Bioclimatic landscape design in extremely hot and

arid climates
Shady ATTIA1 AND Ingrid DUCHHART1
1 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE GROUP, WAGENINGEN UNIVERSITY, WAGENINGEN, THE NETHERLANDS
ABSTRACT: In the desert the role of bioclimatic landscape design is to consider three major environmental
factors, solar radiation, evaporation, wind and air flows. Therefore the landscape architect should be prepared
with a group of design principals and design guidelines that can help him to improve the micro-climate and
conserve energy. This paper presents a group of passive design strategies for bioclimatic landscape
architecture in the desert. In this study, a bioclimatic landscape design strategy is proposed that consists of a
three layers approach; (1) bioclimatic-zones concept, (2) thematic walled gardens concept, (3) extensive and
intensive landscape concept. The passive design strategies should start at early design stage of the master plan
creation. This study demonstrates that the three layers approach could be very efficient in order to enhance the
microclimate passively with low energy and low water consumption rates. The three established strategies in the
design stage have been tested and evaluated for a campus design in Egypts hot arid desert. Some quantitative
calculations and measurements together with shading analysis have been taken in order to verify these design
strategies using the PET index. Finally, the three layers approach showed ability for improving the microclimate
and cooling the outdoor environment. The paper set site planning and bioclimatic landscape design
recommendations that can be applied in similar extremely hot and arid climates.
Keywords: outdoor, bioclimatic, thermal comfort, landscape, hot climate

1. INTRODUCTION
In extremely hot and arid climates, with high
temperatures, humidity and dusty hot winds it is very
important
to
consider
the
climatologically
consequences of settlements and landscape design.
In fact, the microclimate of urban settlements can be
improved through bioclimatic landscape design and
planning. The field of climatic outdoor design is
relatively young and much of the research up to the
work of Robinette during the 1980s could be
classified as qualitative in nature [1-4]. However, the
field has advanced considerably in the last two
decades [5-6]. Various models are available to
evaluate the human thermal comfort in hot climates.
The model of Olgay is one of the earliest attempts to
quantify thermal comfort in outdoor spaces. Others
models include Steadmans sultriness model [7], the
Index of Thermal Stress (ITS) by Givoni [8], Fangers
model that predict mean comfort response (Predicted
Mean Vote - PMV) [9] and the Physically Equivalent
Temperature (PET) index of Mayer and Hoppe [10].
Unfortunately, landscape architects and urban
planners do not integrate the accumulated
knowledge of climatology into applicable planning
guidelines and tools as a way to improve the micro
climate of the outdoor built environment [6, 11]. Most
research is published in scientific literature and is not
accessible to the majority of landscape designers
and planners. Moreover, the design implications of
the results are rarely extracted in a usable form.
1.1. Objective:
Therefore, main aim of this research is to develop
a landscape design strategy for outdoor environment
in hot climates based on bioclimatic principals. In

order to provide landscape architects with design

guidelines that can improve the microclimate and
conserve energy in extremely hot climates. This work
is drawn from a master thesis being prepared at
Wageningen University as part of a design case
study for the new American University Campus in
Cairo [12]. The selection of the case was made
based on the location aridity and harshness, which is
located in Egypts eastern desert. Numerical
modelling was employed to test the proposed design
strategy. Finally, the study identifies some key areas
where research gaps remain.

2. BIOCLIMATIC LANDSCAPE DESIGN IN

HOT CLIMATES
Landscape design in extremely hot and arid
climates must necessarily consider microclimate of
outdoor areas as spaces that can be environmentally
controlled. There are many aspects that should be
considered during the design of the outdoor
environment including radiation, heat, emissivity,
glare, and dust control. However, the most important
considerations are listed below:

1.
2.
3.

Solar Radiation Control

Wind Control
Evaporation Control

In order to address those climatic considerations

landscape designers and planners use all available
design elements and landscape treatments including
vegetation, water and hardscape (see Figure 1). The
use of every treatment for microclimate improvement
is discussed in this chapter.

