horus into a little boat of papyrus
reeds to protect him from a menacing Sobek. His form of a crocodile - one of Set's
creatures - linked him closely to the enemy of Horus. It was believed that Set turned
himself into a crocodile to escape from Horus, and Sobek was punished for allowing
this.
Several bynames of Set have the determinative of the crocodile*. Although
crocodiles may be the
ahy {Snarer};
away {Robber}.
-- Set, God of Confusion: A Study of his Role in Egyptian Mythology and
Religion, H. te Velde
Sobek, as with many of the other protective gods, also
had a benign side. In a different version of the tale of
Osiris, it was Sobek who carried the dead body of
Osiris to the bank of the Nile on his back. The four
mummiform sons of Horus - Imsety, human headed
protector of the liver, Hapy, baboon headed protector of
the lungs, Duamutef, jackal headed protector of the
stomach and Qebehsenuef, falcon headed protector of
the intestines - were believed to have come out of a
water lily that rose from the waters of Nun. Under the
orders of Ra, the four gods were rescued by Sobek in a
net, and brought them to land.
The Book of the Dead suggests that Sobek's
closeness to Horus can be traced back to his
participation in the birth of this god. Sobek was
responsible for calling Isis and Nephthys to aid
in the protection of the dead.
-- The Crocodile God, Sobek, Catherine C. Harris
Despite the different attitudes of people to the god, he was venerated as one who
restored sight to the dead, who revived their senses and who protected them from Set
who attacked those souls who traveled through the land of the dead.
whom bowings and prostrations are made in Sekhem. And the Osiris Ani is the
lord to whom bowings and prostrations are made in Sekhem.
-- The Book of the Dead, The Chapter of Making the Transformation into the
Crocodile God (Sobek)
Sobek first appeared in the Old Kingdom as the son of Nit, where he was known as
ad 'The Rager'. The two were mentioned as mother and son in the pyramid
of Unas. Some tales suggested that Set was his father. He was given different wives in
different areas - Hathor, Renenutet, Heqet to name a few. He was also thought to be
husband of the goddess Taweret, who was sometimes depicted with a crocodile on her
back. He was, likewise, given different children - Khonsu, Horus and Khnum were
sometimes called his sons, again in different areas.
Those who do away utterly sins and offences, and who are in the following of
the goddess Hetepsekhus, are the god Sobek and his associates who dwell in
the water. The goddess Hetepsekhus is the Eye of Ra.
-- The Book of the Dead, Texts Relating to the Weighing of the Heart of Ani
During the Middle Kingdom, Sobek was linked to the god
Amen, who seemed to have assimilated him to some
degree. He was also connected to the sun god Ra, giving
the form Sobek-Ra, who was worshipped as another
omnipotent manifestation of the sun deity. Thus Sobek
could be shown wearing either the headdress of Amen or
the sun disk of Ra.
Having the form of a crocodile, the Egyptians believed that
he also had the nature of a crocodile. He could be the
strong, powerful symbol of the pharaoh, showing the
ruler's might. He could use this force to protect the justified
dead in their after life, and be the protector and rescuer of the other gods... yet he
could also use that power to savage his enemies and the sinful deceased. He could
bestow sight and senses to the dead, he could bring water and fertility to the land. Yet
he was also closely linked to the enemy of Osiris. He was a god that was both feared
and respected by the ancient Egyptians.
Taweret (Taueret, Taurt, Toeris, Ipy, Ipet, Apet, Opet, Reret) - The Great Female - was
the ancient Egyptian goddess of maternity and childbirth, protector of women and
children. Like Bes, she was both a fierce demonic fighter as well as a
popular deity who guarded the mother and her newborn child.
She was depicted as a combination of a crocodile, a pregnant hippopotamus
standing on her hind legs with large breasts and a lion. Unlike the composite
demoness Ammut, her head and body were that of the hippo, her paws were
that of the lion, and her back was the back of a crocodile. All of these
animals were man killers, and as such she was a demoness.
All three animals were regarded as fierce creatures who would kill to protect their
young.
...Taweret, British Museum Glossary
It was in her role of a protector that she was seen as a
goddess. As the mother hippo is protective of her young,
Taweret was believed to be protective of Egyptian children.
She was often shown holding the sa hieroglyph of
protection or the ankh hieroglyph of life. She was thought
to assist women in labour and scare off demons that might
harm the mother or child.
... because hippos are denizens of the fertile Nile mud,
Egyptians also saw them as symbols of rebirth and
rejuvenation. The birth-related aspect of the hippo's powers also appears in the
complicated shape of the goddess Taweret, who protects women in childbirth.
She was also a goddess relating to fertility. She was goddess of harvests as well as a
goddess who helped with female sexuality and pregnancy. In this capacity, she was
linked with the goddess Hathor. As a fertility goddess, she was closely associated with
the inundation of the Nile especially at Jabal al-Silsila.
Amulets of Taweret were popular, used by the expectant mother because of Taweret's
protective powers. These were even found at Akhetaten - Akenaten had no power to
stop his people from needing the protection of this goddess (or of Bes), despite his
attempts to replace the gods and goddesses of Egypt with the Aten. Her picture was
also found on women's cosmetic tools, headrests, jewelry. There were even vessels in
the shape of the goddess, with a hole in one of her nipples for pouring. It was thought
that she would assign magical protection, when accompanied with a spell, to the milk
poured through these vessels.
Another way that Taweret was thought to scare away evil that could hurt a mother and
child was through the use of magic. She was associated with the magic 'wand' or
Throughout the world in ancient times, man worshipped the sun. We find monuments
to the sun gods all over the world, but in Egypt we really begin to get a feel for just
how the sun dominated early theology. In Egypt, at various locations and apparently
somewhat independently, the worship of the sun developed with gods of various
names. So many of Egypt's deities were associated with the sun in some way that it is
difficult to identify them, and their various forms became very complex. Montu, who
we generally identify as an ancient war god in Egypt, actually originated in the form
of a local solar god in Upper (southern) Egypt, apparently at Hermonthis (City of the
Sun). His worship seems to have been exported to Thebes during the 11th Dynasty.
Because of this god's association with the
successful King Nebhepetre Montuhotep I (or
II, same king), who ruled during Egypt's 11th
Dynasty, Montu (Mentu) achieved the rank of
state god. Montuhotep I reunited Upper and
Lower Egypt after the chaos of the First
Intermediate Period. His association with
Montu is obvious from his name, which means,
"Montu is satisfied".
However, by the 12th Dynasty, Montu became
subordinated to Amun, another deity who
probably originated in Upper Egypt, and would
later be known as the "King of Gods". It was
during this period that Montu's role in Egyptian
religion took on the true attributes of a war
god.
Actually, Montu's veneration as a war god can
be traced originally to the Story of Sinuhe,
where Montu was praised by the tale's hero
after he defeated the "strong man" of Retjenu. By the New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty
pharaohs, some of whom followed a very military tradition, sought specifically to
emulate Montu. For example, the Gebel Barkal Stele of Tuthmosis III, often referred
to as the Napoleon of Egypt, describes the king as "a valiant Montu on the battlefield".
Later in the New Kingdom, he became so personally identified with the Ramesses II
that a cult statue bearing the king's throne name, Usermaare Setepenre, with the
epithet, "Montu in the Two Lands", was venerated in Ramesses II's honor during his
lifetime. When kings such as Ramesses II are referenced as "mighty bulls", they are
was often depicted escorting the king into the presence of Amun. Other documentary
evidence suggests that he
was also sometimes paired
with Set (Seth), perhaps
acting as a controlled divine
aggressor to balance Set's
chaotic attributes.
Left: Columns of different
types at the Ptolemy VII temple
of Montu at Medamud
Sekhmet
Patron of: divine retribution, vengeance, and conquest.
Appearance: a woman with the head of a lioness.
Description: Sekhmet means "The Mighty One," and she was one of the most
powerful of the gods and goddesses. She was the goddess who meted out divine
punishment to the enemies of the gods and of the pharaoh. In this capacity she was
called the "Eye of Ra." She also accompanied the pharaoh into battle, launching fiery
arrows into battle ahead of him. Sekhmet could also send plagues and disease against
her enemies, but was sometimes invoked to avoid plague and cure disease.
Sekhmet's capacity for destruction is well-documented. In one story, Ra sends her to
punish those mortals who have forgotten him and she ends up nearly destroying the
entire human race. Only the cleverness of Ra stops her rampage before it consumes
every living thing.
Worship: Worshipped as part of a triad made up of herself, her husband Ptah and
their eldest child Nefertem, her cult center was at Memphis.
pharaoh was of Upper and/or Lower Egypt!)... and they were linked together by
geography, not by myth or legend.
Sekhmet was mentioned a number of times in the spells of the Book of the Dead:
The Chapter of Driving Back the Slaughters Which are Performed in
Hensu
My belly and back are the belly and back of Sekhmet. My buttocks are the
buttocks of the Eye of Horus.
The Chapter of Giving a Heart to the Osiris
May the goddess Sekhmet raise me, and lift me up. Let me ascend into
heaven, let that which I command be performed in Het-ka-Ptah. I know how to
use my heart. I am master of my heart-case. I am master of my hands and
arms. I am master of my legs. I have the power to do that which my KA
desireth to do. My Heart-soul shall not be kept a prisoner in my body at the
gates of Amentet when I would go in in peace and come forth in peace.
The Osiris Whose Word is Truth
I have made supplication to the Khati gods and to Sekhmet in the temple of
Net (Neith), or the Aged Ones ... I have approached with worship the two
Khati gods and Sekhmet, who are in the temple of the Aged One [in Anu].
The Chapter of Opening the Mouth
I am the goddess Sekhmet, and I take my seat upon the place by the side of
Amt-ur the great wind of heaven.
Her cult center was in Memphis, but during the New Kingdom when the seat of power
shifted to Thebes, Sekhmet's powers were absorbed by Mut. Sekhmet was soon
represented as Mut's aggressive side, rather than a goddess in her own right.
Bes
Patron of: the home, childbirth, infants, humor, song and dance.
Appearance: A fat bearded dwarf, ugly to the point of being comical. He is often
shown sticking out his tongue and holding a rattle. When carved or painted on a wall,
he is never shown in profile, but always full-face, almost unique in Egyptian art.
There are also depictions of Bes with feline or leonine features.
Description: Bes is a very unusual god. He does not appear to be Egyptian at all, but
where he does come from his largely unknown. He resembles gods found in central
and southern Africa, and his function is very much like that of the Fool Shaman. Bes
was primarily the protector of childbirth. During the birth, Bes would dance about the
room, shaking his rattle and yelling to frighten away demons that would otherwise put
a curse on the child. After the child was born, Bes would stay by the cradle
entertaining the child. When a baby laughed or smiled for no apparent reason, it was
believed that Bes was somewhere in the room making funny faces.
Bes' role as demon-queller also extended to driving off mischievous beings that were
believed to cause minor misfortune, like tripping people and souring food. Bes was so
ugly that even a statue of him would frighten away wicked creatures. Thus, many
houses would keep a statue of Bes near the door to guard it.
Worship: Though there are no temples to Bes, and no formal ritual, shrines to him
were found in many homes, especially those with children or pregnant women.
Bes
26th Dynasty
The governor of the Mendean nome in the Delta in northern Egypt in the reign of
Psametik I. His block statue is notable for the tragic expression on the subject's face.
The primary reason that most sources begin the Amarna period with the latter part of
Amenhotep III's reign is probably due to the fact that this was the period when
Akhenaten, originally Amenhotep (IV), rose to crown prince and was subjected to the
influences that would eventually cause him to attempt to altar Egyptian religion. He
may have even served as a co-regent to his father. However, it should be noted that the
Akhenaten's father and
grandfather both venerated
the god Aten, though
certainly not in the radical
method of their offspring.
The end of this period is
marked by the efforts of the
real powers behind the
reign of Tutankhamun,
consisting of Ay and
Horemheb, working to
restore the traditional
Egyptian religion, though
such efforts may have been
made even as early as the
latter years of Akhenaten's
reign. However, there is
reason to believe, due to the
omission of Ay's and
Horemheb's names form certain kings lists, that the ruler of the 19th Dynasty included
them in the Akhenaten heresy.
What of course sets this period apart from
the remainder of Egyptian history is first
and foremost, its religious theology,
together with a distinct form of art.
The sun god and the king lay at the heart
of Egypt's theology as it developed over
the previous centuries. It was the daily
course of the sun god, who was also the
primeval creator god, that guaranteed the
continued existence of his creation. The
sun god's daily journey through the
heavens was symbolically enacted in
temples with the principle aim of
maintaining the created order of the
universe. The king partook a crucial role
in this daily event, at least symbolically
through the god's priests.
Re, the sun god, went through a daily
cycle of death and rebirth, dying at the end of each day and being reborn in the
morning as Re-Horakhty, and it was through this cycle that the blessed dead traveled
so as to enjoy rebirth along with the sun. Osiris, the god of the dead and the
underworld, with whom the deceased were traditionally identified, was increasingly
seen as an aspect of Re, and the same held true for all other gods.
Hence, towards the end of the reign of Amenhotep III, the cult of many gods were
increasingly solarized, though the king attempted to counterbalance this development
by commissioning an enormous number of statues of a multitude of deities and by
developing the cult of their earthly manifestations. However, even by the end of his
reign, the hymns devoted to the sun god clearly set him apart from other deities. His
successor, though, would revolutionize the worship of the sun.