Figure 1, Landscape Design Elements

2.1. Vegetation
Vegetation is the most effective landscape
element in surface and air temperature modification.
Vegetation can be used very effectively as an
intercepting device to control the suns rays. The
large variety of forms, textures, and colours of plant
materials provides an endless palette to choose
from, adding beauty as well as utility to the
landscape. Climbing and clinging vines function as
solar control devices on overhead trellises or provide
protection for a hot wall. Groundcovers can reduce
unwanted glare and prevent excessive heat gain
near structures and outdoor areas. The right tree in
the right location can shade the building during the
hottest period of the year while letting the winter sun
warm these same areas during the under heated
period of the year [13]. Trees, shrubs, groundcovers,
vines and turf provide solar control by effectively
reducing direct and reflected radiation and absorbing
heat.
The foliage and branches of plants selectively
reflect, absorb, and transmit solar radiation and
provides the cooling effect of evapotranspiration.
Vegetation with a loose open foliage and branch
structure will filter radiation, allowing a portion to
pass through the canopy acting as a buffering agent
to abrupt temperature changes. Dense foliage and
multiple layers of canopy can almost totally obstruct
incoming radiation. However, very little, actually
penetrates the canopy, resulting in cooler
temperatures at the shaded side of leaf surfaces. In
addition, plants have rough textures compared to
most manmade objects, and the leaf canopy
presents a multi-faceted surface which is more
efficient at diffusing incoming radiation. Needles and
small-leafed plants commonly found in desert
landscapes are very effective at reducing glare from
reflective surfaces.
The ability of plants to buffer rapid temperature
changes is an important attribute for solar control.
The cool soil under shaded areas will absorb heat
from the air faster than heat can be transmitted to it
by conduction or convection, and the greater
humidity associated with vegetation means more
heat is required to raise ambient air temperatures
significantly. Temperatures within planted areas,
therefore, remain cooler through more of the day
than that of surrounding areas. Plant cover will also
reduce diurnal temperature fluctuations by trapping
and reflecting outgoing thermal radiation at night.

The capacity for vegetation to retain warm air at night

is directly related to foliage density.
During the night the tree canopy blocks direct
radiant heat loss from the ground to the sky, because
radiation is emitted only from the upper layer of the
leaves. However, whenever the air blow the canopy
is warmer the air above, it rises, and the air that has
been cooled by contact with the upper leaves can
sink down to replace it, creating natural convective
cooling [14].
Deciduous vegetation should be considered not
only where shade is required to avoid excessive heat
gain during the overheated times of the year but also
when solar exposure is desired during the under
heated periods. Because the leaf drop and refoliation of most native plant material corresponds
very closely to the times of year when solar exposure
and shade, respectively, are needed, it is wise to
take advantage of the natural rhythms of these
plants.
The degree to which plants function as effective
climate control devices depends on their size, shape,
density, and location. The proper location for plant
material is best determined using the sun path
diagrams in conjunction with overheated period data.
Plant material is multifunctional, however, providing
more utility than just solar control, and care should
be taken to consider all aspects of site design
requirements before final placement of vegetation is
decided [13].
2.2. Water
Water can improve the microclimate of outdoor
environment. Many researchers propose to
landscape designers strategies to improve the
microclimate: water surfaces, fountains, porous pots
of water, reflecting pools, irrigation channels,
moistened fabrics or sprinklers [13-14]. All strategies
are favouring the cooling by evaporation. These
strategies enables us to modify the climatic impact
like the local heat, mass, and momentum balances
influencing air quality and thermal comfort.
The surface temperature of the water surface is
affected by the heat transfer caused by radiation,
conduction, convection and the latent heat transfer
due to water evaporation. Water is normally warmer
in winter and cooler in summer, and usually cooler
during the day and warmer at night, than the ground.
Accordingly, the proximity of bodies of water
moderates extreme temperature variations, and in
summer lowers the heat peaks. Sites located
leeward of large bodies of water or irrigated fields will
benefit from evapotranspiration cooling and
temperature modification.
Critical to this strategy is the ability to control the
amount of water used. In hot arid regions water
scarcity is limiting factor and must be considered
[15].
2.3. Hardscape and Structures
Hardscape and structural elements can be used
to enhance the microclimate or create protected
outdoor spaces including trellis, pergolas, ramadas,
tents, overhead canopies, car ports and low emissive
pavements and paintings. In extremely hot climates,