Traditionally, the sky-god Horus had been incarnate in the king and carried the Aten,
the disk of the daytime sun named Re, across the heavens upon giant falcon wings. In
the final stage of Akhenaten's revisions, the falcon of Re-Horakhty was transformed
from the bearer of the solar disk upon its vertex into the disk itself. Hence, though the
sun disk had been there all along, its nature was completely changed during the reign
of Akhenaten.
It has always been difficult to comprehend the essential features of this revolution in
religion because, as is becoming ever more clear, it expressed itself for the most part
in conventional forms. The language in the hymns of Akhenaten to Aten parallel, more
or less word for word earlier religious texts, as did some of the customs surrounding
Aten's worship. Even motifs of Amarna art, such as the disk with rays or the prostrate
figures of the subjects, had existed for a long time, at least as literary images. In fact,
Erik Hornung tells us in his Conceptions of God in ancient Egypt that the real
revolution involved:
"...the implied transformation of thought patterns, in which all the traditional forms
were bathed in the glare of a new light which the Egyptians came to find intolerable.
Beginning with the change in the king's birth name, from which the name of the (state
god) Amun was removed,
there was a step-by-step
process of elimination.
Amun was replaced by
Aten, mythical statement by
rational statement, manyvalued logic by two-valued
logic, the gods by God. All
this was accomplished
according to a wellconceived plan."
Of course, a part of the
resistance to Akhenaten's
religion must have been the
displacement and significant reduction in status of the powerful priests of Amun and
other gods.
Erik Hornung explains that Akhenaten was not a visionary but rather a methodical
rationalist. He was a worldly philosopher who took the throne of perhaps the most
power empire on earth at that time, and implemented reforms one by one as soon as
the necessary political conditions had been created. He manipulated the power of the
priestly institutions at his command very brilliantly.
For example, in the fourth year of his reign, during an important initial phase of this
religious revolution, the high priest of Amun was sent on a quarrying expedition very
literally into the wilderness. He was therefore removed from events in the capital of
Thebes, where Amun was replaced by Aten as the head of the pantheon, and a series
of temples were dedicated to the new state god at Karnak.
According to Norman de G. Davies and Hanns Stock, these initial steps do not appear
to damage the traditional structure of henotheism, a religious concept regarding the
worship of several divinities independently. Hence, at the time these temples were
being built in Thebes which was a year prior to Akhenaten changing his name from
Amenhotep IV, he assigned a favored position beside Aten to the ancient solar deities
Re, Horakhty and Shu. On a private stela of this period Horakhty is even said to be
"the god like whom there is no other". This did not belittle Aten, but singles out the
god who is being addressed, very much in the spirit of earlier henotheistic worship.
Even Syncretism remained alive. Horakhty and Aten were combined in the hawkheaded figure of Re-Horakhty-Aten, and Re-Horakhty was placed at the head of the
earlier royal titulary that was established for the god Aten as ruler of the world. Erik
Hornung tells us that:
"...in the early years of the reign the complementary status of god and gods was not
attacked, but the hitherto vast range of the pantheon was restricted in unprecedented
fashion to its solar aspect. The dark world of the gods of the dead, Osiris and Sokar,
was drawn into the light of the sun god, and finally banished completely from the
image of the cosmos."
However, this transformation seems not to have been caused by an evolution in the
king's ideas, but rather a carefully thought out process made by a man who's religious
theology was already developed. Neither was his ideas implemented without an
understanding of the real world.
Left: Akhenaten in an exaggerated form; Right: Nefertiti in a form less attractive then her Berlin
Bust
Nevertheless, not only the human figure was affected by this new style, but also the
way they interact. Scenes of the royal family display an intimacy that had never before
been shown in Egyptian art even among private individuals. Another characteristic
feature of the Amarna style is its extraordinary sense of movement and speed. There is
a general 'looseness' and freedom of expression that was to have a lasting influence on
Egyptian art for centuries after the Amarna Period had come to an end, so in reality,
Akhenaten's art, if nothing else, became a lasting influence.
Many scholars see a certain detachment of the royal house from the affairs of state,
though how much so is difficult to say. Apparently the standard bureaucracy of the
Egyptian government continued its endeavors to run the country while the king
courted his god. Cracks can be seen in the Egyptian empire as early as the latter years
of Amenhotep III, and they became ever more evident during the reign of Akhenaten.
Though little appears to have been done to enforce Egypt's foreign holdings, the civil
and military authority was probably left to the authority of two strong characters,
consisting of Ay, who held the title 'Father of God' and who may have been
Akhenaten's father-in-law, and the general Horemheb. Both men would eventually
become kings before the end of the 18th Dynasty, and Horemheb particularly would
be instrumental in reversing the damage done to the Egyptian state religion.
At home the period seems to have been totally consumed by the religious revolution.
Most of what we know about this period domestically revolves around this new
theology. Likewise, though we have considerable correspondence on the matter of
Egypt's foreign relations, little action seems to have been taken. There is the
possibility of some police actions, but apparently no large scale military expeditions
took place which seemingly resulted in a contraction of the empire abroad at the hands
of foreign powers.
There is considerable confusion at the end of Akhenaten's reign. Nefertiti, Akhenaten's
famous wife was apparently had a considerable influence of the events at Amarna,
showing up in almost all reliefs depicting the king during his early reign. Though
many Egyptologists believe that she may have died early, other believe that she may
have, after a name change, actually served as a co-regent to her husband, and possibly
have even succeeded him on the throne of Egypt. There is also speculation, though she
seems to have been an intrigal part of his religious revolution, that if she indeed
outlived her husband, she may have even taken a step back from her spouse's religion
during her later years. Irregardless, by the time that Akhenaten's son, Tutankauman,
ascended the throne forces in the form of Ay and Horemheb appear to have been
almost at once set on returning the status quo to traditional Egyptian religion. A stele
erected during that young king's reign, most likely actually commissioned by Ay,
records such a restoration.
In conclusion, Egypt's ancient history spans a great period of time in which any
number of religious ideas developed and flourished. Capitals were moved, artistic
changes took place, but in all this development, there were few if any periods that
would rival the revolution in so short a time frame of the Amarna period. Akhenaten
turned Egyptian tradition upside down, but clearly, his changes were not welcomed by
the ancient Egyptians and their rejection of his heresy, upon his death, was swift and
complete.
Abu Simbel
By Marie Parsons
Perhaps after the Giza pyramids, or coincident with them, the great temple of Abu
Simbel presents the most familiar image of ancient Egypt to the modern traveler and
reader. When the conservation efforts to preserve the temple from the soon-to be built
High Aswan Dam and its rising waters were begun in the 1960s, images of the
colossal statues filled newspapers and books. The temples were dismantled and
relocated in 1968 on the desert plateau, 200 feet above and 600 feet west of their
original location.
Abu Simbel lies south of Aswan on the western bank of the Nile, 180 miles south of
the First Cataract in what was Nubia. The site was known as Meha in ancient times
and was first documented in the 18th Dynasty, when Ay and Horemheb had rock-cut
chapels hewn in the hills to the south.
Ramesses II, called "the Great," built seven rock-cut temples in Nubia. The rock-cut
temple of Ramesses II on the west bank of the Nile at Abu Simbel is the greatest of
these. This temple was not seen by Europeans until J.J. Burckhardt discovered them in
1813.
The temple, called Hwt Ramesses Meryamun, the "Temple of Ramesses, beloved of
Amun," was begun fairly early in Ramesses long reign, commissioned some time
after his fifth regnal year, but not completed until his 35th regnal year. The massive
facade of the main temple is dominated by the four seated colossal statues of
Ramesses. These familiar representations are of Ramesses II himself. Each statue, 67
feet high, is seated on a throne and wears the double crown of Upper and Lower
Egypt. Each is taller than the famed Memnon Colossus at Thebes, and all are sculpted
directly from the rock face. The thrones are decorated on their sides with Nile gods
symbolically uniting Egypt.
Burckhardt said of the first face on the left that it "was the most expressive, youthful
countenance, approaching nearer to the Grecian model of beauty than that of any
The axis of the temple is arranged so that on two days of the year, in February and
October, the rising sun shoots its rays through the entrance and halls until it finally
illuminates the sanctuary statues.
To the north of the main temple a smaller temple was built in honor of Ramesses great
wife, Nefertari, and the goddess Hathor. This temple should not be confused with the
beautiful Tomb to Nefertari in the Valley of Queens near Thebes.
As with Ramesses own temple, the cliff face was cut back to resemble sloping walls
of a pylon. Six colossal standing figures 33 feet high four of Ramesses and two of
Nefertari, were cut from the rock face, along with smaller figures of the royal family.
An inscription over the entrance reads "Ramesses II, he has made a temple, excavated
in the mountain, of eternal workmanship, for the chief queen Nefertari, beloved of Mu,
in Nubia, forever and ever, Nefertari for whose sake the very sun does shine."
Inside, Nefertaris temple has a single pillared hall, with carved Hathor heads atop the
pillars. On the sides facing the center of the hypostyle; Ramesses is shown smiting his
enemies and offering before various gods, while Nefertari is shown, graceful and
slender, with hands raised. Three doors lead to a vestibule with ancillary rooms at
either end.
The sanctuary is complete, though two spaces were left on its side walls for doors to
rooms, which were never cut. The inner chamber contains a number of images
interrelating the royal couple and the gods. On the rear wall, Hathor is depicted in high
relief as a cow emerging from the western mountain, with the king standing beneath
her chin. Nefertari is shown repeatedly participating in the divine rituals on an equal
footing with the king. On the left wall, Nefertari is seen worshipping before Mut and
Hathor, and on the right, Ramesses worships before images of his deified self and his
wife.
When Greek mercenaries passed by in the 6th century BCE, sand already reached the
knees of the statues. These ancient sight-see-ers left an inscription which reads "When
King Psammetichus <sic> came to Elephantine, this was written by those who sailed
with Psammetichus the son of Theolces, and they came beyond Kerkis as far as the
river permits."
Dedicated to Horus, the falcon headed god, it was built during the reigns of six
Ptolemies. We have a great deal of information about its construction from reliefs on
outer areas. It was begun in 237 BC by Ptolemy III Euergetes I and was finished in 57
BC. Most of the work continued throughout this period with a brief interlude of 20
years while there was unrest during the period of Ptolemy IV and Ptolemy V
Epiphanes.
This is not only the best preserved ancient temple in Egypt, but the second largest
after Karnak. It was believed that the temple was built on the site of the great battle
between Horus and Seth. Hence, the current temple was but the last in a long series of
temples build on this location. It is said that the original structure housing a statue of
Horus was a grass hut built in prehistoric times. At any rate, there is an earlier and
smaller pylon of Ramesses II which sits in a 90 degree angle to the current building.
The main building, which includes a great Hypostyle
Hall, was uncovered by Mariette in the 1860s. There
are numerous reliefs, including a depiction of the Feast
of the Beautiful Meeting, the annual reunion between
Horus and his wife Hathor. The reliefs are mostly
situated on the inside of the first pylon, and spiritually
connect this temple with Hathors Temple at the
Dendera complex. During the third month of summer,
the priests at the Dendera complex would place the
statue of Hathor on her barque (a ceremonial barge)
and would thus bring the statue to the Edfu Temple,
where it was believed that Horus and Hathor shared a
conjugal visit. Each night, the god and goddess would retire to the mamissi, or
berthing house.
There is still an entrance colonnade to the mamissi, and reliefs with considerable
remaining color just outside the main temple. These images portray the ritual of the
birth of Harsomtus, son of Horus and Hathor.
The pylons of the main Temple are about 118 feet high with typical scenes of the
pharaoh in battle with his enemies. Within the pylons is the colonnaded courtyard
with distinctive, pared columns, which leads into the great hypostyle hall. But on
either side of the courtyard there are gates which lead to an area behind the temple
and inside the bounding walls. Here, there are inscriptions recording donations of land
which were probably transferred from demotic documents. There are also dramatic
images depicting the defeat of Seth by Horus. There was an annual ritual called the
known as the Triumph of Horus (10 harpoons) which ended in the slaying of a
hippopotamus, the symbol of Seth.
The facade of the first hypostyle hall has images honoring
Horus and Hathor, and there is an immaculate ten foot tall
colossi of Horus as the falcon god here (a matching colossi is
was destroyed). As you enter the great hall, you will begin to
notice the use of light Even though the temple was build
over hundreds of years, it is very harmonious, and ebbs and
flow of lighting was certainly purposeful, portraying a
feeling of mystery. Just inside the hall are two small rooms, a
robing room on the west and a library to the east where the
priest would obtain the religious orders of the day. Within
this hall are scenes of offering including the temple
foundation ceremonies.
Beyond the great hypostyle hall is a second, smaller
hypostyle hall which leads to a well called the Chamber of
the Nile where the Priests obtained pure holy water. This is a similar arrangement as
found at Dendera. On the west side of the room are doors that lead to a small
laboratory with recipes engraved on the walls for ointments and perfumes which
where used daily to anoint the statue of Horus, and to a treasure room where offerings
were stored.
Beyond the second hypostyle hall is the offering hall, followed by the vestibule and
finally the sanctuary. There is a granite naos here dedicated by Nectanebo II, making
it the oldest relic in the temple. It is probable that a golden gilded wooden statue of
Horus about 60 cm tall would have resided on the naos. This statue would have been
cared for by the priests in a human manner, being washed, dressed, anointed, fed and
entertained.