shade is the most passively effective landscape

control strategy among the previously mentioned
control concerns. Therefore, the use of hardscape
and structure should aim protection from solar
radiation in order to reduce thermal heat stress by
providing shade and low emissive materials in
outdoor spaces [13]. Materials such as reed, straw,
bamboo should be considered in the design of
hardscape and pavements. The utilization of natural
paintings and sandy stones could be an example for
good practice. The colour of the surface affects the
degree to which solar radiation is absorbed. Light
colours are more reflective and will be cooler than
dark surfaces. If an outdoor dry surface is shaded
effectively, its temperature would be somewhat
elevated above the ambient air level. Cooling the
pavement of a relatively wide shaded area can be
lower the radiant temperature to which the people in
the area are exposed [14]. The design of impervious
surfaces can engage the scope of biotic ecosystem
services, such as thermal tempering of the surfaces,
production of biomass, storm water management,
and nutrient cycling. It will also help in managing
scarce resources and increasing biodiversity.
In short, the presented landscape design
elements are the main tools that landscape
designers and planners use for bioclimatic outdoor
design. However, the challenging question is how to
translate this knowledge into design strategies? The
following chapter proposed an answer.

which the desired comfort conditions for each zone is

determined. In Table 1, the detailed design decisions
in relation to the expected climatic impact are
presented.

Figure 2, Bioclimatic-Zones Concept illustration for the

Northern hemisphere deserts assuming N-S prevailing wind
Table 1: Bioclimatic-Zones Concept: Decisions and impacts
matrix

3. ESTABLISHING
THE
BIOCLIMATIC
LANDSCAPE DESIGN STRATEGY
Based on the previously mentioned design
guidelines and considerations, the proposed
bioclimatic landscape design strategy integrates
three basic design principles for microclimate
improvement and thermal comfort in outdoor
environment. These are the bioclimatic-zones
concept, the thematic walled gardens concept and
the extensive and Intensive landscape concept. The
three concepts were developed and tested in the
course of the masters study [12]. The main features
of the constituent strategies are discussed below.
3.1. Bioclimatic-Zones Concept
The Bioclimatic-Zones Concept is a primary
design principal for site planning in hot arid climates.
As indicated by Attia [16], the Bioclimatic-Zones
Concept is based on creating a set of zones, where
each zone has a set of prescriptive landscape-design
decisions that reflect a desired climatic comfort
objective. As shown in Figure 2, the concept
theoretically constitutes seven ring zones, where six
protection zones protect the seventh core zone. The
seventh zone, also referred to as the cool heart', is
meant to include thermally comfortable outdoor
spaces for example inner gardens and courtyards.
With the aid of prescriptive design guidelines and
empirically verifiable measures for each zone the
concept guides designer and planners to create
bioclimatic site plans that can improve the
microclimate and improve the pedestrian thermal
comfort. Figure 2 illustrates the zones concept in

3.2. Walled gardens concept

The walled gardens concept is the second design
principal that aims to assure a minimum climatic
control. In the harsh desert climate, it is difficult to
provide a green lush outdoor environment unless the
open space is contained and protected from frequent
desert storms. There are historical examples in
ancient civilisation: the walled gardens of Egypt, the
atrium of houses of the Roman and the Islamic
gardens in Andalusia [17-18]. These all strongly
recommend such strategic decision. The benefit of
the wall relies in its ability to minimize the hot-dusty
wind penetration in the open garden. In principal,
walls in gardens allow the green shrubs, water
elements and canopy trees to reduce the
temperature and raise the wet bulb temperature. The
wall concept might include physical walls or organic
walls containing trees and plants or any other
solution that achieves the desired climatic control.
3.3. Extensive/Intensive Landscape Concept
Due to the scarcity of water in hot arid climates
the third design principal calls for water sensitive
design. The Extensive and Intensive landscape
concept divide the landscape design strategy into
two types of landscape. The first is an extensive

landscape that includes drought tolerant and

indigenous species. The second is an intensive
landscape that includes shade trees and ground
covers for the cool heart. The implementation of
Extensive/Intensive Landscape concept takes place
at the end of the concept development and in parallel
with the plant and irrigation schemes.
In short, the three discussed design concepts
form the basis for the proposed bioclimatic
landscape design strategy. The following chapter
demonstrates the application of that strategy to a real
case study.