The sanctuary itself is surrounded by chapels and rooms which, when facing north
and in clockwise order, are the chapel of Min, the chamber of linen where the robs of
the Horus would have been stored, the chamber of the throne of gods, the chamber of
Osiris, the chamber of the West, the tomb of Osiris, the chamber of the victor (Horus),
where there is a reconstructed ceremonial barge (barque), chapels of Khonsu and
Hathor, the chapel of the throne of Re and a chapel of the spread wings, dedicated
principally to Mehit, the lioness who guarded the path the soul passed on its journey
towards resurrection. The front chapel on the east is the Chapel of the New Year, a sun
court like that at Dendera. Here, a depiction on the ceiling show the voyage of the
solar barque through the Twelve Hours of the day, with an inspiring image of the
goddess, Nut. The statue of Horus would be taken from here up a flight of stairs to the
roof terrace where it would be recharged by the sun during the Festival of the New
Year. The walls of the stairs located in the outer anti-chamber depict this ritual.
Temples of Egypt
by Monroe Edgar
For example, think of the Roman Coliseum (in Rome). It is almost 2,000 years old,
and most of us would think of it as very ancient. Yet, when the Romans first came to
Egypt, they were awe struck by Egyptian temples, some of which at that time were
already more ancient to the Romans, then the Roman Coliseum is to us. So we must
consider the effect that these temples had on the ancient Egyptians. Imagine the
feelings of old tradition and holiness felt by a young priest when he first enters St.
Peter's Cathedral in Rome. How must a young Egyptian priest felt as he strolled the
courts of the much more temple of Heliopolis, which was much more ancient to him
then St. Peter's would be to a young priest of today.
Webster's New World Dictionary defines temple as "1. a building for the worship of
god or gods, and 2. A large building for some special purpose". For the second
definition, they provide the example, "a temple of art". Neither of these definitions fit
the ancient Egyptian temple very well, and yet, almost every religious structure in
Egypt outside of the various types of tombs are almost always referred to as temples.
Certainly some of these "temple" structures do embrace both of Webster's definitions.
In fact, it is difficult to imagine most any large, ancient building not falling under the
second definition, including palaces and governmental buildings. However, our
modern readers are more likely to think in terms of the first definition, that of a temple
being a place of worship. However, this definition is simply too limited to fit even the
structures that many modern Egyptologists better define as a "god's mansion". Even
these temples sometimes had many other functions, acting sometimes as fortresses,
administrative centers and even concrete expression of propaganda or royal retreats.
However, it is difficult to define some other religious structures that are called temples
as houses of worship or "god's mansions". They may have other political or all
together different purposes.
It was the ancient Egyptian temple that received endowments. It was the mortuary
temple and the cult of the dead king that funded the entire pyramid complex of the
early kings, for example. Temples owned land, livestock and received donations,
sometimes including the spoils of war, in order to support often large populations of
priests, workers, and sometimes even an entire support town.
The Temple of Karnak today remains the worlds largest religious structure, but what is
perhaps even more interesting is that it might not have been, or indeed was probably
not Egypt's largest temple. Certainly the Temple of Ptah in Memphis, though for the
most part completely gone today, may have been larger. It was older, and located in
what was often the capital of Egypt, and more often the administrative center of the
ancient country. Other temples in the Nile Delta might have been just as large as
Karnak, if not larger.
Sites such as Karnak, Dendera and
Kom Ombo would most likely fall
under the category of "god's
mansion". They were more then
religious "temples" however. While
the god may certainly have been
worshiped in these temples, it was
also his symbolic home, if not
considered his physical residence,
and the functions of the temple
were as much to serve his or her
symbolic physical needs as they
were for the god's worship. There
was probably little or no "preaching" as such, or carrying the message of the god to the
people by priests associated with these "temples". Rather the efforts were directed
inward, towards the care of the gods.
Also, though we often make a very specific distention between mortuary temples of
kings, for example, and temples such as Karnak, they were actually very similar.
Kings were considered gods, and after their death, they required a "mansion" and the
same attention as other
gods. Both regular and
mortuary temples
served to keep the name
of the king or god
alive.
Right: Temple of Dendera
reminders of Egypt's greatness to her southern neighbors. Other structures hardly fit
within the "god's mansion" category at all. For example, Sed-festival Temples that
celebrated the king's jubilees seem to have had a completely different purpose than
"god's mansions", and ka Temples provided a residence not to the dead king, but for
his soul.
Nevertheless, for convenience, we will refer to most religious structures other then
tombs as temples in the remainder of this reference.
Dynastic era temples may be found throughout Egypt, though the ones that have
survived time are mostly in the south. They were built for many different forms of
worship, as well as other purposes. Some were major temples dedicated to major
deities, while others were dedicated to a number of different deities. Some were
mortuary temples, where the temple was dedicated to the deified dead king, and where
he was worshiped and cared for by his cult. There were also valley temples, which
were often no more then monumental gateways connected to the king's mortuary
chapel by a causeway. There were all manner of specialized temples, such as Sedfestival temples, ka temples, sun temples, coronation temples and others.
Many of Egypt's temples became complex systems of buildings, added to by
generations of pharaohs over sometimes thousands of years. Such temples include
those of Luxor and Karnak, but others long destroyed, such as the Temple of Ptah. In
fact, there are any
number of northern
temples, though long
gone, that would have
rivaled the southern
temples that we most
often visit today.
Left: Kom Ombo
Behind the chapel would be an offering hall, notable for a false door on the west wall
that faces the pyramid, and before the door, an offering altar. Within the inner
sanctuary there might also be additional rooms, such as vestibules and antechambers.
Associated with both the outer and inner sections of the temple would be storage and
other annexes to one side or both of the main temple components.
Non-mortuary temples often also had
courtyards, chapels, offering halls,
vestibules, antechambers, just like the
mortuary temples. They tend to vary
considerably in their style and elements,
though temples built for specific gods
tended to be more uniform (though not
always). One of the major differences
between mortuary temples and others
was that the non-mortuary temples were
very often added to, built upon and even usurped by various kings. Though in rare
cases a mortuary temples, such as that of Djoser at Saqqara, became places of high
holiness, and were built upon by later kings, most mortuary temples were never added
to or usurped. They therefore most often were much more simple than major nonmortuary temples.
Latter temples took the form of fortresses, with massive entrance pylons and enclosure
walls, huge courtyards, columned or pillared halls and inner sanctuaries.
Nile Delta, Minor Temples and Other Ruins of, Part III
Tell el-Muqdam (Leontopolis), Tell el-Qirqafa and Tell el-Rub'a (Tell El
Robee, Greek Mendes)
Nile Delta, Minor Temples and Other Ruins of, Part IV
Tell el-Retaba, Saft el-Hinna, Samannud (Sebennytos) and Tell el-Yahudiya
Nubia, Lost Temples of
Nubian, Other Temples
Osiris, Temple of (and former temple of Khentyamentiu) - Abydos
Other Temples on the West Bank at Thebes, Part I
Temples belonging to Amenhotep I, Amenhotep II, Siptah, the Colonnaded
Temple of Ramesses IV, the Ramessid Temple, the Chapel of the White Queen
and the private temple of Nebwenenef
Other Temples on the West Bank at Thebes, Part II - Temples of Ramesses IV
(mortuary), Amenophis son of Hapu, Tuthmosis II, and the North and South
temples at Nag Kom Lolah
Other Temples of the West Bank at Thebes, Part III: The Temples at Deir elMedina - Temple of Amenhotep I, the Hathor Chapel of Seti I, the Ptolemaic
Temple of Hathor, and a small Temple of Amun.
Other Temples of the West Bank at Thebes, Part IV - Mortuary Temple of
Tuthmosis III, and the temples of Tuya and Nefertari, Tuthmosis IV, Wadjmose
and Siptah and Tausert
Philae (Now on Agilika Island), Temple of - Nubia
Qasr Ibrim - Nubia
Qertassi, Kiosk of - Nubia
Ramesseum - West Bank, Luxor
Ramesses II, Portal Tempel of - Abydos
Ramesses II, Temple of - Abydos
Ramesses II, Temple of - Minya
Ramesses III, Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
Red Chapel of Hatshepsut at Karnak - East Bank, Luxor
Wadi al-Sabua (Sebua), Temple of - Nubia
Sarabit al-Khadim, Temple and Mines of - Sinai
Sarapeion, including Pompay's Pillar - Alexandria
Satis, Temple of - Elephantine (Aswan)
Senusret III, Mortuary Temple of - Abydos
Seti I Temple of Millions of Years - West Bank, Luxor
Seti I, Temple of and the Osireion at Abydos
Shepseskaf, Mortuary Temple of (Unique, at South Saqqara)
Shenhur, Roman Temple of
Sobek-Re, Temple of - Qasr Qarun
Sun Temples of the 5th Dynasty (Userkaf and Niuserre) - Abusir & Abu
Ghurob
Taposiris Magna, Temple of - Alexandria
Temple of the Oracle - Siwa
Tuthmosis III, Temple of at Abydos
Tuthmosis III, Temple of Amun at Deir el-Bahari - West Bank, Luxor
Umm Ubayda, Temple of - Siwa Oasis
White Chapel of Senusret I, The - East Bank in the Open Air Museum, Luxor
bandages. The second layer of bandages were first soaked in resin and aromatic
essential oils.
In many cases, this time was also used by the craftsman from the Deir el-Medina
village to quickly add the finishing touches to the king's tomb. For these workers, the
King's death was, at least in the background, a rather joyous occasion because with the
coronation of a new king came a new tomb and hence new jobs.
This procedure was believed to restore the dead pharaoh's senses, as well as his use of
speech and ability to eat and drink.
After the Opening of the Mouth ceremony, the dead king was finally carried to the
monumental stone sarcophagus deep in the tomb's burial chamber. After he was placed
in this sarcophagus and the heavy cover carved in high relief was affixed, family,
friends and other dignitaries would attend a funeral banquet, while workmen sealed
the the tomb.
During the 18th dynasty, the entrance was sometimes hidden, but beginning with the
19th dynasty, the tomb entrance was always in plan view. The door was sealed using
one of two methods. Either the wax seals were placed on the plaster of the doors
themselves, or affixed on a small clay block around the fine cord used to tie the doors
of the burial chamber. The seals usually included the figure of Anubis as a crouched
jackal.
No one was permitted to enter the royal tomb once it was sealed. At least,
theoretically. Later, we of course know that tombs were entered for a variety of
reasons. They were entered both by tomb robbers and by priests who sought to
protect the tombs and mummies from the tomb robbers. There were even occasional
second burials in the tombs.
But during normal times,
the entire necropolis was
guarded and only the
priests, guards and
craftsmen working on new
tombs were allowed into the
necropolis. Guards also
made rounds to the tombs,
checking the royal seals.
In describing any process in
ancient Egypt, one must
remember the thousands of
years of Egyptian history,
processes did not remain
constant over that time, and
new aspects of beliefs and
rituals were constantly assimilated with older beliefs and rituals. This must be kelp in
mind at all times, but we believe that the funeral of the 18th and 19th dynasty kings
buried in the Valley of the Kings remained somewhat constant during that span of
time.
existed along the bottom of the valley. This was quite possibly used by funeral
processions, pulling funeral equipment by sledges to the rock-cut tombs in the Valley.
With its workers
village later called
Deir el-Medina,
the valley was
called the Place of
Truth or Set
Maat, in ancient
times. The
workers of Deir
el-Medina, who
for generations
since their
community was
established, could
reach the Valley in
about 30 minutes
by walking along
the steep mountain paths. Today, energetic folks may spend 45 minutes to an hour
climbing the paths leading from the north side of the amphitheater of Deir el-Bahri and
over the mountain ridge into the Valley of the Kings. Their efforts would be rewarded by
splendid views of the Theban region.
Tombs in the Valley
The Valley contains 62 tombs to-date, excavated by the Egyptologists and archaeologists
from many countries. Not all of the tombs belonged to the king and royal family. Some
tombs belonged to privileged nobles and were usually undecorated. Not all the tombs
were discovered intact, and some were never completed.
The powerful kings of the 18th and 19th Dynasties kept the tombs under close
supervision, but under the weaker rulers of the 20th Dynasty, the tombs were looted,
often by the very workers or officials supposedly responsible for their creation and
protection. In order to prevent further thefts, the mummies and some of their funerary
objects were reburied in two secret caches, not to be re-discovered until the 19th century
of the modern era.
Visitors to Egypt have often journeyed into the Valley to view the accessible tombs,
including Tuts, but with the increasing tourism, urban and industrial growth, pollution,
and rising groundwater, the tombs have suffered over the decades. Today their access is
rotated, so that a smaller number of tombs are open at one time, and even then, many of
the decorations and walls can only be seen behind glass.
According to Diodorus and Strabo, and Greek and Latin graffiti, two writers of ancient
times, a few of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings were known and visited by ancient
The tomb of
Ramesses I, who had
a brief reign, is a
single small chamber
at the end of a steep
corridor. It bears some
similarity in its
decoration with the tomb of Horemheb, while being more elaborate. The tomb of
Merneptah, 13th son and successor of Ramesses II, is badly damaged but worth visiting.
Psusennes I appropriated one of the sarcophagi for his own burial at Tanis.
In the latter half of the 19th century, this plundering would come to a close. Auguste
Mariette laid the foundations of a national Egyptian museum and for a governmental
antiquities service. It was Mariette who discovered the Serapeum, the burial place at
Memphis of the sacred Apis bulls, and the intact burial of Queen Ahhotep, mother of
Ahmose, the founder of the New Kingdom. But Mariettes greatest contribution to
Egyptology was the formation of the Antiquities Service. As Director-General, he was
responsible for awarding concessions to all excavators, monitoring all digs, and policing
the export of antiquities.