drought tolerant plant that grows rapidly. The climatic

effect of the suggested design proposal is simulated
and the findings are briefly summarized in the
following chapter.
Table 2: ENVI-MET models input

4. CASE STUDY: AUC NEW CAIRO

4.1. Study Area
The new AUC campus is in the emerging
o

settlement of New Cairo (latitude 30 01 N, longitude

31o 5 E) of, approximately 35 kilometres east of
AUCs present location. Within New Cairo, the new
campus complex is located in the centre of the
second phase of New Cairo. The site area is about
260 acres, with a mild slope from south to north. This
natural topography is part of the larger system of
land forms and wadis that fan out in an almost radial
pattern at this location, constituting a natural
terminus to the urban development of New Cairo.
The site has a hot, dry desert climate with more than
330 days of sunshine per year. For this study, the
existing urban planning and building arrangements
shown in Figure 3 (in white) were kept and the new
proposed strategy was applied to the campus
outdoor environment. The site physical built
environment was kept respected without any
changes.

5. FINDINGS AND RESULTS

5.1. Final Design Proposal
Based on the site analysis and the design brief the
Bioclimatic-Zones Concept was applied first to the
whole site. The desired comfort condition for each
place in the new AUC Campus was determined. For
every colour, shown in Figure 3, a set of detailed
design decision in relation to the expected climatic
impact was made. For example, there was a need for
a shelter belts and wind filtering zone on the north
tip. Canopy trees were required around parking
places and columnar trees were provided in places
adjacent to south-west building facades. The cool
heart was designed in the centre of the project in
order to provide a large and comfortable outdoorspace or garden.

4.2. ENVI-MET simulation

The study verified the design strategy through
numerical simulation. Simulations were made by
ENVI-met. ENVI-Met is a three-dimensional nonhydrostatic urban climate model. It provides detailed
environmental
conditions,
for
instance,
air
temperature and humidity, for each landscape patch
within each square within a grid system [19]. This
information is especially valuable for the present
study, in which one wants to evaluate the effects of
vegetation on thermal environment of the various
locations of the Campus.
The model input parameters used are shown in
Table 2. Several simulations iterations took place for
this case, including different types of vegetation
covers and various atmospheric background
conditions. The bare ground consists of exposed soil.
The optimised scheme constitute of three types of
trees are modelled namely date palm (phoenixdactylifera), carnaval tree (cassia nodosa) and
mesquite tree (prosopis-juliflora). Both trees types
referred to as 20 m and 15 m dense parabolic crown
trees in ENVI-met plants library. The carnaval is a
large and ornamental shading tree with umbrella
shape while the mesquite is medium size drought
tolerant tree. Both species have a medium leaf
density that allows ventilation and sufficient solar
penetration for grass growth. The ground cover was
made of mesembryanthemum-edule a succulent

Figure 3, Final design proposal after implementing the

bioclimatic landscape design strategy

Also the Walled Gardens Concept was applied to

assure a minimum climatic control in this harsh
desert climate. As shown in Figure 3, the urban
buildings morphology was used as a wall from the
west and a new 6 meter high wall, shown in red, was
designed in the east side to guarantee a controlled
cool heart. The cool heart works as a cool air
reservoir that guarantees relatively cooler air in the
campus centre. This has been done by distributing
water fountains, cascades and surfaces all over the
cool heart. During the summer semester
temperature in the campus will mostly exceed 30oC,