When the first cache of royal mummies was discovered in 1881 at Hatshepsuts temple
of Deir el Bahri, world attention was once and for all focused on the quiet valley, and the
first of many new excavations began in the area. Victor Loret arrived in Luxor in 1898.
Loret had been appointed as the Director-General of the Antiquities Service, established
by Mariette in 1856. Only five days after he began to dig below the cliffs under the
Qurn, or "Horn" mountain, his team discovered the tomb of Thutmose III. He added 16
tombs to the map of the principal Valley. He also discovered the second cache of royal
However, for the serious tomb explorer, other items will be needed. A flashlight is
useful in order to see some less well lit sections of some tombs, and of course, a pen and
notebook may be advisable for taking notes, but also for writing down questions for a
tour guide. In some instances, the tour guide will not be able to accompany you into
certain tombs, so you may jot down any questions that you have for later.
With the additional cost of a permit, photography is allowed in most tombs, but not flash
photography. In many of the tombs, there is enough light for high speed film to be
used. The most experienced photographers will actually require two cameras, one
loaded with high speed film for within the tombs, with another loaded with normal film
for outside shots. There is very little need for telephoto lenses within the Valley, but
wide angle lenses and even close-up lenses can be very useful. In addition, a polarizing
filter will not only be useful in the bright sunlight outside of tombs, but will also help cut
the reflections from the protective
glass that now covers much of the
artwork in many tombs. If required,
take plenty of batteries with you.
While they will be on sale within the
Valley of the Kings, the price will be
outrageous.
Unlike many places in Egypt
(particularly when visiting more
modern religious monuments), there
is no problem with dressing strictly as a tourist. Only comfort should be considered,
because one will be surrounded by other tourists. However, again, because of the sun,
be cautious about exposing too much skin. For additional information on what to bring,
see our "Egyptian Traveler's Survival Kit".
Unless one is a serious researcher, either professionally or an amateur, it is easy to get
"tombed out". The more casual visitors to the Valley should not expect to see too many
tombs. Three or four tombs will probably be their limit, particularly considering that
there is more to see on the west bank at Luxor then the tombs. There are also temples
and other monuments.
At the same time, all the tombs in the valley are not always open to the public. The
antiquity authorities in Egypt often rotate the tombs that are open, in order to minimize
damage or because restoration work is needed.
Therefore if one is not on a strictly guided tour, where the tombs have been preselected
by the tour operator, it is a good idea to do some preplanning, selecting as many as ten
tombs for possible visits, and narrowing this down to three or four of those that are
currently open.
In this planning process, most people will enjoy visiting tombs from different phases of
the Valley's development. This will provide the tourist with the best overview of the
entire history of the necropolis. Basically, there are three phases in the Valley's
Ramesses IV (KV 2)
Ramesses VI (KV 9)
Ramesses IX (KV 6)
Note that the tomb of Tutankhamun has not been included in this list. While many
tourists may insist on seeing this tomb, it is fairly insignificant in relationship to other
royal tombs, resembling more a private tomb. The treasures of this tomb are not to be
found here, but rather in the Egyptian museum in Cairo.
For those who will want to see more then three or four tombs, really, a longer visit to
Luxor is in order. Even the most serious visitors will usually tire after little more then a
half day on the West Bank, and there are also the temples at Luxor and Karnak, as well
as the Luxor museum to visit. Therefore, those who wish to explore a number of the
tombs will definitely wish to schedule three or four days in the area, at the very least.
Tickets to the various tombs, as well as other monuments can be purchased at various
locations. Sometimes the tickets may be purchased at the moment itself. For the tombs,
tickets are available at the Valley's entrance. Usually, these are sold in blocks, for
example, to visit three tombs. See our Entry Fees section for general pricing.
However, for the serious tomb explorer, other items will be needed. A flashlight is
useful in order to see some less well lit sections of some tombs, and of course, a pen and
notebook may be advisable for taking notes, but also for writing down questions for a
tour guide. In some instances, the tour guide will not be able to accompany you into
certain tombs, so you may jot down any questions that you have for later.
With the additional cost of a permit, photography is allowed in most tombs, but not flash
photography. In many of the tombs, there is enough light for high speed film to be
used. The most experienced photographers will actually require two cameras, one
loaded with high speed film for within the tombs, with another loaded with normal film
for outside shots. There is very little need for telephoto lenses within the Valley, but
wide angle lenses and even close-up lenses can be very useful. In addition, a polarizing
filter will not only be useful in the bright sunlight outside of tombs, but will also help cut
the reflections from the protective
glass that now covers much of the
artwork in many tombs. If required,
take plenty of batteries with you.
While they will be on sale within the
Valley of the Kings, the price will be
outrageous.
Unlike many places in Egypt
(particularly when visiting more
modern religious monuments), there
is no problem with dressing strictly as a tourist. Only comfort should be considered,
because one will be surrounded by other tourists. However, again, because of the sun,
be cautious about exposing too much skin. For additional information on what to bring,
see our "Egyptian Traveler's Survival Kit".
Unless one is a serious researcher, either professionally or an amateur, it is easy to get
"tombed out". The more casual visitors to the Valley should not expect to see too many
tombs. Three or four tombs will probably be their limit, particularly considering that
there is more to see on the west bank at Luxor then the tombs. There are also temples
and other monuments.
At the same time, all the tombs in the valley are not always open to the public. The
antiquity authorities in Egypt often rotate the tombs that are open, in order to minimize
damage or because restoration work is needed.
Therefore if one is not on a strictly guided tour, where the tombs have been preselected
by the tour operator, it is a good idea to do some preplanning, selecting as many as ten
tombs for possible visits, and narrowing this down to three or four of those that are
currently open.
In this planning process, most people will enjoy visiting tombs from different phases of
the Valley's development. This will provide the tourist with the best overview of the
entire history of the necropolis. Basically, there are three phases in the Valley's
Ramesses IV (KV 2)
Ramesses VI (KV 9)
Ramesses IX (KV 6)
Note that the tomb of Tutankhamun has not been included in this list. While many
tourists may insist on seeing this tomb, it is fairly insignificant in relationship to other
royal tombs, resembling more a private tomb. The treasures of this tomb are not to be
found here, but rather in the Egyptian museum in Cairo.
For those who will want to see more then three or four tombs, really, a longer visit to
Luxor is in order. Even the most serious visitors will usually tire after little more then a
half day on the West Bank, and there are also the temples at Luxor and Karnak, as well
as the Luxor museum to visit. Therefore, those who wish to explore a number of the
tombs will definitely wish to schedule three or four days in the area, at the very least.