Figure 4, visualisation of the landscape strategies

implemented in the design

therefore, the suggested walled garden will allow the

green shrubs, water elements and canopy trees to
reduce the temperature and raise the wet bulb
temperature.
The Extensive/Intensive Landscape Concept was
applied finally to address the scarcity of water. The
intensive landscape strategy was restricted to the
cool heart only and included fruit and shade trees
and lush green ground cover. Any landscape
treatment outside the cool heart was considered as
an extensive landscape. The extensive landscape
strategy included the placement of drought tolerant
and indigenous species. The south-west side of the
project is surrounded by a shelterbelt to prevent the
undesired hot and sandy wind storms as shown in
Figure 3. In the north tip of the project, a sort of wind
catcher was created through palm grooves. The aim
of the palm grooves was to guide and filter and
deflect the air up prior reaching the cool heart. A
group of vertical shade screens were located on the
south-west facades of the Campus buildings to
provide shades. Moreover, a loop road, surrounding
the buildings and the parking areas was planted with
canopy trees. All implemented design strategies are
illustrated in Figure 4. Further details on the final
design proposal are available in Annex A.
5.2. Quantitative Measures
Prior to the simulation work some quantitative
shading analysis and measurements have been
taken. The shading analysis was made in ECOTECT
to guarantee that there was an oasis effects created
in the cool heart based on the study findings of
Potcher [20]. The analysis showed that more than 50
percent of the cool heart was shaded through
vegetation and almost 80 percent of the ground was
covered with vegetation. Obviously, the garden had
to be shaded by deciduous trees or designed
pergolas that allow winter sun and prevent summer
sun. But this percentage of shade together with four
water canals seems to lower the air temperature.
Another measure was made using the PET index
to calibrate and validate the simulation model. The
daily variation of the thermal index was taken during
the last week of July 2006, including wet, dry bulb
temperatures, wind and relative humidity. A hobo
data logger and wind meters were fixed on 1.5 meter
height in the core heart area. Figure 5 represents
the measured data.

Figure 5, Site measurements for simulation calibration

5.3. Simulation Results

Simulations are reported here, and relevant
results obtained from simulations. Figure 6 shows the
detailed scheme of the new proposed design. Figure
7 below shows the simulation results. Down the
colour scale means hot and up means cold, sowing
the temperature value. As shown in Figure 7, the
implementation of the bioclimatic landscape design
strategy
predicts
potential
temperatures
improvements in the cool heart.

Figure 6, landscape design strategy after implementation

Figure 7, simulation results and temperature differences

Figure 7 shows the benefit of trees to moderate

the outdoor environment in a hot and arid climate.
The areas were trees were planted direct shade was
provided and trees cooled the micro environment
through shading of the underlying surface and
evaporation.

6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The value of much information gathered by this
research was limited due to the individuality of the
case study that represents the particular site
microclimate. Also the suggested design strategy is
suggestive and is not based on empirical post-design
measurements that allow causative processes to be
studied. However, in this study we approached the
bioclimatic research agenda from a bioclimatic
landscape design and planning approach rather than
urban science approach.
From a planning and design viewpoint, we
believe that the suggested bioclimatic landscape
design strategy simplifies a great deal of non applied
scientific data into a coherent design strategy of
useful use in the design practice. Figure 7 can be
well interpreted by designers and can inform and
influence their design decision. This figure shows
that complex scientific information can be translated
into simple useful design strategy. However, in all
cases, quantitative comparisons and measurements
of the comfort conditions should be always done
after the implementation by the use of the comfort
indices.
Of all the design elements available to the
designer, vegetation is found to be the most effective
and plays a role in surface and air temperature
modification. Trees and water elements have the
potential to improve the outdoor thermal comfort due
to shade and humidity. The combination of shade
trees, ground cover and water elements was
predictably found to be the most effective landscape
strategy. Concerning the water consumption, trees
and palms provide the most efficient means to
reduce outdoor temperature, while the ground cover
and water elements consume greater water
quantities.
Finally this study demonstrated through
design/planning and simulation the transformation of
bioclimatic information into practical applied
bioclimatic knowledge. The completed Master thesis
should provide a coherent picture of the state of the
field and identify where gaps remain.

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author expresses his thanks for CDC
Abdelhalim Office. Also the author extends his
gratitude for the Landscape Chairgroup at
Wageningen University.

8. APPENDIX A:
Supplementary design data associated with this
article
can
be
found
in
the
online:
http://www.lar.wur.nl/NR/exeres/F9DFC895-9E3648F2-9070F1B582276B0D,frameless.htm?NRMODE=Publishe
d

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