Tickets to the various tombs, as well as other monuments can be purchased at various
locations. Sometimes the tickets may be purchased at the moment itself. For the tombs,
tickets are available at the Valley's entrance. Usually, these are sold in blocks, for
example, to visit three tombs. See our Entry Fees section for general pricing.
and enriched over the centuries by rulers of Egypt who were eager to express their
devotion to Amun-Re.
In fact, his growth to that of a national god mirrored the growth of Thebes in
importance. This growth was accelerated when Amenemhet I took control of the
thrown at Thebes, and founded the 12th Dynasty. However, the apex of his worship
probably occurred during the New Kingdom onward at Thebes, where the important
Opet festival was dedicated to Amun. During the Opet festival, the statue of Amun
was conveyed by boat from the temple of Karnak to Luxor in order to celebrate
Amun's marriage to Mut in his aspect of Ka-mut-ef (literally, "bull of his mother"). In
this capacity, Amun was recognized for his procreative function. Together, Amun and
Mut conceived their son, Khonsu, a moon god, to make of the Thebes Triad.
The sacred animal of Amun was originally the Goose, and like Geb, he was sometimes
known as the "Great Cackler". Later, Amun was more closely associated with the
Ram, a symbol of fertility. At various times he also sometimes appears as a man with
the head of a frog, the head of a uraeus, the head of a crocodile, or as an ape. However,
when depicted as a king, he wears the crown of two plumes, a symbol borrowed from
Min, and often sits on a throne. In this form, he is one of nine deities who compose the
company of gods of Amen-Ra. In the Greek period (and somewhat earlier, in order to
ascribe many attributes to Amun-Re, he was sometimes depicted in bronze with the
bearded head of a man, the body of a beetle with the wings of a hawk, the legs of a
man and the toes and claws of a lion. He was further provided with four hands and
arms and four wings.
The worship surrounding Amun, and later, Amun-Re represented one of ancient
Egypt's most complex theologies. In his most mature form, Amun-Re became a
hidden, secret god. In fact, his name (Imn), or at lest the name by which the ancient
Egyptians called him, means "the hidden one" or "the secret one" (though there has
been speculation that his name is derived from the Libyan word for water, aman.
However, modern context seems to negate this possibility). In reality, however, and
according to mythology, both his name and physical appearance were unknown, thus
indicating his unknowable essence.
Stated differently, Amun was unknown because he represented absolute holiness, and
in this regard, he was different then any other Egyptian deity. So holy was he that he
remained independent of the created universe. He was
associated with the air as an invisible force, which
facilitated his growth as a supreme deity. He was the
Egyptian creator deity par excellence, and according to
Egyptian myth, was self-created. It was believed that he
could regenerate himself by becoming a snake and
shedding his skin. At the same time, he remained apart
from creation, totally different from it, and fully
independent from it.
However, while hidden, the addition to his name of "Re"
revealed the god to humanity. Re was the common
Egyptian term for the sun, thus making him visible.
Hence, Amun-Re combined within himself the two
opposites of divinity, the hidden and the revealed. As
Amun, he was secret, hidden and mysterious, but as Re,
he was visible and revealed. In some respects, this even
relates to his association with Ma'at, the Egyptian concept
of order and balance, and reflects back upon the ancient
Egyptian's concepts of duality.
The secret, or hidden attribute of Amun enabled him to be
easily synchronized and
associated with other
deities. At Thebes, Amun was first identified with
Montu, but soon replaced him as the city's protector.
His association with Re grew in importance when
Amenemhet I moved the capital of Egypt to Itjtawy at
the apex of the Nile Delta, where the relationship was
probably expedient both theologically and politically.
However, this association with Re actually grew as
Thebes itself gained importance. Soon, Amun was
identified with other gods as well, taking on the names
(among others) Amun-Re-Atum, Amun-Re-Montu,
Amun-Re-Horakhty and Min-Amun. However, it
should be noted that with all of this synchronization,
Amun was not absorbed to create a a new god. Instead,
there was a unity of divine power with these other
gods.
Amun-Re was associated with the Egyptian monarchy,
and theoretically, rather than threatening the pharaoh's
power, the throne was supported by Amun-Re. The ancient theology made Amun-Re
the physical father of the king. Hence, the Pharaoh and Amun-Re enjoyed a symbiotic
relationship, with the king deriving power from Amun-Re. In return, the king
supported the temples and the worship of Amun. In theory, Amun-Re could even take
the form of the king in order to impregnate the chief royal wife with the successor to
the throne (first documented during the reign of Hatshepsut during the New
Kingdom). Furthermore, according to official state theology during the New Kingdom,
Egypt was actually ruled by Amun-Re through the pharaohs, with the god revealing
his will through oracles.
In reality, the god did in fact threaten the monarchy, for the cult of Amun-Re became
so powerful that its priesthood grew very large and influential, and at one point, priests
of the deity actually came to rule Egypt (during the 21st Dynasty). At other times,
Amun-Re created difficulties for the king, such as in the case of Akhenaten, who
sought to change the basic structure of Egyptian religion. In this instance, Amun-Re
eventually proved more powerful then the king, for though Akhenaten desperately
tried to change the nature of Egyptian religion, for such efforts he himself became the
scorn of later pharaohs. After Akhenaten's reign, Egyptian religion almost immediately
reverted back to its prior form and to the worship of Amun-Re.
Ahmose, Renni, Paheri and Se, which date from the 18th Dynasty and the Ramesside
period.
About 1 1/2 miles away at the entrance to Wadi Hellal at a place which is locally
known as El-Hammam (the bath) is the Temple of Thoth. The chapel here was built
by Setau, viceroy of Nubia during the rule of Ramesses II, restored by the Ptolemies,
and dedicated to a number of deities. There is also a cave-temple up a nearby flight of
rock hewn steps dedicated to Nekhbet, who became the lioness Hathor-Tefnut. Here
there are two vestibules which finally lead into a vaulted chamber. In the early
Christian period, this was converted into a Coptic monastery. Beyond this speos
deeper into the wadi is a rock outcrop known as Vulture Rock which has drawings and
inscriptions dating as for back as pre-Dynastic times. Further on is the Temple of
Amenhotep III, which was built by him and Tuthmosis IV, dedicated to NekhbetHathor. The portico is gone, but inside are reliefs that were largely destroyed by
Amenhotep IV but restored by Seti I. North of here are several rock-cut tombs with
good reliefs.
Nekhen, also called Kom el-Ahmar, which was the Greek city of Hieraconpolis, lies
on the other side of the Nile (west bank). Nekhen predates Nekhbet as the capital of
the Nome. Here, there is a vast necropolis which dates from pre-Dynastic times and
stretches for miles as well as the ruins of the ancient city itself. In the nearby wadis
there are tombs from the Middle and New Kingdom. Nekheny, in the form of the
falcon with long plumes on his head and who was associated with Horus was
worshipped as the local god.